Chapter 2

Network Theorems
Artemio P. Magabo
Professor of Electrical Engineering

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute

University of the Philippines - Diliman
Revised by Michael Pedrasa, May 2012

Linear Element
A linear element is a passive element whose
voltage-current relationship is described by a linear
equation; i.e. if the current through the element is
multiplied by a constant k, then the voltage across
the element is likewise multiplied by k.
Consider a resistor R with current
i=i1. From Ohm s Law, we get

v = v1 = Ri1

R
i

Suppose the current is increased by a factor k; i.e.

i2=ki1. The new voltage is

v2 = Ri2 = Rki1 = kv1 (R is a linear element)

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Consider an inductor R with current

i=i1. The inductor voltage is

di1
v = v1 = L
dt

L
i

Suppose the current is increased by a factor k; i.e.

i2=ki1. The new voltage is

di2
d(ki1 )
v2 = L
=L
= kv1
dt
dt

Thus,L is a linear element.

Note: Following the same analysis, we can show
that a constant capacitor is a linear element.
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Linear Dependent Source

A linear dependent source is a current or voltage
source whose output current or voltage is
proportional only to the first power of some
current or voltage variable in the circuit, or to the
sum of such quantities.

kvx

+
-

kiy

+
-

Linear Dependent
Voltage Sources
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kvw

kiz

Linear Dependent
Current Sources

Linear Electric Circuit

An electric circuit is linear if it consists of
independent sources
linear dependent sources
linear elements
The response of a linear circuit is proportional to the
sources; that is, if all independent sources are
multiplied by a constant k, all currents and voltages
will likewise increase by the same factor k.

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Principle of Superposition
In an electric circuit containing N independent
sources, the current (or voltage) in any branch is
equal to the algebraic sum of N components, each
of which is due to one independent source acting
alone.
Note: Reducing an independent source to zero:
1. For a voltage source, remove the source and
replace with a short circuit;
2. For a current source, remove the source and
replace with an open circuit.
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Example: Find I1 and

I2 using nodal analysis.
From KCL, we get

Vx Vs Vx
Is =
+
R1
R2

R1
+

Vs

I1

+Vx

R2

REF

which can be simplified as

or

1
1
1
= Is +
Vx
+
Vs
R1
R1 R 2

R1R 2
R2
Vx =
Is +
Vs
R1 + R 2
R1 + R 2

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I2

Is

Thus, we get

Vs Vx
I1 =
R1
1
R2
I1 =
Vs
Is
R1 + R 2
R1 + R 2
and

Vx
I2 =
R2
1
R1
I2 =
Vs +
Is
R1 + R 2
R1 + R 2

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Solution using Superposition:

Assume Vs is acting alone.
Replace Is by an open circuit.

I1a

1
= I2a =
Vs
R1 + R 2

R1
+

Vs

I1a

R2

I2a

Next, assume Is is acting alone. Replace Vs with a

short circuit. We get

I1b
I2b

R2
=
Is
R1 + R 2
R1
=
Is
R1 + R 2

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R1

I1b

R2

I2b

Is

Finally, we apply superposition to get I1 and I2.

I1 = I1a + I1b
I2 = I2a + I2b
Substitution gives

1
R2
I1 =
Vs
Is
R1 + R 2
R1 + R 2
1
R1
I2 =
Vs +
Is
R1 + R 2
R1 + R 2

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6A
Example :
Find all currents using
superposition.

12

9A

81V
-

We have three independent sources.

Solve for the currents with each source
acting alone.

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Consider the 81-V source

acting alone.

81
Ia =
=3A
27

81V

12

Ia

Consider the 9-A source

acting alone.

15
Ib =
(9A) = 5 A
15 + 12

Ic = 9 Ib = 4 A
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Ib 9A
6

12

Ic

6A

Finally, consider the 6-A

source acting alone.

9
Id =
(6A) = 2 A
9 + 18
Ie = 6 Id = 4 A
Apply superposition to get
the current in any resistor.

12

Id

Ie

For example, the current in the 3 resistor is

I3 = Ia + Ic + Ie = 3 + 4 + 4 = 11 A
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Example: Use
superposition to
find the current I.

4V

Vx

I
2A

+
-

5Vx

Consider the 4-V source acting alone. From KVL,

we get
4V

4 = 3Ia + 5Vx + 2Ia

Vx = 2Ia

which gives

Vx

Ia = 0.8 A
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Ia

+
-

5Vx

Consider next the 2-A

source acting alone.

