Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
5-1982
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DAVID A. ROBILLARD
Department of .9!rcliitecture and Vr6an p(anning
Vniversity of 'Wisconsin, :Mifwaukf.e
.9L thesis submitted in partial
fujif[ment of tlie requirements for
the tfegree of :Master of .9!rcliitecture
:May,1982
PUBLICATIONS
IN ARCHITECTURE
Milwaukee, WI
53201
Report R84-7
Additional copies of this report are available for current prices
by writing to the above address.
in {oving memory
am[ to my jamify
Acknowledgements
Prepared
David A. Robillard
2105 9th Street
Green Bay, Wisconsin 54303
Thesis
by
Intent
Thesis
Committee
GARY T, MOORE,
Chair
Assistant Professor of Architec
ture, University of Wisconsin
Milwaukee. Major contributions to
this thesis include:
Behavioral factors in archi
tecture.
Design guideline development.
Editor.
TIM ~1cGINTY
Associate Professor of Architec
ture, University of Wisconsin
Milwaukee. Major contributions to
this thesis include:
Graphics.
Architectural design.
Editor.
C, G,
SCREVEN
Professor of Psychology
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
MaJor contributions to this the
sis include:
Visitor
May 1982
responses
to museum
CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Introduction: The Museum Problem
The Problem
11
15
19
Literature Review
Summary of Visitol- Characteristics
19
21
33
Entrance Halls
36
Circulation
40
Galleries
46
Lounges
60
Bibliography
PREFACE
Environment - Behavior
in Architecture
Studies
alone
emergency team
one Vlew~
,
,
:
~
~
2, SCHOOL ROOM
1~HOSPITAL ROOM
3,
'"""'HO=-0-7US=Ic="CN=G,----:A-o-N=Dc-=B-o-A~R
4, RAILWAY STATION
SIZE
L. SCHOOL ROOM.
Author
CHRISTOPHER
ALEXANDER
PATTERN
LANGUAGE,
DONALD
APPLEYARD
HUI'.AfI
ROBERT
BECHTEL
ENCLOSING
BEHAVIOR,
IN SEARCH
OF ADVENTURE
DESIGNING
FOR
JOE
BE IUAI11 N
CHARLES
BURNETTE
DAVID
CANTER
T HE PSYCHOLOGY
CLARE
COOPER
EASTER
KENNETH
CRAIK
RALPH
ROBERT
GUTMAN
PEOPLE
Em,ARD
T,
THE
CLOVIS
HEIMSATH
H,
JON
HALL
HERBERT
MCLAUGHLIN
WILLlAfol
BYRON
H.
MICHELSON
M I KELLl
DES
HIDDEN
DIMENSION,
ARCHITECT
A I A HANDBOOK
ON ARCH iTECTURAL
HIS
URBAN
ARCHITECTURE
FOR
T HE PLACE
EMERG I NG METHODS
M,
S,
PROSHOWSKY
PUSHKAREV
PR I VATE
ENVIRONMENT,
PEOPLE,
IN ENV I RONMENTAL
ENVIRONMENTAL
SPACE
PSYCHOLOGY:
HU~,AN ASPECTS
OF URBAN
ENVIRONMENTAL
PLANNING:
HENRY
SANOFF
DESIGNING
PETER
F,
ARCHITECTURE
ROBERT
SMITH
SOM~lER
DAVID
STEA
JOHN
ZEI SEL
PERSONAL
IMAGE
WITH
PEOPLE
AND THEIR
PHYSICAL
SETTINGS,
FORM,
PERCEPTION
COMMUNITY
AND THE
AND BEHAVIOR,
PARTICIPATION,
HUMAN DIMENSION,
COGNiTIVE
AND ARCHITECTURAL
MAPPING
SPACE,
AND ENVIRONMENT:
SOCIOLOGY
AND PLANN I NG ,
FOR PEDESTRIANS,
THOMAS
SAARINEN
DE SIGN
SPACE,
AMOS RAPOPORT
F,
PROGRAMM I NG,
SPACE S,
OF HOUSES,
DEFENSIBLE
URBAN
PSYCHOLOGY,
MOORE
BORIS
JRE,
TO EWIRONMENTAL
MOORE
HAROLD
A HUMAN ARCHITECT,
GARY T,
NEWMAN
PLAY,
AND Bu I LD I NGS,
CHARLES
OSCAR
FOR
PSYCHOLOGY,
ERSKINE:
DESjGNII~G
~lEHRAB I AN
AND GROUhDS
OF PL,~CE,
AN INTRODUCTION
LANG
cations.
VILLAGE,
BEHAVIORAL
lTTELSON
ALBERT
HILL
HUMAN 3EHAVIOR,
ENVIRONMENTAL
~'IATS EGELIUS
1-1.
Book
AND SPATIAL
BEHAVIOR,
DESIGN,
architecture,
of
VISITORS:
LITERATURE REVIEW,
presents behaviorally-based de
sign implications for the mu
seums entrance hall, circulation
paths, galleries and lounges.
Finally the resource index con
tains an annotated bibliography.
Methods of Information
Gathering
Interest in this study was de
veloped in of a series of inter
views with museum directors, cu
rators, and designers as well as
through personal observations of
people touring museum exhibits.
Interviews focused on several
issues, including the relation
ship between museum personnel and
architects, activities and needs
of visitors, museum personnel's
perceptions and preferences for
use of public space, observation
of visitor reactions to the dif
ferent types of public space
(e.g. ,entrance hall, circulation
paths, galleries, lounges), and
overall condition of existing
museums. These discussions raised
questions regarding the effect of
architectural components on the
museum experience, particularly
the visitors learning experience.
Preliminary investigation of lit
erature in the field revealed
that between 1900 and 1980 over
200 references dealing with vis
itor behavior in museum~ had been
recorded by Elliott and Loomis
(1975),
in their study, "Studies
of Visitor Behavior In Museums
and Exhibitions: An Annotated
Bibliography of Sources Primarily
in the English Language." and by
Screven (1976),
in his study, "A
Bibliography in Visitor Education
'Research."
A critical look into studies
shows that researchers have been
able to identify some critical
performance and learning criteria
for measuring the impact of muse
um spaces on museum visitors, as
well as some key issues of sig
nificance for architects.
ATTENTION
ATTENTION.
"Behavioral consultation on design
projects 'is still going on. The chief
impediment to its effectiveness is the
lack of a solid data base dealing with
the behavioral effects of buildings."
Robert Sommer. "Architecture.
Psychology: The Passion Has Passed."
AIA~I:lfnal.
April, 1980.
INTRODUCTIION
THE MUSEUM
PROBLEM
It
i~~ OO\} i ou s
t h a t;
bu r l d i nq s
arc
6. HALF CROUCHING.
CLIMBING UP. 8. LOOKING
UP.
STUDY CONDUCTED IN 1909.
r.
The Problem
Visitor-Behavior studies in mu
seum's began with Benjamin Ives
Gilman's work in 1909. Using
actual observations, he set out
to determine just what kinds and
amount of muscular effort were
demanded of the visitor who en
deavored to see exhibits as mu
seum authorities planned to have
them seen. Gilman's findings in
dicated that an inordinate amount
of physical effort was demanded
of the ideal visitor by then cur
rent methods in which the maximum
number of objects were offered
for inspection.
