Crankshaft

The crankshaft is the part of all main engines that is converting the
reciprocating piston movement to rotational motion. In order to do the
conversion between two motions, the crankshaft is equipped with
crankpins, as additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from
that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from
each cylinder attach. So the crankshaft is rotating on the main
bearings ,which are placed on engine bedplate.
The crankshaft is fully balanced to counteract bearing loads from
eccentric masses by fitting counterweights in every crank web. This
results in an even and thick oil film for all bearings. If necessary, the
crankshaft is provided with a torsional vibration damper, to reduce
the torsional vibrations often caused along the length of the
crankshaft by the cylinders farthest from the output end acting on the
torsional elasticity of the metal.
Construction
On older engines the so called fully built method was used. This
consisted of forging separate webs, crankpins and main journals. The
crankpins and journals were machined and matching holes bored in
the webs, which were slightly smaller in diameter. The webs were
heated up and the crankpins and journals fitted into the holes (which
due to the heat had expanded in size). As the webs cooled down, so
the diameter of the bored holes would try and shrink back to their
original size. In doing so, the crankpins and journals would be
gripped tightly enough to stop them being able to slip when the engine
was being operated normally.
Today, crankshafts for large 2 stroke crosshead engines are of the semi
built type. In this method of construction the crankshaft "throws"
consisting of two webs and the crankpin are made from a single
forging of a 0.4% carbon steel. The webs are bored to take the
separately forged and machined main journals which are fitted into
the webs using the shrink fitting method described above. The shrink
fit allowance is between 1/570 and 1/660 of the diameter.
The advantages of this method of construction is that by making the
two webs and crankpin from a single forging the grain flow in the steel
follows the web round into the crankpin and back down the other web.

Because the crankpin and webs are a single forging, the webs can be
reduced in thickness and a hole is sometimes bored through the
crankpin as shown, reducing the weight without compromising
strength. Note however, there is a need for a good deal of material
around the holes bored to take the main journals. This is because of
the large tensile hoop stress present in the material after shrink
fitting. This could lead to a crack in the web if the thickness here is
not adequate or if the shrink fit is too tight or if there is a flaw in the
material.
Methods of forming a crankshaft
The ideal arrangement is that of the solid forged structure because
there is continuity of material grain flow which allows for smooth
transmission of stress.
Unfortunately, such crankshafts are limited to the smaller engines
because there is a limit to the size of forging equipment and the size of
steel bar which can be produced.
Built up crankshafts with shrink fits or welded sections allow very
large units to be produced, but they tend to be heavier and less rigid
than an equivalent solid forged.
The grain flow method allows solid forged crankshafts to be produced
with minimum energy and minimum need for post machining. A
heated section of bar is held by three clamps which can be moved
hydraulically. When one throw has been formed the next section of bar

is heated, the shaft is held in the clamps again and the next throw
formed.
Crankshaft manufacture is a complex and elaborate process and the
exact procedure would vary with the type and size of the crankshaft
under consideration but a few things would be good to know
1. Fully-built Crankshafts: all various components are shrinkfitted after separate fabrication
2. Semi-built up Crankshafts: several parts such as crank-throw
and pins are case out of a single piece

3. Welded Crankshafts: crank-shaft is made by welding case web

crank pins and half journal units

4. Flanged Coupling Crankshafts: made out in two pieces joined

together by flanged couplings
Analysis to follow regarding types of crankshafts depending on
construction.

A form of crankshaft construction recently developed is that of

welding. Cast web crank pin and half journal units are connected at
the half journals by welding. These welds are stress relieved and the
pins ground to give the correct finish. This form of construction is
suitable for large direct drive engines and it provides strength close to
that of the solid forged crankshaft. Any number of units may be
connected
The usual form of construction for direct drive engine crankshafts is
the semi-built up type. This makes use of shrink fits between the
journals and webs. Careful design is required to ensure the shrink fit
is strong enough but does not impose excessive shrinkage stress.
The shrink fit must provide sufficient strength to allow necessary
torque to be transmitted. The actual allowance is about 1/500-1/600
of the diameter. Too large an allowance produces a high stress which
can result in yielding when the working stress is added. Too small an
allowance can lead to slippage.
In order to provide for large torque transmission without high stress
the area of contact at the shrink fit should be increased.
This is usually by means of an increased diameter (over increase
length as this increase the engine length) which allows the fillet radius
to be used, as the journal part of the pin does not need to be of the
same large diameter. The fillet allows a smooth transmission and is
rolled because this produces a compressive stress which provides safe
guard against fatigue. The fillet is undercut allowing the web to be
positioned against the bearing reducing the engine length and oil loss
from the ends of the bearing.

Slippage of shrink fits

Slippage can occur at the shrink fits and this can be noticed by
consideration of the reference mark at the end of the web and pin.

