CHAPTER 1 NETWORKING

Data Communication
The term data communication means communication at a distance. The word data refers to
information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the
data. Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
1.1 Components of data communication:Data communication is made up of five components:

Message

Sender

Receiver

Medium

Protocol

Figure1.1:- Data communication system components

1.2 Line configuration:It refers to attached to a link the way two or more communication devices attach to a link. A
link is the physical communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
There are two possible line configurations.

Point- to- point: - It provides a dedicated link between two devices.

Multipoint: - It is the one in which more than two specific devices share a single link.

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Figure1.2:-Line configurations
1.3 Topology: It refers to the way network is laid out, either physically or logically. Two or more devices
connected to a link, two or more links form a topology.
Categories of topology:1.3.1 Mesh topology:-In this type of topology every device has a dedicated point to point
link to every other device.

Figure 1.3.1:- Mesh topology

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1.3.2 Star topology: - In this type of topology each device has a dedicated point- to-

point

link only to a central controller, usually called a hub.

Figure 1.3.2:- Star topology

1.3.3 Tree topology:-It is a variation of star. As In a star, nodes in a tree are linked to a central
hub that controls the traffic to the network.

Figure 1.3.3:-Tree topology

1.3.4 Ring Topology: - In this each device has a dedicated point to point line configuration
only with the two devices on either side of it.

Figure 1.3.4:- Ring topology

1.3.5 Bus Topology: - One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.

Figure1.3.5:- Bus topology

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1.4 Transmission mode:The term transmission mode is used to define a direction of signal flow between two linked
devices. There are the three types of transmission modes:1.4.1 Simplex: - The communication is unidirectional as on a one way street. Only one
the two stations on a link can transmit, the other can only receive.

Figure1.4.1:-Simplex Mode

Figure1.4.2:-Half-duplex Mode

1.4.2 Half-duplex: - in this, each station can both transmit and receive but not at the same
time.
1.4.3 Full-duplex: - In it, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

Figure 1.4.3:- Full-duplex Mode

1.5 Network:A network is a set of devices connected by a media links. A node can be a computer,
printer or any other device capable of sending and receiving data generated by other nodes
on the network.
Categories of network:Local Area Network (LAN):- It is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single
office, building or campus. LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between
personal computers or workstation.
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Metropolitan area network (MAN):-It is designed to extend over an entire city. A man may
be owned and operated by a private company, or it may be a service provided by a public
company, such as a local telephone company.

Figure1.5: - Categories of network

Wide Area Network (WAN):- It provides long distance transmission of data , voice, image
and video information over large geographical areas that may comprise a country , a continent
or even the whole world.
1.6 Internetworking Devices
Internetworking devices are those devices which are used to connect the different network. The
internetworking devices are different for each layer of OSI model. They are used to connect
different networks with each other as e.g. router, switch, bridge, gateway etc. Some
internetworking devices are explained as follows:
1.6.1 NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC):A network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer All
networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes, such as
Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition, some
method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the form of galvanic cable
(most commonly Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave links (as in IEEE 802.12) or
optical cable ("optical fiber"). An Ethernet card may also be required. It provides physical
access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing system through the
use of MAC addresses.

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1.6.2 REPEATER:- A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits
it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can
cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet
configurations, repeaters are required for cable which runs longer than 100 meters

Figure1.6.2:-Repeater
1.7 IP ADDRESSING
Each computer must have an IP address before it can connect to the Internet. Each IP packet
must have an address before it can be sent to another computer. Addressing is a fundamental
aspect of the communication process between two or more entities. It provides the means to
identify information sources and destinations while enabling dedicated resources to
appropriately link the two groups together. The Internet Architecture is based on the Internet
Protocol (IP). This protocol connects different network elements like router, servers, hosts,
computers, RFID devices, mobile phones, sensors etc. This protocol specifies that each device
should have a unique address to communicate globally with other devices on the Network. This
address is known as the IP Address. The IP address is also known as Protocol address. IP
addresses represent a finite resource used in identifying hosts within private or global networks.
The structure and allocation mechanisms of IP addresses are relevant in designing, deploying,
and operating IP networks.
1.7.1

ROLE OF IP ADDRESS: -

An IP address is used to identify any device that originates or receives a request or a message
over networks and the Internet (which comprises a very large group of networks). Each IP
address uses a unique set of hexadecimal characters to identify a network, a sub network (if
applicable), and a device within the network. An IP Address Contains four Numbers. Each
computer must have a unique IP address. This is your IP address: 59.95.160.151 32 Bits = 4
Bytes. A computer byte can contain 256 different values: 00000000, 00000001, 00000010,
00000011, 00000100, 00000101, and all the way up to 11111111. Now you know why a
TCP/IP address is four numbers between 0 and 255. An IP address enables the request or
message to be delivered to the correct destination. The receiving device to know where the
request or message originated and where to send a response if one is required.
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CHAPTER 2 GSM
Introduction to Mobile Communication

2.1

In Telecom network conventionally each user is connected to the Telephone exchange

individually. This dedicated pair starts from MDF, where it is connected to the appropriate
Equipment point and ends at the customer premises Telephone. (With flexibility at
cabinet/pillar/ distribution points DPs)

Figure2.1
The connectivity from exchange to customer premises is called Access Network or Local
Loop, and mostly comprises of underground cable from exchange up to DPs and insulated
copper wires (Drop Wires)later on This type of Access Network does not require separate
Authentication of customer before extending services. Whenever the cable capacity has reached
the maximum additional cable is laid to augment the capacity. Even though there are
advantages in introducing wireless connectivity in Subscribers loop, we have to tackle certain
issues Viz,
1. Duplexing methodology.
2. Multiple Access methods.
3. Cellular principle or reuse concept.
4. Techniques to cope with mobile environment.
Duplexing Methodology:
Duplexing is the technique by which the send and receive paths are separated over the medium,
since transmission entities (modulator, amplifiers, demodulators) are involved.
There are two types of duplexing.

Frequency Division Duplexing FDD

Time Division Duplexing TDD

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Frequency Division Duplexing FDD

Different Frequencies are used for send and receive paths and hence there will be a forward
band and reverse band. Duplexer is needed if simultaneous transmission (send) and reception
(receive) methodology is adopted .Frequency separation between forward band and reverse
band is constant
Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
TDD uses different time slots for transmission and reception paths. Single radio frequency can
be used in both the directions instead of two as in FDD. No duplexer is required. Only a fast
switching synthesizer, RF filter path and fast antenna switch are needed. It increases the battery
life of mobile phones.
GSM and CDMA systems use Frequency Division Duplexing and corDECT uses Time
Division Duplexing.
Multiple Access methodology:
The technique of dynamically sharing the finite limited radio spectrum by multiple users is
called Multiple Access Technique. By adopting multiple access techniques all users can not get
the services simultaneously and some amount of blocking is introduced by the system. This is
known as GOS (Grade of Service).
Generally there are three different types of multiple access technologies. They are

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Code Division multiple Access (CDMA)

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):

FDMA is a familiar method of allocating bandwidth, where a base station is allowed to transmit
on one or more number of preassigned carrier frequencies and a mobile unit transmits on
corresponding reverse channels. No other base station within range of the mobile will be
transmitting on the same forward channel, and no other mobile within range of the base station
should be transmitting on the same reverse channel. Both the base and the mobile usually
transmit continuously during a conversation, and fully occupy their assigned forward and
reverse channels. No other conversation can take place on these channels until the first
conversation is completed.

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c
f

t
Figure2.2
FDMA Analogy
It may be easier to visualize FDMA by imagining a cocktail party where two people wish to
converse with each other. Then everyone in the room must be silent except for the speaker. The
speaker may talk as long as they wish, and when they finish someone else may start speaking,
but again only one at a time. New speakers must wait (or find another party) for the current
speaker to finish before starting. Everyone in the room can hear and understand the speaker,
unless they are too far away or the speaker's voice is too soft. If the intended listener is close
enough, the speaker may decide to whisper. Conversely, if the listener is too far away, the
speaker may have to shout. Since no one else should be talking, this presents no problem. If
someone talks out of turn, the listener will probably be confused and not be able to understand
either speaker.
Features Of Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

No Precise coordination in time domain is necessary in FDMA System.

It is well suited for narrow band analog systems.

Guard spacing between channels causes wastage of frequency resource. Otherwise

good modulation techniques are to be employed to avoid such guard spacing.

The transmission is simultaneous and continuous and hence duplexers are needed.
Continuous transmission leads to shortening of battery life.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

TDMA is a more efficient, but more complicated way of using FDMA channels. In a TDMA
system each channel is split up into time segments, and a transmitter is given exclusive use of
one or more channels only during a particular time period. A conversation, then, takes place
during the time slots to which each transmitter (base and mobile) is assigned. TDMA requires a
master time reference to synchronize all transmitters and receivers.

