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a b s t r a c t
This paper discusses the progression of developments in psychiatricmental health nursing from the 1960s to the
present. The 1960s were a time of shortage of psychiatric APRNs, with legislation expanding the availability of
mental health services. We nd ourselves in a similar time with 7 million new health insurance enrollees, because of the Affordable Care Act (ACA). The expansion of health insurance coverage comes at a time when
some colleges of nursing are closing master's programs in psychiatricmental health, in lieu of the DNP mandate
from the American Association of Colleges of Nursing. Is history repeating itself?
2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
THE 1950S
50
THE 1960S
THE 1970S
51
52
four primary types of NPs (adult or family NPs treating general health
problems in psychiatric patients; adult or family NP treating psychiatric
patients for their mental illnesses; CNS treating psychiatric illness and
the psychiatric NP treating psychiatric illnesses) to take the Psychiatric
Mental Health NP (PMHNP) or PsychiatricMental Health CNS
(PMHCNS) exam (Bjorklund, 2003) for continued certication. This
issue was revisited in 2005 (Rice, Moller, DePascale, & Skinner, 2007)
The 1990s saw confusion among patients and non-nurse providers
about the different roles and credentials within psychiatricmental
health nursing. Additionally, there were variable laws governing APN/
physician working relationships across states based on state Nurse Practice Acts. In some states psychiatric CNSs practiced with greater autonomy than other specialties, further confusing the public and nonpsychiatric providers.
In the spring of 1995, Carolyn Lewis, who was the Executive Director
of ANCC, noted that there were psychiatric NPs in eight states who were
unable to get reimbursement due to State Board of Nursing regulations
related to advanced practice nurses. ANCC determined that this issue
could best be addressed through certication examinations for psychiatric NPs. However, the psychiatric nursing organizations were quite
concerned about this plan and held a joint meeting of the various psychiatric nursing organizations. These professional organizations perceived that the new exams would undermine existing CNS practice.
ANCC still believed this was the best solution. There were concerns
about the validation of the Psych NP test, which was viewed by some
as primarily a CNS exam with some family nurse practitioner content.
APNA was also concerned about the proliferation of exams and decided
to initiate its own credentialing process with a single exam. The debate
about CNS vs. psych NP occurred within nursing organizations and is
reected in the literature of the late 1990s, for example, articles by
Howard and Greiner (1997), McCabe and Grover (1999), and Pasacreta,
Minarik, Cataldo, Muller, and Scahill (1999)).
In the late 1990s, The American Nurses Associations and representatives from APNA and ISPN revised the Scope and Standards of Psychiatric
Mental Health Nursing (American Nurses Association, 2000). The work
group had many discussions about the issue and determined that there
was one overarching priority for advanced practice in psychiatric nursing
practice which was the provision of primary mental health care to patients seeking mental health services in a wide range of delivery settings
(American Nurses Association, 2000, p. 18). The Scope and Standards of
PsychiatricMental Health Nursing were considered to be the basis upon
which the ANCC certications were developed. The ANA work group
hoped that the statement about there being only one priority for
practice would aid ANCC in developing one exam for both CNSs and
Psych NPs.
Nursing doctorate (ND), and doctor of nursing practice (DNP)] programs expanded over time, although currently less than 1% of all nurses
have doctoral degrees (HRSA, 2013). Some early adopters of the practice
doctorate in the 1990s called the degree a nursing doctorate, or other
similar terms. After a few years, the nursing profession agreed that the
doctor of nursing practice should be the degree for the practice doctorate, to avoid confusion. It is unknown how many DNP nurses specialize
in psychiatricmental health nursing. But even if we knew how many
nurses with DNPs specialized in psychiatric nursing, we might not
know how many were available to actually see psychiatric patients in
practice. Many universities seek doctorally prepared faculty for clinical,
tenure-track and research faculty appointments drawing these experts
away from the clinical setting. The American Association of Colleges of
Nursing (AACN) call for the DNP as the advanced practice standard
has sent experienced clinicians back to school and out of the clinical
areaat the same time we are called to provide more mental health
and addiction services (United States Government, 2013).
In 1994, the International Society of Psychiatric Consultation
Liaison Nurses formalized their organization, which had existed informally for some years. This organization was composed of psychiatric
clinical nurse specialists who provided consultation for persons in
non-psychiatric hospital units who were experiencing psychosocial reactions to their health problems.
The International Society of PsychiatricMental Health Nurses (ISPN)
was formed in 1999 through the merger of three psychiatric nursing organizations: the Association of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nurses
(ACAPN); the Society of Education and Research in PsychiatricMental
Health Nursing (SERPN) and the International Society of PsychiatricConsultation Liaison Nurses (ISPCLN) (Bjorklund, 2003). Each of these
organizations had a component that focused on advanced mental health
nursing practice and mental health research. Adult and Geropsychiatric
Mental Health Nurses (AGPN) was later added as a division of ISPN. The
combined focus of the divisions within ISPN is the advanced practice
psychiatricmental health nurse (International Society of Psychiatric
Mental Health Nursing, 2014).