Museum research on visitor be
havior didn't stop there. Sur
prisingly, an abundance of stud
ies, headed by Edward Stevens
Robinson and Arthur Melton took
place between 1923 and the early
1930's.
Robinson and his colleagues enter
ed museums with stop watches and
followed visitors around noting
behavior (this form of data col
lection is often referred to as
tracking or behavior ma~ping).
The research tea~ ~ecordd the
1928
ROBINSON
1.
->,
':;(
1.
2.
~~6
:..
~ 30
:,.
5 :,.
010SeC.
.~.
....
MELTON
1.
1931
. ...
: :
(:..A right
"'to
~4-
.~
left
2.
r. to I.
30sec .
8-pictures
10sec.
stop
2-
50~
.::1.
'<1-stop
.
. ~. .
C.
~O
6 sec.
...
..
~
r. to I.
3.
skip/"" skip
:.sto..~...~
.
stop>
<~top
.....~
environments continued to
appear
in books. articles in the peri-
11
C==:::::-, --~2=_'::----""::::::::::
~[;:_=-=--==_=-:==-="-~~;:::=:"';;=;:::=:;:;:;=';:<1]
~:_~I~r:~r~'::~'LI'~!_'-_:
I"
G:::ii':'"'''''' "
F2!'
--= ~- .:=
-~. \.
-~~~'~ =
SKULL EXHIBIT
20
'.o..-'~
NO.1.
-L.~-'-~~
,."
"'"
i ",,',
"".
::J
.--'--~
--,
Museum
'1936
fl :....:.L.l..l
~-:..~=~. -I
...,..
: 'l-JiT--:"-":;:!
...
.....
" - - .~
,~ ~
-I C1
II ;
u r . .J
r:H.,~
:L.-l'
:::J t::
3 t:
:31::
~1-1"1_t
~
OPPORTUNITIES,
LACK OF DIVERSITY AND CON
TRAST THROUGHOUT THE MUSEUM,
RESULTING IN VISITOR FATIGUE.
THE
LAC~ OF LOUNGES OR REST
AREAS,
POOR LOCATION FOR LOUNGES,
LOCATIONS WHICH CAUSE THE
SPACE TO GO UNUSED.
New
11
Importance
of the Problem
American Museum of
Natural History. N.Y.
America's first
museums 1870
,OPPOSITE
PAGE FLOOR PLAN CHART- BASED ON
VISITOR-BEHAVIOR
STUDIES A NUMBER OF DESIGN
DEC I S IONS COULD HAVE NEGATIVE 1"IPACTS ON THE
MUSEUM VISIT.
TOP- FLOOR PLAN, QF AMERICA'S
FIRST MUSEUMS.
BOTTOM- SINCE 1810 THEIR HAS
BEEN A CONTINUING INCREASE IN MUSEUM
FACILITIES,
THE MAP BELOW SHOWS THE NUMBER
OF MUSEUMS FOUND IN EACH STATE TODAY.
STATISTIC
FROM "MUSEUM NEWS". 1980.
INCREASE IN FACILITIES.
Surveys
conducted by the American Asso
ciation of Museums (AAM)
indicate that, if one counts
small
museums (those with only one
person on staff and that person
is without professional train
ing), there are about six thou
sand museums in the United
States today. There was a steady
increase in the numbers of
museums built from 1900 to 1939.
During the 1940's fewer were
constructed due primarily to
World War II. Then the rate of
construction increased again in
the 1950's and 1960's. Approx
imately 60 percent of existing
'museums have been established
since 1950 and, in the 1960's
'alone, there was a 53 percent
increase in the number of
museums, from 2,238 to 3,425.
Infact, since 1960 an average of
more than 100 new museums have
been established in the United
35
"~~.,, ..- 230
"'....,.'.33
118
83
31
78
1979,
$200,000,000
Attendance by year.
12
INCREASE
IN COLLECTIONS
AND
HIBITIONS, During formative
ATTENDANCE
RECORDS
Ex
A..
western
B. mountain
C. midwest
D. southeast
E. northeast
F. new england
Percentage
of museums
by region
Categories
of Museums
AHT
PARI( '1USEUi1S
I AT IONS.
COUNC I LS AND COfUlI SS ions
rOUNDATIONS
AND INSTITUTES
ARI Assoc
ART ASSOCIATION
GALLERIES
ART :1USEUI1S
AND GALLERIES
ARTS AIID CRAFTS r'1USEUMS
CHINA.
GLASS AND SILVER MUSEUMS
CIVIC ART AND CULTURAL CENTERS
DECORATIVE
ARTS 11uSEUMS
FOLK ART j1USEUMS
TEXT 1LE MUSEUMS
CH I LDREN' SAND
JUN I OR MUSEUf1S
COLLEGE
AND UNIVERSITY
CDtlPANY
MUSEUMS
EXHIBIT
AREAS
GENERAL
MUSEUMS
HISTORY
I1USEUMS
HISTORIC
MUSEUflS
NATIONAL
AND STATE
NATURE
CENTERS
CENTERS
MUSEUMS
AERONAUTICS
AND SPACE I1USEUMS
ANTHROPOLOGY,
ETHNOLOGY AND INDIAN 11uSEU;'IS
AOUAR I UMS, I1AR I NE 11uSEUMS
ARBORETUMS
ARCHAEOLOGY f1uSEUMS
AVIARIES
AND ORNITHOLOGY l'luSEUMS
BOTANICAL AND AQUATIC GARDENS
ENTOMOLOGY i1uSEUMS
AND INSECT
COLLECTIONS
GEOLOGY,
~1JNERALOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY
HERBAR JUMS
HERPETOLOGY
COLLECTIONS
AGENCIES
SHIPS
MUSEUMS
HISTORY
AND SCIENCE
MUSEUhS
MD ~.STRONOMY
SANCTUARIES
SPECIALIZED
AGFi I CUL TURE MUSEUMS
AN1"JQUES MUSEUMS
ARCHITECTURE
MUSEU"S
AUDIO-VISUAL
AND FILM
C I IICUS 1'1uSEUMS
[LECTR I C ITY MUSEUMS
MUSEUMS INDUSTRIAL
MUSEUMS
LOGGING AND LUMBER MUSEUMS
MI NING ~lUSEUMS
RELIGIOUS
MUSEUMS
SPORTS MUSEUMS
Toy AND DOLL MUSEUMS
WAX MUSEUMS
MUSEur1S
flu.
MerICAl.
DENTAL. MEALTH. PHARMACuLOuy.
f.,t"uThEC.AI'(Y "Tui PSYCril"Ti\Y
;-~uSr;uMS
NAlURAL
HISTORIC
HOUSES AND HISTORIC
BUILDINGS
HI STOR I C SITES
HISTORICAL
AND PRESERVATION
SOCIETIES
HI STOR I CAL SOC I ETY r'1USEUMS
H I STORY 11uSEUMS
HAVING
VI SITOR
~LA.NETARlurIS.