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TDMA Analogy
In TDMA, everyone in the room agrees to watch a clock on the wall, and speak only during a
particular time. Each person wishing to talk is given a set period of time, and each person
listening must know what that time period will be. For example, everyone may agree on time
slots with duration of ten seconds. Speaker number one may talk for ten seconds starting from
the top of the minute. The listener who wishes to hear this speaker must also be made aware of
the schedule, and be ready to listen at the top of the minute. Speaker number two may speak
only from ten seconds after the minute until twenty seconds after. As with FDMA, only one
person at a time may speak, but each speaker's time is now limited and many persons may take
their turn. If someone in the room cannot see the clock, they will not be able to speak and will
have great difficulty understanding the speakers.
Features of TDMA

There can be only one carrier in the medium at any time, if a simple TDMA scheme is
followed.

Transmission is in bursts and hence is well suited for digital communication.

Since the transmission is in bursts, Battery life is extended.

Transmission rate is very high compared to analog FDMA systems.

Precise synchronization is necessary.

Guard time between slots is also necessary

Time and Frequency Division Multiple Access

Both methods of FDMA and TDMA are combined to achieve higher capacity in
practical systems. A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time. The
Best example for such system is GSM.

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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

CDMA is fundamentally different than TDMA and FDMA. Where FDMA and TDMA transmit
a strong signal in a narrow frequency band, CDMA transmits a relatively weak signal across a
wide frequency band. Using a technique called direct sequence spread spectrum, the data to be
transmitted are combined with a pseudo-noise code (a pre-determined binary sequence that
appears random) and transmitted broadband. CDMA under Interim Standard 95 uses a
bandwidth of 1.25 MHz.
The pseudo-noise code (PN code) is a series of binary "chips" that are much shorter in duration
than the data bits. Since the chips appear to be in a random pattern, and there are many chips
per data bit (in IS-95 there are 128 chips for each data bit), the modulated result appears to
normal (FDMA) receivers as background noise.
A spread spectrum receiver with a different PN code will not be able to recover that signal, and
if the PN codes were chosen incorrectly, will hear nothing but noise. This relative immunity to
interference, whether from outside sources or other spread spectrum transmitters, gives CDMA
systems the ability to pack many users into the same frequency space at the same time.
It also gives a measure of security to each signal, since each user will have a different PN
code. CDMA also does not require different base station radios for each user - the same radio
may serve multiple users with just a change in PN code.
CDMA Analogy
In CDMA, the speaker and the listener have agreed beforehand to use a language that no one
else at the party understands. Many speakers may talk at a CDMA party, each using a different
language, and it is relatively easy for the listener to hear and understand the speaker as long as
there aren't too many speakers talking at the same time.
As more and more speakers start talking, the noise level in the room goes up and it becomes
harder and harder for the listener to make out what their speaker is saying. If a speaker begins
to shout, in order for their listener to hear better, it raises the noise level even more

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Comparison of Multiple Access Techniques:

Coverage Offered by CDMA System is more compared to TDMA and FDMA systems.
Capacity of CDMA System is more compared to TDMA and FDMA systems.
Duplexing and Multiple Access Techniques in use:
No
1
2
3
2.2

Name of System
GSM
CDMA
Cor-DECT

Multiple Access
FDMA-TDMA
CDMA
TDMA-multi carrier
Table2.1

Duplexing
FDD
FDD
TDD

Cellular Concepts:

Even though multiple access techniques allowed multiple users to share the medium
simultaneously, due to constraints in providing resources, an amount of blocking will exist. The
amount of blocking is called Grade Of Services(GOS). Based on GOS and resource
availability (no. of carriers/no. of timeslots/both) the traffic handling capacity of the system is
calculated. If this total traffic is divided by traffic per subscriber, we get number of subscribers
supported by the system. For these purposes Erlang B table (Blocking calls cleared) is useful
particularly in FDMA-TDMA.
What is a cell?
A cell is a base transceiver service area as seen by the mobile station (MS). A cell uses a
specific set of frequencies.
Main cell types
The two main cell types are:
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Omni cells: An Omni cell is a cell where the antenna transmits Omni-directional. The
coverage area of an Omni cell is in principle a hexagon/circle, but in reality a rough
pattern.

Sector cells: A sector cell is a cell where the antenna transmits directional.
Examples of sector cell types are:
- 2-sector cells (e.g. for highways)
- 3-sector cells.
The following figure shows examples of different cell types.

Figure2.3
Sector vs. Omni cells
Advantages of sector cells are (compared to Omni cells):

Increased coverage area per site (by the use of higher gain antennas)

Possibility of mechanical tilting antennas (to reduce unwanted interference)

Simpler antenna mounting (reduced clearance to prevent interaction with other

antennas).

Disadvantages of sector cells are:

More equipment required at each site.

Greater environmental impact (more antennas).

Longer frequency Re-use distance for a given C/I.

Increased cell handovers.

Cell Overlap Regions

Since cells do not actually have a hexagon shape, and their boundaries are not well defined,
there is always an overlap coverage region between them.
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Coverage probability
The two -102 dBm 95% signal contours for cell site 1 and 2 coincide in the intersection points
A and A (see figure below). In these points the probability that at least one of the two signals
is -102 dBm or better equals:
P(x -102dBm) = 1- (1- 0.95)(1- 0.95) = 99.75%, assuming that the distributions for both
signals are independent. In the shaded area this probability will even be higher. The following
figure shows an example of a cell overlap region.

Figure2.4:- Cell Overlap

Handover
To have a seamless handover, a region overlapping with neighboring cells is necessary at the
cell boundary:

Handover neighbor cell signal must be stronger than the serving cell by approximately
the handover margin (e.g. 3-5 dB)

Handover requires a period of time to carry out.

Hysteresis is included to avoid repeated ping pong handovers. To avoid this, handover
parameters do specify:
- a power budget difference between old and new cell during a certain time (default 6
dB).
- a minimum time between an unsuccessful handover and a retry (default 5 sec). Retries after unsuccessful handovers are only carried out after this time period.

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CHAPTER 3 BROADBAND
In telecommunications, broadband is wide bandwidth data transmission with an ability to
simultaneously transport multiple signals and traffic types. The medium can be coaxial
cable, optical fiber, twisted pair, or wireless broadband (wireless broadband includes Mobile
broadband). In contrast, baseband describes a communication system in which information is
transported across a single channel. Different criteria for "broad" have been applied in different
contexts and at different times. Its origin is in physics, acoustics, and radio systems
engineering, where it had been used with a meaning similar to "wideband". Later, with the
advent of digital telecommunications, the term was mainly used for transmission over multiple
channels. Whereas a passband signal is also modulated so that it occupies higher frequencies
(compared to a baseband signal which is bound to the lowest end of the spectrum, see line
coding), it is still occupying a single channel. The key difference is that what is typically
considered a broadband signal in this sense is a signal that occupies multiple (non-masking,
orthogonal) passbands, thus allowing for much higher throughput over a single medium but
with additional complexity in the transmitter/receiver circuitry. Finally, the term became
popularized through the 1990s as a marketing term for Internet access that was faster
than dialup access, the original Internet access technology, which was limited to 56 kbit/s. This
meaning is only distantly related to its original technical meaning. In telecommunications,
a broadband signaling method is one that handles a wide band of frequencies. Broadband is
a relative term, understood according to its context. The wider (or broader) the bandwidth of a
channel, the greater the information-carrying capacity, given the same channel quality.
3.1 LAN Setup
Preparation of Straight Cable used for Dissimilar devices such as PC and Switch.
a) Cut required length of cat 5 cable with Wire stripper or facility available in Crimping tool.
b) Get the cat5 cable properly stripped at both ends with help of Wire stripper or facility
available in Crimping tool. And Study internal Structure of cable.
c) Arrange the wires as per the colour code using T568 B Standard (or it is also called EIA 568
B standard) given on both sides for preparing straight cable. for both the ends. Unwind and
pair of the similar colours.
d) Get RJ 45 connector and find PIN No 1 on it.
e) Pinch the wires between your fingers and straighten them out as shown. (The wire colors line
up to form a straight through standard cat 5 cable as described below). Use scissors to make a
straight cut across the wires 1/2 Inch from the cut sleeve to the end of the wires.
f) Push the wires into the connector. Note the position of the blue plastic shielding. Also note
how the wires go all the way to the end.
g) View from the top. All the wires are all the way in. There are no short wires.

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h) CRIMPING THE CABLE ... carefully place the connector into the Ethernet Crimper and
cinch down on the handles tightly. The copper splicing tabs on the connector will pierce into
each of the eight wires. There is also a locking tab that holds the blue plastic sleeve in place for
a tight compression fit. When you remove the cable from the crimper, the cable is ready to use.
i) Repeat all steps on the other end of the Ethernet cable exactly. There is no need to reverse
any order of the wires.
j) Make sure to test the cables before installing them. An inexpensive Ethernet cable tester does
this quite well.
3.2 Preparation of cross cable used for Similar devices
a) Repeat all steps in (a) and (b) with new cable of required length.
c) Arrange the wires as per the color code using T568 B Standard (or it is also called EIA 568
B standard) on one end and T568 A Standard (or it is also called EIA 568 A standard) on
another end.