THE 2000S
Life in the 2000s
President George W. Bush signed the New Freedom Act in 2001
which focused on insuring that Americans with disabilities, including
serious mental illnesses, had more opportunities for living within mainstream America. The bill included provisions for greater educational access, adequate transportation and employment opportunities. The
mechanisms to improve the status of people with disabilities included
increasing access through development of assistive technology, increasing educational resources to allow persons with a disability to complete
whatever level of education they desired to prepare for future employment, and promoting full access to community life, for example with
improved transportation opportunities. This act also resulted in stimulating the economy as well as improving the lives of persons with disabilities by providing economic investments for necessary technology
and other services (The White House, 2001).
It was on September 11, 2001 that the airplane bombings of the
World Trade Twin Towers, the Pentagon, and an attempt on downtown
Washington D.C. occurred. This was the rst time foreign nationals had
terrorized on American soil (Dates & Events, 2013). It shook the entire
nation and people were anxious about repeat attacks for many months.
The U.S. responded by invading Iraq and later Afghanistan. The Middle
East has continued to be a center of unrest with various countries undergoing revolutions or wars.
We also experienced a serious economic recession during the 2000s
due to the collapsing of many banks, with associated defaults on loans
and mortgages (Wright, 2014). In the 1990s many families seriously
overspent and were unable to cope with high debt when the recession
hit in the 2000s. In addition, many families lost one breadwinner to unemployment who had been counted upon to help pay the bills. Some
families just had to abandon their homes because they could not nancially manage their debt. Many seniors saw their investments, meant to
last a lifetime decimated. Interest rates fell to an all-time low. The economy is slowly recovering (Jakab, 2014; Wright, 2014).
In 2009, Barack Obama was inaugurated as the 44th President. In
2010, he signed into law the Affordable Health Care (ACA) legislation
which had the potential to increased access to health care, included
more preventative services, and helped states fund these programs
with increases to Medicaid. The provisions of the law were enacted
slowly with some provisions not being available until 2015 such as compliance of grandfathered insurance policies with ACA regulations.
Changes in Psychiatric Treatments in 2000-to-2014
Research in 2005 comparing the prevalence of mental disorders in
the 1990s to the 2000s found no difference in the prevalence of mental
disorders, but did nd a 12% increase in treatment of mental disorders
(Kessler et al., 2005). Over half of these treatments were provided in primary care settings. Ironically, it was the ANCC who had curbed the
practice of the PMH CNS/NP in primary care settings in the early 1990s,
as discussed in the previous section. The early 2000s was also a time of
Medicaid reduction, something that disproportionately impacted the
mentally ill (Rowland, Gareld, & Elias, 2003). The duration of hospital admissions were shortened, units were closed and psychiatric nurses were
downsized or moved to other areas of practice (Sabella & Fay-Hillier,
2014). After many years of discussion and planning, the PMHNP exam
went into effect in 2001. This exam limited the practice of the PMHNP
to the provision of psychiatricmental health careprimary care was
now deemed beyond their training (Bjorklund, 2003). What had not
changed was the authority of psychiatric NPs in all states to prescribe
(National Council of State Boards of Nursing, 2014a). CNS's were able
to prescribe in only 39 states (National Council of State Boards of Nursing, 2014b). The confusion between psychiatric CNS and NP roles
and proliferation of APRN credentialing examinations prompted a logical
job analysis by APNA and ANCC in 2005 (Rice et al., 2007). The job analysis found that of the 335 tasks felt to be essential to practice within
6 months of certication for both CNSs and NPs, less than 1% (3
tasks) differed between the roles (Rice et al., 2007). The panel voted
that the same certication exam be administered to both PMH-CNSs
and PMH-NPs.
In 2008 the Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act was signed
into law as sections 511 and 512 of the Tax Extenders and Alternative
Minimum Tax Relief Act of 2008 [Pub. L. No. 110343 (2008)]. This law
prohibits insurers from charging more for mental health than physical
health services if both are in the insurance plan. The law does not require that insurers cover mental illnesses/substance abuse. But if both
are covered in an insurance plan, the coverage must be equitable. Although this was progress toward better care, this law clearly left a
very large loophole for denial of care.
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends movement toward mental health services in general hospitals and the inclusion of
mental health care in the primary care setting (World Health Organization, 2007b). Additionally, the WHO stresses the importance of nurses
in care, decision-making and mental health advocacy and policy
(World Health Organization, 2007a).
The Evolution of Psychiatric Nursing
In 2008 the AACN released a report dening standards for APRN education, practice and regulationthe LACE document (AACN, 2008).
After some discussion, APNA and ISPN both supported the resolution
that the PMH-NP would be the entry-level APRN psychiatric nursing degree in 2010 (Delaney, 2011). Some psychiatric nurses felt
disenfranchised by the LACE document, particularly CNSs who had a
long history of independent practice. The LACE document is to be implemented by 2015 (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2008).
After the LACE document was accepted, ANCC announced that it
would no longer provide the CNS exams for adult and child psychiatric
nursing. Therefore, while current CNSs could maintain their certication
via the continuing education requirements, no new psychiatricmental
health CNSs would be credentialed.
