Chapter 6:Mechanical Properties

Why mechanical properties?

Need to design materials that can withstand applied load
e.g. materials used in
building bridges that can
hold up automobiles,
pedestrians

materials for
skyscrapers
in the Windy
City

materials for space

exploration

NASA

materials for and designing

MEMs and NEMs

Space elevators?
Chapter 6 -

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

Stress and strain: What are they and why are

they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

Chapter 6 - 2

Stress and Strain

Stress:

Pressure due to applied load.

tension, compression, shear, torsion, and their
combination.

force
stress = =
area
Strain: response of the material to stress (i.e. physical
deformation such as elongation due to tension).

Chapter 6 - 3

Tension

Shear

Compression

Torsion
Chapter 6 - 4

COMMON STATES OF STRESS

Simple tension: cable

Ao = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)

F
=

Ao

Ski lift

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

From Callister 6e resource CD.

Chapter 6 - 5

COMMON STATES OF STRESS

Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Balanced Rock, Arches

National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
=
Ao

Note: compressive
structure member
( < 0 here).
From Callister 6e resource CD.

Chapter 6 - 6

COMMON STATES OF STRESS

Hydrostatic compression:

Fish under water

h < 0

(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)

From Callister 6e resource CD.

Chapter 6 - 7

Tension and Compression

Tension

F
Engineering stress = =
Ao
li lo l
=
Engineering strain = =
lo
lo
Ao = original cross sectional area
li = instantaneous length
lo = original length
Note: strain is unitless.

Compression
Same as tension but in the opposite direction (stress and strain defined
in the same manner).
By convention, stress and strain are negative for compression.
Chapter 6 - 8

Shear

Pure shear stress =

F
=
Ao

Pure shear strain =

= tan

Strain is always
dimensionless.

Chapter 6 - 9

Elastic Deformation
1. Initial

2. Small load

3. Unload

bonds
stretch
return to
initial

Linearelastic

Elastic means reversible!

-a non-permanent deformation where the
material completely recovers to its original
state upon release of the applied stress.

Non-Linearelastic

Chapter 6 - 10

Plastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial

2. Small load
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear

elastic + plastic

3. Unload
planes
still
sheared

plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent!

linear
elastic

linear
elastic

plastic

Chapter 6 - 11

Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test
machine

extensometer

Typical tensile
specimen

specimen

Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.)

Chapter 6 - 12

Linear Elastic Properties

Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

Hooke's Law:

=E
stress

strain

Modulus of elasticity
(Youngs modulus)

simple
tension
test

Measure of materials resistance to

elastic deformation (stiffness).

For metals, typically E ~ 45 400 GPa

Linearelastic

Chapter 6 - 13

Note: some materials do not have linear elastic region (e.g. cast iron,
concrete, many polymers)
Define secant modulus and tangent modulus.

Tangent modulus = slope of the tangent line

2
1

Secant modulus =

1
=
1

Chapter 6 - 14

Silicon (single crystal)

Glass (pyrex)
SiC (fused or sintered)
Graphite (molded)
High modulus C-fiber
Carbon Nanotubes

120 - 190 (depends on crystallographic direction)

70
207 - 483
~12
400
~1000

If we normalize to density: ~20 times that of steel wire

Density normalized strength is ~56X that
of steel
Chapter
6 - 15 wire

Poisson Ratio
So far, weve considered stress only along one dimension
Along z: tension

l
z =
lo

Along x: compression

z
x

do

lo

lo+l
do+d

Compression

Isotropic x and y:

x =

d
do

y = x

y
x
=
Poisson ratio = =
z
z
Elongation

Relation between elastic and shear moduli: E = 2G(1+)

Chapter 6 - 16

Poisson Ratio
Poisson Ratio has a range 1 1/2
Look at extremes
No change in aspect ratio:

w /w = l /l

w /w
= 1
l /l

Volume (V = AL) remains constant: V =0 or lA = - A l

Hence, V = (l A+A l) = 0.
In terms of width, A = w2,
and A = w2 - (w+w)2 = 2w w + w2
then A/A = 2 w/w + w2/w2
in the limit of small changes
A/A = 2 w/w
then
2 w/w = -l/l

w / w
( 12 l / l)
=
=
= 1/ 2
l / l
l / l
Chapter 6 - 17

Poisson's ratio,
Poisson's ratio, :