Figure3.1
d) Get RJ 45 connector and find PIN No 1 on it.
e) Pinch the wires between your fingers and straighten them out as shown. (The wire colors line
up to form a straight through standard cat 5 cable as described below). Use scissors to make a
straight cut across the wires 1/2 Inch from the cut sleeve to the end of the wires.
f) Push the wires into the connector. Note the position of the blue plastic shielding. Also note
how the wires go all the way to the end.
g) View from the top. All the wires are all the way in. There are no short wires.
h) CRIMPING THE CABLE ... carefully place the connector into the Ethernet Crimper and
cinch down on the handles tightly. The copper splicing tabs on the connector will pierce into
each of the eight wires. There is also a locking tab that holds the blue plastic sleeve in place for
a tight compression fit. When you remove the cable from the crimper, the cable is ready to use.
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i) Repeat all steps on the other end (Use cable pair as per standard T568 A)
j) Make sure to test the cables before installing them. An inexpensive Ethernet cable tester does
this quite well.
k) Cross cable will be as below

Figure3.2
3.3 Make connections at customer premises
- Observe & identify different ports on ASDL modem, splitter & PC. Connect the Telephone
Line to ADSL Modem & Phone instrument using splitter:a) Connect Telephone line coming from Telephone Jack/LJ unit to the Splitter port labeled as
LINE.
b) Connect RJ-11 Telephone cable coming from Telephone Instrument to the Splitter port
labeled as PHONE .
c) Connect RJ-11 Telephone cable coming from Modem to the Splitter port labeled as
MODEM.
- Check the status of connectivity
a) Test the telephone for dial tone
b) Check the status of DSL lamp on ADSL modem- Lamp should glow in case of proper
connection.
- Interchange any two of the above mentioned connections from Splitter. Broadband will not
work, if LPF & HPF outputs of splitter are interchanged.
- Connect telephone instrument first using a phone socket. Now from this socket, connect
splitter. Now connect ADSL modem & PC.
- Connect Broadband and start surfing and make an incoming call to the number on which
Broadband connection is working. With incoming call, Broadband will get disconnected.
- Try to connect parallel telephones
(1) Phone Socket (2) Phone (3) Phone (4) RJ-11 Tel Cable (5) Splitter (6) RJ-11 Tel Cable (7)
RJ-11 Tel Cable (8) Phone Jack (9) Modem

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- Try to connect more telephones parallel.

For testing the DSL line parameters, the following ADSL tester will be used

Figure3.3
Identify the following components of the xDSL tester:a) LCD Display
b) LEDs for alarms/faults etc.
c) Keypad
d) Interface connectors (on the bottom)
e) Water Resistent Cover
f) External Power Supply/Battery charger
g) Serial Port connector
h) Battery pack cover
i) On/Off switch
- Switch on the tester using On/Off switch.
a) Examine all the 6 LEDs being tested by tester during booting, that may help you identify
any LED which is not working.
b) Wait till the tester completely boots up.
c) Once the tester is booted, you will find SYNC LED is blinking.
d) This LED will blink till the tester gets connected to a DSL line.
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e) Connect the DSL line you want to test to the interface connector labeled ADSL modem at
the bottom of tester.
f) Wait till the SYNC LED gets stable.
g) If SYNC LED is stable it means the line is DSL line otherwise it is not.
h) Select the auto test option available on the main screen display of tester using the enter key
available on the keypad.
i) Now select the DSL layer option by pressing the enter key. If it is already selected, no need
to press the enter key.
j) Press F1 Key to start the test.
k) As soon as the test is started, the tester tries to resynchronize with the line and you may find
SYNC LED starts blinking.
l) At the same time, on the top right corner of screen display, you may find label Seeking and
after some time training label will appear. This indicates that the tester is finding and
learning the parameters of the line.
m) The test gets completed hardly within 30 seconds. The completion of test is identified by
label on the screen as auto test finished. Also the tester gives three or more beeps to convey
the completion of test.
n) Now press F1 to view the test results.
o) The result will contain different parameters like Sno, DSL technology, upstream data rate,
downstream data rate, Power in upstream and downstream, Noise Margin in upstream and
downstream, ATUR (ADSL Terminal Unit- Remote) pass or fail.
p) This result is identified by the sno which is randomly given by tester and it is hard to be
remembered.
q) To save the session with other name, come back to home screen of tester.
r) Press F2 (Cp/Rv) key and select review result option.
s) You will get a list of last 20 session saved in the tester.
t) The last test you performed is available at the last of list.
u) Select the last test you want to name.
v) Press F1 to name the test and enter the name by using the keypad. Usually the name should
be the telephone number where the tested line was being used.
w) Press F1/F4 to save the name.

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4 INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Introduction to Fibre Optics, theory and principle of Fibre Optics, propagation of light through
fibre, Fibre Geometry, Fibre Types.
4.1 Fibre Optics :
Optical Fibre is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is transmitted
through a glass or plastic fibre, in the form of light, following the transmission sequence give
below :
(1)

Information is encoded into electrical signals.

(2)

Electrical signals are converted into light signals.

(3)

Light travels down the fibre.

(4)

A detector changes the light signals into electrical signals.

(5)

Electrical signals are decoded into information.

Advantages of Fibre Optics :

Fibre Optics has the following advantages :
(I)

(II)

(III)

(IV)

Optical Fibres are non conductive (Dielectrics)

-

Grounding and surge suppression not required.

Cables can be all dielectric.

Electromagnetic Immunity :
-

Immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI)

No radiated energy.

Unauthorised tapping difficult.

Large Bandwidth (> 5.0 GHz for 1 km length)

-

Future upgradability.

Maximum utilization of cable right of way.

One time cable installation costs.

Low Loss (5 dB/km to < 0.25 dB/km typical)

-

Loss is low and same at all operating speeds within the fibre's specified bandwidth
long, unrepeated links (>70km is operation).

(v)

Small, Light weight cables.

-

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(vi)

Available in Long lengths (> 12 kms)

-

(vii)

Efficient use of space.

Less splice points.

Security
Extremely difficult to tap a fibre as it does not radiate energy that can be
received by a nearby antenna.
-

Highly secure transmission medium.

(viii) Security - Being a dielectric

-

It cannot cause fire.

Does not carry electricity.

Can be run through hazardous areas.

Application of Fibre Optics in Communications :

-

Common carrier nationwide networks.

Telephone Inter-office Trunk lines.

Customer premise communication networks.

Undersea cables.

High EMI areas (Power lines, Rails, Roads).

Factory communication/ Automation.

Control systems.

High lightening areas.

Military applications.

Classified (secure) communications.

Transmission Sequence :
(1)

Information is Encoded into Electrical Signals.

(2)

Electrical Signals are Coverted into light Signals.

(3)

Light Travels Down the Fiber.

(4)

A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.

(5)

Electrical Signals are Decoded into Information.

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Inexpensive light sources available.

Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because low loss fibres are used
at high data rates.

Figure4.1
Fibre Geometry
An Optical fibre consists of a core of optically transparent material usually silica or borosilicate
glass surrounded by a cladding of the same material but a slightly lower refractive index.
Fibre themselves have exceedingly small diameters. Figure shows cross section of the core and
cladding diameters of commonly used fibres. The diameters of the core and cladding are as
follows.

22

Core (m)

Cladding ( m)

125

50

125

62.5

125

100

140

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1.1

125 8

1.2 125 100

125 62.5

125 50

1.3

Core

Cladding

1.4

Typical Core and Cladding Diameters1.5

Figure4.2
Fibre sizes are usually expressed by first giving the core size followed by the cladding size.
Thus 50/125 means a core diameter of 50m and a cladding diameter of 125m.
Wavelength
It is the characteristic of light that is emitted from the light source and is measures in
nanometres (nm). In the visible spectrum, wavelength can be described as the colour of the
light. For example, Red Light has longer wavelength than Blue Light, Typical wavelength for
fibre use are 850nm, 1300nm and 1550nm all of which are invisible.
Frequency
It is number of pulse per second emitted from a light source. Frequency is measured in units of
hertz (Hz). In terms of optical pulse 1Hz = 1 pulse/ sec.
Window
A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre best operates. Typical
windows are given below :
Window

Operational Wavelength

800nm - 900nm

850nm

1250nm - 1350nm

1300nm

1500nm - 1600nm

1550nm

Table4.1
Dispersion
Dispersion is the spreading of light pulse as its travels down the length of an optical fibre.
Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity of a fibre. The bit-rates must
be low enough to ensure that pulses are farther apart and therefore the greater dispersion can be
tolerated.
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There are three main types of dispersion in a fibre (I)

Modal Dispersion

(II)

Material dispersion

(III)

Waveguide dispersion

Cable Construction
Cabling is an outer protective structure surrounding one or more fibres. Cabling protects fibres
environmentally and mechanically from being damaged or degraded in performance. Important
consideration in any cable are tensile strength, ruggedness, durability, flexibility, environmental
resistance, temperature extremes and even appearance.
Fibre Optic Cables have the following parts in common ;
(I)

Optical Fibre

(II)

Buffer

(III)

Strength member

(IV)

Jacket

Cable Components
Component

Function

Material

Buffer

Protect fibre From Outside

Nylon, Mylar, Plastic

Facilitate Stranding
Central Member

Temperature Stability

Steel, Fibreglass

Anti-Buckling
Primary Strength Member

Tensile Strength

Aramid Yarn, Steel

Contain and Protect

Cable Jacket

Cable Core

PE, PUR, PVC, Teflon

Abrasion Resistance
Cable Filling
Compound

Prevent Moisture
intrusion and Migration

Water Blocking
Compound

Rodent Protection
Armoring

Crush Resistance

Steel Tape

Table4.2
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2 Loose Tube Buffering

One way of isolating the Optical Fibre from External Forces is to Place an Excess Fibre Length
within on Oversized "Buffer" Tube.
Siecor/ Optical Cable fills these tubes with a Jollylike Compound to Provide Additional
Cushioning and Prevent the incursion of Moisture.
1.