3
+

Vx

We get

Vx = 2(2 - Ib )

Ib
2A

+
-

and

Vx = 3Ib + 5Vx
Solving simultaneously, we find Ib=3.2 Amps.
Applying superposition, we get

I = Ia + Ib = 4 A
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5Vx

Example: Find the voltage

Vx using the principle of
superposition.
+

16V

1.5A
20
-

Vx +

Consider the 16-V source

acting alone. Using voltage
division, we get
+
20
Vx1 =
(16V) 16V
20 + 80
-

= 3.2 V
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10V

3A

80

20
-

Vx1 +

80

20

Consider next the 3-A

source acting alone.

80
Ix =
(3 A)
20 + 80
= 2.4 A
From Ohm s Law, we get

- Vx2 +

Ix

80

3A

Vx2 = 20Ix = 48 V

Next, consider the 10-V

source acting alone.

20
Vx3 =
(10 V)
20 + 80
=2V
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20
-

Vx3 +

10V

80

Finally, consider the 1.5-A

source acting alone.

1.5A

Because of the short

circuit, we get

Vx4 = 0

20
-

Vx4

Applying superposition, we get

Vx = Vx1 + Vx2 + Vx3 + Vx4

= 3.2 + 48 + 2 + 0 = 46.8 V
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80

Thevenin s Theorem
Consider a circuit which can be represented by two
networks: A which is linear and B, which may be
linear or non-linear. Any dependent source in
network A is controlled by a current or voltage in
network A. The same is true with network B.
x

Linear
Network
A

Network
B
y

Network A can be replaced by a voltage source Vth

which is connected in series with a resistor Rth.
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The Thevenin equivalent of network A is shown.

Rth

Vth

Network
B

where
Vth= open-circuit voltage from terminal x to
terminal y, with network B removed
Rth= the equivalent resistance from terminal x
to terminal y, looking into network A, with
all independent sources reduced to zero.
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Norton s Theorem
Consider a circuit which can be represented by two
networks: A which is linear and B, which may be
linear or non-linear. Any dependent source in
network A is controlled by a current or voltage in
network A. The same is true with network B.
x

Linear
Network
A

Network
B
y

Network A can be replaced by a current source In

which is connected in parallel with a resistor Rn.
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The Norton equivalent of network A is shown.

x

In

Network
B

Rn
y

where
In = short-circuit current from terminal x to
terminal y, with network B removed
Rn=Rth=the equivalent resistance from terminal x
to terminal y, looking into network A, with
all independent sources reduced to zero.
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Thevenin Equivalent
General Procedure
1. Remove the load and find the voltage across the
open circuit terminals, VOC. This is the Thevenin
equivalent voltage.

2. Determine the Thevenin equivalent resistance Rth

at the open terminals with the load removed.

3. Connect the load to the Thevenin equivalent

circuit, consisting of VOC in series with Rth. The

desired solution can now be obtained.
+
VOC
-

Rth

Rth

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VOC +

Rload

General Procedure for Determining

Thevenin Resistance

If the circuit contains only independent sources,

suppress all sources and compute the resistance at
the open terminals.

If the circuit contains only dependent sources,

apply an independent voltage (current) source at
the open terminals and measure the corresponding
current (voltage). The Thevenin equivalent
resistance is given by the voltage/current ratio.

If the circuit contains both independent and

dependent sources, determine the short circuit
current ISC at the open terminals. The ratio VOC/ISC
is the resistance Rth.
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Norton Equivalent
General Procedure
1. Remove the load and find ISC, the short-circuit
current. ISC is the Norton equivalent current.

2. Determine the Norton equivalent resistance Rn

at the open terminals with the load removed.
Note that Rn is the same as Rth.

3. Connect the load to the Norton equivalent circuit,

consisting of ISC in parallel with Rn. The desired
solution can now be obtained.
ISC

Rn

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ISC

Rn

Rload

9V

+
-

300
300

Circuits with
Independent Sources
Only

600
10mA

+
1k VO
-

500

First, find VOC. Remove

the 1k resistor and find
the open-circuit voltage.
The current in mesh 2
is known already.

Example 1: Find
the voltage VO using
Thevenin s theorem.

9V

300

I2 = 10mA
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+
-

I1
300

I2

600
10mA
+
VOC
-

500

For mesh 1 we get

9 = 300(I1 0.01) + 600I1

I1 = -6.67mA

From KVL on the lower left loop

VOC = 300(I 2 I1 ) + 300I 2

VOC = 8V

Next, find Rth . Remove the 1k resistor, reduce all

independent sources to zero, and find the equivalent resistance from x to y.