WHERE WE ARE GOING
October 2013 to January, 2014 the Affordable Care Act (ACA) (Pub.L.
No.111-149) began the last phase of implementation, signing up individuals for health care insurance plans if they were uninsured or underinsured. The ACA was designed to extend the Mental Health Parity and
Addiction Equity Act (United States Government, 2013). Despite the
Mental Health Parity Act, insurers commonly placed benet limits on
psychiatric care as well as lifetime maximums on benets. Psychiatric
conditions were also deemed preexisting conditions that could disqualify one from obtaining insurance. The ACA requires insurers to provide
parity of services between medical and mental health/substance abuse
services. Additionally, it prohibits yearly or lifetime limits on any
53
healthcare, including mental health/substance abuse coverage (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2014). It is anticipated the expanded access to mental health and substance abuse services
facilitated by the ACA will increase the demand for PMH NPs and CNSs
(Delaney, 2011; Pearlman, 2013).
As in the 1960s there is once again a call for more PMH nurses to be
trained. However, the training will need to accommodate an insurance
governed environment prevention, treatment and creative efforts leading to recovery (Delaney, 2011). These are the same things mandated in
the 1980 Mental Health Systems Actbut never implemented due to
Congressional defunding.
Although a multitude of medications are now available to assist the
mentally ill, cost continues to be a consideration. Additionally, limited
availability of mental health professionals in network is a barrier to
treatment. The Affordable Care Act includes parity between medical
and mental health services. However, the ACA is couched within a free
market model which allows insurance companies to stipulate for
which providers they will pay. Individuals in rural areas may have substantial difculty nding an in-network mental health provider near
their home. The provision of services in rural areas remains a problem because of the limited number of providers in rural areas. In
some cases, patients may need to drive several hours to receive psychiatric services. This can present serious hardships in terms of work
and transportation.
Children's services particularly suffer from an inadequate supply of
providers educated to work with this population. Mental health problems in youth occur in the same percentages as in adults, aficting approximately 20% of the population (Bagalman & Napili, 2014).
Additionally most of the children who suffer from a mental illness will
continue to deal with that illness throughout their life. Children with
mental illness grow up to be adults with mental illness. In children,
however, the consequences of mental illness can affect normal growth
and development in many areas including poor social development,
missed learning in school which may not be recouped at a later date,
and disruptions in the family, including among siblings. Access to care
can be related to the caregiver's ability to provide health insurance
for the child. Three point four million children had no insurance and
7.6 million were not insured for at least part of the year. Additionally
14.1 million were underinsured. Twenty-nine million children were enrolled in Medicaid while 7 million more were enrolled in the Children's
Health Insurance Program in 2009 (Kogan et al., 2010). Children without mental health insurance were less likely to receive treatment than
those with insurance (DeRigne, Portereld, & Metz, 2009). In 2004,
64% of youth who needed mental health services did not receive them
(Merikangas et al., 2011). A shortage of providers of mental health services for children and the stigma of having a child with mental health
problems contribute to many children not receiving services required
for their mental health problems.
While more individuals may have insurance coverage for mental
health problems due to the Affordable Care Act the lack of availability
of providers may impair the provision of mental health services. However, the integration of mental health services in primary care holds
promise for individuals receiving services sooner with the potential
for interrupting negative behavioral patterns which can develop when
mental health problems are not treated in a timely fashion. For example,
attention decit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) affects about 7% of children and typically becomes apparent in preschool children. ADHD can
be readily treated with a variety of medication. Left untreated, ADHD
can affect cognitive development and learning capacity and can result
in behavioral problems such as oppositional deant disorder (Baker,
Neece, Fenning, Crnic, & Blacker, 2010). With preschool children being
seen by primary care providers for normal childhood care, better integration of mental health services in the primary care ofce will, hopefully, result in earlier identication and treatment of the ADHD, thus
preventing other complications which might otherwise occur. Thus
the new model of integrating psychiatric services into primary care
54
has the potential to improve mental health services for many with earlier intervention and treatment.
Over the last 60 years psychiatric nursing has adapted to changes in
legislation impacting access to care. The early 1960s saw a shortage of
master's prepared psychiatricmental health nurses and the federal
government responded with legislation designed to encourage education of nurses. Many of the nurses trained under that program are
nearing retirement or leaving practice to return to school to pursue a
DNP, further depleting the number of APRN providers in practice. One
percent of nurses possess a doctorate, something the AACN has said all
APRNs should have by 2015 (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2004; HRSA, 2013). As noted by Fontaine and Langston (2011) the
AACN DNP target date of 2015 seems to have been determined outside
of the foreseeable healthcare changes that we are now facing. Psychiatric mental health nursing is among the hardest hit with the LACE changes in certication and, consequently, training requirements (American
Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2008; Delaney, 2011). We do not
know the number of people who will seek mental health care under
the ACA. We do know that as of April 1, 2014, 7 million more people
have access to mental health care (Carney, 2014), and approximately
25% will require mental health care (Reeves et al., 2011). We are not
ready at this point but, hopefully, we can mobilize quickly to increase
the number of psychiatric generalists and APRNs to help provide care
for individuals needing mental health care.
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