DllSERVATonlES
lill.DLlFE
REFUGES AND BIRD
ZOOLOGY MUSEUMS
ZOOS. CHILDREN'S
ZOOS
AGENCIES
LIBRARIES
SCr:f:CE
Afm
FUTURE
NEED FOR
REHABILITATION OR
REPLACEMENT,
Studies have shown
that the majority of American
Museums occupy facilities which
need either rehabilitation or
replacement, giving architects
and museum professionals an op
portunity to improve on past
designs.
other institutions,
138 would
need new quarters
within
the
next ten years. Of the 1,053
museums
housed in buildings
not
constructed
for museum use, 630
institutions
or 60 percent,
would need new construction
within
the next ten "oars to
adequately
house and"exhibit
THIS
Future
THE ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM IN THIS MUSEUM'S BUILDING IS OBSOLETE
IN DESIGN AND INADEQUATE IN CAPACITY.
FOR REASONS OF SAFETY
I F FOR NO OTHER REASONS, A COMPLETELY NEW ELECTR I CAL SYSTEM
IS REQUIRED,
IT WILL COST IN EXCESS OF $".240.000,
Improving
LO,OOO,
Museums
GROUP
public
!ii~~ ~
i
~~
IDEA
authorities---
:::-==F.c
:::~:-
offical
interest
groups
:-
.. 1
private committee
steering
_..
museum
management
museologist . - -- - - - - - -- -.
architect - _._.- - . - - - - - ..
.:;:-
.22.3
Fe
,.
-:::zJ
:g
occasional
15
Summary of Visitor
Characteristics
An essential part of museum ad
ministration is to regularly and
systematically monitor the char
acteristics of people who come
to see what it has to offer.
Without this information, it is
aiming blind in meeting the needs
'of its visitors. Museums, like
:most other organizations that
provide goods and services for
the public are anxious to know
who is buying what they have to
sell and whether their customers
like what they are being offered.
Mo"i,itoringvisl'tors not only
helps obtain information about
the people who do come, but also
about those who do not. Serious
attempts to attract non-visitors
, OBSERVATIONS
OF MUSEUMS HAS SHOWN THAT THE
,
DES I GNER MUST BE CONCERNED WITH ALL AGE GROUPS.
19
20
Summary
Literature
of
Visitor
Behavior
o Color
o Texture
o Circulation
o Signage
o Exterior Views
o Landmarks
o Proportion
o
and scale
MUSEUM FATIGUE
Lounges
Physical
discomforts
oo Seating
0
Orientation
0
o
Diversity and contrast 0
ROUTE SELECTION
o Length of path o Gallery size
o Walking habits
o Path configuration
o Position of doors o Landmarks
o Number ..
o
TRAFFIC FLOW
oo Seating
Display location
0
0
oo Control
Corridor width
0
devices
0
OBJECT AND GALLERY SATIATION
o Diversity and contrast 0
Color
o Gallery size
o Exterior
o Lounges
o Interior
o Lighting
o
views
RANGE OF MOVEMENT
o Number
Color
o
of doors
wall o Diversity
o First floor galleries
Gallery entries
0 Right - hand
0 0
o Gallery doors
o Diversity
o Walking distance
o Windows
o Backgrounds
o
o
23
ORIENTATION,
Museum literature,
both empirical and intuitive,
emphasizes the need for museum
orientation. Not only do museum
visitors need to know where they
are and where they are gOing,
but also need assis~ance in
making the best use of their lim
ited time. In a study on visitor
orientation by Cohen and Winkel
(1977), it is stressed that the
availability of a co~prehensive
orientation system is essential
if museums
are
to ensure
that
22
ORIENTATION FINDINGS
Primary
TH
ORIE:lTATI";;
DEVICES COrtitOiILY JlICLUilE
j'.1AP:i A:iD FlOORPLA~IS; DIRECTORIES.
SIGilS.
IiIFORI',ATlOII STAFF ArlO SALIEIIT CUES,
IIlTEGRATEJ I NTO TilE ARCH I TECTURE
I. E. ,
Teg~go~~D C~I!~~~t. CO~R r , : COLur III" ETC .
:p~~~:E~9m~s
~Eg~~~.
urlDtRECTED
VISITOR BECOttES BORED
At.~g:.~~~VES THE t-1USEUtt SOOriEST.
r ron
Secondary
;;OST V 151 TORS REPor:T CO::FUS I :J:! OVEr!
DIRECTIOilS ','/HILE HISIDE THE ;:USEU;;.
\:EST-r:URTH, SOUTU.
s~g~E~E~3~
rs ,
6t;
~ . "~'
,
:.>
backtracking
common
~':\l~K~~i,lDFP.i:'T:\
;!~.
US:::~.": '/!3rTOR3
FI::J
1;IFLL"::iTIi\L TII/,:i :;/,P3
COHL: A;;I) .."L:!:CL.
,jiG:::; TO ',:
F(Ji~
.r:
';\)1:[
r.vr t o :;
23
MUSEUM
FATIGUE
FINDINGS
Primary
A "AJOR FACTOR IN i1USEU'1 FATIGUE IS
J3- \.
SUBJECT
f1ATTER
ETC.
:lELTon.
T\</iSTlrIG,
object
gallery
VISITORS
COflSlSTE::TLV
USE Arm HIQUIRE
ABOUT AREAS FOR RELAXATlml
J.E.,
BErrCHE
~~,g~7 ~ , ~ '
a~i~F~~~~~~llf:IS,
A~
~~ ~
~O ~~~t:G~~
9.3 ..
xuo
MUSEUM FATIGUE,
Regardless of the
number of great works to be seen
or the splendidness of the pres
entation, visitors may still feel
their attention and curiosity
waning and may eventually begin
to suffer from what museologists
call "museum fatigue." Melton
(1935), describes "museum fatigue'
as a condition that is thought to
occur late in the museum visit
and that is characterized by a
lowered responsiveness to the mu
seum exhibits.
Studies conducted by Gilman
(1916), Robinson (1928), Melton
(1931), and Neal (1976) have
shown that "museum fatigue" is a
result of such factors as object
satiation, disorientation, lack
of contrast (e.g.,in exhibit and
gallery design and layout) and
physical discomfort (e.g.,exces
sive heat, exhaustion, and nOise,
etc.). These studies were based
on direct observations of visitor
behaviors such as leaning
against conveniently blank walls,
slower and shuffled walking, de
creasing viewing time, an increas
ing number of skipped objects and
exhibits.
The early studies of Robinson
(1928), gave definite evidence
for the reality of the decrement
in the interest of visitors. In
a study at the 69th street branch
of the Pennsylvania Museum of Art
Melto (1935), was able to deter
mine the decrement in the inter
est of the visitors under nearly
optimal experimental conditions
and found that the time visitors
spent before a painting once they
had stopped decreased only very
slightly during the museum visit,
but the frequency with which vis
itors stopped before paintings
exhibited a marked decrement. The
visitors were looking at only
two-thirds as many paintings at
the end of their visits as they
were at the beginning.
Gilman (1916), conducting stud
ies at the Museum of Fine Arts
in Boston was able to determine
that museum fatigue does exist.
Photographs were L,:.ce" w i t lj the
24
~~~i~ ~ ~ L
9 ~~~)
("ALL
complete circuit
seldom
ROUTE SELECTION.