300(600)
R th = 300 +
300 + 600
= 500

300
300

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600
x
y

500

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown.

500
+

8V

Finally, we return the 1k resistor and find the

voltage VO.
500

8V

Vo

1k

1000
VO =
8 = 5.33V
1000 + 500

y
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9V

+
-

300
300

600
10mA

+
1k VO
-

First, find ISC. Replace

the 1k resistor with
a short circuit and
find the current.
ISC can be found using
superposition.

Example 2:
Use Norton s
theorem to find VO.
500

9V

+
-

300
300

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600
10mA
ISC

500

Consider the 10mA source

acting alone.
ISC1 = 10mA
Consider next the 9V
source acting alone.

R eq = 300 || 300 = 150

150
Va =
9
600 + 150

300

ISC1

300

9V

+
-

REF

300

and

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500

600

300 +Va

which gives
Va=1.8 Volts

600
10mA

ISC 2

ISC2

500

Va
=
= 6mA
300

Thus, we get

ISC = ISC1 + ISC2

= 16mA

We have previously found Rthto be 500.The

Norton equivalent circuit with the 1k resistor
is shown.
16mA

500

+
VO 1k
-

500(1000)
VO = 0.016
500 + 1000
= 5.33V
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Circuits with Dependent Sources Only

20IX

Example 3: Find
the Thevenin
resistance as seen 20
from xy.

+-

40

20
IX

Attach a 1-A current source between terminals

xy and find the voltage across the source.
+Va

20

40

20IX
+-

+Vb

x
+

20
IX
REF

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VS
-

IS=1A

KCL at supernode ab yields

Va Va Vb
1=
+
+
20 40 20

The voltage at the dependent source is

Va- Vb = 20Ix
But

Ix =

Va

40

so we get Va = 2Vb

Solving simultaneously, we have

Va=10 V
Vb=5 V
Finally, the Thevenin resistance is

VS Vb 5 V
R th =
=
=
= 5
IS IS 1 A
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Example 4: Find the Norton equivalent circuit

between terminals xy.
2
0.5VX

+
VX

4.5

We do not have an independent source so ISC=0.

To get the equivalent resistance Rn, attach a
1-V voltage source between terminals xy and
find the current passing through the source.
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The resulting circuit is shown.

2
0.5VX

3
+
VX

4.5 Is

VS=1V

We apply source transformation on the dependent

source.
4
x
2 +Va 3
2VX

+
-

+
VX

REF
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4.5 Is

VS= 1V

From KCL

We get

Va 2 Va Va 1
0=
+ +
4+2
2
3

Va = 2 Volts
3

We determine IS from KCL

Is = I3 + I 4.5
1 Va 1
=
+
3
4.5
Is = 1 A
3
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Finally, the Norton

resistance is

VS
Rn =
IS
1V
=
= 3
1 A
3

Circuits with Independent and Dependent

Sources
Example 5:
Find current
Ix using
vx
Norton s
400
theorem.

400

10V
-+

300

100
+
vx 200
-

Ix
125

Let us first find ISC. Remove the 125 resistor

and find the short-circuit current.
400

vx
400

10V
-+

300

100
+
vx 200 ISC
-

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10
ISC =
300 + 100
= 25 mA

We find the
open-circuit
voltage VOC

400

vx
400

From mesh 1 we get

For mesh 2

I1

10V
-+

100

300 I2

+
+
vx 200 VOC
-

Vx 200I 2 1
I1 =
=
= I2
400 400 2

10 = 300(I2 I1 ) + (100 + 200)I2

Solving simultaneously, we have

I1=11.11 mA
I2= 22.22 mA
And the open-circuit voltage
VOC = 200(22.22)(10-3) = 4.444 V
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We get the equivalent resistance

VOC 4.444 V
R th =
=
=177.76
ISC 0.025 A
The Norton equivalent circuit with the 125
resistor is shown.
25mA

177.76

Ix

125

177.76
I x = 0.025
177.76 + 125
= 14.68 mA
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Maximum Power Transfer

Theorem
The value of R that will dissipate maximum power
is equal to the Thevenin resistance as seen from
the location of R.
In Example 1:
500
+

8V

x
Ix

R=1k
-

8
PR = I R =
(1000)
1500
2
x

= 28.44 mW

But if R=Rth=500

2

8
(500) = 32 mW
PR (max) =
2(500)

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End