Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
1 Index
Contenido
1
Index...................................................................................................................... 1
AISC 360-05........................................................................................................... 1
2.1
2.2
2.2.1
Columns.................................................................................................... 2
2.2.2
Frames....................................................................................................... 2
Methods:................................................................................................................ 3
3.1
Tables............................................................................................................... 3
3.2
Manual Calculation.......................................................................................... 8
3.2.1
3.2.2
Determine Fcr............................................................................................ 9
3.2.3
Nominal strength..................................................................................... 10
2 STRUCTURAL CONCEPTS
The design compressive strength Pn and the allowable compressive strength Pn/ are
determined using c = 0.90 (LRFD) and c = 1.67 (ASD) for all cases.
The nominal compressive strength Pn is determined as the least value calculated for the
limit states of
- flexural buckling,
- torsional buckling, and
- flexural-torsional buckling, as applicable.
Flexural buckling is applicable for doubly symmetric and singly symmetric members.
For singly symmetric and unsymmetric members, and certain doubly symmetric
members, such as cruciform or built-up columns, the limit states of torsional or
flexural torsional buckling are also applicable.
An important factor in the design of compression members is the slenderness ratio, KL/r,
where
L = laterally unbraced length of member, in (mm),
r = governing radius of gyration, in (mm), and
K = effective length factor.
Although the AISC Specification imposes no maximum slenderness limit, it is sometimes
considered good practice to limit KL/r to 200 for members designed on the basis of
compression.
The buckling coefficient K is the ratio of the effective column length to the unbraced
length L.
(Also see Art. 5.2.) Values of K depend on the support conditions of the column to be
designed. The AISC Specification indicates that K should be taken as unity for columns in
braced frames unless analysis indicates that a smaller value is justified. Analysis is
required for determination of K for unbraced frames, but K should not be less than unity.
Design values for K recommended by the Structural Stability Research Council for use with
six idealized conditions of rotation and translation
at column supports are illustrated in Fig. 5.1.
The following articles give the compressive strength of members without slender
elements.
Provisions for the latter may be found in Art. E7 of the AISC Specificatio
deflect more than the bars near the edge, and therefore, the edge bars carry higher loads
after buckling than do the center bars.
The postbuckling behavior of a simply supported plate is similar to that of the grid model.
However, the ability of a plate to resist shear strains that develop during buckling also
contributes to its postbuckling strength.
Although the grid shown in Fig. 9.3a
buckled into only one longitudinal
half-wave, a longer plate may buckle
into several waves, as illustrated in
Figs. 9.2 and 9.3b.
For long plates, the half-wavelength
approaches the width b.
After a simply supported plate
buckles, the compressive stress will
vary from a maximum near the
supported edges to a minimum at the
mid-width of the plate, as shown by
line 1 of Fig. 9.3c. As the load is
increased the edge stresses will
increase, but the stress in the midwidth of the plate may decrease
slightly. The maximum load is reached
and collapse is initiated when the
edge stress reaches the yield stress
a condition indicated by line 2 of Fig.
9.3c.
The postbuckling strength of a plate
element can be considered by
assuming that, after buckling, the
total load is carried by strips adjacent
to the supported edges which are at a
uniform stress equal to the actual
maximum edge stress. These strips
are indicated by the dashed lines in
Fig. 9.3c. The total width of the strips,
which represents the effective width
of the element b, is defined so that
the product of b and the maximum
edge stress equals the actual stresses
integrated over the entire width.
The effective width decreases as the applied stress f increases. At maximum load, the
stress on the effective width is the yield stress fy.
Thus, an element with a small enough w/t will be able to reach the yield point and will be
fully effective. Elements with larger ratios will have an effective width that is less than the
full width, and that reduced width will be used in section property calculations.
The behaviour of elements with other edge-support conditions is generally similar to that
discussed
above. However, an element supported along only one edge will develop only one
effective strip.
Equations for calculating effective widths of elements are given in subsequent articles
based on
the AISI NAS. These equations are based on theoretical elastic buckling theory but
modified to reflect
the results of extensive physical testing.
9.7 MAXIMUM WIDTH-TO-THICKNESS RATIOS
The AISI NAS gives certain maximum width-to-thickness ratios that must be adhered to.
For flange elements, such as in flexural members or columns, the maximum flat width-to
thickness ratio, w/t, disregarding any intermediate stiffeners, is as follows:
Stiffened compression element having one longitudinal edge connected to a web or flange
element, the other stiffened by
A simple lip, 60
Other stiffener with IS Ia, 90
Other stiffener with IS Ia, 90
Stiffened compression element with both longitudinal edges connected to other stiffened
elements, 500
Unstiffened compression element, 60
In the above,
- IS is the moment of inertia of the stiffener about its centroidal axis, parallel to the
element to be stiffened, and
- Ia is the moment of inertia of a stiffener adequate for the element to behave as a
stiffened element.