Why do visitors
select certain routes over oth
ers? Where is the best place to
locate major exhibits and exhi
bition halls? Why do some exhi
bits and exhibition halls go un
noticed? These and similar ques
tions have been investigated by
a number of researchers and their
findings and conclusions are pre
sented in this section.
The first study conducted by
Robinson involved several art mu
seums. By following visitors a
round the museum Robinson (1928),
noticed a general preference to
turn to the right. He noted that,
"we have recently been measuring
the strength of the habit of
walking to the right as it ap
pears in museum behavior. We find
this tendency to be so strong
that left walls in long halls and
galleries are markedly inferior
to right hand walls as places of
exhibition." Porter (1938), Weiss
and Boutourline (1962), also no
ticed all other things being
equal, more visitors will walk
through galleries along the right
hand wall.
l\FTER E'lTERliIG
fI. GALLERY
;lOST VISITORS
NILL TURri TO THEf:1 RIGHT vr'."!HlG
l ~3A l :OUiITE1-CLOCK;11 SE SEQUE~lCE
::'IELTOr:. 93'
~~~~L
J~?5~~2~~~~
m~r T~~E E~~~~ 9~?~:.
~HAMPLETS PAIIITED FOOTPRINTS 011 THE
FLOOR. S IGIIS. ETC.).
TIlE 01 STMICE OF
THE "ALLS FROH THE VISITOR AT THE POIIIT
OF EIITRY. THE OVERALL SIZE OF THE
~~~~~~~ fVgs~~~~!~GJS~l~S
FRO.. THE
~~~U~~~i(*~~~l~~~DSi~D\'I~g~~o~ ~n~s
I
. "162
Secondary
'fISITORS WilL
:~JC~E~gl~~Tv 7~i~L~I!
P~O~~E~1~~~38T~:
~~g~R:
SPACES
25
26
'TRAFFIC
FLOW, Traffic flow is
.another aspect of circulation
:which must be considered to en
:sure that visitors can proceed
with ease and at their own rate
through the museum. The density
of people in a given space at a
given time can affect the quality
of communication aimed at visi
tors.
Most museums, large and small
must deal with the special cir
culation problems of guided tour
groups and large concentrations
of visitors in front of one par
ticular exhibit. Museum educators
frequently mention the need for
corridors and exhibit space of
adequate width so that groups and
individual visitors do not have
to interfere with one another. To
better control such crowding, the
Historical Society Museum in Chi
cago, which has a large daily
number of school groups, has a
traffic coordinator who keeps
track of where various groups are
within the museum at anyone time.
Yoshioka (1942), after conducting
studies in the Medicine and Pub
lic Health Building, at the New
York's World Fair 1939, concluded
that the presence of other vis
itors will affect a visitor's be
havior. He notes, "the crowding
of so many persons into an exhi
bition hall creates quite a dif
ferent situation from that found
in most museums." The fixed be
:...~
:,:::
. right hand
common
'~,tI""
'.'
CENTRAL
ISLAri9S
TErID TO19,)).
A~~ELER
ATE THE DISPLAY
RATE Of fLOW.
(LOKOTA.
7~~
turn
disrupts flow
Secondary
contr~oble' tter
"":r . (;,~
>.
>
:X:ntrol.
.
fatigue
27
28
Primary
~~i~iT~H~~bE~~EXI~~~~~E;~M~M~rT~~~
193i
.= exhibits
viewed
.
'"
,
,,,",!',.,',,,'.
exhibit viewing
pattern. stop - skip
-c..
. C~I~ ~
~ ::
s
Secondary
THE MlOUln OF TINE
SPENT IN FRONT OF
A" EXHIBIT AIm THE !lU/IBER SEEN
DECREASES
1I11lEDIATELY AFTER ENTRY TO THE 'IUSEUIl.
(;lELTON. :93:) .
7n~~N~~l~.r~~~'~''~LLER
top
IIUSEWIS
'
immediate
45 sec. stop
viewing decrease
at the Buffalo
Museum
of
29
RANGE OF MOVEMENT
FINDINGS
Primary
: Area Covered
by visitors
"
~m~
RANGE OF MOVEMENT,
Secondary
r1ALES
A GIVEN VISIT.
"BECHTEL, :9671.
THE
::AHEflOW, '}'
30
The kind of
behavior that takes place in mu
seums is exploratory locomotion;
that is, simply walking around
and examining unfamiliar objects
in a relatively unfamiliar place.
Comparison's of visitor movement
data shows that a number of var
iables (e.g., color of floors
and walls, location of entrances
and exits, etc.), can influence
the amount of area (square feet)
covered.
Melton (1931), and Porter (1938),
have each found that certain
areas of a museum are used more
extensively than others; for ex
ample, first floor areas, areas
around the gallery enteries,
areas with large amounts of in
formation, right hand side of
galleries and galleries with two
or more doorways are used more
extensively.
Niehoff (1949), obtained infor
mation about the amount of area
used by visitors on each floor.
He found, by asking Visitors
which floors they had visited,
ninety-one per cent had visited
the first floor, sixty-three per
cent had visited the second,
while forty-one per cent had
reached the third floor.
Bechtel (1967), used a hodometer
to obtain exact movements and
times within the floor space in
an art gallery. This consisted
of an electric floor grid system
sensitive to visitors movement.
He tested whether the same room
with light wallpaper and rug
will induce better use of the
area than dark wallpaper and a
dark rug. The study showed that
Primary
(i1~~~o~~u m ~ )
::':."-.
tA~m~:
ATTENTION
ATTRAC
TORS.
The DISTRACTORS
settings or AND
surround
ings of the exhibit are as impor
'.~
.._.r:-,
-_
distracting
windows
distracting
backgrounds
31
27
26
16.Conservation
zone of safety
33
THREE
STAGES
Museum Public
Spaces
Entrance Hall
Circulation
Galleries
Lounges
MUSEUM
VISITORS
DESIGN GUIDES
2
TOP- THE STEPS OF DESIGN GUIDES. BOTT0I1ALTHOUGH THERE HAVE BEEN IIUMERIOUS VISlTOR
BEHAVIOR STUDIES, THEY HAVE BEEN CONDUCTED IN
DIFFERENT AREAS. THE CHART BELOW GIVES AN
ESTIMATE ON THE PERCENTAGE OF STUDIES CONDUCTED
lfI EACH OF THE FOUR MAHOR PUBLIC SPACES.
34
Halls
ARCHITECT
3
this reason I undertook a study
concerned with the experience of
the general public in the major
public spaces of the museum (e.g.
entrance hall, circulation paths,
galleries, and lounges). It
should also be noted that most
research on museum environments
has focused on the behavior of
the museum visitor. Little re
search has been completed on
the semi-public and private
spaces of the museum (e.g, of
fices, library, storage, etc.).
The purpose of Chapter III is to
present a listing of the key be
havioral issues of museum's pub
lic spaces, as identified in ear
lier chapters, then to translate
these issues into performance
based design guidelines that can
be used during the design process.
Application of these guidelines
will hopefully assist museums in
providing a more useful public
service and will help attract and
communicate with visitors by
making the museum experience both
pleasant and interesting.
