Course no; VMD-512

Zoo/wild animal breeding, nutrition, management and health care

NUTRITION
SIGNIFICANCE OF FEEDING WILD ANIMALS
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Feeding wild animals is different under captive conditions and in free

ranging conditions.
It is a controlled activity in case of captive wild animal species unlike
free ranging wherein, the animal by itself attempt to have some
control measures.
Differing feed habits are seen in captive wild animal places due to
multiple species, hence, preliminary knowledge of the feeding
related activities in the concerned wild animal species and a basic
knowledge of nutrition, proper diets etc. is required.
Scientific feeding-strategies will be the basis for scientific
management of wild animal places.
The criteria for evaluating the suitability of a diet for a given wild
species are growth, reproductive success, and longevity.
Present established nutrient requirements for domestic animals can
be used as only guidelines as they promote rapid and efficient gain
and high milk yield or egg production unlike the goals defined for
wild animals in captivity.
Nutrient concentrations, types and amount of foodstuffs, methods of
presentation, and feeding frequencies should be based on the
physical and behavioral attributes of the species.

CLASSIFICATION OF WILD ANIMALS BASED ON FEEDING

BEHAVIOR
Herbivores
They constitute the wide spectrum of different species of wild
animals with anatomical adaptations comprising of symbiotic
microbial population of bacteria, protozoa etc.
The feed resources to these animals have low nutritional values and
are bulky in nature.
Among herbivores, the ones with complex stomach (ruminants)
are the most efficient ones and the roughages and forages are most
efficiently utilized by the species. Microbial fermentation is the
mode of digestion in these species. Example: Gaur, deer, giraffe,
antelopes like blackbuck, buffaloe etc.
Also
pregastric
fermenters
like
kangaroo,
wild
pigs,
hippopotamus etc. and hind gut fermenters like rabbits, guinea
pigs (cecal fermentation) and zebra and wild asses (colon
fermentation) are seen under captive conditions.
General guidelines for feeding herbivores
1. The basic diet of most ungulates and other herbivores should
contain roughage and concentrate pellet /mash. The mash/pellet
should be formulated to complement hay/roughage.
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2. Free water should be provided at all times

3. Hay roughage quality should be carefully evaluated
4. Nutrient level should reflect the need of the age, sex or species
group with highest estimated requirement.
5. Special attention should be paid to level of protein, fibre, vitamin E,
calcium, phosphorus, copper and selenium, since the target level
and actual content in the feed may vary.
6. Deficiencies should not be addressed by top dressed
supplementation, as they can rarely be delivered with any accuracy.
7. When top feed/ browse are used as behavioral stimulation, care
must be taken to limit amount and type in view of the potential for
toxicity. Some herbivores like colobine monkey and red panda
require specialized diet. The development of high fibre formulated
product (such as extrude biscuits) will help over traditional zoo diet.
CARNIVORES
Carnivores are the meat eating animals and require highly digestible
and high quality food resources with nearly all the types of
nutrients.
The various species of this group require most of the times unique
type of nutrition. For example, felids need a dietary requirement for
amino acid taurine and preformed vitamin A and essential fatty
acid arachidonic acid.
General guidelines for feeding of carnivores
1. Commercial canned, frozen or dried diet formulated for domestic
dogs and cats can provide a basis for the diet of many
carnivorous and insectivorous zoo mammals.
2. Prey items such as rats, mice, chick, fish or invertebrate can be
given on a regular basis; also as whole prey is expensive compared
with prepared foods, such items can be restricted to 30% of the
diet dry matter.
3. Effective diet should provide some stimulation to teeth and
gum to prevent gingivitis and oral abscesses.
4. The use of long bones with meat attached is recommended for
prevention of metabolic bone diseases.
5. Rodent prey or small rib bones may be offered once or twice per
week to small carnivores.
6. Insects have low calcium content; hence supplementation with
calcium is essential.
7. When fish is being fed significantly in the ration, thiamin and
vitamin E supplementation is given in controlled amount based
on documented daily feed consumption.
8. All personnel involved in handling, preparing and distributing meat
and fish should follow sanitary methods of food handling. Food items
should be dated on arrival and should be used within prescribed
time.
OMNIVORES

Large group of wild animals belong to this in general. Most of the

rodents, flying fox, sloth, bears, non-human primates, pigs many
species of birds etc. belong to this group.
Carbohydrates become the major nutrient received from the plants,
while moderate amount of protein and fat are received from meat
sources.

General guidelines for omnivores

1. Omnivores of primates and other mammals select food item from a
broad array of plant and animal food in the wild but it is not
necessary that they must be offered a similar array of food in
captivity
2. Due to the wide differences in composition between plants eaten in
the wild, it is difficult to replicate in the natural diet a practical
approach would be to provide a diet that will meet estimated
nutrient requirement while also providing sufficient fiber for normal
digestive function and sufficient diversity to provide behavioral
stimulation.
SIGNIFICANCE OF BALANCED NUTRITION
Longer life span of the animal
Maximal reproduction
Maximal infant survival rate
Appreciable health status
Acquiring of good immune mechanisms
GENERAL NUTRIENTS AND FEED STUFF
Carbohydrates
This is the chief source of energy in case of wild animals.
Ruminants like deer or giraffe or antelope make use of the complex
carbohydrates subsequent to the bacterial actions in the rumen and
the rumen micro flora help the proper digestion of nutrients.
Cereals, grains, roots, tubers and fruits have high carbohydrates.
Fruits are rich in pentoses and hexoses, whereas the tubers and
seeds are rich in glucose.
PROTEINS
Provision of adequate amounts of protein to wild animals especially
to the carnivores is vital.
The proteins comprise the ingredients of internal frame work of cells
esp. the interstitial cells like dentine, osteoid tissue, connective
tissue etc.
Essential amino acids like Arginine, methionine, Threonine, leucine,
lysine etc. are to be given importance during the provision of protein
rich diets.
Protein deficiency may result in retardation of the growth rate,
cessation of lactation in case of nursing animals, impairment of
reproduction, decreased body resistance level etc.