Fibre in Buffer after Manufacturing.

Figure4.3

2.

Shrinking of Buffer During Temperature Decrease (Different Coefficients of Thermal

Expansion Fiber/Plastics)
Figure4.4

3.

Elongation of Buffer Due to Cable Tensile Stress

Figure4.5
NOTE : Additional Excess Length is Achieved when the "Buffered" Fibers are Stranded
together during the Cabling Operation.
It is the plastic coating applied to the coating. It protects fibre from outside stress. The cable
buffer is one of two types.
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(I)

Loose Buffer

(II)

Tight Buffer

The loose buffer uses a hard plastic tube having an inside diameter several times that of the
fibre. One or more fibres lie within the buffer tube. As the cable expands and shrinks with
temperature changes, it does not affect the fibre as much. The fibre in the tube is slightly longer
than the tube itself. Thus the cable can expand and contract without stressing the fibre. The
buffer becomes the load-bearing member.
The tight buffer has a plastic directly applied over the coating. This construction provides crush
and impact resistance. It is more flexible and allows tighter turn radius. It is useful for indoor
applications where temperature variations are minimum and the ability to make tight turns
inside walls is desired.
4.3 Splicing
Splices are permanent connection between two fibres. The splicing involves cutting of the
edges of the two fibres to be spliced.

Splicing Methods : The following three types are widely used :

Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing.

Mechanical splicing.

Fusion splicing.

1. Adhesive Bonding or Glue Splicing

This is the oldest splicing technique used in fibre splicing. Cylindrical rods or another kind of
reference surfaces are used for alignment. During the alignment of fibre end, a small amount of
adhesive or glue of same refractive index as the core material is set between and around the
fibre ends. A two component epoxy or an UV curable adhesive is used as the bonding agent.
The splice loss of this type of joint is same or less than fusion splices. But fusion splicing
technique is more reliable, so at present this technique is very rarely used.
2. Mechanical Splicing
This technique is mainly used for temporary splicing in case of emergency repairing. This
method is also convenient to connect measuring instruments to bare fibres for taking various
measurements. A very good mechanical splice for M.M. fibres can have an optical performance
as good as fusion spliced fibre or glue spliced. But in case of single mode fibre, this type of
splice cannot have stability of loss.
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3. Fusion Splicing
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving very low splice
losses. The fusion can be achieved either through electrical arc or through gas flame. The
process involves cutting of the fibres and fixing them in micropositioners on the fusion
splicing machine. The fibres are then aligned either manually or automatically core aligning
process. Afterwards the operation that takes place involve withdrawal of the fibres to a
specified distance, preheating of the fibre ends through electric arc and bringing together of the
fibre ends in a position and splicing through high temperature fusion.
If proper care taken and splicing is done strictly as per schedule, then the splicing loss can be
minimized as low as 0.01 dB/joint. After fusion splicing, the splicing joint should be provided
with a proper protector to have following protections: Mechanical protection and Protection
from moisture.
There are several reasons for splicing a fiber cable. These include:

To join two fibers due to breakage.

To extend a cable run.

To attach a pre-terminated pigtail.

To reduce losses, a fusion splice has much lower losses than other methods. A Pigtail is a short
length of fiber with a factory fitted and polished connector. In the past these were used in
preference to field terminations because of the complexities at the time of manually terminating
optical fibers. These days pigtails are mainly used where the environment isn't suitable for
manual terminations or where speed is a factor.

As with all fiber termination methods, safety is very important so first some safety tips.

Always work in a clean and tidy area.

Fiber offcuts are hard to see and can easily penetrate the skin especially if they get into
your clothes, so care must be taken to ensure the safe disposal of all offcuts. Dispose of
fiber scraps immediately using a suitable container and do not throw into a waste paper
bin because of the dangers of ingesting a fiber, do not eat or drink in the termination
area.

Fusion splicers use an electric arc to fuse the fibers together so they should never be
used in an environment where flammable gases or liquids are present.* Never look into

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the end of a live fiber connector. Holding some multimode fibers up to a piece of paper
may prove the presence of light and therefore prove that it is live, but it doesn't prove
that it isn't live! Some laser powered equipment use light which is outside of the visible
spectrum, so err on the side of caution.
Steps for Splicing
1. Splicer Operation
It is awkward at first to hold, strip, cleave and place the fiber in the clamps. Practice makes
perfect. Here are five general steps to complete a fusion splice:
Strip, Clean, & Cleave

a.) Stripping

Strip back the external sheathing of the cable using a rotary stripping tool.

Cut back the aramid strength member using ceramic or kevlar scissors.

Strip the primary buffer from the fiber using fiber strippers not ordinary wire
strippers.

Figure4.6:- 3 in 1 Fiber Striper, Isopropyl Alcohol.

Do this a small section at a time to prevent the fiber breaking, about 10mm (3/8 in) on
each cut is fine until you get used to it.

28

Strip back about 35mm (1.5 in).

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b.) Cleaning
Clean the fiber with Fiber-Clean towelettes or a lint-free wipe and isopropyl alcohol so that the
fiber squeaks.

Figure4.7:- Cleaning fiber with alcohol

c.) Cleaving
The cleaver first scores the fiber and then pulls the fiber apart to make a clean break. It is
important that the the ends are smooth and perpendicular to get a good joint, this is why a hand
held cleaver will not do.

Figure4.8:- Diamond Cleaver

Cleavers vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and you should read the instructions for the
one you are using. Basically the operation consists of putting the fiber into the groove and
clamping,

then

close

the

lid

and

press

the

lever.

Easy

eh!

Good cleaving tools can cost between $800 to $3000.

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Figure4.9:- Cleaving Fiber

2.

Load Splicer

Position tip of fiber near electrodes . Do not bump tips into anything . Ease placement by
bowing fibers in grooves.Once the fiber ends are prepared they are placed in the fusion splicer.
Press the button and the machine takes care of the rest of the fusion process automatically.

Figure4.10:- Putting fiber in Splicer

3. Splice Fibers
First the two fibers are aligned, you can see this on the photo where a much magnified image
shows the two fiber ends. The display also shows how well the cleaver does its job of
producing a perfect 90 degree cut. If you watch very carefully in figure you can see the X and
Y alignment that takes place.

Figure4.11:- Splicers magnified view showing alignment

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The splicer aligns the fibers on one axis and then from another camera angle set at 90 degrees,
it aligns the other axis. This high precision alignment is critical for a low loss joint, any
mismatch of the fiber cores will significantly reduce the propagation of light through the joint.
Bearing in mind that we are dealing with two very small glass rods of only 125 microns in
diameter, it brings it home as to how extremely accurate these machines are. Once the fibers are
aligned the splicer fires an electric arc between the two ends which melts them immediately
and pushes them together, or fuses them into one piece of fiber.

Figure4.12:- Fibres in V-GROOVES (ARC)

The fusion splicer then tests for dB loss and tensile strength before giving the "OK" beeps for
you to remove the splice from the machine. The loss must be less than 0.1 dB and losses upto
0.01 dB are available.

4. Remove and Protect Splice

The splicer has a built in heat shrink oven, so when the fiber is taken out of the machine the
protective tube is slid into place and the whole assembly is put into the oven to shrink the tube
on to the splice.

The protective tube gives physical protection to the splice and further protection is provided by
placing the splice into a splice tray.

Once all of the fibres have been joined the whole tray is then fixed into a splice box which
protects the cable joint as a whole and the cable clamps are then tightened to prevent any
external forces from pulling on the splices.