Chapter III is divided into four
sections, with each section com
posed of the following elements:
Discussion of major design
issues.
The type of museums most
likely to be affected, such
as art, history or science.
The quality of research data
relative to the issue, such
as whether evidence is from
repeated studies with simi
lar results, one study with
good results, or a study with
weak correlations.
Major design recommendations.
ENTRANCE HALLS
Entrance
Halls
36
MOST COMMON
ENTRY
SPACES
Security
ENTRY
SEQUENCE
SPACE RELATIONSHIPS
Information
Coat Check
3. Bookstore
Restrooms
9. Smoking
5. Storage
II
Area
1(1People move"
STUDIES
10
10
7
3
1
Chicago.
III. 1893
Milwaukee Public Mu
seum. Mil.. Wi.
1949
1974
37
NOTE - Information
38
from
authors
observations.
AlA / RC intern
project.
1981
ENTRANCE
HALL
Art
ISSUE:
History
Science
Bookstore?
Rep'eated studies wi
similiar results
One
with good
resu Itstudy
s
weak
Info - booth?
JUSTIFICATION:
40
35
Leaflet
No Leaflet
30
no of
25
visitors 20
stopping
to see 15
exhibit
position of
Frequencyof stops
EACH HALL
Leaflet
11.52
4.98
4.74
6.62
4.62
2. Mammals
3.
4. Great Hall
Peabody Museum of Nat
ural History. Yale Univ.1876 5. Invertebrates
No Leaflet
46%
Leaflet
62
22
12
28
18
30
30
38
40
According
DESIGN
RECO~~~::::;D!\TIONS:
DO
RIGHT OF ENTRY
BEST LOCATION
FOR INFORMA
T~oN BOOTH,
BOOKSTORE AND
GIFTSHOP.
DO
DLJ
CJD
DC] DO
DO
LEFT
RIGHT
Frequent right
hand turn
Space Relation
1. Entry
2. Lobby
3. Bookstore
4. Information
Art Museum
Wichita Kan.1935
1. Lobby
2. Info-bookstore
3. Coat check
4. Restrooms
5. Waiting area
6. Coat check
7. Storage
8. Restrooms
9. Security
10. Exhibits
D.
DD DO
DO
00 DO
DO +0
DO
D~
LEFT
RIGHT
DRAWING AT
TENTION BY
SHAPE
Museum of Science
Chicago, Illinois
1. Bookstore
2. Information
3. Coat check
4. People mover
DO
00
DO
00
00
LEFT
and Industry.
1933
Q~jJ
_--1'
RIGHT
DRAWING ATTE
TION BY SIZE
, ,'I
2-1
L-.---~3-!o', l'----....J
1
National
I,
Museum of Natural
History. Wash.,D. C.
1 . Bookstore
2. Information
3. Coat Check
4. People Mover
1911
Circulation
In planning the museum the ar
chitect should devote primary
attention to the problem of cir
culation. Circulation spaces
form an integral part of any
building organization. and occu
py a significant amount of space
within the museum's volume. The
visitor should be led into the
museum and through it naturally
and easily without feeling that
they are in a maze and without
being interrupted. There should
be continuous controlled circu
lation, at least through each
main division of the museum, so
that the director and his stdff
may arrange the material in
each of these divisions to be
seen in an orderly and intelli
gent sequence.
The form and scale of a circu
lation sp~ce, must accommodate
the movement of people, give
orientation assistance and allow
visitors to arrive at the de
sired galleries as directly as
possible, or to select along the
route those galleries the vis
itors chooses to see. Thus, the
question of circulation must be
studied attentively, so that the
arrangement and the itinerary
will be clear not only to anyone
looking at the ground plan of
the museum. but also to anyone
walking through the rooms.
A variety of types of circulation
systems are used in museums
offering different possibilities
for crowd control and surveil
lance. The most common systems
are the straight, linear, open,
chain, comb, fan, and spiral
paths. Research has shown that
confusion arising from poorly
thought-out circulation systems
creates significant stress for
the museum visitor.
40
MOST
COMMON
CIRCULATION
PATTERNS
1. Straight
Branch,
Lobby
Gallery
Branch,
Linear
Centrally located
people movers
Easy traffic
flow
Loop
~~- o~~~~Hr~p; ~~~1It~E~=s
h,
S~A:~~ AU JVXTAPOSf"[HTO
~.'E~ ~M[,~ ~UD Til! Y[E.U AIlOUf'lJ)
r m :. :' C n ~ ~ n l ;~ O.. .
;:
"f
C ;
.',T H
l E rI T
~~f~~
llY
S U!;HAS
~ l I P ! IIGS
'0 I J
II1 -
Textures different
other spaces
Branch, Lobby
Foyer
Unobstructed
lines
sight
41
CIRCULATION
OF RESEACH
r-I
',IAIIT DIRECTIOi'~l\L
SIG;IS
T0
Coueu.
sxumirs
~;v,
::~:i~~JiE~~!;~:l~I~:~:';
)
F-JH
,USElr; VIS[TO:S
usc
I:;.') 1\[: dV;:;,:!ILL Ll,\(jl
TlO;! ,:!IJLi:; SI i::5 Ai,:
Jlt-:~CT[O:jS
i,,:,i FI;J:;[
::,J,lc': fI ,;, ! '},CL,
\'1
'/131 T:j,;j
r l:i,
:;T Il\L t 1/1:: "II
A::.I "I :I:CL,
Fu,;
r:"~.
OJ;::;
,J.~
;;',
--_-------
u:',T,\J:i
':,.:[.\ .: I [::T/,
F' /\
I:
',P~CI;:lC
r .-,T
III
--
r icns
DIP-F.CTORiES
GUDl\ilCE
VI '1U~EIJ'1
s I TOP I FOR
S O~IE OF THE
OF
Ffl.TIGU[,
42
-----
ISSCE:
CIRCULATION AND ORIENTATION IN
CLUDING SPATIAL CUES ARE INTER
DEPENDENT. THUS, THEIR IMPACT ON
VISITORS AS THEY MOVE THROUGH
MUSEUMS MUST BE CONSIDERED SI
MULTANEOUSLY. OTHERWISE, THE RE
SULTING CONFUSION FROM POORLY
THOLIGHT-OUT CIRCULATION SYSTEMS
AND INADEQUATE SPATIAL CUES MAY
BECOME A MAJOR SOURCE OF MUSEUM
FATIGUE. TO COMBAT STRESS AND
CONFUSION, VISITORS NEED A
STRONG MEMORABLE ORIENTING SYS
TEM.
"/lSITORS
WITH
JUSTIFICATION:
CIRCULATION - ASSISTING
ORIENTATION.
addition
to maps
and
signs,
co~rn. /\
:iUSEU:\ vISITORS
,lEEJ PHYSICAL u:1IEtIT"
rGALLE.iY
ron SY3T::_'IS I.E.,
liO'/ TO .JET TO J\
Oil EXHL~IT_,
;-'ELL A':.
CU;I~;H:\T
CEPTUAL
!J\lEiJTI\TJ-Jr!