FATS
Fats provide the fat soluble vitamins like A, D, E and K.
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In addition, they provide satiety value in addition to giving

palatability to the feed.
Provision of optimal amounts of fat is a must for the wild animal
species.
Provides concentrated form of stored energy and fat reserves for the
provision of energy during the adverse climatic extremes. Eg.,
elephant seal spends considerable time on land without any access
to food while suckling the pups. In such occasions, fat is the major
nutrient factor that helps the survival of the concerned species.
Similarly, in case of hibernating animals like bears in cool regions it
is the fat that gets accumulated often and is useful as an energy
resource in winter months.
ROUGHAGES
Tree and shrub leaves, grass and legume silages, straw, fodder,
hulls, shells, maize, hay etc. form the roughages.
They are bulky in nature but are poor in energy content and are rich
in fiber.
CONCENTRATES
These are low in fiber but are rich in protein or energy content.
Cereal grains, non-cereal seeds like amaranthus green, grain milling
by-products like wheat and rice bran, beet pulp, citrus pulp,
molasses etc. fall under this category.
Fish meal, dried milk products like skin milk powder, sunflower meal,
cotton seed meal etc. provide more than twenty per cent crude
protein.
MINERAL MIXTURES
Mineral supplements need to be added to the dietary items.
Among minerals, it is the zinc that has effect on the hair growth.
Calcium with phosphorous are also to be given maximum
significance in case of wild animals.
Deficiency of minerals like calcium and phosphorus may lead to
development of bone disorders like rickets, osteodystrophy etc.
Nursing animals need an additional allowance of calcium in their
dietary items.
VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTS
Vitamins like fat soluble ones and water soluble ones are of much
helpful in various metabolic functions occurring in the body.
Care has to be paid in the provision of adequate amounts of
vitamins to the diet of captive wild animals.
The vitamins can be supplied along with the main diet as a special
mixture to rectify feather loss like conditions.
Species like red vented bulbul, bats, guinea pigs, non-human
primates etc. are in need of direct supply of vitamin C because they
lack the enzyme L-gluconolactone oxidase required for the synthesis
of vitamin C.
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WATER
Watering in case of wild animals has to be given more significance.
Generally wild animals prefer water content and even in the wild,
wild animals move to the water holes frequently in every day.
However, certain species may not take water much like blackbucks.
The water requirement may be met by water content of food itself
or through the oxidation of organic constituents that produces
metabolic water.
High moisture diets are generally preferred by the wild animals like
non-human primates.
Wild ruminants drink water either in the late evening or early
morning.
Camels have capacity to take more water at a time.
Wild animals like felids require the provision of water ad libitum.
FEEDING OF NEO NATAL CALF

Identify the signs of hungry status

Frequent making of sound
When hungry, the calf attempts to suckle the tip of the finger kept
near the mouth.
When stomach is full, the calf tends to go for sleep with snoring
sounds that are well audible.
Mode of feeding
Large sized enema or a big-sized bottle like container with tube
may be used and approximately 10% of the body weight may be
taken as a rough estimate of feed requirement.
Regular calf nipples attached to bottles of adequate volume or
buckets can be used for the orphaned elephant calf.
Elephant calf may be taught to drink on own. This may require a tub
with milk. Dip the trunk in the milk of tub and it may thus get
accustomed to suck the milk through the trunk and place it in
mouth.
Time of feeding
Increase the frequencies of feeding in case of calf unlike the adult
elephant and in the beginning feeding is to be done in day and
night.
When the calf reaches 2 or 3 months of age, night feedings may be
gradually stopped.
When the calf is 9 months old, 4 feedings is enough per day.
Amount of feeding
The elephant calf consumes 1.5 to 2 liters of diluted milk at a time
in one to two hours and 12 to 16 liters may be needed in a day, in
general.
Try to leave them little hungry.
Over feeding is harmful than slight under feeding of calf
Types of Feed
Protective immuno-globulins are given soon after the birth and inorder to establish the calfs immune status.
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Older calves are given immuno-globulins by subcutaneous

administration as they are not well absorbed via oral route.
The volume of the colostrum consumed by a newborn elephant
during the first 24 to 48 hours of life is approximately 2 to 10 liters
Tender coconut water may be given frequently to quench the thirst
Coconut oil is the nearest artificial replacer to the fat of the
elephants milk
COMPOSITION OF MILK OF ELEPHANT

Milk

Protein(%)

Fat(%)

Carbohydrate(%)

Solids(%)

Fiber (%)

Elephants milk

19.9

0.63-6.2

4.0-8.36

8.27-17.3

Artificial feed formulas

Introduce in a gradual manner.
Monitor for signs of indigestion if any.
ITEM

Protein
(%)
1.7

Fat (%)

Carbohydra
te(%)
8.0

Solids(%)

Fiber(%)

Rice-based
1.5
12.4
0.04
formula for
elephant calf
Elephant calf under artificial feed formula should always gain a
minimum of 0.5 kg body weight per day (recordings are available
even with a weight gain of about 1.5 kg per day for extended
periods of time).
Weigh
t

Energy requirement
per day

Rice based formula required

per day

100 kg

6000-8000 kcal

400-550 oz

200 kg

16,000-20,000 kcal

1100-1333 oz

Artificial feed- formula intolerance

Monitor the signs of ill health on introduction of the new artificial
feed formula
Rule out pathogen or intolerance of artificial feeding formula
If intolerance is suspected due to the formula, discontinue the
artificial feed formula
If above formula is discontinued, feed water or 5 to 10 per cent
dextrose until the elimination of the most of the old feed formula
and subsequent introduction of a new artificial feed formula.