L
=
metals: ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~ 0.25
polymers: ~ 0.40

Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
: dimensionless

> 0.50 density increases

< 0.50 density decreases
(voids form)
Chapter 6 - 18

Poisson Ratio: materials specific

Metals:

Ir
0.26

W
0.29

Ni
0.31

Cu
0.34

Al
0.34

Ag
0.38

Au
0.42

generic value ~ 1/3

Solid Argon: 0.25

Covalent Solids:

Ionic Solids:

MgO

Si
0.27

Ge
0.28

Al2O3
0.23

TiC
0.19

generic value ~ 1/4

0.19

Silica Glass: 0.20

Polymers: Network (Bakelite) 0.49
Elastomer:

Chain (PE) 0.40

Hard Rubber (Ebonite) 0.39

(Natural) 0.49
Chapter 6 - 19

Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal

Adapted from Fig. 6.7,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 20

Other Elastic Properties

Elastic Shear
modulus, G:

M
G

=G
Elastic Bulk
modulus, K:

V
P = -K
Vo

M
P

P
K

V P
Vo

Special relations for isotropic materials:

E
G=
2(1 + )

simple
torsion
test

E
K=
3(1 2)

P
pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
Vol chg.
= V

Chapter 6 - 21

Youngs Moduli: Comparison

Metals
Alloys
1200
1000
800
600
400

E(GPa)

200
100
80
60
40

109 Pa

Graphite
Composites
Ceramics Polymers
/fibers
Semicond
Diamond

Tungsten
Molybdenum
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium,
Tin

Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride

Carbon fibers only

CFRE(|| fibers)*

<111>

Si crystal

Aramid fibers only

<100>

AFRE(|| fibers)*

Glass -soda

Glass fibers only

GFRE(|| fibers)*
Concrete
GFRE*

20
10
8
6
4
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

CFRE*
GFRE( fibers)*

Graphite

Polyester
PET
PS
PC

CFRE( fibers) *
AFRE( fibers) *

Epoxy only

Based on data in Table B2,

Callister 7e.
Composite data based on
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
carbon (CFRE),
aramid (AFRE), or
glass (GFRE)
fibers.

PP
HDPE
PTFE
LDPE

Wood(

grain)

Chapter 6 - 22

Useful Linear Elastic Relationships

Simple tension:

= FL o = Fw o
L
EA o
EA o
F
/2

Ao

wo

Lo

Simple torsion:

2ML o
r o4 G
M = moment
= angle of twist

Lo

2ro
L /2
Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 6 - 23

Plastic (Permanent) Deformation

Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),
Callister 7e.

Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress

engineering stress,

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

engineering strain,
plastic strain

A permanent deformation (usually considered for T<Tm/3).

Atoms break bonds and form new ones.
In metals, plastic deformation occurs typically at strain 0.005.

Chapter 6 - 24

Tensile properties
A. Yield strength (y): the strength required to produce a very
slight yet specified amount of plastic deformation.
What is the specified amount of strain?
Strain offset method

1. Start at 0.002 strain (for most metals).

2. Draw a line parallel to the linear region.
3. y = where the dotted line crosses the
stress-strain curve.

y
P

P = proportional limit (beginning of deviation

from linear behavior.
Mixed elastic-plastic behavior

0.002
Elastic region

For materials with nonlinear elastic region: y is

defined as stress required to produce specific
amount of strain (e.g. ~0.005 for most metals).
Chapter 6 - 25

Tensile properties
Yield point phenomenon occurs when elastic-plastic transition is welldefined and abrupt.

No offset methods required here.

Fig. 6.10 Callister

Chapter 6 - 26

Yield Strength : Comparison

Metals/
Alloys

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

Polymers

Composites/
fibers

2000

200

Al (6061) ag
Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr

100
70
60
50
40

Al (6061) a

30
20

10

Tin (pure)

dry

PC
Nylon 6,6
PET
PVC humid
PP
HDPE

LDPE

Hard to measure,

300

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

700
600
500
400

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
W (pure)
Cu (71500) cw
Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

1000

Hard to measure ,

Yield strength, y (MPa)

Steel (4140) qt

y(ceramics)
>>y(metals)
>> y(polymers)
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 7e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered

Chapter 6 - 27

Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 7e.