Note that, although greater ratios are permitted, stiffened compression elements
3 AISC 360-05
Brace and unbraced frames. Buckling resistance and torsional buckling according to AISC
13th edition. Personal development. 1 hour. Chart to obtain K. Rotational stiffness.
If AMERICAN SECTIONS, check table 22 to determine Available Critical Stress
3.2 Determine K (Effective Length factor) for the X-axis and Y-axis
Select case
3.2.1 Columns
Table C-C2.2
For isolated columns that are not part of a continuous frame, Table C-C2.2 in the Commentary to
the Specification will usually suffice.
FY (N/mm2)
355
275
3.3.2 Frames
Braced frames
113.2
128.6
Unbraced frames
KxL/rx
KyL/ry
KL
rx
ry
FY (N/mm2)
355
275
113.2
128.6
If KL/r <
Eq. E3-2
or Fe 0.44 Fy then
If KL/r >
13.5
15.3
If slender: Stiffener or use factor Q (foot note C in AISC manual section tables)
KL/r , an upper limit of 200 is recommended
3.4.1.2Compact (no instability)
Calculate Euler load Fe: (critical buckling load according to the Euler equation)
Determine Fcr
35.8
40.7
Fe = elastic critical buckling stress, calculated using Equations E3-4 and E4-4 for
doubly symmetric members,
OTHER MEMBERS
Equation E4-6 for unsymmetric members, except for single angles where Fe is
calculated using Equation E3-4.
3.4.1.3Slender
For uniformly compressed elements, as in
an axially loaded compression member,
the strength must
be reduced if the shape has any slender
elements.
(TAKE INTO ACCOUNT IF SLENDER
STIFFENED OR SLENDER UNSTIFFENED)
SEE E7. MEMBERS WITH SLENDER
ELEMENTS AISC 2005 - Specification for
Structural Steel Buildings
AISC Specification Section E7.1 gives the procedure for calculating Qs for slender
unstiffened elements: The procedure is straightforward, and involves comparing the
width-thickness ratio with a limiting value and then computing Qs from an expression
that is a function of the width-thickness ratio, Fy, and E.
The reduction factor Qs for slender unstiffened elements is defined as follows:
- (a) For flanges, angles, and plates projecting from rolled columns or other
compression members:
- (b) For flanges, angles, and plates projecting from built-up columns or other
compression members:
where
f = Pn/Aeff
User Note: In lieu of calculating f = Pn/Aeff, which requires iteration, f
may be taken equal to Fy .
This will result in a slightly conservative
estimate of column capacity.
be = effective width of the slender element
For doubly symmetric I-shaped sections, Cw may be taken conservatively as Iyd 2/4.
For tees and double angles, take Cw and xo as 0.
3.5.1 For double-angle and tee-shaped compression members,
where Fcry is determined according to Eq. (5.20) or (5.21) for flexural buckling about
the y axis of symmetry with (KL/r) (KL/ry), and
For all other cases, Fcr is determined from Eq. (5.20) or (5.21), but with Fe determined
as follows:
3.5.2 For doubly symmetric members,
3.5.4 For unsymmetric members, Fe is the lowest root of the cubic equation
Specification. The modified slenderness ratios are intended to account indirectly for
bending due to
eccentricity of loading and end restraint from truss chords.
For equal-leg angles, or unequal-leg angles connected through the longer leg, which
are individual
members or are web members of planar trusses with adjacent web members
attached to the same
side of the gusset plate or chord:
When 0 (L/rx) 80,
(5.33)
When (L/rx) > 80,
(5.34)
For unequal-leg angles with leg length ratios less than 1.7 connected through the
shorter leg, the
KL/r from Eqs. (5.33) and (5.34) should be increased by adding 4[(bl/bs)2 1], but
KL/r should not be less than 0.95L/rz.
For equal-leg angles or unequal-leg angles connected through the longer leg that are
web members
of box or space trusses with adjacent web members attached to the same side of the
gusset plate or chord:
When 0 (L/rx) 75,
(5.35)
When (L/rx) > 75,
(5.36)
For unequal-leg angles with leg length ratios less than 1.7, connected through the shorter leg, the
KL/r from Eqs. (5.35) and (5.36) should be increased by adding 6[(bl/bs)2 1], but
KL/r should not
be less than 0.82L/rz.