Nutrition in Wild Birds

Avian diets for many species are extrapolated from the Nutrient
Requirements of Poultry published by the NRC.
Nutrition in Psittacines
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1. The pet bird population consists largely of psittacine species,

primarily passerines and other genera such as toucans.
2. Psittacines eat plant-based diet and can be classified overall as
florivores.
3. The diet includes fruit, nectar, seeds, or a combinationvaries by
species.
4. Some species ingest insects or carrion.
5. Grit, while necessary for some passerines and columbiformes, it is
not needed by psittacines.
6. If seeds are consumed by psittacines, they are hulled before
ingestion.
7. Strictly seed diets, regardless of supplementation, are suboptimal
for psittacine species. Deficiencies of vitamin A, protein (the amino
acids lysine and methionine in particular), calcium, and other
nutrients occur in most psittacine species on seed-based diets.
Protein
1. The amino acid deficiencies noted in psittacine birds on seed-based
and table-food diets are lysine and methionine.
2. Increased fiber in diet causes increased fecal protein loss.
3. Birds on low-fiber, and readily digestible diets (such as nectarfeeding lories and lorikeets) do well on diets with digestible protein
levels as low as 35%.
4. Adult maintenance levels of protein for budgerigars and cockatiels is
(712%) and for African Grey parrots (1015%).
5. Protein requirements for growth and for egg-laying hens are higher
than maintenance levels in all birds.
6. Periods of heavy molt increase protein requirements, particularly
sulfur-containing amino acid cysteine.
7. Excessively high dietary protein cause renal insufficiency and gout
in birds with pre-existing renal impairment or a genetic
predisposition to gout.
8. Cockatiels with no pre-existing renal disease can tolerate extremely
high dietary protein levels (up to 70%) with no renal impairment.
9. Sudden increases in dietary protein overload the kidneys, producing
hyperuricemia and visceral gout.
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Fat
Dietary fat provides essential fatty acids, energy, and hormone
precursors.
It contributes to egg yolk formation and aids in absorption of fatsoluble vitamins.
Excess leads to obesity, metabolic diseases, cardiac disease, and
atherosclerosis.
Psittacines requirement of fat for reproduction is lower than those in
poultry, because the psittacines' altricial (naked and blind and
dependent on parents for food) young do not require the same
quantity of fatty acids as do the precocial (of hatchlings; covered
with down and having eyes open; capable of leaving the nest within
a few days) young of chickens.
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1.
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Vitamins
Vitamin A and Carotenoids
Vitamin A necessary for vision, reproduction, immunologic integrity,
and growth and for maintenance of epithelial cells in respiratory, GI,
and renal tissues.
Deficiency is noted in psittacines on all-seed diets.
Diets containing levels of vitamin A in excess of 10,000 U/kg of feed
(has shown to be toxic in cockatiels).
High levels of vitamin A in lory (Small brightly colored Australasian
parrots having a brush-tipped tongue for feeding on nectar and soft
fruits ) and lorikeet (Any of various small lories) have been linked
to vitamin E deficiency, decreased fertility, and an increased
incidence of iron storage disease.
Carotenoids in birds are precursors for the body's formation of
vitamin A and also act as antioxidants and are necessary in some
species (such as canaries and flamingos) for feather pigmentation.

Vitamin D
1. The primary function of vitamin D is to increase absorption of
calcium and phosphorus. Vitamin D can be obtained either directly
from the diet or from UV light exposure. Vitamin D is not a naturally
occurring dietary element for birdstheir natural source of vitamin
D is sunlight.
2. In the absence of natural sunlight, the minimum oral vitamin D
requirement for African Greys is comparable to commercially raised
poultry (200 IU/kg)
3. Some UV light is critical in this species for optimal activation of
vitamin D3.
4. African Greys require consistent UV exposure to maintain adequate
vitamin D3 and, therefore, calcium levels.
5. Pet birds are to be exposed to direct sunlight (with appropriate
caution regarding excessive heat) or use UV bulbs.
6. Toxicity is caused by excessive supplementation. Some psittacine
species like macaws, are sensitive to excessive dietary vitamin D,
and develop soft-tissue calcification and renal failure.
7. Toxic levels for psittacines have not been established, but levels that
may be toxic for poultry begin at 2,800 IU/kg of feed.
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3.
4.

Vitamin E
Clinical signs of vitamin E deficiency include weakness and inability
to stand or hold wings in normal posture.
Severe generalized myopathy with muscle atrophy, degeneration
and necrosis, and replacement with fibrous connective tissue can
occur with chronic pronounced vitamin E deficiency.
Prior supplementation with 25100 IU vitamin E/kg has been
proposed before feeding the diet.
Over supplementation (50010,500 IU vitamin E/kg food) may result
in decreased growth and coagulation disorders, possibly from
creating vitamin K deficiency rather than directly from vitamin E
toxicity.
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1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

Nutrition in Passerines
The order Passeriformes contains >5,000 species of birds and
includes frugivorous, carnivorous, insectivorous, and granivorous
species.
Most passerines maintained as pets (finches and canaries) fed
primarily seed and are considered florivorous to granivorous.
Commercial seed mixtures for canaries often contain a mixture of
canary, rape, niger, hemp, linseed, and oats. Most of these
commercially available seed mixtures are deficient in numerous
vitamins and amino acids. The fat soluble vitamins A, D 3, E, and K
are generally low, the calcium:phosphorus ratio is poor, and the
amino acids lysine and methionine are insufficient.
Egg food (hard-boiled egg based soft food with added vitamins and
minerals) is fed by the breeders during the reproductive season,
with soaked seed added to increase acceptance. Organic pellets or
pellet-based mash, which contains balanced nutrients, are offered
by many breeders as a nutritional alternative.
Soluble grit (ie, oyster shell, cuttlebone) should be provided to
canaries and finches. Sprouts, fruits, and vegetables are
psychologically stimulating and enhance breeding in these
passerines.
Plumage colors in canaries partially depend on the pigments in the
diet. For example, red-colored canaries are fed canthaxanthins
before breeding season. Carotenoids vary in their bioavailability,
and there are species differences in the types of carotenoids that
are absorbed and metabolized.