SYSTE:tj,
I.E.,
THEK!: IS TO SEE "
COHel,
_! ~
rs
DESIGN RECOPl~~ENDATIONS:
Circulation must offer a va
riety of focal pOints, vis
tas, and changes of mood.
(as done on a larger scale
in town-planning policy)
Provide an ORIENTATION CENTER
where visitors can map out in
their minds the overall con
figuration of the paths in
the museum. With this, orien
tation within the building an
and understanding of its spa
tial layout will be clear.
CONCEPTUALORIENTATION
"what is there to see ..?
D Orietation centers
Information desk
o Tours
PHYSICALORIENTATION
.. how do I get there ..?
D One comprehensive system
D Many directional. cues
o Landmarks
Groupings of rms.
1. Nave-to- room
2.Corridor-to-room
3. Room - to - room
:) re-orientates,
provides diversit
affect,
fatiguing
8maze
Field
1893
OBJECT
LANDMARKS
~In
Existing museum circu
lation patterns most
likely to ensure a right
to left sequence - Loop
Straight
44
1. Museum of Art.
Syracuse, NY. 1937
2.Fine Arts Center.
Boston. Mass.
3. Four equal
paths
D SIGNS
- One
Way-+
1. Stairs
2. Landings
3. Corridor Junction
4. Elevators
5. Escalators
6. Foyers
7. Subject Division
"
45
Galleries
Exhibition is the characteristic
and pivotal function of museums.
The public judges the institu
tion by the character of exhib
its, and the building very large
largely by the character of ex
hibition space. The factors most
influential in determining the
character include; the division
of space, scale and proportions,
groupings of rooms, circulation
and the interior.
The physical design of a build
ing influences what exhibits can
be held there. Architects should
strive for flexibility in design
ing exhibit spaces, so that ex
hibits can be changed easily and
arranged in accordance with a
wide variety of object sizes and
subject matter.
5,
46
!~~~~~~~~~
MOST
COMMON
GALLERY
GROUPINGS
FOUND
IN
galleries
Corridor-
B.
Sightlines
to circula
tion paths
C.
to - room
D. Interior
exhibit;
designed to
scale. color. etc.
E'I Outside
ms.
Open
F.
at
views
Division of space
columns
by
Linear
-s
~B
d\=. =.:
J
cCl
~ - 1~ I
_.L. ~~J.
~L~~~._
j \
National Gallery
of Art.
East. Wash. D.C.
1978
{
\~!}
(lI
't -
"T
~ ...----..
fo- ----~
A
Hirshhorn Museum.
Wash.. D.C. 1974
47
GALLERIES
Art
History
Science
QUALITY
GALLERIES - LOCATION,
ISSUE:
A GALLERY'S LOCATION SHOULD NOT
BE UNDER-ESTIMATED, FOR IT WILL
HELP DETERMINE THE EXTENT TO
WHICH THE SPACE WILL BE VISITED
AND THE ATTENTION IT WILL RE
CEIVE.
OF RESEACH
JUSTIFICATION:
In designing a circulation sys
tem and deciding on the location
for galleries, several known as
pects of visitor behavior should
be considered.
~~~~~~
G lYE
THE SENSE
OF "STREETS
MID
AVEfllJES'
,r:~I~~S~;ID"~g~~o~~EI!IE.
162
t.
exhibits
viewed
48
~I~~b!~'~
~~~~~~~
?~gs~~E~!t:G
J~WS
FROt1 THE
MAJOR GALLERY
: DESIGN
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
RECOMMENDATImiS:
e-Q~~Q
lines
1 . High ceilings
2 . Adequate floor space
3. Adequate& controled circulation
4. Larger exhibit rooms
5. Creature comforts
49
LOCATIONS
FOR MAJOR
GALLERIES
Detroit Institute
Next to main
1927
Ground floor
Convenient
~
.......................
I!I
.....i,...
lll
I
! .,..
.!
.............. .
........~
rll-
50
GALLERIES
diversity
.,~;. :::." ,.:.,1,1
-~.-
Art
ISSUE:
History
Science
A
I
QUALITY
OF RESEACH
diver sity,
30min.
visit
15 stops
~~6m~9L~l
:exhibits
viewed
VISITORS
DISTRIBUTE
THEIR ATTEtlTION
USUALLY PAUSING FOR BRIEF PERIODS
TO LOOK
AT trmlVIDUAL OBJECTS Aim THEr~ SKIPPIHG
~~6~~~I ~~~G~~~:N.~H~rl~~~~ ~ 1T
3q~:~ORE
exhibit viewing
pattern. stop - skip
JUSTIFICATION:
A number of studies conducted by
Helton (1931), Porter (1938),
Robinson (1938), .and Nahemow
(1971) have shown that both the
time spent and the number of ex
hibits Viewed decrease as the
visit progresses. According to
these researchers, to help vis
itors pace themselves requires
the creation of diversity and
contrast in exhibit and gallery
layout and design. The results
of such efforts will be a reduc
tion in physical and mental fa
tigue for the museum visitor.
Learning experiments, conducted
by Porter (1938) and Nahemow
(1971) have shown that the more
monotonous a stimulus becomes
the more attention wanders and
that any change from the hibitual
tends to attract and hold atten
tion. The benefits of diversity
was further illustrated by Porter
(1938) at the Peabody Museum of
Natural History; in each of the
halls preceding the Hall of In
vertebrates, peaks of interest
occur wherever there is variation
in the mode of display. For exam
ple, at five lighted exhibit
cases, the frequency of stops
ranges from 21 to 32 viewers,
whereas, at the exhibit cases of
uniform size and arrangement, the
frequency of stops ranged from 0
to 10 viewers. Porter's observa
tions seem to agree with the
theory that the general decrease
in interest exhibited by museum
visitors is due not to physical
factors of the visitor as much
as to monotony of the method of
. . ' .~
~I~it: sec.
~ .' t
op
immediate. '.,' 45
viewing decrease
~3~~N~~~~'
stop
stop
nusaun FATIGUE IS
'INSUFFICIEIlT
CON
ETC
I"
FATIGUE IS
OBJECT SATIATION 'SIr-llLARITY OF PAlrIT
INGS OR FUq:nTURE AS REGARDS STYLE,
P~gIQ~' SUBJECT rlATTER ETC,
'IELTGrI.
VIS
!TORS PAY MORE ATTEBTION
TO UNUSUAL
UNKNOWNENVIRONMENTS.
CNAHEMOW.