TS

F = fracture or
ultimate
strength

engineering
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck acts
as stress
concentrator

strain
engineering strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 6 - 28

True stress and strain

engineering
stress

TS

Notice that past maximum stress point,

decreases.
Does this mean that the material is
becoming weaker?
Typical response of a metal

Necking leads to smaller cross sectional

area!

strain

Recall: Engineering Stress =

True Stress = T =

F
Ai

li
=
ln

True Strain = T
lo

F
Ao

Original cross sectional area!

Ai = instantaneous area
li = instantaneous length
If no net volume change (i.e. Ai li = Ao lo)

T = (1 + )
T = ln(1 + )

Only true at the onset of

necking
Chapter 6 - 29

Example problem
Calculate/determine the
following for a brass
specimen that exhibits
stress-strain behavior
shown on the left.
1) Modulus of elasticity.
2) Yield strength.
3) Maximum load for a
cylindrical specimen with
d = 12.8mm.
4) Change in length at
345MPa if the initial
length is 250mm.

Chapter 6 - 30

Tensile Strength : Comparison

Metals/
Alloys

Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

5000
3000
2000
1000

300
200
100
40
30

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

Polymers

C fibers
Aramid fib
E-glass fib
Steel (4140) qt
AFRE(|| fiber)
GFRE(|| fiber)
CFRE(|| fiber)

Diamond
W (pure)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa
Steel (4140)cw
Si nitride
Cu (71500)
Cu (71500) hr
Al oxide
Steel (1020)
ag
Al (6061)
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a
Si crystal
<100>

Glass-soda
Concrete

Room Temp. values

Nylon 6,6
PC PET
PVC
PP
HDPE

20

Composites/
fibers

Graphite

wood(|| fiber)
GFRE( fiber)
CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber)

LDPE

10

wood (

fiber)

Based on data in Table B4,

Callister 7e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
Chapter 6 - 31

Tensile properties
C. Ductility:: measure of degree of plastic deformation that has been
sustained at fracture.
Ductile materials can undergo significant plastic deformation
before fracture.
Brittle materials can tolerate only very small plastic
deformation.

Chapter 6 - 32

Ductility
Plastic tensile strain at failure:

L f Lo
x 100
%EL =
Lo

smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress,

larger %EL

Lo

Ao

Af

Lf

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,

Callister 7e.

Engineering tensile strain,

Another ductility measure:

%RA =

Ao - Af
x 100
Ao
Chapter 6 - 33

Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering
tensile
stress,

small toughness (ceramics)

large toughness (metals)
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,

Callister 7e.

Engineering tensile strain,

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Chapter 6 - 34

Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region

Ur =

If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur y y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 35

Elastic recovery after plastic deformation

This behavior is exploited to

increase yield strengths of
metals: strain hardening (also
called cold working).

Chapter 6 - 36

Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force

measure size
of indent after
removing load

e.g.,
10 mm sphere

D
most
plastics

brasses
Al alloys

Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.

d
easy to machine
steels
file hard

cutting
tools

nitrided
steels

diamond

increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 37

Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
Minor load 10 kg
Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 - 38

Hardness scales

Indentation with
diamond pyramid tip
Indentation with
spherical hardened
steel and conical
diamond (for
hardest materials)

Indentation with spherical

hardened steel or tungsten
carbide tip.

Chapter 6 - 39
Qualitative scale

Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

Chapter 6 - 40

True Stress & Strain

Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched
True stress

T = F Ai

T = (1 + )

True Strain

T = ln(l i l o )

T = ln(1 + )

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 41

Hardening
An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

large hardening

y
1
y

small hardening

Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

n

( )

T = K T
true stress (F/A)

hardening exponent:
n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6 - 42

Variability in Material Properties

Elastic modulus is material property
Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
Statistics
n

Mean

Standard Deviation

xn
x=
n
2
n
(x i x )

s=
n 1

1
2

where n is the number of data points

Chapter 6 - 43

Design or Safety Factors

Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N
Often N is

working =

between
1.2 and 4

Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does

not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.

working =
220,000N
d2 / 4

y
N

1045 plain
carbon steel:
y = 310 MPa
TS = 565 MPa

d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm

Lo

F = 220,000N
Chapter 6 - 44

Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter 6 - 45