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Figure4.13:- Protective Tube over Splice

Fusion splicers are expensive and can cost between about $5,000 to over $30,000, so you need
to be doing a lot of splicing to justify the initial outlay but, for a low loss and relatively fast
connection it is the only tool for the job.
4.4

Definition and description of Digital Hierarchies

Introduction and Definition

The term digital hierarchy has been created when developing digital transmission systems. It
was laid down when by multiplexing a certain number of PCM primary multiplexers were
combined to form digital multiplexers of higher order (e.g. second-order multiplex
equipments).
Consequently, a digital hierarchy comprises a number of levels. Each level is assigned a
specific bit rate which is formed by multiplexing digital signals, each having the bit rate of the
next lower level. In CCITT Rec. G.702, the term digital multiplex hierarchy is defined as
follows :
A series of digital multiplexes graded according to capability so that multiplexing at one level
combines a defined number of digital signals, each having the digit rate prescribed for the next
lower order, into a digital signal having a prescribed digit rate which is then available for
further combination with other digital signals of the same rate in a digital multiplex of the next
higher order.
Why Hierarchies ?

32

Before considering in detail the digital hierarchies under discussion we are going to
recapitulate in brief, why there are several digital hierarchies instead of one only. It has
always been pointed out that as far as the analogue FDM technique is concerned, the
C.C.I.T.T. recommends the world wide use of the 12-channel group (secondary group).
Relevant C.C.I.T.T. Recommendation exists also for channel assemblies with more than
60 channels so that with certain exceptions there is only one world-wide hierarchy for
the FDM system (although the term hierarchy is not used in the FDM technique).

In the digital transmission technique it was unfortunately not possible to draw up a

world-wide digital hierarchy. In practice, equipment as specified in C.C.I.T.T.
CTIEMT/1141478/2011-2015

Recommendation G.732 and 733, they do not only differ completely in their bit rates,
but also in the frame structures, in 33ierarchi, frame alignment, etc. Needless to say
that, as a consequence, the higher order digital multiplexers derived from the two
different PCM primary multiplexers and thus the digital hierarchies differ as well.
-

Since these two PCM primary multiplexers are available, two digital 33ierarchies only
would have to be expected. In reality, however, two digital hierarchies with several
variants are under discussion because the choice of the fundamental parameters of a
digital hierarchy depends not only on the PCM primary multiplex, which forms the
basic arrangement in that hierarchy, but on many other factors such as :
(a)

The bit rate of the principal signal sources.

(b)

Traffic demand, network topology, operational features, flexibility of the

network.

(c)

Time division and multiplexing plant requirements.

(d)

Compatibility with analog equipment.

(e)

Characteristics of the transmission media to be used at the bit rates for

the various levels of the hierarchies.

Since today these factors which are essential for forming digital hierarchies vary from
country to country, it is no wonder that we now have to consider more than two
proposals for digital hierarchies.

The hierarchy which we use in India is European Hierarchy as shown below:-

Figure 4.14:- PDH Hierarchies

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CHAPTER 5 SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHIES (SDH)

There were many disadvantages of earlier PDH so we adopted SDH for transmission of data.
This system is known as synchronous because next level of each system in SDH is exact
multiple of lower level. Disadvantages of PDH are:

It was point to point system.

It has low capacity.
There is no add/drop facility in PDH.
PDH was not suitable for multi-vendor environment.
Global standardization is not there for PDH.
Instead of automatic approach, manual approach is there.

To overcome these limitations, SDH was adopted and the main advantage of SDH is that it is
capable of transmitting existing PDH signals also. In SDH, there is one master clock and all
elements synchronize with it.
Advantages of SDH are:

It has simplified multiplexing and de-multiplexing techniques.

It has add/drop facility.
It has enhanced administration and maintenance operations.
It is suitable for multi-vendor environment.

Various systems in SDH:

No. of PCMs

No. of channels

Bit rate (mbps)

Synchronous transport
module

63

1890

155.52

STM-1

252

7560

622.08

STM-4

1008

30240

2488.32

STM-16

4032

120960

9953.28

STM-64

Table5.1
In SDH systems data is transmitted in the form of frames in which no. of rows is 9 and no. of
columns is 270. Each cell has a capacity of 8 bytes.
Total no. of Bytes in a frame = 9*270
Total no. of bits in a frame = 9*270*8
Bits per second = (9*270*8)/ (125*10-6)
= 155520000 = 155.520 Mbps
Therefore, bit rate of STM-1 is 155.520 Mbps and bit rate of STM-N is (N*155.520) Mbps.
The bit rate of higher level system is exact multiple of bit rate of lower level system because of
this, the hierarchy is known as synchronous digital hierarchy.
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5.1

SDH STRUCTURE

PCMs are packed in different packages before transmission in SDH systems. There are various
units in which these PCMs and data streams are packed.
1. THE CONTAINER (C) :
It is the basic packaging unit for tributary signals (PDH). There are four types of
containers depending upon the data rate of input stream. In C1 container, PCM of
2mbps is packed.
C1 2 mbps.
C2 6 mbps.
C3 34 mbps.
C4 140 mbps.
2. VIRTUAL CONTAINER (VC):
When path overhead (POH) is added to the container (C), then whole package is known
as virtual container (VC). Path overhead contains address of source and destination.
VC1 C1 + POH
3. TRIBUTARY UNIT (TU):
When pointer is added to virtual container, the unit formed is tributary unit. The job of
pointer is to tell the system that from where information has started.
VC1 + Pointer -> TU1
4. TRIBUTARY UNIT GROUP (TUG):
Three tributary units are packed into one group which is known as tributary unit group. Each
TUG-2 can have three TUs. Therefore, TUG2 will have TU1, TU2 and TU3. Similarly TUG-3
can have three TU-3s also it can store seven TUG-2s. In the same way, VC-4 is the virtual
container for container of 140mb stream. It can store 140mb stream or three TUG-3s. After
adding pointer to TUG-3 it becomes AUG and then we add section overhead (SOH) to it and
finally a stream of STM-1 is form

Figure5.1
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CHAPTER 6 PROJECT WORK ON OPERATION AND

MAINTENANCE OF STM-1 SYSTEM (SIEMENS)
6.1 INTRODUCTION
STM-1 system is used for those exchanges where capacity requirement is low. It has capacity
of 63 PCMs. To access the system, vendor provides it with two addresses - Ethernet IP address
(ETH) and Router IP address (R-IP). ETH is required to access the system locally and R-IP is
used to access the distance end system. In STM-1 system, 63 PCMs are multiplexed and
transmitted in the form of one bit stream of 155.52 mbps, and it is known as STM-1. PCMs
from various sources, like CDOT exchange, BTS etc. are first send to transmission system
which multiplexes them and change them to form which is suitable for the transmission media.

Figure6.1:- STM-1 system.

6.2 DIGITAL DISTRIBUTION FRAME (DDF)

PCMs from CDOT exchange first terminate at DDF (Digital Distribution Frame). DDF has 8
modules each having 8 input ports for 8 PCMs coming from the exchange. Thus, total no. of
PCMs which terminate there are 64. Each module has 8 output ports from where PCMs are
send to STM-1 system. Input and output ports are joined to each other through U-link
connectors.
6.3 STM-1 STRUCTURE
STM-1 system has 5 card slots (A, B, C, D and M).
A, C and M slots are known as MUX cards.
B & D slots are known as OLT cards.
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MUX CARDS (21E120):

A, C and M are known as MUX cards. PCMs from DDF terminate at these MUX cards. Each
MUX card has provision for 21 PCMs to terminate in them. However, according to the
requirement we can change the type of ports. For example we can give Ethernet ports but
overall bit stream will be of 155.52 mbps.

Figure6.2:- 21E120 card

Each 21E120 provides connection for:
Trans and receive for 21 PCM on card each of 2Mbit.
OLT CARDS:
Then PCMs from A, C and M cards are transferred to either of OLT card where they are
multiplexed and converted into optical signal and then transmitted on the optical fiber cable.
Two optical fiber cables are connected to this card. One cable for transmit the signal and
another one is used for receiving the signal.

Figure6.3:- IC1.1.2G card

MOTHERBOARD CARD:

Figure6.4:- Motherboard card

COMM Interface:
This is RS232 Port which is used to connect system to computer standard. This port has Bit rate
19200 bauds (8 data bits, no parity and 1 stop bit).
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ETH Interface:
This interface is commonly called as Ethernet interface. It is used for network management
purpose (NMS). In practical session we have used this interface for STM1configuration. This
port can be operated at 10Mbps in either full duplex or half duplex mode. We use shielded type
RJ-45 connector to connect this port with PC. 2Mbit/s or 2MHz synchronization port
Synchronization port interface: In sync port we have provision of two external
synchronization inputs, these are T3_1 and T3_2 along with two clock outputs at 2MHz at pins
named as T4_1 and T4_2. All these input and output clock are compliant with ITU-T G.703
Recommendations.
G.703 212Mbit/s traffic port: These ports on motherboard give us a provision for termination
and originating of 21 PCM on the mother board form the DDF (digital distribution frame).
Various features of these ports are given below:
Remote indication, remote control and station alarm port (LOOPS): This port is basically
used for the various alarm indication purpose. This facilitates us with four remote indication
inputs and two dry loops outputs for station alarm or remote control purpose.
2M Port: These are PCM ports carrying 2 Mbps data. These ports have 21 PCM capacities.
These data port function block is composed of the following functions:
Power supply access ports: "PWRA" and/or "PWRB" ports, used when the equipment is
powered from one or two 48 Voltage sources, the power source(s) should be limited to 100 VA.
"PWR" port used when the equipment is powered from a main voltage (230 V AC), via an
optional power block (100-240V//48V - 1.5A).