1972) OR
measurements of adult ~
6 ear old In relation to cases
24 8-1
0;&45'
CSt
~45'
'(Rho' ~
30'
I I
45'
30'
53
DIVERSITY
THROUGH
LIGHTING
Lighting- alternatives
Side-lightin9
Top -lighting
L:J
')IXED LIGHTING
LOLOR OF LI GHT
IHOOM L I GHTI NG AND OBJECT LIGHT I NG
.LLUMINATION
AND BRIGHTNESS
'OSITION
OF LIGHT SOURCE
IINDOWS
- CORNER LI GHT I NG
- END LIGHTING
- DIFFUSION
- SCREENING
rLERESTORY
WI NDOWS
lKYLlGHTS
I'LUORES~ENT
AND INCANDESCENT LIGHT I NG
DIRECT ARTIFICAL
LIGHTING
- ATTIC INSTALLATION
- FALSE SKYLIGHTS
- TROFFER LI GHTS
- POLARIZED LIGHT
.INDIRECT ARTIFICAL
LIGHTING
- SUSPENDED FIXTURES
- CASE LI GHT I NG
- CONCEALED UPLI GHTS
- LIGHTING
COVES
- LI GHT PANELS
Attic or Clerestor
Artifical lighting
methods
I0
aO
1
10
Multistory muse~m
lit by daYligh~ I:::
~'
54
DIVERSITY
WITH
,INTERIOR
DESIGN
mFIOOring
Color
Lighting
1. Sculpture
2. Paintings
~Scale
55
GALLERIES
doorway
position
number of
doorways
QUALITY
OF RESEACH
GALLERIES -
DOORWAYS:
AND POS IT I ON I NG ,
THE NUMBER
ISSUE:
THE NUMBER AND POSITIONS OF THE
ENTRANCE AND EXIT IN GALLERY
SPACES DETERMINE THE ROUTES OF
THE MAJORITY OF VISITORS. THEY
DEFINE WHERE VISITORS GO AND
WHAT IS MORE LIKELY TO BE LOOKED
AT. IN GENERAL, UNDERSTANDING
HOW THE MUSEUM VISITOR MIGHT
RESPOND TO THE NUMBER AND PLACE
MENT OF DOORWAYS, CAN HELP IN
THE DESIGN OF MORE EFFECTIVE
DISPLAY SPACE FOR BOTH VISITORS
AND EXHIBITS.
One
with good
resu Itstudy
s
Study with weak
correlations
JUSTIFICATION:
Doorways are one of many of a
building's architectural elements
and their capacity to influence
communication exceeds any of the
other building elements such as
lighting, windows, etc . Essayist
Phyllis McGinley has referred to
the door as a human event of sig
nificance equal to the discovery
of fire (Gutman,1972). Methodical
studies conducted by Robinson
(1931), Melton (1933), and Porter
(1938), at the Peabody Museum of
Natural History and the Pennsyl
vania Museum of Art, support this
proposition. Tracking studies
which have recorded the frequen
cies of stops, have shown that
the number and positioning of
doorways are more important in
determining the frequency of
stops and the order in which they
are viewed than any characteris
tics of the objects themselves.
t\FTER EnTERING
A GALLERY nOST VISITORS
WILL TUR"
TO THEIR
RIGHT
VIEI"IING
!~3,-,\~oUrITER-cLOC.~','ISE
SEDUEtlCE
S~~L~bi.:
9~~~:.
~~~~~~~~~~~lmAN~\~
~\~m
PHAMPLETS
PAINTED
FOOTPRINTS
ON THE
FLOOR, SIGNS. ETC.).
TilE DISTANCE OF
THE I<ALLS FROf1 THE VI S ITOR AT THE rotnr
OF EflTRY, THE OVERALL SIZE OF THE
~Vgs~~~~l~G~~1~:S
FROf" THE
~mg
56
..
~.
J1ELron.
93,.
57
TWO
DOORS
....
......
Gallery 1,
missed
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS:
NEEDED
~
Gallery 2, entered
'~r"OJ::"'
...
Art Museum,
mental
ri
DOORWAY PLACEMENT AND
EFFECTS ON ROUTING
Cairo
Egypt
f=Flf lr=r=J]
b
C8 8
free
circula
tion,
but
poor coverage
exit attraction
ignored
coverage, poor
movement
e~
........~.
good circulation,
coverage- art
.~~
exit attraction
coverage
assists
(-~-.
(?,>
coverage
same as f but
for history exhibits
outer circuit
scheme
promotes coverage
..
nave to room
museum's
entrance,
staircase,
58
coridor to room
Lounges
Most museums include facilities
which cater to the well-being
of the visitor. The most common
include: gift shops, restaurants
and visitor lounges. All of them
assist in reducing fatigue,
brought on by physical exertion
and visual overload.
Perhaps the most crucial and
complex set of amenities is the
system of transition and seating
areas. These serve the visitor
in a number of ways. They en
courage relaxation, change the
pace of activities, and provide
the visitor with a suitable
place and time for reflection.
Rest areas in museums are tran
sitional spaces where people can
socially interact, meditate, or
simply rest their feet.
Properly locating these rest
areas intermittently among the
gallery spaces is vital for a
successful museum visit. Visitors
who are both physically and psy
chologically at ease with their
environment are more likely to
be a receptive audience.
60
MOST
ell
waiting
areas
Out of circulation
paths
2. SeaUng along circulation
Comfortable seating
in galleries
R
eil5.
Group seating
Highly visible
4. Lounge rooms
Cafeteriaseatinq
Corcoran Gallery of
Wash.. D.C. 1874
Milwaukee Public Mu
seum. Mil.. Wi. 1949
Renwicl(""Gillery. Wash..
D.C. 1859
Hirshhorn
Museum.Wash.. D.C.
1974
61
LOUNGES
,0
(.....
i In
r I
,
Science
,\ I,.
,r.:Y
LOUNGES -
INTERIOR
DESIGN.
ISSUE:
MUSEUM VISITORS BECOME PHYSICAL
LY AND MENTALLY FATIGUED DURING
THE COURSE OF THEIR VISIT. TO
AID THE PACE OF EXHIBIT VIEWING,
LOUNGE INTERIORS MUST BE DESIGN
ED TO APPEAL TO A STATE OF MIND
SUITABLE TO RELAXATION.
terio
f----~
"I \
QUALITY
i:
OF RESEACH
JUSTIFICATION:
object
gallery
62
IS A DIGGER FATIGUE
VI::>ITO,,5 i~lPa;:Ljj
;;EI'::~
,,\ Li:lITE:)
A:;OU;T uF TUt:
1:1
ul,J::_.fU l\ LACk ,JF u:;I:_:iT:ITIJ:i.
'"Lh::-"
PROllLEil
fl
cifica
lly
with
the
role
of
lounge
s and
other
interi
or de
sign
featur
es in
reduci
ng fa
tigue.
One
study
by
Cohen
(1973)
polled
visito
rs
leavin
g the
Nation
al
Museum
of
Histor
y and
Techno
logy
in
Washin
gton,
D.C.
The
study
conclu
ded
that
given
the
size
of the
visito
r
popul
a tion
and
the
freque
ncy
with
which
it
seeks
the
oppor
tunit
y to
sit
down,
it is
evide
nt
the
museu
m
could
be
more
helpf
ul in
provi
ding
varie
d
areas
for
re
laxat
ion.