Nutrition in Gallinaceous Birds

1. Many gallinaceous birds are omnivorous.
2. Commercial diets for domestic fowl, domestic turkeys, and Japanese
quail are available.
3. During nonbreeding periods, a maintenance diet containing <20%
CP can be offered 23 times daily.
4. During breeding season, food should be offered free choice and
contain a higher protein content (2025% crude protein).
5. Most quail are primarily seed-eaters and are easy to feed.
6. Monensin is toxic for guinea fowl. All gallinaceous birds should have
access to grit.
7. Poultry pellets generally contain adequate calcium and vitamins,
and additional supplementation should be done only when a
deficiency exists.
Nutrition in Columbiformes
1. Most pigeons are either granivorous or frugivorous, with some
invertebrates also consumed.
2. Columbiform parents feed their young with crop milk, produced from
desquamated epithelial cells and glandular secretions of the crop.
3. Crop milk is rich in fat and protein and nearly devoid of
carbohydrates.
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4. Seed-eating pigeons switch rapidly from crop milk production to

feeding their young mostly regurgitated seed.
5. Frugivorous pigeon squabs (at least of the white-crowned pigeon,
Columba leucocephala) rely on crop milk for a longer period, which
increases the interval between clutches.
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2.
3.
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5.
6.
7.
8.

Nutrition in Raptors
Most medium to large raptors consume whole vertebrate prey.
Commonly feeds are mice, rats, young chickens, quail, and pigeons.
Kestrels generally consume insects.
Fish are natural diet of piscivorous raptors such as ospreys (Large
harmless hawk found worldwide that feeds on fish and builds a
bulky nest often occupied for years) and sea eagles.
If fish or day-old chicks are fed, thiamine supplementation (30
mg/kg feed) twice weekly on an average is recommended.
Small raptors can eat 2025% of their body wt/day; larger raptor
species consume considerably less (as little as 5%).
Captive raptors should be weighed regularly, and food volume
adjusted as indicated above.
On organ meat-based diet, calcium supplementation at the rate of
10 g calcium carbonate/kg fresh meat should be added.

Nutrition in Piscivorous Birds

1. Penguins, pelicans and other fish-eating species in the wild feed
primarily on fish, crustaceans, and squid. These food sources vary
widely in their fatty acid, vitamin, and carbohydrate contents.
2. Most important aspect of feeding piscivorous birds is fish quality.
3. Diets should contain several fish species. Captive seabirds develop
preferences for a particular fish if fed exclusively for prolonged
periods, which lead to deficiencies.
4. Supplements added to captive penguins include salt, fatty acids,
and vitamins A, D, and E which depend on the quality and content of
the primary diet.
5. Dietary salt (NaCl; 0.51 g salt/bird/day) is often to be provided to
birds in freshwater exhibits to help maintain proper functioning of
the salt glands.
6. Supplemental essential fatty acids are recommended during
reproduction and molting when smelt is the primary diet.
Thiamine
1. Process of thawing the fish in running water depletes water-soluble
vitamins in them in addition many fish have thiaminase, leading to
thiamine (B1) deficiency.
2. Supplementation of thiamine is recommended at 2530 mg/kg fish,
daily or at least twice weekly.
Vitamin E
1. Most fish are deficient in vitamin E.
2. Supplementation with 25100 IU vitamin E/kg fish is recommended.
Nutrition in Waterfowl
1. The order Anseriformes includes ducks, geese, and swans.
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2. Waterfowl vary from strictly herbivorous (swans, most geese, most

ducks) to highly piscivorous (marine ducks, mergansers).
3. Protein and multiple vitamin deficiencies lead to poor plumage,
swollen joints, and pododermatitis.
4. Young waterfowl should be fed with higher fat and protein content
diets.
5. Excessively rapid growth of large waterfowl must be avoided to
prevent bone and joint deformities, such as angel wing and perosis.
Nutrition in Ratites
1. Ratites are flightless birds and do not require the high-energy diets
of flighted birds.
2. Ostriches, rheas and emus consume low-quality roughage in
nature, which is fermented in their intestinal tract.
3. The nutritional requirements of juveniles are much higher in protein
and calcium than those of adults.
4. Breeders have even higher calcium requirements
5. Ratite production for meat and leather requires specialized diet to
maximize growth and minimize cost. Bringing an animal to market
in minimal time is financially advantageous, but excessively rapid
growth can lead to angular deformities of the legs.
6. Cassowaries are rainforest ratites and are primarily frugivorous.
Adult birds consume about 35 kg of food/day. Diets fed in zoos
include fruits and vegetables such as bananas, apples, tomatoes,
papaya, watermelon, grapes, mangoes, plums, nectarines, cherries,
kiwi fruit, figs, sweet potatoes, and carrots. These are supplemented
with animal protein (eg, day-old chicks, mice, dry dog food).
Nutritional Requirements for Ratite Production
Estimated
Crude
Calcium
Diet
Age (mo)
Body
Fiber (%)
Protein (%) (%)
Weight (kg)
Pre-starter 02
0.810.5
25
1.21.5
Starter
24
1128
21.5
1.21.5
>4
Grower
46
2952
17
1.21.5
>4
Finisher
610
5390
13.5
0.91.0
Post-finisher 1020
91110
8.5
0.91.0
Maintenanc
Mature
8.0
0.91.0
6
e
Breeder
Laying
14
2.02.5
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Nutrition in Crocodilians
1. Captive alligators and crocodiles are usually fed a combination of rodents,
poultry, fish, and meat-based diets. A varied diet is recommended.
2. Diets consisting primarily of fish should include 3 different species of
fish and should be supplemented with 2530 mg of thiamine and 100 IU
vitamin E/kg of fish, as fed.
3. Signs of vitamin E deficiency (eg, steatitis) have been reported in
crocodilians fed fish inadequately supplemented with vitamin E.
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4. Alligators can digest some carbohydrate; however, the total carbohydrate