STM-DUAL

Figure6.5:- STM-DUAL
Each STM-DUAL provides connection for:
One STM-1 SFP optical interface
One STM-1 electrical interface
One 64Kbps access EOX/AUX order wire or auxiliary channel.
4E/FE

Figure6.6:- 4E/FE card

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Each 4E/FE provides connection for:

Traffic Ethernet interface either in 10Mbit/s or 100Mbit/s in full or half duplex mode.
E3DS3

Figure6.7:- ES3DS3 card

Each E3DS3 provides connection for:
75 34/45Mbps interface complaint with ITU-T G.703 and ETS 300 166 allowing 34/45
Mbps PDH streams.
21E120, 21E75 CARDS

Figure6.8:- 21E120 card

Each 21E120 provides connection for:
Trans and receive for 21 PCM on card each of 2Mbit.

FIBER DISTRIBUTION FRAME (FDF)

It is similar to digital distribution frame, fibers from OLT cards terminate there. It has 6
modules. Each module has a capacity of terminating 12 fibers.
6.4 ACCESSING THE SYSTEM
6.4.1 COMMISSIONING OF STM-1(SIEMENS)
IP Addresses:
To operate the STM-1 Equipment with NMS, we must set the IP address of NMS.
First three bytes of IP address of NMS must be same as that of STM-1 Equipment.
To change the IP address of NMS following point:
My Network Places---Properties---Local Area Network---Properties
IP Address ---Properties.
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Now change the IP addresses of NMS and STM-1 Equipment As shown..

Figure6.9:- Setting of IP addresses

IP address 135.10.110.7 is address of NMS and 135.10.110.11 IP address of STM-1
Equipment. One thing must be noted that first three bytes of IP address must be same. Subnet
mask remain same. i.e. 255.255.255.0
Now NMS can operate STM-1 Equipment.
GO TO INTERNET EXPLORER
Enter address of STM-1 Equipment (135.10.110.11)
Now we can operate the STM-1 equipment through NMS.

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To access the system, vendor provides it with two addresses - Ethernet IP address (ETH) and
Router IP address (R-IP). ETH is required to access the system locally and R-IP is used to
access the distance end system.
Step 1: Firstly, we connect the system and PC through LAN cable.
Step 2: Then, we change the IP address of the computer in such a way that both the systems IP
address and PCs IP address lie in the same subnet mask. Then we set default gateway. It is the
address of the system through which we enter the ring.
Step 3: Then, we open internet explorer and fill IP address of the STM system in the URL, and
then shelf view of STM system appears on the screen.

Figure6.10:- Shelf View

Figure6.11:- Equipment Menu

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There are two types of systems:

Add Drop Multiplexer (ADM)

It is for voice calls. In this, all the multiplexing cards have provision for 21 ports each.
Customer Premises Equipment (CPE)
It is for high speed data as well as voice. In this motherboard card has 8 ports, and one
multiplexing card have four Ethernet ports which are capable of transmitting data at the
maximum rate of 10/100 mbps.

6.5 OPERATION
As we know there are 21 PCMs terminating on each multiplexing card, now we can transmit
these PCMs to any port of any of the two OLT cards. OLT cards also have 63 ports each.
Firstly, we connect exchange circuits to exchange side of DDF through PCM cable and system
side of DDF to ports of multiplexing cards through PCM cable. After physical wiring we give
commands on the software to set up paths for different PCMs.
There are 3 STM-1 systems connected in the ring. Let us give them name Rajpura, Patiala and
Ambala. These three systems are connected via two patch cords, one for transmission and other
for reception.

Figure6.12:- Three STM-1 linked to each other in a Ring.

ADD & DROP
Suppose, Rajpura station has to send PCM on first port of motherboard to Patiala. There are
two routes through which it can do so. First is to send it directly via patch cord between
Rajpura and Patiala and second is to first send it to Ambala which bypasses it and then finally
send it to Patiala. Direct Route is known as working route and other route is known as
protection route which is used only if fiber of working route breaks.
So, using working route we link first port of motherboard (M1) to first port of B OLT card
(B1). And as a protection route we link M1 to first port of D OLT card (D1).
As B OLT of Rajpura is connected to D OLT of Patiala, at Patiala system we will connect D1
port to M1 port of Patiala. And then through DDF, that PCM will reach exchange of Patiala.
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BYEPASS
Now in protection route as dont have to link OLT ports to MUX card ports because we have to
only bypass the PCMs. Therefore, at Ambala station we will link port B1 to port D1.
SETTING UP OF AN ETHERNET CONNECTION
For higher data rates we need to setup an Ethernet connection which can transmit the maximum
data rate of 100mbps. We can combine several PCMs and transmit them through single
Ethernet port.
Firstly, we select ETH ports in the shelf view. Then go to VCG and then lists.
In the list all the 63 ports in an ETH port will appear. We select those ports and add members to
them, those we want to include in the connection.
Then, we make cross connection similar to earlier.

Figure6.13:- Window showing Fast Ethernet Ports

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Figure6.14:- 63 PCMs

Figure6.15:- Selection amongst Groups

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Figure6.16:- Configure selected PCM

Figure6.17:- Connecting 4E/FE to OLT

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SYNCHRONIZATION
The role of synchronization plan is to determine the distribution of synchronization in a
network and to select the level of clocks and facilities to be used to time the network. This
involves the selection and location of master clocks for a network, the distribution of primary
and secondary timing throughout the network and an analysis of the network to ensure that
acceptable performance levels are achieved. Improper synchronization planning or the lack of
planning can cause severe performance problems resulting in excessive slips, long periods of
network downtime, elusive maintenance problems or high transmission error rates. Hence, a
proper synchronization plan which optimizes the performance is a must for the entire digital
network. The status of synchronization in the DOT network is as follows:
For synchronization of the SDH network, it has been decided to use the clock source available
through the TAXs at the major stations. The synchronization plan is based upon provision of
Synchronization Supply Units (SSUs) which will be deployed as an essential component of the
synchronization network which will support synchronized operation of the SDH network. The
architecture employed in the SDH requires that the timing of all the network clocks be
traceable to Primary Reference Clock (PRC) specified in accordance with ITU Rec.G.811. The
classical method of synchronizing network element clocks is the hierarchical method (master
slave synchronization) which is already adopted in the DOT network for the TAXs. This
masterslave synchronization uses a hierarchy of clocks in which each level of the hierarchy is
synchronized with reference to a higher level, the highest level being the PRC.
The hierarchical levels of clocks are defined by ITU as follows:
PRC: Also called the primary reference clock or stratum-1 clock. Usually an autonomous
cesium clock or a rubidium clock locked to GPS. Accuracy: 10^-11
SSUT: Transit clock or stratum2 clock. Accuracy: 10^-10
SSUL: Also, called local exchange clock or stratum3 clock. . Accuracy: 10^-9
SES: It is a special clock which is not a stratum clock whose specifications are specific to the
requirements of the SDH equipment. . Accuracy: 10^-8
DNU: Do not use.

Figure6.18:- Synchronization Source

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CHAPTER 7 SOFTWARE PROJECT

APPLICATIONS AND PRODUCTS)

SAP (SYSTEM,

SAP stands for System, Applications and Products in Data Processing is a

German multinational software corporation that makes enterprise software to manage business
operations and customer relations. SAP is headquartered in Walldorf, BadenWrttemberg, Germany, with regional offices in 130 countries. The company has over 282,000
customers in 190 countries.
It is the largest business software company in the world and also the largest Enterprise
Resource Planning (ERP Software) solution software provider. SAPs main products are SAP
ERP (formerly known as SAP R/3) and SAP Business Objects software. SAP software has
three-tier application architecture: database, application server and client SAP gui (presentation
layer).As per the reports there are over 100,600 SAP installations at more than 41,200
companies in more than 120 countries. R/3 architecture was replaced with the introduction of
ERP Central Component (ECC ).
7.1 History
Foundation
When Xerox aimed to exit the computer industry in 1975 they asked IBM to migrate their
business systems to IBM technology. As part of IBM's compensation for the migration, IBM
was given the rights to the Scientific Data Systems (SDS)/SAPE software, reportedly for a
contract credit of $80,000.
Five IBM engineers from the AI department (Dietmar Hopp, Klaus Tschira, Hans-Werner
Hector, Hasso Plattner, and Claus Wellenreuther, all from Mannheim, Baden-Wrttemberg)
were working in an enterprise-wide system based on this software, only to be told that it would
be no longer necessary. Rather than abandon the project, they decided to leave IBM Tech and
start another company.
In June 1972, they founded Systemanalyse und Programmentwicklung ("System Analysis and
Program Development") company, as a private partnership under the German Civil
Code. The acronym was later changed to stand for Systeme, Anwendungen und Produkte in der
Datenverarbeitung ("Systems, Applications and Products in Data Processing").
Their first client was the German branch of Imperial Chemical Industries in stringen, where
they developed mainframe programs for payroll and accounting. Instead of storing the data
on punch cards mechanically, as IBM did, they stored it locally. Therefore, they called their
software a real-time system, since there was no need to process the punch cards overnight (for
this reason their flagship product carried an R in its name until the late 1990s). This first
version was also a standalone software that could be offered to other interested parties.