For Slippage up to about 5 o retiming of the effected cylinder can take

place so long as oil holes passing through the shrink fit do not become
obstructed.
For slippage above 5o there may be problems of loading on the
crankshaft due to firing angles and the relative position of the cranks,
this can lead to excessive vibrations and stress. The ideal solution is
the replacement of the effected parts, a temporary repair may be
carried out. This consists of cooling the pin with liquid nitrogen and
heating the web to give a temperature difference of about 180 oC. The
web may then be jacked back into position. In both cases the slip fit
will have been damaged, the contact faces which originally should be
as smooth as possible to give maximum contact area. The engine
should be run at below the max. rating until the parts can be
replaced.
Most slipped fits are caused by starting the engine with water in the
cylinder. But any overload can result in this problem.
Post machining
Modern engines designed for high power and weight should have a
well balanced crankshaft with a minimum of material. Post machining
allows the tapering and chamfering of webs and the counter boring of
pins, thereby removing all unnecessary metal.

A modern well balanced engine using higher strength steels can avoid
the use of balance weights.
Crankshaft alignment check
If a main bearing has suffered wear then the journal supported by the
bearing will take up a lower position, if adjacent bearings have not
worn to the same degree then the shaft will take on a bent attitude
causing the crank webs to be subjected to an oscillatory bending
action and so fatigue.
It is therefor3 necessary to check the alignment of crankshafts by the
use of special gauges.
The crank web will often have a light center punch mark to ensure
that the gauge is fitted in the same position at each reading. The trim
of the ship, whether loaded or unloaded, whether hogged or sagged
are all important factors which can effect the reliability of the
readings. Ideally the readings should be taken when the ship is drydocked.

Acting Forces on Crankshaft

Due to its nature of operation, there are several types of forces which
come to act upon the crankshaft of engines used in marine
propulsion. You will get a better idea about these forces if you take a
close look at the image shown below which shows the various twisting
and bending forces.

Bending results in tensile, compressive and shear stresses in

the material of the crank web.
Twisting results in shear stresses.

Crankshafts are subject to a complex form of loading which varies

with time. In addition shrink fits, oil holes and fillet radii add to the

complexity. Pure stress analysis and rules governing crankshaft

dimensions are based upon a combination of theory and experience.

The three main loading stresses are

o

Gas loads on the crankpin which produces alternating

tangential bending of the webs alternating bending of the
crankpin and on elements of shearing of the crankpin at
the inner web faces
Torsional vibrations producing alternating twisting of the
crankshaft, the journal of which is in any event
torsionally loaded by the gas loads via the web
Axial vibrations in conjunction with the alternating
lengthening and shortening of the shaft and in
conjunction with local bending. Crankshafts may, in
addition be subject to misalignment due to bearing wear
or poor chocking. This produces and alternating bending
of the crankshaft

All the above alternating stress patterns produce fatigue and so the
material must have a built in resistance to it- this is of equal
importance to its U.T.S. (Ultimate Tensile Stress). Mild steel is usually
the material used but in some cases alloying the steel with a small
percentage of nickel, Chromium, Vanadium may take place.
Crankshafts fail usually because of cracks propagating from a stress
concentration point.
Vibration
All components vibrate e.g. a weight on a spring, rotating components
such as crankshafts can vibrate in a torsional manner. The systems
will differ but the principals are the same. The operating frequency
caused by the operating speed is known as the forcing frequency. All
systems have natural frequencies were the vibration amplitude is
excessive (consider out of balanced wheels on a car). Resonance
occurs when the forcing frequency and natural frequency coincide and
the result is excessive vibration. If it is required to keep the vibration
amplitude below a certain value in order to limit stress to prevent
fatigue, then speeds coinciding to the natural frequency orders of it
must be avoided. These speeds are referred to as the barred speeds (or
critical speed ranges).

If the barred speed is located where it is required to operate the

engine, say at half ahead, it will be necessary to fit a detuner or
vibration damper. These lower the vibration peak and move it slightly
higher in the range. The barred speed is either removed or moved
away from the area in which the engine is operated. A vibration
damper consists essentially of an additional rotating mass driven by
the crankshaft and connected to it by a spring or a hydraulic fluid.
The energy of vibration is used up in distorting the spring or shearing
the fluid.
With constant speed engines employing a CPP propeller, vibration
dampers are sometimes required because natural frequencies of the
engine and shaft system changes with load due to the pitch of the
propeller. In some cases there may even be a barred pitch.
Modern trends in materials
For a long period most crankshafts were made out of a material
known as CK40. This had very good ability to withstand the damage
caused by bearing failure such as localized hardening and cracking.
Undersizing by grinding was possible.
Most common materials for crankshaft construction and their
properties are:

The modern trend is to move the chrome-molybdenum alloyed steel of

high tensile stress. These may be non-surface hardened ( which tend
to bend and have localized hardening when reacting to an overheated
bearing) or hardened (tends to loose its hardness and due to changes
in the molecular structure will crack). In both these cases grinding is
generally not an option for repair. For modern material cranks subject
to normal wear grinding may be carried out.