in the diet should not exceed 20%.
Nutrition in Snakes
1. Snakes feed almost exclusively on vertebrate or invertebrate prey. A few
species are specialized egg feeders.
2. Most boids, pythons, vipers, colubrids, crotalids, and elapids are fed
mouse pups, mice, chicks, hamsters, rats, guinea pigs, chickens, ducks, or
rabbits.
3. Frozen, thawed preys are usually used in zoos. Prey should not be fed
cold, thawing under refrigeration is recommended. After thawing, prey
should be fed at room temperature, or preferably warmer. Some species
(eg, king cobra, hognose snake, garter snake) feed primarily on other
poikilotherms in the wild. Some of these species can be switched, at least
in part, to homoeothermic prey, which are more available and less
expensive.
4. Minced prey can be fed in agar, gel, or in sausage form. Advantages
include the ability to formulate and feed a nutritionally complete diet, to
add a balanced vitamin and mineral mixture, and, if needed, to add
antibiotics or coccidiostats.
5. The scent of preferred foods can be rubbed on the new item.
Alternatively, the preferred foods can be inserted into, or attached to, the
new food. Anoles, yellow rat snakes, frogs, and smelt, depending on
natural feeding habits, can be fed, when homeotherms are not accepted.
6. Prey size is usually proportional to snake size and should not be much
larger in diameter than the snake's head.
7. Snakes that are routinely handled can be fed in a separate tank to reduce
biting.
8. To reduce the chance of regurgitation, snakes should not be handled for 3
days after feeding.
9. Most species should be fed every 12 wk. Some large, less active snakes
may typically go 6 wk between feedings.
10.
Force-feeding should be used only if necessary. Animals can be
force-fed whole prey lubricated with egg white by gently inserting the
food a few inches down the throat using forceps. Tube feeding is also
possible using ground (homogenized) prey.
Nutrition in Turtles
1. Freshwater turtles in the wild eat primarily animal matter and some plant
material. Some species may be carnivorous when young and shift to
omnivorous or herbivorous feeding patterns as adults.
2. Most aquatic turtles cannot be considered as strict carnivores, because
they consume at least some plant material. Commercially available turtle
feeds are extruded or pelleted diets and are typically 3050% protein.
3. Omnivorous species would benefit from the addition of some fruits or
vegetables.
Nutrition in Tortoises
1. Tortoises are herbivorous and must consume plant material to maintain
healthy gut physiology. Microbial fermentation of plant fiber can be a
significant source of nutrients for tortoises.
2. Diets of tortoises in the wild often contain >15% protein (dry-matter
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basis) in plant materials consumed.

3. Small and large tortoises can be maintained on appropriately formulated,
extruded, pelleted, or coarsely ground tortoise diets.
4. Larger tortoises, such as Aldabra or Galapagos tortoises, can consume
alfalfa hay along with a complete pelleted food formulated for tortoises or
exotic herbivores. Hay should be cut short as it is not possible for these
tortoises to chew long hay due to mouth shape.
5. A vegetable mix consisting of broccoli, green beans, leafy greens (eg,
romaine, green leaf lettuce, endive) kale, and shredded carrots may be
fed as a supplement to a formulated tortoise diet. Such mixes contain
adequate protein, calcium, and micro-nutrients; only limited vitamin and
mineral supplements should be added.
6. Cultivated fruits are poor source of protein, calcium, and micronutrients; if
fed in significant amounts, vitamins and minerals should be added apart
from oyster shell and pea gravel as mining activity has been seen in
free-ranging animals.
7. Shell deformities in tortoises may be the result of rapid growth associated
with the consumption of high-protein diets or due to humidity and
temperature.
Nutrition in Lizards
1. The feeding patterns of lizards are extremely diverse. Lizards may be
insectivorous (eg, day and leopard gecko, whiptail lizard, anole,
chameleon), carnivorous (eg, varanids such as monitor lizard, Gila
monster, Mexican beaded lizard), omnivorous (eg, many iguanid and
agamid species), or herbivorous (eg, iguanid species, prehensile-tailed
skink).
2. Insectivorous lizards in captivity are usually fed diets of mealworm larvae
or crickets. Because calcium concentrations in these, and in most insects,
are extremely low (0.030.3% calcium with 0.80.9% phosphorus), the
inverse calcium: phosphorus ratio must be corrected before the insects
are fed to lizards. A diet with a balanced vitamin and mineral mixture and
containing 12% calcium as calcium carbonate can be fed to crickets or
mealworm larvae 2 days before the insect is fed to the lizard. However,
this diet should not be used to maintain a cricket colony. Within 2 days of
feeding the high-calcium diet, the gut of the insect is filled with calcium,
raising the calcium concentration of the insect to ~0.80.9% and resulting
in calcium: phosphorus ratio of ~1.2:1. A satisfactory high-calcium diet for
crickets can be inexpensively made by using 29% wheat middlings (Any
commodity of intermediate quality or size (especially when coarse
particles of ground wheat are mixed with bran), 10% corn meal, 40%
ground dry cat or dog food, and 21% ground oyster shell or calcium
carbonate. Larger insectivorous lizards may also consume mouse pups
and earthworms.
3. Carnivorous lizards may be offered mouse or rat pups, adult mice and
rats, chickens, and eggs. The size of prey should be appropriate for the
lizard species.
4. Omnivorous lizards are usually fed a combination of foods including
insects, vertebrate prey, and a chopped vegetable mixture. Most lizards
should be fed daily (juveniles and small species) or at least every other
day. Large carnivorous species should be fed 12 times/wk.
13