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Enterprise resource planning

In 1973, the first commercial product was launched. It was called SAP R/98,and offered a
common system for multiple tasks. This permitted the use of a centralized data storage,
improving the maintenance of data. From a technical point of view, therefore, a database was
necessary.
In 1976, SAP GmbH was founded, and moved its headquarters the following year to Walldorf,
Germany.
Three years later, in 1979, SAP launched SAP R/2, expanding the capabilities of the system to
other areas, such as material management and production plannin]In 1981, SAP brought a redesigned product to market. However, SAP R/2 did not improve until the period between 1985
and 1990.
SAP released the new SAP R/3 in 1992. SAP developed and released several versions of R/3
through 1995. By the mid-1990s, SAP followed the trend from mainframe computing
to client/server architectures. The development of SAPs internet strategy with mySAP.com
redesigned the concept of business processes (integration via Internet). SAP was awarded
Industry Weeks Best Managed Companies in 1999.
Business and Markets
As of 2007, SAP is the world's largest business software company and the third-biggest
independent software provider by revenue. The corporation operates in four geographic
regions: EMEA (Europe, Middle East, Africa), NA (United States and Canada), LAC (Latin
America and Caribbean), and APJ
(Asia Pacific and Japan), which represents
Japan, Korea, Australia, New
Zealand, Greater
India, Greater
China and Southeast
Asian countries. In addition, SAP operates a network of 115 subsidiaries, as well as R&D
(Research
and
Development)
facilities
in
Germany,
India,
the
US,
.
Canada, France, Brazil, Turkey, China, Pakistan, Hungary, Israel, Ireland and Bulgaria
SAP focuses upon 25 industries and six industry sectors: process industries, discrete industries,
consumer industries, service industries, financial services and public services. It offers
integrated product sets for large enterprises, mid-sized companies and small businesses.
Enterprise Service-Oriented Architecture
Service-oriented architecture has been incorporated into the SAP ERP (Enterprise Resource
Planning) system and other products defined within the SAP Enterprise Services
Architecture (Enterprise SOA).
Enterprise SOA
SAP Enterprise Service Oriented Architecture (or Enterprise SOA) has been defined by SAP
SE as "an open architecture for adaptive business solutions" and "the blueprint for an
architecture that enables innovation and standardization in a single environment". Enterprise
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SOA is enabled by the SAP Net Weaver platform, and builds on the benefits of Web services.
SAP has positioned Enterprise SOA to deliver the benefits offered by service-oriented
architecture, including enabling both flexibility and business efficiency. SAP states that
Enterprise SOA provides companies with a "cost-effective blueprint for composing innovative
new applications by extending existing systems, while maintaining a level of flexibility that
makes future process changes cost-effective". SAP Solutions that currently use Enterprise SOA
are my SAP CRM, my SAP ERP, and my SAP SRM.
Partnerships
SAP partners include Global Services Partners with cross-industry multinational consulting
capabilities, Global Software Partners providing integrated products that complement SAP
Business Suite solutions, and Global Technology Partners providing user companies with a
wide range of products to support SAP technology, including vendors of hardware, database,
storage systems, networks, and mobile computing technology.
SAP PartnerEdge
SAP products for small businesses and midsize companies are delivered through its global
partner network. In 2008, SAP signed SAP Global Service partnership with HCL Technologies,
a $6 billion technology service provider, headquartered in India. SAP PartnerEdge has also
signed with ENFOS, Inc., a software as a service company, to develop their EcoHub Partner
Sustainability Solution platform. The SAP PartnerEdge program, SAP's partner program, offers
a set of business enablement resources and program benefits to help partners including value
added resellers (VARs) and independent software vendors (ISVs) be profitable and successful
in implementing, selling, marketing, developing and delivering SAP products to a broad range
of customers.
Communities
SAP Community Network (SCN) is a community of SAP customers, partners, employees, and
influencers typically in roles such as: developers, consultants, integrators, and business
analysts who gain and share knowledge about ABAP, Java, .NET, SOA, and other
technologies, plus analytics and dashboards, business process best practices, cloud, mobile, big
data, and a range of other topics via expert blogs, discussion forums, exclusive downloads and
code samples, training materials, and a technical library. Members of SCN represent a wide
range of roles and lines-of-business, from countries and territories all over the world, in 24
industries.
Organization
Functional units of SAP are split across different organizational units for R&D needs, field
activities and customer support. SAP Labs are mainly responsible for product development
whereas the field organizations spread across each country are responsible for field activities
such Sales, Marketing, Consulting etc. Head office located in SAP SE is responsible for overall
management as well as core Engineering activities related to Product Development. SAP
customer support, also called Active Global Support (AGS) is a global organization to provide
support to SAP customers worldwide.
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Industry Solutions

SAP for Retail (ISR)

SAP for Utilities (ISU)

SAP for Public Sector (IS PSCD)

SAP for Oil & Gas (IS Oil & Gas)

SAP for Telecommunications (IST)

SAP for Healthcare (ISH)

SAP for Banking (SAP for banking)

SAP for Insurance (SAP for Insurance)

SAP Financial Services Network (FSN)

SAP Shipping Services Network (SSN)

Engineering Construction & Operations (EC&O)

7.2 ERP advantages and disadvantages

Advantages

Allows easier global integration (barriers of currency exchange rates, language, and culture
can be bridged automatically)

Updates only need to be done once to be implemented company-wide

Provides real-time information, reducing the possibility of redundancy errors

May create a more efficient work environment for employees

Vendors have past knowledge and expertise on how to best build and implement a system

User interface is completely customizable allowing end users to dictate the operational
structure of the product

Disadvantages

Locked into relationship by contract and manageability with vendor - a contract can hold a
company to the vendor until it expires and it can be unprofitable to switch vendors
ifswitching costs are too high

Inflexibility - vendor packages may not fit a company's business model well and
customization can be expensive

Return on Investment may take too long to be profitable

Implementations have a risk of project failure[

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The List Of Modules ( Solutions ) in SAP:

Financials
Human Resources
Customer Relationship Management
Supplier Relationship Management
Product Lifecycle Management
Supply Chain Management
Business Intelligence

Figure7.1:- Centralization of SAP server with all modules

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Sub Modules of FI Module Financial Accounting

General ledger
Book close
Tax
Accounts receivable
Accounts payable
Consolidation
Special ledgers

Sub Modules of CO Module Controlling

Cost elements
Cost centres
Profit centres
Internal orders
Activity based costing
Product costing

Sub Modules of AM Module Asset Management

Purchase
Sale
Depreciation
Tracking

PS Module Project Systems

Make to order
Plant shut downs (as a project)

Third party billing (on the back of a project)

HR Module Human Resources

52

Employment history
Payroll
Training
Career management
Succession planning
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PM Module Plant Maintenance

Labour
Material
Down time and outages

MM Module Materials Management

Requisitions

Purchase orders
Goods receipts
Accounts payable
Inventory management
BOMs
Master raw materials,finished goods etc

QM Module Quality Management

Planning

Execution
Inspections
Certificates

PP Module Production Planning

Capacity planning
Master production scheduling
Material requirements planning
Shop floor

SD Module Sales and Distribution

53

RFQ
Sales orders
Pricing
Picking (and other warehouse processes)
Packing shipping
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7.3 SAP Basics

7.3.1 SAP Icon on Monitor.

Figure7.2
7.3.2 Log On Window

Figure7.3

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7.3.3 Logging on to System.....

Figure7.4
The asterisks in the password box cannot be deleted, just overwrite in the box.
7.3.4 Access More links.....

Figure7.5

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7.3.5 Layout of SAP Easy Access Screen

Figure7.6
Messages appear on the status bar.

Figure7.7

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7.3.6 Menu Bar on SAP Window

Figure7.8

Figure7.9

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7.3.7 Field Help: F1 and F4.....

Figure7.10
i.

ii.

F1 Help

The F1 key to display an explanation of fields, menus, function and messages.

The F1 help also displays technical information on the relevant field.

F4 Help

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The F4 key to display possible input values.