The
study
revea
led
63
CHARACTERISTICS OF LOUNGE
INTERIOR
gallery
lounge
LOUNGE AMENITIES
D
D
Seating
Smoking area
Restrooms
Exterior views
D Carpeted floors
D .Drinking fountain
D Plants
D Music
LOUNGES
LOUNGES - LOCATION,
FREQUENCY,
Art
History
Science
QUALITY OF RESEACH
Rep'eated studies withl_
similiar results
~~~It~tudy with good
Study with weak
correlations
SIZE AND
ISSUE:
II
I.
j
JUSTIFICATION:
:93:
= exhibits
viewed
VISITORS
DISTRIBUTE
THEIR ATTUlTIOfl
USUALLY
PAUSING
FOR BRIEF
PERIODS
TO LOOK
AT nWIVIDUAL OBJECTS ArlO THEtl $IUPPlrJG
~~~~~~~G I ~~~i~:N
exhibit viewing
pattern. stop - skip
I ~~rj~~~~
I T5!i ~~~ORE
66
Secondary
.<1C.~.,
20sec.stop,
1
' ~I~~
~ ::
.
of increasing there
use. Areas found to
be most frequently
used included the
paths that were
well-defined and
appear as "
"streets and
avenues", major
exhibit areas, and
major archi
tectural landmarks.
Within gal lery
spaces visitors
have been found to
proceed in a right
to
~3~~N~~~~J
IN LARGE 'IUSEUMS THE LIKELIHOOD
THAT A
stop
immediate'
45 sec. stop
viewing decrease
IS
~_~q~r~I~LLER t1USEW-1S
Arm EXITSI
~~~~~;~~I~1S~~~~D~\"nDg0~~o~~~I
Enr .
. ~G2
65
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS:
LOUNGES
as visitor moves on
Visible
but out of
'..'~t~~
:.,~' 0
:~~~
1. Seating in gallery
2. Alcove
3. Lounge room
, :
"'. ':...
1 .lnterupt ions
12,Partial
enclosure,
good
Outside view
Hirshhorn
Museum Wash..D.C
Locations
*:
Lounges
Near landmark
Along major
paths
*. * * *
/It;:. ':
Tumacacori
Museum. Arizona
......L. .L..
... ..'_"'_':'_:"iii">iiiii;;;;;;jI1
iiii"
Left side of
Galler y
67
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
A
ABBEY,
DAVID S.
and Curiosity.
"Kids, Culture
IIHuseurn News,
vol. 46, no. 7 (~Iarch1968),
pp. 30-33.
REVIEW OF RESEARCH os EXPLOR
ATORY BEHAVIOR, NOVELTY, AND
CURIOSITY APPLIED TO CHIL
DREN"S MUSEUM VISITS.
"Notes on Audience Research at
the Royal OntariO Museum. "The
Museologist, no. 80 (1961),
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11 -16
REPORT ON SURVEYS CONDUCTED TO
MEASURE REACTIONS TO ADNISSION
CHARGE AND VISITING HOURS. GEN
ERAL ADVICE ON CARRYING OUT
AUDIENCE SURVEYS IS ALSO IN
CLUDED.
ABLER, THOMAS S.
"Traffic Pat
tern and Exhibit Design: A
Study of Learning in the Mu
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RESEARCH PROJECT MEASURING THE
EFFECTS OF TRAFFIC PATTERN AND
EXHIBIT-CASE DESIGN ON LEARN
ING AND USING CONVENTIONAL
TESTING PROCEDURES AND VARIA
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B
BECHTEL,
ROBERT B. "Hodometer
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1967),
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BEN~ETT, GEORGE K.
"The Museum
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SUMMARY OF SOME PRINCIPLES OF
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HIBIT DESIGNS.
BORHEGYI, STEPHAN F.
DE.
"Nuseum
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STATES THE NEED FOR EXHIBIT
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DISCUSSION OF SPATIAL AREAS IN
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PHILOSOPHY OF A MUSEUN ADMIN
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PRINCIPLES FOR CROWD-FLOW CON
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BOSE, A.B,
BOWER, ROBERT T.
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BROOKS,
JOYCE A. M" "A Study
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175-182.
c
CALVER,
HOMER N. "The Exhibit
Nedium." American Journal of
CAMERON,
DUNCAN F,
gating a Museum's
"InvestiAudience."
The Huseologist, no. 77 (1960),
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SUMMARY OF ROYAL ONTARIO MU
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COHEN,
MARILYN S. "Facility
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Na-
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M.S. AND WINKEL, G.H.
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DIFFERENT STRATEGIES FOR PER
FORMING VISITOR RESEARCH ARE
SUGGESTED AND EXAMPLES CITED.
G
GILMAN. BENJAMIN I.
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Monthly, vol. 12, no. 1 (1916),
pp. 62-74.
PHOTOGRAPHS OF VISITORS EXAM
INING OBJECTS IN A VARIETY OF
DISPLAYS WERE USED AS THE BA
SIS OF DETERMINING THE DEGREE
OF PHYSICAL EXERTION WHICH
EACH TYPE OF INSTALLATION RE
QUIRED.
GOINS, ALVIN.
"The Effect of
Location and a Combination of
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THIS STUDY COMPARES REACTIONS
TO AN EXHIBIT CASE BEFORE AND
AFTER MODERNIZATION.
M
MARSHALL. W.E.
"A Viewpoint."
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vol, 23, no. 1 (1963). pp. 911.
MASON. C.W.
DANDRIDGE. FRANK.
KIMMEL. PETER S.
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TREATS ASPECTS OF DISPLAY DE
SIGN THAT CAN MAKE A SIGNIFI
CANT DIFFERENCE IN THE EDUCA
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VARIABLES SUCH AS EYE MOVEMENT
KIND OF TYPESETTING, AND USE OF
PERIPHERAL VISION ARE REVIEWED
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DOUGHTY. PHILIP S.
"The Public
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MELTON. ARTHUR W.
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OUTLINE OF EARLIER STUDIES,
WHICH TREAT THE INFLUENCE OF
MOTION IN EXHIBITS AND LABEL
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HOLDING ATTENTION.
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Publications of the American
MORRIS, RUDOLPH E.
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MUNYER.
EDWARD A. A
nary Survey of the
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N
NAHEMOW. LUCILLE.
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PILOT STUDY DEFINING BOTH ENVI
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1938.
STUDY OF VISITOR ATTENTION
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,RAMSEY. MARGARET A.
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APPLICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL
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QUERQUE, NEW MEXICO.
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A CATALOG OF VISITOR COMFORTS
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ROBINSON.
EDWARD STEVENS. "The
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p
PARR. A.E.
"Remarks on Layout,
SCREVEN,
C,G"
AND ROBERT A,
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s
SCREVEN, C,G,
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INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS THAT CAN
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DEMONSTRATES THAT WORTHWHILE
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THE HODOMETER TESTS VISITOR
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INCLUDED THE WALL COLOR OF THE
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T
TAYLOR, FRANK A.
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PROPOSES A VISITOR-ORIENTED
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w
WEISS,
ROBERT S.,
BOUTOURLINE,
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SERGE
AND
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AN EXTENSIVE STUDY OF THE
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AND CONGESTION, THE EFFECTS OF
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WINKEb
H. Approach
AND ROBERT
SASAN
~F,GARY"An
to an
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Analysis
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WRIGHT,
A. GILBERT.
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y
YOSHIOKA, JOSEPH G,
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ANALYSIS OF TRACING RECORDS
MADE AT AN EXHIBIT AT THE 1939
WORLD'S FAIR TO DETERMINE IF
HUMAN MOVEMENT IN ENCLOSED AR
EAS IS INFLUENCED BY THE DIREC........."."'..'''T
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