5. Herbivorous lizards are adapted to ferment plant fiber in enlarged

hindguts. The microbes in the cecum and colon digest plant fiber that the
lizard could not otherwise use. As with tortoises, herbivorous lizards
should be fed plant-based diets to assure healthy gut function. The use of
insects, vertebrate prey, or diets high in fruits is not advised, because
these feeds are low in fiber and are inappropriate for herbivores. Diets for
lizards may be commercial preparations formulated for herbivorous
reptiles, or vegetable mixes.

Some recommended Nutrients and their concentrations for

Reptiles
Concentrationa
Carnivorous
Omnivorous
Nutrientb
Reptiles
Reptiles
c
Crude protein
3050%
2025%
Linoleic acidd
1.0%
1.0%
Calcium
0.81.1%
1.01.5%
Phosphorus
0.50.9%
0.60.9%
5,00010,000
Vitamin A
15,000 IU/kg
IU/kg
Cholecalciferol (vitamin
5001,000 IU/kg
5001,000 IU/kg
D3)
Vitamin Eh
200 IU/kg
200 IU/kg
a

Nutrient concentrations are recommended minimums for carnivorous reptiles

and averages for omnivorous reptiles.
b
Nutrient levels expressed on a dry-matter basis.
c
Taurine requirements have not been determined for reptiles (the requirement for
cats is 400500 mg taurine/kg dry diet).
d
A dietary source of arachidonic acid at 200 mg/kg dry diet may be necessary.
h
300 IU/kg dry matter is advisable if the diet is high in fat, especially unsaturated
fat.

1.
2.

3.

4.

Nutrition in Sub ungulates and Ungulates

Hay comprises the bulk of the diet for most ungulates in captivity
and should be available for most of the day rather than fed at
intervals as meals.
As a general rule, a leafy legume hay, eg, alfalfa, should be used for
those species that are primarily browsers (eg, Giraffidae,
Cervidae, sitatunga, bongo, duiker, tapir), whereas a goodquality grass hay is satisfactory for most grazers or bulk feeders (eg,
zebra, elephant, bison, buffalo, wildebeest, camel).
Legume hays are higher in nitrogen and calcium and are more
digestible than grass hays. Hay should be leafy and green, free of
mold, dirt, excess weeds, and other foreign matter, and should not
be overmature.
Low levels of calcium can cause poor bone calcification and also
affect the calcium level in the blood, which can cause birth
problems.
14

5. Precautions should be taken if feeding silage products. If the silage

is not processed or stored properly or contaminated by animal or
meat products, it may contain fungi or bacteria (eg, Clostridium
botulinum) that can produce lethal toxins.
6. In addition to hay, a pelleted diet containing protein, minerals, and
vitamins in concentrations adequate to meet the needs of domestic
species and those wild species for which data is available can be
offered.
7. Animals being fed as a group rather than as individuals, it is
preferable to use a pelleted diet that is not excessively high in
digestible energy (~3 kcal DE/g dry matter is suggested) and which
contains sufficient fiber to support proper rumen or colon function.
This precaution reduces the possibility of untoward effects (eg,
rumen acidosis, colic, obesity) caused by overconsumption of
concentrates.
8. A specialized pellet with high amounts of neutral detergent fiber
(NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) is recommended for browsers,
and a pellet with moderate amounts of NDF and ADF is
recommended for grazers. The intermediate feeding animals should
get an equal mix of the browser and grazer pellets. Preferably, the
diet of browsers should consist of equal parts of browser pellets,
good palatable alfalfa, and browse. Diets for grazers and browsers
should contain high amounts of vitamin E and biotin to prevent
muscle dystrophy and hoof problems.
9. A in. (~13 mm) pellet or cube size helps minimize waste when fed
to larger perissodactyls and subungulates.
10.
Commercial cattle products should not be fed to zoo
herbivores, because vitamin E levels are very low and some
products may contain nonprotein nitrogen sources such as urea that
are not tolerated by hindgut-fermenting species (eg, equids). Also,
the amount of easily digestible energy may be high, leading to
obesity. Tapirs should get a mixture of grazer and browser pellets
combined with some greens, alfalfa, and browse.
11.
As a general rule, most large ungulates (>250 kg) consume
1.52% of their weight in dry matter daily. Smaller species (<250
kg) generally consume 24%. Offering a pelleted diet at 1030% of
the dry-matter intake is adequate for most grazers if good-quality
hay is fed. The amount of minerals and vitamins should be balanced
in the pellets in such a way that the total diet (including greens,
browse, and hay) should be adequate. When hay quality declines, or
for more delicate species, the percentage of high-fiber pellets
should be increased.
12.
Hay should be fed from a rack rather than off the ground for
most species (elephants are an exception). Hay racks should be
located at eye level for tall browsers such as giraffes and gerenuks.
13.
Pellets can be offered from a covered trough or rubber feed
pans. If possible, animals should be fed separately to ensure that
each individual receives a similar amount of food. If feeding
separately is not possible, at least 2 widely separated feeding
stations may be necessary to reduce conflict and to ensure that
subordinate animals obtain their share of food.
15

14.
In addition to hay and pelleted diet, assorted fruits and
vegetables often are fed to exotic ungulates. For most species,
these items usually are not necessary except as an occasional treat;
the amount should be limited to ~1520% of the total diet. The
exception might be for those species that regularly feed on fruits
and succulents in the wild. It may be advisable to include some
greens and vegetables (~0.5 kg/100 kg body wt) in the diet of
species such as okapi, duikers, dik diks, bongo, and tapirs.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7.