The following definitions apply:
L = length of member between work points at truss chord centerlines, in (mm)
rz = radius of gyration about minor axis, in (mm)
rx = radius of gyration about axis parallel to connected leg, in (mm)
bl = longer leg of angle, in (mm)
bs = shorter leg of angle, in (mm)
where (KL/r)o slenderness ratio of built-up member acting as a unit in the buckling direction
being considered
a distance between connectors, in (mm)
ri minimum radius of gyration of individual component, in (mm)
rib radius of gyration of individual component relative to its centroidal axis parallel
to member axis of buckling, in (mm)
separation ratio h/2rib
h distance between centroids of individual components perpendicular to the member
axis of buckling, in (mm)
The following dimensional requirements apply for built-up members. Individual components of
compression members composed of two or more shapes should be connected to one another at
intervals
a such that the effective slenderness ratio Ka/ri of each of the component shapes, between the
connectors, does not exceed three-fourths of the governing slenderness ratio of the built-up member.
Use the least radius of gyration ri to compute the slenderness ratio of each component part. The end
connection must be welded or fully tensioned bolted with Class A or B faying surfaces. The end
connection
may be designed for the full compressive load in a bearing-type bolted connection, but the
bolts must be fully tightened (see Art. 5.9.5).
At the ends of built-up compression members bearing on base plates or milled surfaces, all components
in contact with one another must be connected by a weld having a length not less than the
maximum width of the member, or by bolts spaced longitudinally not more than four diameters apart
for a distance equal to 11/2 times the maximum width of the member.
Along the length of built-up compression members between the end connections, longitudinal
spacing for intermittent welds or bolts should be adequate to transfer required forces. Where a
component
of a built-up compression member consists of an outside plate, and intermittent welds are provided
along the edges of the components or bolts are provided on all gage lines at each section, the
maximum spacing should not exceed the thickness of the thinner outside plate times 0.75 E/Fy ,nor
12 in (305 mm). When fasteners are staggered, the maximum spacing on each gage line should not
exceed the thickness of the thinner outside plate times 1.12 E/Fy nor 18 in (460 mm).
Open sides of compression members built up from plates or shapes should be provided with
continuous cover plates perforated with a succession of access holes. According to the AISC
Specification, the unsupported width of such plates at access holes contributes to the design strength
provided the following requirements are met: (1) the widththickness ratio conforms to the limitations
of Art. 5.1.5, (2) the ratio of hole length in the direction of stress to hole width of hole does not
exceed 2, (3) the clear distance between holes in the direction of stress is not less than the transverse
distance between the nearest lines of connecting fasteners or welds, and (4) the periphery of the holes
has a radius no less than of 11/2 in (38 mm).
As an alternative to perforated cover plates, lacing can be used with tie plates at each end and at
points where the lacing is interrupted. In members providing design strength, the end tie plates
should have a length of not less than the distance between the lines of fasteners or welds connecting
them to the components of the member. Intermediate tie plates should have a length not less than
one-half this distance. The thickness of tie plates should be not less than 1/50th the distance between
lines of welds or fasteners connecting them to the segments of the members. In welded construction,
the welding on each line connecting a tie plate should total at least one-third the length of the plate.
In bolted construction, the spacing in the direction of stress in tie plates should be not more than six
diameters and the tie plates should be connected to each segment by at least three fasteners.
Lacing, including flat bars, angles, channels, or other shapes employed as lacing, must be so
spaced that L/r of the flange included between their connections does not exceed three-fourths of the
governing slenderness ratio for the member as a whole. Lacing must be proportioned to provide a
shearing strength normal to the axis of the member equal to 2% of the compressive design strength
of the member. The L/r ratio for lacing bars must not exceed 140 for single lacing systems, or 200
for double lacing systems. Join double lacing bars where they intersect. For single lacing bars in
compression, take L as the unsupported length of the lacing bar between welds or fasteners connecting
it to the components of the built-up member. For double lacing, take L as 70% of that distance. It is
considered good practice to keep the inclination of lacing bars to the axis of the member
to not less than 60for single lacing or 45for double lacing. Also, use double lacing or lacing
made up of angles where distance between the lines of bolts or welds exceeds 15 in (380 mm).
For limitations on the longitudinal spacing of connectors between elements in continuous contact
consisting of a plate and a shape or two plates, and other limitations, see Art. 5.9.7.
the discussion accompanying the alignment chart in the Commentary recommends a value
of G = 1.0 because true fixity will rarely be achieved.
The relationship between G and K has been quantified in the JacksonMooreland Alignment
Charts (Johnston, 1976), which are reproduced in Figures C-C2.3 and C-C2.4 in the
Commentary. To obtain a value of K from one of these nomograms, first calculate the value of
G at each end of the column, letting one value be GA and the other be GB. Connect GA and
GB with a straight line, and read the value of K on the middle scale. The effective length
factor obtained in this manner is with respect to the axis of bending, which is the axis
perpendicular to the plane of the frame.
A separate analysis must be made for buckling about the other axis. Normally the beam-tocolumn connections in this direction will not transmit moment; sidesway is prevented by
bracing; and K can be taken as 1.0.