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7.4 SAP PS (PROJECT SYSTEM) MODULE

SAP Project System supports comprehensive business Process for Planning, controlling &
organizing all the activities carried out during the course of project. .It helps you to manage
your Project structure, dates, cost & Resource throughout the entire project lifecycle
Mobile Wing of BSNL focuses on projects required for improving telecom network and
introducing new telecom requirement of GSM and CDMA network with the new development
or future development plans of Rural & Urban areas. CDMA & GSM is very much useful in
providing cost effective mobile service/wireless telephone connections in areas where provision
of land line telephone connection is not feasible.
In BSNL, for expansion in GSM segment, the focus is given on current working capacity and
growth happening in previous two years in terms of the number of new subscribers added. The
projection from the corporate might change depending upon the needs and demands of the
market. Consumer Mobility Wing is responsible for Planning and installation of Rollout of
GSM, CDMA, WCDMA and Wi MAX networks.

1. Create Project Definition & WBS

Project Definition: Project definition is a binding framework in SAP for all organizational
element created within a project (e.g. WBS and SAP networks). Data like company code, plant
and person responsible can be defaulted into WBS if initially entered in the project definition.
WBS: Work breakdown structure (WBS) is a model of the project that organizes project tasks
into a hierarchy. It forms the operative basis for planning costs, revenues, and payments, as
well as for scheduling, and budgeting.
Following steps are required to create a Project:-

2. Create Project

Menu path

Logistics Project system Project Special Maintenance

function Work Break Down Structure(WBS)Create

Transaction

CJ01

CJ01

Table7.1
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1. Click on open number (Refer Fig. below)

Figure7.11
2. Select the appropriate coding mask (For example CM/10/00001) for project definition
in Start value.
Definition-Open Number-This is the vacant number available.
Enter to take proposed project definition

Figure7.12

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Figure7.13
Click on Open No.
Select the Project Profile

Figure7.14
3.

Enter project profile: BSNL_CM Consumer Mobility (Fig. below) (Definition-Project

profile-This contain default values and control parameters for processing objects and functions
in the Project System)
4. Enter description/Short text for project:
5. Click on Basic data tab (Organization section) and, Enter Company code, Business Area &
Plant (Refer Fig.) For example.
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Field Description

Remarks

Person responsible

Enter Person Responsible(34-AGM Network Planning; 35-DGM

Network Planning)

Start Date

Enter the Start date of Project

Finish Date

Enter the Planned finish date of project

Company code

Select the relevant Project circle

Business area

Select the Project Area

Plant

Select the relevant Plant

6. Click on Details Project Definition customer fields & enter the data as per enclosed
sheet

CM CUSTOMER
ENHANCEMENT FIELDS.xlsx

Note: Please maintain the customer fields which are marked as mandatory.
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7. Now, Click on WBS element Overview

8. Please create Root WBS Element for Consumer Mobility which will have WBS Level as 1.

9. Create all other WBS Elements at Level-2 according to the survey report for the Root WBS
Element.
For WBS of Project Type Equipment(EQ), please select Person Responsible 31 to 34.
For WBS of Project Type Media(MD), please select Person Responsible 21 to 24.
For WBS of Project Type Civil(CW), please select Person Responsible 01 to 04.
For WBS of Project Type Electrical(EW), please select Person Responsible 06 to 09.

10. Press Enter.

11. Click on Save.

12. Now , Click on WBS Element Overview

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13. Select the respective WBS & click on

Responsible.

in the left bottom corner. Select Person

Figure7.15
14. Now, Click on Dates Tab .Enter Basic start & Basic Finish Dates

Figure7.16
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15. Click on continue

16. Click on DetailsWBS Element Customer Fields

17. Enter the Project details as shown below

CM CUSTOMER
ENHANCEMENT FIELDS.xlsx

3. Make changes in the Project.

CJ02

Menu path

Logistics Project system Project Special Maintenance

function Work Break Down Structure(WBS)Change

Transaction

CJ02
Table7.2

For making any changes in the parameters once the project is created the above menu path OR
the Transaction is to be used.
4. Display Project

4 CJ03

Menu path

Logistics Project system Project Special Maintenance

function Work Break Down Structure(WBS)Display

Transaction

CJ03
Table7.3

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5. Send WBS for Carrying out Survey using Note Sheet

a. Change WBS

5 CJ02

Menu path

Logistics Project system Project Special Maintenance

function WBS Change

Transaction

CJ02
Table7.4

Figure7.17
Select the WBS element & click on Customer fields

Figure7.18
Enter the WBS element and employee id of the person to whom the note sheet is to be sent.

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1. Take the input help for Send Mail to.

2. Go to the Organizational assignment tab.

Figure7.19

Figure7.20
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3. Choose the relevant Personnel Area from the input help.

Figure7.21
4. Choose the relevant Personnel Sub area from the input help.

Figure7.22
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5. Enter the Company code and click on

Select the relevant Employee to whom Note sheet has to be sent and click on

In the Comment box add/see the comments and press

If you want to see the details of the WBS element in edit mode press
If you want to see the details of the WBS element in display mode press

To see the comment added by other users Press

6. Read Note Sheet received in the SAP Inbox

SBWP

Menu path

Office Workplace

Transaction

SBWP

Click on the
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The note sheet screen will appear. Add the details and forward it to next level.
7. Create & Assign Survey Report to Project
7 CV01N

Menu path

Logistics Project system Documents

Management System Document Create

Transaction

CV01N

Document

Table7.5
1. In the entry screen, Enter the document Type
2. Enter the document version

3. Press Enter

Figure7.23

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Enter the Description of document

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Click on open original at the bottom of screen

Figure7.24

Browse the File to be attached & Click on Open.

Figure7.25
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File will be attached as shown below

Figure7.26

Enter the WBS element

Figure7.27

Save the document. An internal no. will be generated. Note down the No.

8. Release Survey Report for the Project

8 CV02N

Menu path

Logistics Project system Documents Document

Management System Document Change

Transaction

CV02N

72

Table7.6
On the entry screen, enter the Document Number.
Enter the Document Type ZPS (Project Documents).
Press Enter.

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Figure7.28

Change the Document Status to Released.

Figure7.29
Click on Save

9.

Update the Project Status to Survey Done

a. Change WBS

9 CJ02

Menu path

Logistics Project system Project Special Maintenance

function WBS Change

Transaction

CJ02

1. Enter the WBS. Press Enter.

2. Select the WBS element
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3. Click on details

4. Click on

5. Check the Status Profile. Select the relevant status.

6. Click on Back & Check the new status

7. Click on Confirm. Click on Save

8. Similarly change the status of other WBS elements.

10. Send WBS for Survey Approval using Note Sheet

a. Change WBS

10 CJ02

Menu path

Logistics Project system Project Special Maintenance

function WBS Change

Transaction

CJ02
Table7.7

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Figure7.30
Select the WBS element & click on Customer fields

Figure7.31
Enter the WBS element and employee id of the person to whom the note sheet is to be sent.

Figure7.32
Select the relevant Employee to whom Note sheet has to be sent and click on

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Figure7.33

In the Comment box add/see the comments and press

If you want to see the details of the WBS element in edit mode press
If you want to see the details of the WBS element in display mode press

To see the comment added by other users Press

11. Receive Information / Mail for Project

11 SBWP

Menu path

Office Workplace

Transaction

SBWP

1. The competent authority will receive a message .Click on inbox to read the message.

Figure7.34
2. If the same message has to be checked at later stage , then use the transaction SBWP to
go to Inbox & Click on Unread Documents.

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Figure7.35
3. Double click on mail & the double click on Attachment to View the file

12. Update the Project Status to Survey Approved by Concerned Authority.

a. Change WBS

12 CJ02

Menu path

Logistics Project system Project Special Maintenance

function WBS Change

Transaction

CJ02
Table7.8

1. Enter the WBS. Press Enter.

2. Select the WBS element
3. Click on details

Figure7.36
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4. Click on

Figure7.37
5. Check the Status Profile. Select the relevant status.
6. Click on Back & Check the new status

Figure7.38
7. Click on Save
8. Similarly change the status of other WBS elements.

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CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

8.1 HARDWARE (TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT)

We are currently working on STM-256 which, we are using to generate 483840
channels, this means 483840 channels are accessible simultaneously, which is a very
good figure as we began from 1890 channels in STM-1. This means that this number of
people can talk simultaneously, but as the population is increasing day by day, number
of channels required is also changing, the demand will increase in the near future.
So, by putting the nuts into the shells it can be said that there is a great need of a higher
version of STM, which can accommodate more number of channels and can fulfil the
requirements of the people.

8.2 SOFTWARE (SAP)

SAP S/4HANA is the new generation of SAP Business Suite launched in 2015. It offers
cloud, on-premise and hybrid deployment options to provide more choice to customers.
Some benefits include: a smaller data footprint, higher throughput, faster analytics and
reports, SAP HANA Cloud Platform extension, multitenancy, and faster access to data
(social, text, geo, graph and processing). It also allows existing SAP Business Suite
customers to upgrade to this product from SAP Business Suite instead of reimplementing.
Analysts at J.P. Morgan have predicted that the new software could help SAP achieve
more than a 30-percent compound annual growth rate.[13] Yet some analysts, such as
Peter Goldmacher of Cowen and Co., question whether it will be adopted as quickly as
the company says, and create the massive growth that SAP foresees.

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