Nutrition in Bats
Captive insectivorous bats frequently are fed diets consisting
primarily of mealworms apart from crickets, fruit flies, blowfly
larvae, and other insects.
Diets containing / based on insects diets are low in calcium.
Calcium and vitamin supplements can be dusted on the insects just
before feeding, and vitamin drops can be added to drinking water.
Gels containing water and a calcium solution can also be fed.
Suitable mealworm diet can be formulated using 35% wheat
middlings, 35% ground dry dog or cat food, and 30% ground calcium
carbonate.
Insectivorous bats must be fed frequently by hand when flying
insects are not available. Some bats can be trained to accept insects
from a food dish by being placed directly on the live food.
Many of the insectivorous bats can be maintained successfully in
captivity using artificial liquid or solid diets. Liquid diet can be
placed in shallow plastic trays positioned near wire or branches for
the bats to land on and hang from while feeding. Leftover liquid diet
should be replaced daily.
Solid diets usually include bananas as the major ingredient.
Additional ingredients frequently offered include papaya, apple,
pear, melon, grape, and cooked carrot and sweet potato.

Nutrition in Zoo Carnivores:

Exotic
felids,
canids,
mustelids,
viverrids,
procyonidae,
hyaenidae, ursidae
Feeding:
1. Most zoos use nutritionally complete commercial diets for feeding
carnivores, rather than attempting to prepare diets in-house. In
some whole or a part of a carcass (eg, of buffalo) may regularly be
fed. Other prey animals, such as rabbit and chicken, are also
regularly offered.
2. A supplement containing a minimum calcium, vitamin A, iodine,
taurine, and some B vitamins should be added to the meat diet.
3. Feeding a complete mixed diet greatly reduces the incidence of
nutritional problems in captive exotic carnivores; however, such a
diet regularly causes stool problems
4. Exotic feline diets are usually higher in fat, protein, and vitamin A
than canine diets. A diet suitable for most cat species contains 45
50% protein, 3035% fat, 34% crude fiber, 1.21.5% calcium, 1
1.2% phosphorus, and 20,00040,000 IU of vitamin A/kg diet (drymatter basis).
16

5. Exotic cats, like domestic cats, cannot convert carotene to vitamin

A, tryptophan to niacin, and linoleic acid to arachidonic acid. They
also cannot synthesize adequate taurine (a taurine deficiency has
been reported in leopards) and would be susceptible to ammonia
toxicity if fed an arginine-deficient diet. Therefore, these nutrients
should be considered dietary essentials for all felids.
6. Beef shank bones for large cat species; oxtails, rib bones, or whole
rodents for smaller cats. Mice, rats, and chicks for diets of smaller
cats. Rodents, poultry, fish, and organ and chunk muscle meats can
be offered as occasional treat items to administer medication or to
stimulate appetite.
7. Canids can be fed frozen, canned, or dry canine diets. Bones should
be included in the diet when soft foods are fed. Canids can be fed
meat, with the right amount of vitamins and minerals added, varied
with small prey animals like rats, mice, rabbits, and chicken.
8. Small amounts of fruits and vegetables can be included in the diets
of foxes and coyotes.
9. Most mustelids and viverrids do well on a meat-based diet
supplemented with vitamins and minerals. Many species accept
small amounts of fruits, vegetables, and cooked egg. Mice, fish, and
chicks can be offered as occasional treat items and to stimulate
appetite and activity. Rib bones can be given twice weekly to
promote dental health. Canned foods may be more palatable but are
not recommended as a base diet, because ferrets may not be able
to eat enough to meet their needs for calories and protein
10.
Procyonids can be fed diets similar to those offered to small
canids, or an adequate meat diet can be fed. Feeding dry dog food
along with apple, banana, and carrot is satisfactory for raccoons and
helps minimize obesity. The herbivorous food habits of the giant
panda require large amounts of bamboo supplemented with highfiber diet.
11.
Bears can be fed meat supplemented with vitamins and
minerals, frozen canine diet, dry dog food, fish, and commercial
omnivore biscuits. Polar and Kodiak bears do well on a diet of 25%
frozen canine diet, 25% fish (eg, smelt), 15% dry dog food, 15%
omnivore biscuits, 10% bread, and 10% apples. Bananas and green
vegetables can be included in the diet sloth, spectacled, and black
bears. Food intake of captive bears varies widely with the season.
Intakes generally are maximal during summer and early fall and
minimal during winter. It is advisable to feed extra cod oil to polar
bears before their hibernation starts.
Freshwater Otter Diet
Ground horse or buffaloe meat
Ground beef heart
Ground dry cat food
Beet pulp
Mirra Coat
Calcium carbonate
Poultry fat
Water

Percent (%)
38
20
13
2.9
1.9
0.8
4.9
16.9
17

Lactose
0.04
Yogurt
0.72
Mineral-vitamin mix
0.84
All ingredients should be combined in a large mixer, divided into daily
portions, and frozen. Lactose for lactobacilli can be added in yogurt to
help maintain freshness. Lactose and yogurt are optional
Nutrition in Marine Mammals

Fish are the primary food of captive marine mammals except for the
herbivorous sirenians (sea cow). The purchase and subsequent proper
storage and handling of high-quality fish are the most important aspects
of feeding cetaceans (whales; dolphins; porpoises; narwhals) and
pinnipeds (seals, walrus, sea lions).
1. The regular diet of any marine mammal should consist of 2 fish
species to help ensure a balanced diet.
2. Thiamine should be added (at 25 mg/kg fish, as fed daily) to any
marine mammal feeding program because of the possibility of
thiamine destruction by thiaminases that are found in several fish
species.
3. Supplemental vitamin E helps compensate for oxidative destruction
of natural vitamin E in fish during storage and helps protect against
the deleterious effects of peroxides formed in stored fish.
4. Salt (NaCl) supplementation to pinnipeds maintained in freshwater
is sometimes recommended to prevent hyponatremia; 3 g salt/kg
fish should be adequate.
5. Food intake in marine mammals varies considerably, depending on
fat content of fish, water temperature, and activity. Performing
Atlantic bottlenose dolphins generally eat 710 kg fish/day. Adult
seals and sea lions consume ~58% of their body wt in fish/day.
6. Captive sirenians can be maintained on a diet of lettuce, cabbage,
alfalfa, and aquatic plants (eg, water hyacinth).
Nutrition in Marsupials
Didelphid marsupials, Dasyurids, Bandicoots, Wombats and the larger
macropod marsupials
Diets:
1. Green vegetables, carrot, sweet potato, apple, and banana can be
fed to all herbivorous and omnivorous marsupials.
2. For herbivores, greens should be added in limited amounts; these
marsupials should be fed good-quality hay.
3. To prevent lumpy jaw, the diet of marsupials should contain at least
200 mg vitamin E and 0.2 mg selenium/kg dry matter.
4. Captive koalas can be fed successfully only on leaves of certain
species of eucalyptus.
Nutrition in Primates
1. Processed products should comprise 50% of the dry-matter intake of
most species; fruits and treat items should comprise 25%. Green
vegetables and browse should be at least 25% of the diet,
depending on the species.
18

2. High-quality protein diets with (2025% crude protein) should be fed

to New World primates.
3. Old World species such as gibbons, orangutans, chimpanzees, and
gorillas need high-fiber products.
4. Cultivated fruits should be used sparingly for great apes and leafeating species because, compared with cultivated green vegetables,
they have high levels of sugars and simple carbohydrates and are
low in protein and calcium.
5. Other items commonly included in the diets are hard-boiled egg (if
cholesterol is not a concern), yogurt, and bread. Grapes, raisins,
peanuts, crickets, and mealworms are treat items fed 2 or 3 times a
week at the most, not every day. The energy amount of these
enrichment items should not exceed 510% of the energy consumed
by the animal.
6. Sunflower seeds, instant rice, cracked corn, and shredded coconut
can be scattered around the exhibit or holding areas to promote
foraging activity. The amount of energy used for these enrichment
feeds should not exceed 510% of planned dietary energy. Hay
should be provided for nesting materials and diversion, and it can
act as a foraging substrate.
7. Many zoos offer meat to great apes; although meat is relished it is
not necessary if the diet is properly balanced. Because of
hypercholesterolemia seen in captive gorillas, feeding of meat is
contraindicated.
8. For most primates, meals should be offered at least twice daily.
Smaller species even more frequent feedings.
9. New World primates use vitamin D2 poorly. It is particularly
important that these species receive an adequate source of
stabilized vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) in their diet if they are not
exposed daily to direct sunlight.
10.
Marmosets require up to 4 times the amount of vitamin D 3
required by other New World primates. In noncommercial mixtures
for smaller primates (mixtures of cut apples, bananas, and cereal
products with vitamins and minerals added) vitamin D 3 should be
included; however, care should be taken to prevent vitamin D
toxicity.
11.
Several cases of rickets in some Old World species at weaning
have been reported due to replacement outdoor primate exhibits
with more naturalistic, but indoor, exhibits. While most free-ranging
primate species probably satisfy their requirement for vitamin D by
exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) from sunlight, captive animals rely
entirely on a dietary source. Infants at weaning are at risk because
milk levels of vitamin D are low, and many foods the young begin to
eat are not fortified with this vitamin.
12.
All primates require a source of vitamin C as the amount of
vitamin C consumed via green vegetables, oranges, multiple
vitamins, chocolate, fruit juice, or fruit-juice powders may not be
sufficient.
13.
Members of the subfamily Colobinae are perhaps the greatest
challenge in proper feeding of captive primates. Pregastric
fermentation, similar to that in ruminants, occurs in the complex
19

stomach of these species. In the wild, leaves form a major part of

the diet of most colobines (the more frugivorous red colobus is an
exception). Natural diets are high in fiber, and animals spend much
time foraging. Also considerable percentage of colobus monkeys are
sensitive to starch and gluten.
14.
Preferably gluten-free, high-fiber diets with (2550% neutral
detergent fiber and up to 1535% acid detergent fiber) are
recommended for feeding captive colobines. A diet consisting of
40% of a palatable high-fiber biscuit and 60% green vegetables and
fresh browse is recommended for most colobines. Adding apple
sauce can increase palatability of the diet. In colobines, dietary
changes always should be made gradually to allow their gastric
micro flora time to adapt.
Some of the nutrient requirements
concentrations of Nonhuman Primates
Nutrient
Concentration
Crude protein
1522%
Essential -3 fatty acids
0.5%
Essential -6 fatty acids
2%
Neutral detergent fiber
1030%
Acid detergent fiber
515%
Calcium
0.8%
Total phosphorus
0.6%
Nonphytate phosphorus
0.4%
Vitamin A
8,000 IU/kg
Vitamin D3
2,500 IU/kg

20