Unbraced frames are able to support lateral loads because of their moment resisting joints.
Often the frame is augmented by a bracing system of some sort; such frames are called
braced frames.
The additional resistance to lateral loads can take the form of diagonal bracing or rigid shear
walls, as illustrated in Figure 4.16.
.
Braced frames Often the frame is augmented
by a bracing system of some sort. The
additional resistance to lateral loads can take
the form of diagonal bracing or rigid shear
walls. The additional resistance to lateral
loads can take the form of diagonal bracing
or rigid shear walls, as illustrated in Figure
4.16
A frame must resist not only the tendency to sway under the action of lateral loads but also
the tendency to buckle, or become unstable, under the action of vertical loads. Bracing to
stabilize a structure against vertical loading is called stability bracing. Appendix 6 of the AISC
Specification, Stability Bracing for Columns and Beams, covers this type of bracing.
Two categories are covered: relative and nodal.
1. With relative bracing, a brace point is restrained relative to adjacent brace points. A
relative brace is connected not only to the member to be braced but also to other
members, as with diagonal bracing. With relative bracing, both the brace and other
members contribute to stabilizing the member to be braced.
2. Nodal bracing provides isolated support at specific locations on the member and is not
relative to other brace points or other members.
The provisions of AISC Appendix 6 give equations for the required strength and stiffness
(resistance to deformation)
of stability bracing. The provisions for columns are from the Guide to Stability
Design Criteria (Galambos, 1998). The required strength and stiffness for
stability can be added directly to the requirements for bracing to resist lateral loading.
Stability bracing is discussed further in Chapter 5, Beams, and Chapter 6,
BeamColumns.
Columns that are members of braced rigid frames are prevented from sidesway
and have some degree of rotational restraint at their ends. Thus they are in a category
that lies somewhere between cases (a) and (d) in Table C-C2.2 of the Commentary,
and K is between 0.5 and 1.0. A value of 1.0 is therefore always conservative for members
of braced frames and is the value prescribed by AISC C1.3a unless an analysis is
made. Such an analysis can be made with the alignment chart for braced frames. Use
of this nomogram would result in an effective length factor somewhat less than 1.0,
and some savings could be realized.*
As with any design aid, the alignment charts should be used only under the conditions
for which they were derived. These conditions are discussed in Section C2 of the
Commentary to the Specification and are not enumerated here. Most of the conditions
will usually be approximately satisfied; if they are not, the deviation will be on the
conservative
side. One condition that usually is not satisfied is the requirement that all behavior
be elastic. If the slenderness ratio KLr is less than 4.71 E/Fy the column will buckle
inelastically, and the effective length factor obtained from the alignment chart will be overly
conservative. A large number of columns are in this category.
A convenient procedure for determining K for inelastic columns allows the alignment charts
to be used (Yura, 1971; Disque, 1973). To demonstrate the procedure we begin with the critical
buckling load for an inelastic column given by Equation
4.6b. Dividing it by the cross-sectional area gives the buckling stress:
The rotational stiffness of a column in this state would be proportional to EtIc_Lc, and
the appropriate value of G for use in the alignment chart is
Because Et is less than E, Ginelastic is less than Gelastic, and the effective length factor K
will be reduced, resulting in a more economical design. To evaluate Et_E, called the
stiffness reduction factor (denoted by ta), consider the following relationship for a column
with pinned ends:
(4.13)
AISC uses an approximation for the inelastic portion of the column strength curve, so
Equation 4.13 is an approximation when AISC Equations E3-2 and E3-3 are used for Fcr.
We can approximate Fcr by the compressive strength:
Then in the elastic range, Fcr (inelastic) is approximately
and
We can solve for Fe, then compute
Fcr(elastic) 0.877Fe
The stiffness reduction factor ta can then be computed
4.2 K-VALUES
These charts, originally developed by Julian and Lawrence, present a practical method for
estimating -values. They were developed from a slope-deflection analysis of the frames that
includes the effects of column loads.
K
One chart was developed for columns braced against sidesway and one for columns subject
to sidesway
The stiffness reduction can only be applied if the buckling is inelastic. Take into account that
KL/ry can be larger than KL/rx. Use larger to determine buckling elastic or inelastic
Chart for effective length (for columns braced against sidesway and one for columns subject
to sidesway)
Fcr(elastic) 0.877Fe
LFRD
Being,
If KL/r >
3
Being
Fe =
2 E
2
= 30.56 ksi
Pa=
13.5
15.3
35.8
40.7
For column AB
b) For column BC
c) For column AB
GB= GBa=
Determine Fcr:
Pn = Fcr Ag
Strength of the section= cPn
5.3.2 ASD
GA= 1
Determine Fcr:
Pn = Fcr Ag
Strength of the section= Pn/c
Elastic buckling: