The Propaganda Model and Boko Haram Crises in NIgeria

ISLAM AND TERRORISM AS FILTERS OF PROPAGANDA IN NIGERIAN
JOURNALISM: A STUDY OF THE COVERAGE OF THE 2009 BOKO

HARAM CRISIS IN SELECTED NEWSPAPERS
BY
IBIKUNLE, TAOFEEK OLAWALE
070902044
BEING A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

MASS COMMUNICATION, FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY
OF LAGOS, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE
AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE, B.SC (HONS.), DEGREE IN MASS
COMMUNICATION, UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS
AUGUST, 2011
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this research has not been accepted in substance for
any other degree and is not being submitted concurrently for any other
degree. It is a product of my intellectual investigation written by me and not
copied from any past work. I also declare that published materials directly
used in the research work are appropriately acknowledged.
NAME:
IBIKUNLE, TAOFEEK OLAWALE
SIGNATURE: _________________________
DATE:
__________________________
CERTIFICATION
I certify that this project written by Ibikunle, Taofeek Olawale has been
approved by me as having satisfied the requirement of the Department of
Mass Communication of the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Lagos,
for the award of Bachelor of Science (B.Sc. Hons) degree in Mass
Communication.
_______________________
________________
Mrs. Ifeoma Amobi
Date
Project Supervisor
________________________
________________
Prof. Ralph A. Akinfeleye
Date
Chair/Head of Department
______________________
________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
Date
DEDICATION
I dedicate this to every Muslim who has died Shaheed, Sumayah the first of
them, Hamzah, their leaderand My Parents whom I envisage such for
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praises are for Allah the Cherisher and Sustainer of the Universe and all
that is in them and between them He it is who taught man speech and
everything. May Allah send salutations upon Prophet as well as exalt his
mention, and also on his household and the generality of Muslims.
I appreciate the Head and Chair of the Department of Mass Communication,
University of Lagos, Professor Ralph Akinfeleye for his academic acumen
which has influenced many of us.
I sincerely appreciate the efforts of my supervisor, Mrs. Ifeoma Amobi, who
painstakingly examined my project giving me the necessary advice
whenever I needed it.
Thanks is also due to those who tutored me: Dr Abayomi Daramola, Dr. Victor
Ayedun Aluma, Dr Abigail Ogwezzy, Dr Olubunmi Ajibade, Dr Ismail Ibrahim,
Dr Tejumaiye, Dr, Oloruntola Sunday, Dr. Alabi, Mr. Taslim Lawal, Ms. Joy Rita
Mogbogu, Mr. I.S Popoola, Mrs. Khadijat Aledeh-Momodu, Mrs. AdepateMustapha Koiki, Mr. Akinyemi Taiwo, Mr. Charles Onwunali, Mr. Otunfodunrin,
Mr. Fassy Yusuf, Dr Innocent Okoye and other lecturers whose books have
been very useful.
I will always be grateful to my aunt Alhaja Agbaje who through the Librarian
of the Court of Appeal Lagos granted me full access to the library of the
court.
The class of 11 (first 11 best 11) also contributed to my success. Thank you
guys
I appreciate my dad and mum who have been the best parents, best
teachers, best friends and best everything; my dad for his acuity, my Mum
for her uniqueness.
Someone who deserves special mention is my uncle, Mr. Abdullah Durodola

who advised me to take up this research. All thanks to his wife Safiat, and
kids, Abdusamad and Toyibah who gave me all the fun I could not get
anywhere, not even in Disney Land. I cant forget my brother AbdulQuadri
and Sisters Mum Enoch, Mrs Abaniwonda and Azeezat the team
The MSSN UNILAG cannot be forgotten she gave me the greatest platform
to link town with gown. The brothers and sisters I have met directly and
indirectly are wonderful people.
And to others, Jazakumullah kayran
ABSTRACT
While the debate about the existence or non-existence of objectivity in
news reportage lingers on, a new discourse embedded in the concept
of propaganda is necessary. This work rested upon the fifth filter of the
propaganda model (anti-ideology) specifically studying Islam and
Terrorism in the reportage of the Boko Haram crisis. The research was
built upon the propaganda model making special reference to the
filters of ownership as well as anti-communism (anti-ideology). This
work found out that Islam and Terrorism have started taking roles as
anti-ideologies as represented in the study of The Guardian and The
Trust. In the final analysis it was found out that ownership is a factor in
the representation of Islam as an anti-ideological filter in the two
newspapers. It also found out the name-calling tool of propaganda was
used excessively as well as the use of unequal number of sources
6
concerned to the stories in relationship to other sources used. The

content analysis method of analysis was used. This work also did not
study intent as it is an impossible task in the study of propaganda; it
solely rested on the existence of a pointer to propaganda. The findings
support the model of propaganda that ownership especially as related
to prestige, resource and profitability dictate the flow of media
messages. Findings also support the model in relationship to antiideology. Definition of concepts was structured on the concept of
ideology. Islam and terrorism as global ideologies were studied as well
as Boko Haram who represents ideologues of a particular ideology.
Recommendations were however, made for subsequent studies,
journalists as well as academics to develop a standard parameter as
well as the need to develop courses to suit reporting conflicts.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title Page
Declaration
ii
Certification
iii
Dedication
iv
Acknowledgements
Abstract
vi
7
Table of Contents
vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background to Study
Statement of Problem
Objectives of Study
Research Questions
Scope and Limitation of Study
Operational Definition of Terms
References
CHAPTER
10
TWO:
LITERATURE
REVIEW
AND
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Review of Concepts and Existing Literature
13
Islam: A Dominant World Ideology?
13
Terrorism: Ideology or Ideological Channel?

17
Boko Haram: Its Adherents, the Crises
19
Theoretical Review
21
Propaganda Model
22
Empirical Review
25
References
28
8
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design
32
Population of Study
32
Sampling Method
32
Sample Size
33
Sampling Procedure
33
Data Collection Instrument
34
Units of Analysis
34
Variables
34
Duration of Study
35
Method of Data Collection
35
Coding Guide
35
Inter-coder Reliability
35
Method of Data Analysis
36
Brief Profile of Sampled Newspapers

36
References
37
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS

Analysis of Data and Discussion
38
References
48
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
49
Conclusions
50
Recommendations
52
Suggestions for Further Studies
53
Bibliography
55
Appendices
62
10
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Propaganda, as inverted patriotism, draws nourishment from the sins of the
enemy. If there are no sins, invents them; the aim is to make the enemy
appear so great a monster that he forfeits the rights of a human being Sir
Ian Hamilton quoted in Oladimeji (2008).
The world has lived with conflicts ever since creation. The devil dared to
disobey his lord leading him into a conflict with his creator which made him
condemned by the Almighty for the rest of his existence. This perhaps led to
the differences existing today in peoples definition of good and evil; while
the creator is associated with good, the one who dared to get into a conflict
with the creator the devil is associated with prompting men to do evil.
Alabi (2010) says that conflicts and crises are permanent features of live
which we have come to live and cope with and resolve from time to time.
Beyond celestial conflicts, man had his own worries. The worry for survival,
power, and grandeur bothered man. He was concerned on how to dominate
others for his own benefits, and this led the world into a state of chaos
(Hassan, 2010). Wars were fought for the sake of dominance and power.
Slaves were amassed in numbers and man degraded the humanity of his
fellow man; man was in the state of nature where life was nasty, short,
11
brutish, poor and solitary (Hobbes in Appadorai, 1974). It was also stated
that man is essentially selfish; he is moved to action not by his intellect or
reason but by his appetites, desires and passions (Appadorai, 1974). But as
civilization came, first spurred by religion, the focus for wars changed. Man
was concerned about bringing other men to the worship of God, and he did
this through wars; this is peculiar to the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic
religions (Guilday, 1999).
The Saracens (largely Arabs) engaged the Crusaders (the Army of the Pope)
in war (Guilday, 1999). The papacy, when the power of the protestant was
waxing stronger, had to devise a means and that means, which was to
propagate the stance of the Pope led to the birth of the word Propaganda,
and also its practice (Guilday, 1999). The word propaganda was actually first
used in 1622 when Pope Gregory XV issued the Sacra Congregatio de
Propaganda Fide to counter the growing Protestant threat in order "to reconquer by spiritual arms" those areas "lost to the Church in the debacle of
the sixteenth century" (Brahm, 2006). The concept became one of the
factors that came into play during World War I and World War II especially
through the exploits of Lippmann and Bernays in the USA and Goebbels in
Germany (Brahm, 2006).
After the major wars that polarized the world into two blocs, (communist and
capitalist) (Akinboye & Ottoh, 2007), the world embarked on another war
an ideological one (Klaehn, 2006). Both sides (communist and capitalist)
12
employed the tools of propaganda to first, devalue the ideology of the

opponent and second, win over converts to their side (Klaehn, 2002). Anticommunism would later become one of the models of Propaganda as
explained by Herman and Chomsky in describing the American press
(Klaehn, 2002).
Now the world is undergoing another major conflict a crisis between
cultures; the Western culture is at war with the Islamic culture (Huntington,
1996). While the West sees the Islamic culture as barbaric, Islam sees the
Western culture as unholy. (Hoffman, 2010). The West wants to win the war
and Islam does not want to be a party to the insolence to The Almighty
(Hoffmann 2010).
Terrorism is another ideology the West has had to combat with in recent
times (Karim, 2003). Some scholars opine that those who use terrorism as a
way of response are only responding to the structural violence created in the
first place by the ruling party (Karim, 2003). The ruling class hates it that the
people respond to the injustices meted out to the masses so they call the
political violence of those who seek to upset the status quo as terrorism
(Karim, 2003).
While it is not so difficult to assert that the two concepts of Islam and
Terrorism have taken a global trend and are already ideologies hated by the
West especially as explained by (Flood, Nickels, Hutchings & Miazhevich,
2007) in their study of the BBC, it is difficult to assert that the concepts have
roots in Nigeria especially in the absence of an empirical statement. This
13
research studied the existent of propaganda not the intent of the journalists,
and as explained by Chomsky and Herman in Klaehn (2002), deliberate
intent (conspiracy) and unconscious hegemony (professional ideology) are
for the most part unknowable and immeasurable. Herman (2000) goes on to
call intent an immeasurable red herring.
Here in Nigeria, there have been series of crisis and most of them have
religious backgrounds. We have had the Maitatsine crisis, the Boko Haram
crisis, the Jos Crisis, and many other religious crises (Hassan, 2010). Since
most of these crises take place in the North, many have been termed
religious, and since the inhabitants of the North are predominantly Muslims,
many people think they have been orchestrated by Muslims against nonMuslims.
Muslim Scholars claim that these acts are not Islamic and that a Muslims
violence does not make other Muslims violent (Karim, 2003). Some scholars
lay claim to a statement of Prophet Mohammad that may totally exonerate
Islam (not Muslims) from terroristic actions. The Prophet Mohammad said:
and my followers will be divided into seventy-three sects which will all be
(punished) in Hell-fire with the exception of one."
When his Companions asked him to identify the one, he replied, "Those who
are upon that which my Companions and I follow." (Ahmad, 1984)
Scholars of Islamic Jurisprudence refer to that one sect as the saved sect and
they are given the name Al-Sunnah wa Jammah (those who follow the
Prophet in everything he did) (Naasirud-Deen, 1990). The questions then
14
arose, what sect is giving the order to kill in the North? What sect is
legalizing all these carnages? These are questions needing answers before
anybody can publish that these acts are endorsed by Islam. It is therefore
possible that the sects legalizing these acts are deviated, and according to
scholars of Islam, wont judge according to Islamic rulings based on the
Quran, the Sunnah (practice of the Prophet) and the understanding of the
pious predecessors (As-Salaf As-Saliheen) of Islam (Naasirud-Deen 1990).
Though established that the acts are not endorsed by Islam, the perpetrators
are largely Muslims, and no one may call them non-Muslims until some facts
are proved against them, and this is the opinion of many Islamic scholars
(Naasirud-Deen, 1990). If we go by the standards of Islam, the Boko Haram
group is engaged in actions that cannot be ascribed to pure Islam, one of
them is destruction of public properties and the other taking laws into their
hands and these actions are forbidden with emphasis in Islam (Ibrahim,
2011, track 14).
On terrorism, questions as to the lifestyle, state of well being of the people in
question must be brought to the fore. Karim (2003) writes that the political
violence of those who seek to upset the status quo is characterized as
terrorism. But there arose a question and it is that can a response to poverty,
corruption, and unemployment be termed terrorism?
This research looked at how the media covered the issues of Islam and
terrorism and tested scientifically if the concept of anti-ideology has taken
15
roots here in Nigerian journalism, using the Boko Haram crisis as a case
study.
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The mass media serve as channel of communication, meant to partner with
government in development. The media should be a market place of ideas
where battles are ended not started; problems are solved not aggravated;
racism is destroyed not pronounced and a place where objectivity thrives not
abused. The Media should be an entity that reports, not support; the Media
should be a place where fairness, accuracy, objectivity, and balance thrive.
Since the media may have failed in some of its duties, they may have
allowed for propaganda (klaehn, 2002). And those factors that give room for
propaganda as explained by Chomsky and Herman include the sources of
media messages, the funders of mass media organizations, the opinion of
the people, the ownership of a medium, and the disliked ideology of the
period in question. Since studies have shown that in Nigeria the first four
filters exist (Enahoro, 1990), it became necessary to see if the fifth filter has
a place in Nigerian journalism.
In view of the Boko Haram crises and the reportage it has generated, this
researcher became interested in determining if Islam and Terrorism qualify as
anti-ideology filters in Nigerian journalism.
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
16
The aim of this work was to first ascertain the position of ownership in
portraying Islam as an anti-ideology in the reportage of the Boko Haram
crisis by Nigerian newspapers.
The other objective was to see the how the tools of propaganda were used to
portray Islam and Terrorism as anti-ideology filters of propaganda in the
reportage of the Boko Haram crisis by Nigerian newspapers
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. To what extent does media ownership influence the representation of
Islam as anti-ideology in the reportage of the Boko Haram Crisis?s
2. To what extent was Islam represented as anti-ideology in the coverage
of the 2009 Boko Haram crisis?
3. To what extent was Terrorism represented as anti-ideology in the
coverage of the 2009 Boko Haram crisis?
SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY
This work focused on two newspapers, The Guardian and The Trust and this
was based on ownership as well as outlook and circulation of the
newspapers. This was premised on the need to first, study ownership as it
relates to the fifth filter of the propaganda model, and put the concepts of
terrorism and Islam in appropriate perspectives. A total of 62 editions were
tested.
The major limitation was based on the fact that globally, not many scholars
have worked on the fifth filter making it difficult for an appropriate parameter
17
to be set making the results gotten in the course of this study a personal
effort of the researchers considerations.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
The terms used in this project were defined to explain what the project
studied. Since according to Baxter & Babbie (2004), we are in the postmodern world of philosophical thought where people see things differently,
the terms were defined to reflect what the project discussed.
ISLAM: This is normally defined as the religion of peace since the logic is
that it is got from the Arabic word (salama) which means peace. Scholars of
Islam explain that while the definition above is not wrong, it is too simplistic.
It means the religion of submission since it is premised on the fact that Islam
is also got from the word salama (with vocal emphasis on the syllable la)
which means to submit. So Muslims are those who submit to the command of
God and Islam is the religion of submission to God. For the purpose of this
project, Islam was simply treated as the religion of Mohammad, son of
Abdullah, the Prophet of Allah (may Allah exalt his mention).
TERRORISM:
The
Oxford
advanced
learners
dictionary,
international
students edition (7th edition), defines terrorism as the use of violent action in
order to achieve political aims or to force a government to an act. To bring it
to suit this study, it was defined as governments contrivance against those
willing to upset the status-quo (Karim, 2004).
18
PROPAGANDA: This is a model of propaganda developed by Herman

Chomsky and Edward Herman to explain how media messages are
manipulated by some factors to allow for propaganda. For the purpose of this
research, they are filters of propaganda are the factors that affects media
messages and they are, source, ownership, flak, funding and anticommunism.
DOMINANT IDEOLOGY: A dominant ideology belongs to the class of
ideologies that is the most popular amongst people of the world, and it is
limited to place, time and context. For the purpose of this research, the
prominent world ideologies treated were the Western ideology, Islamic
ideology and terrorism.
JOURNALISM: this is the practice of gathering, processing, writing and
publication of information of any event in a society. These events could be
international or local as well as normal and abnormal. This research treated
journalism simply as what journalists do.
BOKO HARAM: This group has been defined as a group whose main focus is
to fight Western civilization. This was premised on the fact that Boko in
Hausa language is education while Haram in Islam is forbidden. But for the
purpose of this project, Boko Haram was defined as a group of Northerners
who, being Muslims, are trying to fight for the supremacy of the ideology
they believe.
19
BOKO HARAM CRISIS: for the purpose of this project, the Boko Haram
crises are crises that have involved members of the Boko Haram sect in the
Northern part of Nigeria. The 2009 crisis was studied.
EDITORIAL: this refers to the opinion of the media organization in question.
They are normally carried once every day by newspapers and they represent
the voice of the newspaper. They can also be represented through cartoons
and witty statements. This project treated editorials as the opinion of the
newspaper represented in whatever form.
OPINION: this refers to the personal writings of individuals which are
published in pages of newspapers. For the purpose of this research, opinions
were treated as above even if the writer is a staff of the medium in question.
FEATURES: these are in-depth analysis of an issue in the media and they go
farther than the normal news stories. The above definition was the guide
used in this research.
NAME-CALLING: this is a technique of Propaganda used by people
knowingly or unknowingly and this refers to ascribing to a particular people,
place or idea what is a general term which is derogatory, ignoring the
specific terms. For the purpose of this research, Islam and terrorism were
tested. Examples may be substituting the word Islam for Boko Haram, and
terrorism for crisis or violence.
20
ISLAMIC
COMMENTATORS:
these
refer
to
sources
of
newspaper
organizations who are Muslims by virtue of their mentioning it or the

mentioning of it by the medium in question. Anybody who is an apparent
Muslim was treated as an Islamic commentator.
SECURITY EXPERTS: they are those responsible for the security for this
nation as well as private individuals who are experts in the fields of security,
including professors and lecturers who specialize in security related fields.
NON ISLAMIC AND NON- SECURITY EXPERTS: this project treated these
sets of people as persons not covered by the above definitions of Islamic
commentators and security experts.
21
REFERENCES
Ahmad, H. (1984). Sunan Abu Dawud, (English Trans.). Lahore: Sh.
Muhammad Asharaf
Alabi, A. O. (2010). Management of conflicts and crises in Nigeria:
Educational
planners view. Current research journal of social sciences 2(6): 311315
Al-Faruq, A., U. (2003). Islamaphobia: The story of fear and hate by the West.
Lagos: Salsabil
Akinboye, O. S & Ferdinand, O. O. (2007). A systematic approach to
international
relations. Lagos: Concept publications
Appadorai, A. (1974). The substance of politics. Delhi, Bombay: Oxford
University Press
Baxter. L. A. & Babbie, E (2004). The basics of communication research.
Canada,
Thomson: Wadsworth
Baydoun, A., Al. (2001). Students dictionary: Arabic English. Beirut: alLimya
Bernays, E. (1928). Propaganda. [pdf Reader version] retrieved from adobe
database
Brahm, E. (2006, August). Propaganda. Retrieved February 13, 2011, from
http://www.beyondintractability.org/
22
Enahoro, A. (1990). The Nigerian journalist A praise singer or the watchdog.

In
R. A. Akinfeleye (Ed.), Media Nigeria Dialectic issues in Nigerian
Journalism (pp. 17-28). Lagos: Nelson Publishers
Flood, C.G., Nickels, H.C. & Miazhevich, G. (2007).
The ideological
dimensions of the
propaganda model A case study of public broadcasting and the war
on terror. [Pdf Reader version]. Retrieved March 16, 2011, from Adobe
database
Guilday, P. (1999). The sacred congregation de propaganda fide. Catholic
Historical
Review 6, 480
Hassan, H. I. (2010). Is Boko Haram? Asking the Fodios. Jos Journal of
Humanities 4(1) 11-28
Herman, E. (2000). The propaganda model: A retrospective. Journalism
studies 1(1): 101-12.
Herring, E. & Robison P. (2003). Too polemical or too critical? Chomsky on the
study of
the news media and US foreign policy. Review of international studies,
29, 533-568
Hoffmann. M. (2010). Islam Ideology of the future? [Pdf Reader version].
Retrieved
March 16, 2011, from Adobe database.
Huntington, P. S. (1996). The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world
order.
23
New York, Simon & Schuster

Ibrahim, A. (2011). Abu Nasir on Abdulai Al-Faisal. On foundations of the
Sunna. Lagos:
Al-Fruqan Islamic centre.
Karim, H. K. (2003). Making sense of the Islamic peril: Journalism as
cultural
practice. In B. Zelizer & Allan (Eds.), Journalism after September 11(pp.
101-116). New Fetter Lane, London: Routledge
Klaehn, J. (2002). A critical review and assessment of Herman and
Chomskys
propaganda model. Ontario, Canada: Sage
Naasirud-Deen al Albaanee, M. (1990). A return to the Sunnah. In defence of
the Sunnah series.
Oladimeji, O. (2008). War without missiles: the need for effective
communication. In R.
A. Akinfeleye (Ed.), Contemporary issues in mass media for
development and security.(pp. 37-54). Lagos: Malthouse Press
Wehmeier, S. (Ed) (2005). Oxford Advanced learners dictionary:
international students
edition. 7th ed. Great Clarendon: Oxford university press
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
24
Any good research on issues relating to propaganda must be premised on

relevant propositions and scholarly expositions by scholars who have studied
the intricacies of the concept. Considering the fact that this work is locally
situated, intellectual justice must be done by explaining different concepts
and reviewing the relevant works of scholars.
REVIEW OF CONCEPTS AND EXISTING LITERATURE
ISLAM: A DOMINANT WORLD IDEOLOGY?
Klaehn (2009) had stated while trying to explain the fifth filter of
propaganda, anti-communism, that since communism is no longer an
ideology to worry about, the best name to give the fifth filter is the dominant
ideology and that is why this section was titled the way it is. And as stated by
Chomsky and Herman, this ideology helps mobilize the populace against an
enemy, and because the concept is fuzzy it can be used against anybody
advocating policies that threaten property or support accommodation with
Communist states and radicalism (klaehn, 2009).
In the Clash of civilizations by Huntington (2004), he explained that the
great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict
would be cultural. He writes that the world has experienced the death of
ideology and the world is moving into a stage where civilizations, not
ideology would lead to a clash. He premised his thought on the fact that
communism and capitalism, off-shoots of the western civilization, came into
conflict, so the present clash is not of ideology. He writes, The conflicts of
25
the future will occur along the cultural fault line separating civilizations.
While most people will not disagree with Huntington, they would think
analysis is so simplistic because an ideology is an off shoot of a civilization.
The Islamic ideology is opposed to the Western ideology and it is all based on
their definitions of civilization (Hoffman, 2010). Hoffman (2010) opines that
only two world views are left which compete for the heart and minds of the
Western man post-modern secularism and Islam.
From the above, it is discernable that the current clash between Islam and
the West is that of ideology as well as of civilizations. Huntington (2004) in
his book explained that the world is faced with eight ideologies of which one
is possible to emerge as the dominant ideology in the future. The ideologies
include: Western, Confucian, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, Slavic-orthodox, Latin
American and possibly African civilization (Huntington, 2004). In what seems
like a predicted slant, Huntington concludes that religion would pose the
major threat and in what seems like a proposition, Huntington (2004) writes,
and The Wests next confrontation is definitely going to come from the
Muslim World. Corroborating this, Hoffman (2010) writes that Islam might
become the leading ideology of the 20 th century. This is also inferable from
the thoughts of leaders in the Arab world. Most notable is the statement of
Ayatollah Khomeini who said that the struggle against American aggression,
greed, plans and policies would be considered as a Jihad (Huntington,
2004). This statement of Khomeini may represent the idea behind the clash
of ideologies but many scholars may disagree.
26
To further accentuate the fact that Islam is a world ideology, and perhaps,
threatening the Western ideology, Ul-Hadurat (2002) quotes two former
Presidents of the United States, Nixon in his book The Favourable
Opportunity who wrote that Islam is not merely a civilization; rather it is a
basis for a great civilization. Nixon also went on to say that Islamists are
ideological enemies. Clinton says that our enemy in the Middle East is
extremism and he rejected the idea of the clash of civilization (Ul-Hadurat,
2002). All these assertions point to the possible conclusion that Islam is a
world ideology seeking the attention of the West, and perhaps, in the future,
would dominate the world (Hoffman, 2010).
It became pertinent to ask questions on why should Islam be a world
ideology posing a threat to Western Civilizations. Explaining using historical
references, Huntington (2004) traced conflicts from the war of kings, to wars
of people and then wars of ideology. The wars of kings was largely
characterised by need for power and expansion while the other two was
dominated mostly by economics. Islam has its motivating force and it is
largely because it is a religion that did not leave any aspect of human life
untouched (Ul-Hadurat, 2002).
According to the Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life (2009), Muslims are
present on all continents and constitute 23% of an estimated 2009
population of the world put at 6.8billion. The figures show that Muslims are
important factors in world affairs considering the fact that the remaining
27
percentage would be shared amongst Christians, Jews, Hindus, Buddhists,

Zoroastrians, Atheists and Secularists. Number may however not be the
motivating factor.
Hoffmann (2010) argues that an attempt to interpret the world developed
into religions. He goes ahead to claim that while the West in conjunction with
Christianity has legalized sodomy with the advents of homosexual priests
and female Bishops, Islam retains the very tenets of its faith and as such,
Islam may become the leading ideology of the 20 th century (Hoffman, 2010).
Kavli (2001) does not agree that the clash may be based on divinity but says,
Both communist and Islamic ideologies provide persuasive intellectual
response
to
the
national
crisis,
economic
hardship
and
individual
alienation created by the Western ideology (Kavli, 2001). From this angle
Islamic ideology is responding to the perceived failure of capitalism.
The clash may also be Islams response to the definition of modernity which
contradicts divine revelation (Ul-Hadurat, 2002). The Western Civilization had
worked to spread its concepts of nationalism, patriotism, democracy,
freedom, manmade canons and imaginary borders amongst Muslims, all of
which are alien to the religion (Ul-Hadurat, 2002). And supporting the
assertions that the clash is an intellectual one (Kavli, 2001), Ul-Hadurat
(2002) concludes that, this (Islamic-Western ideological clash) is a violent
intellectual clash between the two civilizations Islamic and Capitalism. To
28
conclude Huntingdon (2004) says the source is cultural and his thought is
captured below:
The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of
conflict would be cultural. Nation states would remain the most
powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global
politics
would
occur
between
nations
and
groups
of
different
civilizations. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines
of the future (Huntingdon, 2004).
Here in Nigeria, it is not inaccurate to say that Islam is becoming an ideology
and it is taking a dominant nature. The three main factors could be the call
for Sharia, the alternative of Islamic Banking and the membership of the
Organization of Islamic states which are ideals of the Islamic religion finding
opposition amongst non-Muslims in the country (Hassan 2010). Many other
issues gradually coming into the picture are putting Islam in an important
position.
And as rightly concluded by Oladimeji (2008), it is on record that propaganda
captures the historical essence of how through religious evangelism (Not
peculiar to Islam alone) had contributed to ensure the state of Africa.
TERRORISM: IDEOLOGY OR IDEOLOGICAL CHANNEL?
29
In order to study terrorism as a filter of propaganda, it was necessary to

determine if it is a dominant ideology or a tool for any ideology trying to
exert influence. If it is an ideology, would it be a replacement for the current
world ideology, and if it is a channel for ideological rebirth, would it serve a
filter of propaganda where the ruling class would employ all methods
including the media to demonize the concept?
The use of terror to achieve goals has been in existence ever since creation
the only difference is the methodology and intention. Garrison (2004) writes
that though there are difference between terrorists and waves of terror, the
utility of terror is not different. And as a matter of definition, terrorism is a
tool used to achieve a specific outcome by using force or violence on one
segment of the society to make change in that society (Garrison, 2004). Here
it is clear that terrorism is an ideological tool one of change.
Supporting the above assertion in a conventional study of the comparisons
and differences between secular and classical terrorism, Fine (2008),
explains that comparison, between terrorist groups with secular and
religious agendas, however, suggests that ideology matters for both and that
downplaying religious inspiration for terrorism in an effort to emphasize
tactical motivations is both inaccurate and dangerous.
It can be clearly
inferred that terrorism is not an ideology but a platform for which ideological
groups use to achieve their goals.
30
To argue the points more incisively, Fine (2008) is of the opinion that
inattention to the ideological upbringing of terrorists is counter-productive.
He then goes on to conclude that although the empirical tools of political
science are ill-equipped to assess culture, ideology and motivation, difficulty
in quantifying these factors does not mean they do not exist (Fine, 2008).
Explaining that terrorism is not an exclusive tool of the ideology seeking a
change but also of the ruling ideology, Robert Fisk in Karim (2003) states
that:
Terrorism no longer means terrorism. It is not a definition; it is a
political contrivance. Terrorists are those who use violence against
those using the word. The only terrorists whom Israel acknowledges
are those who oppose Israel. The only terrorists the United States of
America acknowledges are those who oppose the United States or their
allies. The only terrorists Palestinians acknowledges for they too use
the word are those opposed to the Palestinians.
The above statement implies that terrorism is not only a channel for the
burgeoning ideology but also of the ruling ideology. Though the statement is
normative, it formed the basis for this research.
To relate this to Nigeria and the Boko Haram crisis, we must first look at the
statement of Fine (2008) that comparison between terrorist groups with
secular and religious agendas, however, suggests that ideology matters for
both and that downplaying religious inspiration for terrorism in an effort to
31
emphasize tactical motivations is both inaccurate and dangerous (Fine,

2008).
It must be understood that Boko Haram is a Muslim group and their
agitations are based on a preconceived notion that western education is
forbidden. While their calls may look surprising in the 21 st century it is not
new to Nigeria (Hassan, 2010). Quoting Achebe, Hassan (2010) explains that
in opposing western education the northerners were cautious probably
believing that the white man was clever and they were not amused at his
foolishness. The North responded to his offer of education with education
with antagonism and simply labelled it as Boko (deceit).
The Boko Haram crises are a respond to what the group calls a
contamination of the Islamic creed and the moral corruption of the
environment (Hassan, 2010). The group is against such concepts such as
Darwins evolution theory as well as rules and policies not based upon the
Sharia (Hassan 2010). Their perceived thoughts on education may be based
on a wrong understanding considering one of the actions of the Prophet of
Islam, Mohammad, who allowed non-Muslims to teach Muslims, but
continually warned the Muslims against knowledge that is not beneficial. In
fact he prayed against unbeneficial knowledge (Ali Nadwi, 1979).
BOKO HARAM: ITS ADHERENTS, THE CRISES
It became relevant that the word Boko and Haram are explained as well as
members of this group, the crises that have been named after them as well
32
as their basic tenets. Hassan (2010) explains that Boko is a Hausa word
referring to Western (modern) education. He goes on to explain that the word
has an original literal meaning from which it is drawn to apply to western
education. By simply referring to the Hausa online dictionary, Boko means
something false and applied to this study, Boko was labelled Western
education. The Hausas believe it is a ploy (Boko) to convert them into
Christianity (Hassan, 2010) and Danjibo (2009) affirms this when he wrote
that Boko means anything Foreign or western.
Haram is simply anything that is forbidden in Islam that would warrant
punishment if done (Danjibo, 2009). Some of those things declared Haram in
Islam in the Quran include taking alcohol, gambling, consuming usury among
other things (Ali, 1930). In Islam, Haram refers to what Allah forbids, hence
unlawful and sinful. Avoiding it with the intention of obedience to Allah
attracts (spiritual) reward and doing it attracts threat of punishment (Hassan,
2010). Danjibo (2009) concludes that Haram simply means forbidden. So by
logic, it was inferred that Boko Haram means that Western Education is
forbidden.
The group Boko Haram was founded by Muhammad Yusuf. He claimed that
he started his group after reading the opinions of many Islamic scholars
(Hassan, 2010). He also claimed that he learnt his concepts from IbnTaymiyah, Hassan Al-Banna and Sayid Qutb. According to Hassan (2010),
some of these scholars have been precursors to Northern Nigerian
33
ideologues of forbidding western ideology. The group was founded in 2002 in

Maiduguri by Ustaz Mohammed Yusuf. In 2004 it moved to Kanamma, Yobe
State, where it set up a base called "Afghanistan", used to attack nearby
police outposts, killing police officers (Hassan, 2010).
The crises according to Hassan (2010) started in 2004 when the group
attacked a police post in Kanamma and another one in Damaturu. They then
attacked again in 2007 in Kano where they engaged the police in several gun
battles. Danjibo (2009) explained that the crisis that was most severe took
place between July 24 and July 28 2009 when the group attacked people in
six states Borno, Benue, Yobe, Gombe, Kano and Katsina. This crisis was
the focus of this research.
It was during these riots that their leader, Mohammad Yusuf, about 32 years
old, was arrested by the military, handed over to the police who later
announced his death to the public (Danjibo, 2009).
The real name of the group is Jama'atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati wal-Jihad,
which in Arabic means "People Committed to the Propagation of the
Prophet's Teachings and Jihad" (Chothia, 2011). But the fact that their name
starts with Ahlis Sunna does not mean that they act according to the Sunnah
and this is related to the statement of Ibrahim, (2011, track 14) who says
that the mere keeping of the beard and wearing trousers above the ankles
do not translate to the Sunnah, and considering the statements of
34
Nasirudeen (1990), the activities of the Boko Haram negate the Sunnah
(Practice of Islam as the Prophet practiced it).
Timeline of terror
2002: Founded
2009: Hundreds killed when Maiduguri police stations stormed
2009: Boko Haram leader Mohammed Yusuf captured by army, handed

to police, later found dead (this period is under study)
Sep 2010: Freed hundreds of prisoners from Maiduguri jail
Dec 2010: Bombed Jos, killing 80 people and blamed for New Year's
Eve attack on Abuja barracks
2010-2011: Dozens killed in Maiduguri shootings
May 2011: Bombed several states after president's inauguration
Jun 2011: Police HQ bombed in Abuja
Aug 2011: UN HQ bombed in Abuja

Source (bbc.co.uk)
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
For a lucid presentation and critical analysis of relationships between
concepts, this research was based on a model that serves as an explanation
to how the ruling ideology uses the media for its own benefits. To do this
they may demonize the enemy by using and overusing certain words or refer
to the enemy as a group to be feared. Many of these tools abound but they
cannot be understood without first looking at the theories that explain them.
The Propaganda Model was examined.
35
PROPAGANDA MODEL
The propaganda model was advanced by Edward Herman and Noam
Chomsky in 1988 in their book Manufacturing Consent: The political
Economy of the Mass Media and it posits how propaganda, including
systemic biases, function in the media (Wikipedia, 2011). The model sought
to explain how the media is used for propaganda purposes and in Chomsky
and Hermans concept, how the ruling class uses the media to manufacture
consent, social, political and economic, in the way they want (Herman,
2000).
The concept of the propaganda model explains that there are five filters that
determine the type of news that is presented in the news media (klaehn &
Mullen, 2010). The filters include
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Ownership
Funding
Sourcing
Flak
Anti-ideology; substitutes for anti-communism.
For the purpose of proper analysis, Klaehn & Mullen (2010) explained that
the model is analytical and conceptually concerned to theorize the
intersection between communicative power and political economy in
contemporary capitalist society. The five filters were treated and special
36
emphasis was given to the filters of ownership and anti-ideology which

formed the focus of this research.
On ownership, the hypotheses forwarded by the scholars themselves were
brought to the fore. The propaganda model proposes three hypotheses and is
based upon five operative principles (Klaehn & Mullen, 2010). The second
hypothesis represents the filter of ownership in the media when they posited,
the essential ingredients of our propaganda model, or set of news filters
which fall under the following heading: the size, concentrated ownership,
owners wealth and profit orientation of the dominant mass-media firms
(Herman, 2000).
Klaehn (2009) explains that the proponents of the model observe that most
mainstream media are themselves typically large corporations, controlled
by very wealthy people or by managers who are subject to sharp constraints
by owners and other market-profit-oriented forces.
In the book Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media,
Chomsky and Herman explained that the media is tiered and are measured
by prestige, resources and outreach. The scholars then concluded that the
prime objective with the help of the pressure from investors is profitability
(Klaehn, 2009).
The propaganda model also proposed that advertising is a factor that
influences news stories. The propaganda model shows that advertising is the
37
principal source of revenue for most mainstream, commercial media, thus

media discourses tend to reflect the interests of advertisers and the market
(Klaehn, 2009). Klaehn and Mullen (2010) wrote that money and power are
able to filter out the news fit to print. In this case, the advertisers influence
the news.
On sourcing, the model explains that influential sources are bound to
influence the media messages. Klaehn & Mullen (2010) explain that this is
caused
by
the
reliance
of
the
media
on
information
provided
by
governments, business and experts funded and approved by these primary

sources and agents of power. Herman (2000) argues that a reduction in the
resources devoted to journalism means that those who subsidize the media
by providing sources for copy gain greater leverage.
Flak represents what public opinion can do to journalism and this is captured
in the words of Herman Edward. Explaining the role of Public relations as an
agent of public opinion, Herman (2000) wrote that there is, by one count,
20,000 more public relations agent working to doctor the news today than
there are journalists.
Klaehn (2009) explains that the first four filters dominate real-world news
production processes. He concludes that while the four filters operate on
individual basis, they also continuously interact with one another.
38
Analytically, the fifth filter is extremely useful and applicable to a range of

studies (Klaehn 2009). Flood et al (2007) explained that the operational
usage of the ideological filter in the propaganda model assumes a working
definition of ideology without spelling it out.
The anti-ideology filter is extremely useful and applicable to a range of case
studies (Klaehn 2009). It may play out in different ways at different times,
contingent upon specific time/place contexts, and is extremely broad (as are
many other concepts within the social sciences, such as hegemony and/or
patriarchy, for instance) Klaehn & Mullen (2010). That the fifth filter is so
generalized makes it relatable to a range of social phenomenon, and creates
space for the Propaganda model to be utilized in a variety of social scientific
research; for instance, it could provide a framework for assessing othering in
the mainstream media (Klaehn 2009).
The basis of the fifth filter is captured in the words of Herman and Chomsky
quoted in Klaehn (2009) that, This ideology helps mobilize the populace
against an enemy, and because the concept is fuzzy, it can be used against
anybody
advocating
policies
that
threaten
property
or
support
accommodation with Communist states and radicalism. And since the

research dealt with Islam and Terrorism, we replace the concepts of
Communism and radicalism with the two concepts of Islam and Terrorism.
The ownership and anti-ideology filters formed the basis for this research
with anti-ideology as the major framework. Ownership was tested in a bid to
39
justify the existence of an anti-ideology filter. According to Klaehn (2009), the

anti-ideology filter is yet to be fully explored but will almost certainly provide
a foundation for much empirical research in the future.
EMPIRICAL REVIEW
It is always normal but unethical that when an issue such as religion and
propaganda are discussed, sides are already predicted especially when the
researcher has sympathy towards the religion which is under study. To
escape from this was to base the research itself on reliable social scientific
methods of inquiry as well as using the work of preceding scholars to explain
the study empirically.
In a study by Flood, Nickels, Hutchings, and Miazhevich (2007) titled The
Ideological Dimension of the Propaganda Model a Case Study of Public
Service Broadcasting and the War on Terror which was presented at the
conference: 20 years of Propaganda? Critical Discussions & Evidences on the
ongoing relevance of the Herman & Chomsky Propaganda Model between
May 15 and 17, 2007 at the University of Windsor, communication studies,
Windsor, Canada, the authors examined the anti-ideology filter of the
propaganda model in relationship with Islam.
The
research
examined
BBC,
public
service
broadcasting
(PSB)
organization. It examined the space between the propaganda model and the
PSB ethos through an examination of the BBCs coverage of news stories
40
relating to a number of court trials concerning Islamism and the war on terror
(Flood et al, 2007).
The period studied by the researchers was between November 1 2006 and
31 January 2007. Within that period, it was found out that news stories
relating to Islam were significantly longer than other news stories with an
average length of 2:41 minutes for the former, compared to 2:19 minutes for
the latter. The researchers also found out that of a total of 779 stories, 212
were devoted to Islam with almost 40% related to stories from Iraq (Flood et
al, 2007).
The study found out that 526 different actors (including Muslims mentioned
141 times) were mentioned 6845 times, 477 different issues (including
terrorism mentioned 92times) mentioned 6849 times and 246 different
locations mentioned 2992 times. The study also found out that Muslims were
rarely given time to have a voice in the news because out of a possible
chance of hundred to be quoted directly or indirectly, Imams were quoted
once compared to Legal representatives who were quoted 44 times and
government agents quoted 22 times (Flood et al, 2007).
The authors explained that:
The analyses of the news stories relating to the sentences and hanging
of Saddam Hussein revealed that the BBCs coverage is not strictly
impartial.
41
The researchers conclude that the analysis revealed five dimensions along
which news coverage of Islamism and the war on terror is organized in BBC
news and they are
1. Their Islamism vs. our peace-building, liberal values
2. Their intolerance and racial hatred vs. our tolerance and respect for
freedom of speech.
3. Their sectarianism and mutual loathing vs. our secularism and respect
for one another
4. The Iraqi governments juridical incompetence vs. our judicial process
5. The USAs aggressive clumsiness vs. our measured approach (Flood et
al, 2007).
The researchers concluded that
With regard to the ideological dimension of the propaganda model, it
appears that an anti-Islamism filter does operate in BBC news. This
filter postulates the Violent Muslim Extremist Other who not only
threatens Britain/the west and its values, but also attacks them
physically and symbolically by means of terrorism. This filter offers an
approximation of clash of civilizations, or at the very least a clash of
values, where Britain claims the moral high ground: Islamism is a
backward, repressive ideological model with flawed morals, the
expansion of which has to be stooped (Flood et al, 2007).
42
REFERENCES
Ali, A., Y. (1930). The Holy Quran: Translation and commentary. Lahore:
Muslim
World League
Ali Nadwi, S. A. (1979). Muhammad Rasullulah. Lagos: Alaselsa Islamic
Publications.
Canada,
Thomson: Wadsworth
http://www.beyondintractability.org/
Chothia, F. (2011, August 26). Who are Nigerias Boko Haram Islamists? BBC
[online] retrieved October 03, 2011, from
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13809501
Danjibo, N. D. (2009). Islamic Fundamentalism and sectarian violence: the
Maitatsine and Boko Haram crises in Northern Nigeria. Peace and
conflict studies programme, Institute of African studies, University of
Ibadan, 1-21
Daramola, I. (2003). Introduction to mass communication. 2nd ed. Lagos:
Rothan Press Ltd.
Fine, J. (2008) Contrasting secular and religious terrorism. Middle East
Quarterly 9(2) 25-37
Flood, C.G., Nickels, H.C. & Miazhevich, G. (2007). The ideological
43
dimensions of the propaganda model a case study of public

broadcasting and the war on terror. [Pdf Reader version]. Retrieved
February 13, 2011, from Adobe database
Garrison, A. H. Defining terrorism: Philosophy of the bomb, propaganda by
deed and change through fear and violence. Criminal Justice Studies
17(3), 259-279
Herman, S. (2000). The propaganda model: a retrospective. Journalism
studies 1, pp. 101-112
Hoffmann, M. (2010). Islam Ideology of the future? [Pdf Reader version].
Retrieved March 16, 2011, from Adobe database.
Huntington, S. P. (2004). America in the World. The Hedgehog review 3, 1-12
Ibrahim, A. (2011). Abu Nasir on Abdulai Al-Faisal (track 14). On foundations
of the
Sunna. Lagos: Al-Fruqan Islamic centre.
cultural
Kavli (2001). Protest in the name of God: Islamist movements in the Arab
world. Perceptions journal of international affairs 5(2) 1-9.
Chomskys
44

Klaehn, J. (2009). The propaganda model: Theoretical and methodological
considerations. Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture
6(2), 43-58
Klaehn, J. & Mullen, A. (2010). The propaganda model and sociology:
Understanding the media and society. SCAC Vol 1( 1), pp. 10-23
Naasirud-Deen al Albaanee, M. (1990). A return to the sunnah. In defense of
the Sunnah series.
Pew forum (2009). Mapping the global Muslim population. Pew forum on
religion & public life, Washington.
Propaganda
(2010).
Retrieved
March
16,
2011
from
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda"
Ul-hadharat, S. H. (2002). The inevitability of the clash of civilization. AlKhilafah
publications, Gloucester London.
45
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study of propaganda, especially if the focus of discussion is an
ideological one, is cumbersome. For a reliable result, it was important that
findings were premised on the most appropriate technique.
For a detailed analysis of the practice of journalism based on the product of
the journalists themselves, content analysis has been adjudged to be best
method. This probably is the reason Akinfeleye, Amobi; Innocent &
Oloruntola (2011) used the content analysis in their study of the coverage of
the USA and Ghanaian elections by the Nigerian media. For the purpose of
proper analysis, this study used the content analysis method.
Historically, the use of content analysis can be traced to the 18 th Century
(Krippendorff, 1980). This is related to the period the Swedish scholars and
clergy analysed a collection of non-orthodox hymns called the Songs of
Zion to determine whether the songs blasphemed the doctrines of the
Swedish state church (Krippendorff, 1980).
Tejumaiye (2003) quotes Walitzer and Wenir (1978) that content analysis is
any systematic procedure designed to examine the content of recorded
information. This definition explains that whatever method used, it must be
systematic as well as created to analyze content of any information that has
46
been preserved in any form and this may include newspapers, cassette
tapes, video tapes, compact disc, magazines and many others.
Shobowale (2008) gives a better description when he wrote, content
analysis helps the researcher to look at existing records, detect a pattern and
arrive at some conclusions regarding the attitude of the writers of the
records or the originators of the messages contained in those records. This
summarizes the methodology of this research which looked at the existing
records on the Boko Haram crisis
RESEARCH DESIGN
This is a quantitative research which used smaller samples of subjects, in this
case newspapers. The method employed was content analysis where text
was analysed. This was based on the fact that the study involved recorded
information where the existence of a pattern was the main focus. According
to Shobowale (2008: 18) only messages that have been coded by way of
formal presentation can be content analysed. He also said that its major unit
of analysis is the written message and other records.
Newspaper records for the month of August, 2009 were content analysed.
POPULATION OF STUDY
The population of study comprises all registered newspapers in Nigeria based
on ownership.
47
The other criteria used include circulation and area of coverage. It was
presumed that the newspapers with national circulation have a national
outlook and thus was appropriate for this research.
SAMPLING METHOD
The sampling method was purposive. This was employed because of the
following reasons
1. Ownwership based on religion, considering the fact that other
newspapers owned by Muslims do not have the required national
reach.
2. The need to meet the criteria set of ownership, area of coverage and
circulation strength
SAMPLE SIZE
The sample size was two newspapers which represent the criteria set
perfectly. The sample size was deemed suitable for the purpose of this study.
Henn, Weinstein & Foard (2006) noted that it would be wrong to assume
that increases in accuracy will follow proportionately with increases in
sample size, or that sample size should be in proportion to the size of the
population. Similarly, there is no optimum sample size often it will be
driven as much as by the level of research and resources available to the
researcher. It must be stated however, that the conclusions were made
based on the findings of the two newspapers without unnecessary
generalization.
48
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
As stated, the population of the study was newspapers published in Nigeria
based on ownership, coverage and circulation strength. Following the
principle of Wimmer & Dominick (2006), an entire population cannot be
examined due to time and resource constraints. This is why the newspapers
were chosen based on purposive sampling method.
A period of one month (31) days was studied. 31 editions of each newspaper
were analysed for this period. Consequently, a total of 62 editions were
content analysed. The researcher made studied the period because the
event happened some few days before the month of August and within that
period; the crisis was a major issue in the media. The periods between
August 1 and August 31, 2009 were studied.
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

The major instrument used was the coding sheet constructed by this
researcher based on the analysis used. So to do the coding, the researcher
relied on the statement of MBayo (2010), citing Budd, et al (1969) quoted in
Akinfeleye et al (2011) that a content analysis must consider three
requirements in the development of content categories (1) categories must
accurately fit the needs of the study (2) they must be exhaustive relative to
the study, and (3) they must be mutually exclusive.
49
Using the above concept the following categories were developed: news
stories, features, editorials, opinion articles, name calling propaganda
technique, and numbers of commentators.
UNITS OF ANALYSIS
Basically the unit of analysis was text examined through the following
A.
B.
C.
D.
News
Opinions
Editorials
Features
VARIABLES
The following research variables were measured in this study.
The number of Islamic commentators
relationship with non-Islamic commentators

The number of Security experts allowed to comment in relationship
with non-security experts

The number of times the propaganda tool, name calling, was used in
all the analysed materials

The number of times non-Islamic scholars as well as non-security
allowed to comment in
experts were allowed to comment.

DURATION OF STUDY
The study was about the reportage of the Boko Haram crisis and thus, the
month immediately after the 2009 crisis was studied.
50
The duration was from August 1, 2009 to August 31, 2009. In all a total of 62
newspapers were content analyzed.
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
The
researcher
personally
visited
Libraries
to
retrieve
the
sampled
newspapers. The National Library Lagos, The Court of Appeal Library and the
Daily Trust Library were personally visited by the researcher. The papers
were perused through text examination.
CODING GUIDE
In order to facilitate understanding and interpretation at a glance, the
researcher employed a dynamic method by using a positive (+) sign which
showed existence of variable and negative (-) sign which showed absence of
variable.
INTER-CODER RELIABILITY
Coding was personally done by the researcher after scrutinizing the samples.
The assistant of a student of Mass Communication at the Lagos State
Polytechnic was however sought. The researcher ensured that variables fit
perfectly into the categories set after a thorough evaluation of the coding
process.
METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS
51
The data got was analyzed using tables, percentages and mean. Comparison
and conclusions were drawn out of percentages. The frequency of a
particular variable was used to answer the set research questions.
BRIEF PROFILE OF SAMPLED NEWSPAPERS
THE GUARDIAN was founded in 1983 by Alex Ibru of the Ibru family. The
newspaper which prides itself as the flagship of Nigerian journalism is a
general interest paper touching virtually all areas of society from straight
news to the economy, law, maritime and others. The newspapers motto is
conscience nurtured by truth, and it is registered in the Ibru Group.
THE TRUST is published alongside Weekly Trust. It was founded in January
2001 and became the first newspaper from the Federal Capital Territory.
According to observers, it is an innovative, versatile and market driven
newspaper. The newspaper is printed and published by Media Trust Nigeria
Limited. The newspaper is currently managed by Kabiru, A. Yusuf, a former
University Lecturer.
Source: (http://nigeriandailynewspaper.com/">)
52
REFERENCES
Akinfeleye R. A., Amobi I. T., Innocent, E. O., & Oloruntola, S., (2011).
30
years after NWICO: Assessing the structure of global news flows through a
comparative analysis of the coverage of the 2008 United States and
Ghana Presidential elections by the Nigerian media. [Pdf Reader version]
Retrieved March 16, 2011, from Adobe database.
Canada, Thomson: Wadsworth
Henn M, Weinstein M., Foard N., (2006). A short introduction to Social
Research. Sage Publications Ltd.
Krippendorff. K. (1980). Content Analysis: An introduction to its methodology.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
Shobowale, I. (2008). Scientific journalism. Lagos, OOU: Idahosa Konsult
Tejumaiye, A. (2003) Mass communication research: An introduction. Ibadan:
Scepter Prints
Wimmer D., Dominick R. (2006), Mass media Research: An introduction.
Thompson Wadsworth.
53
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS
In this chapter, the researcher analysed the reportage of the two newspapers
concerning the 2009 Boko Haram crisis. Here the data got was used to make
inferences.
The following newspapers were selected based on ownership in relationship
to religion
1. The Guardian (owned by Alex Ibru, a Christian)
2. The Trust (owned by Kabiru A. Yusuf, a Muslim)
A total of 62 editions for the month of August 2009 were studied as they
concerned the Boko Haram crisis.
The analysis was guided by the coding sheet accessible in the appendix, and
the analysis was tailored to answer the research questions as constructed in
chapter one of this research.
RESEARCH QUESTION ONE
To what extent does media ownership influence the representation of Islam
as anti-ideology in the reportage of the Boko Haram Crisis?
The question was answered based on frequency of reportage, usage of
propaganda tool called name-calling and the use of Islamic sources.
54
TABLE 1:
EDITORIAL CONTENTS OF EACH NEWSPAPER
Newspap
News
Opinio
Editoria
Feature
Total
Percenta
er
GUARDIA
stories
46
ns
13
ls
2
s
5
66
ges
35.68
65
40
10
119
64.32
111
53
15
185
100
TRUST
TOTAL
From the table above, The Trust devoted more editorial space than the
Guardian to the crisis. The Trust devoted 119 (64.32%) editorial contents of a
total of 185 to that of the Guardian which devoted 66 (35.68%) editorial
contents to the crisis.
The large difference in figures showed that ownership influenced by religion
may cause Islam to be an anti-ideology filter in the newspapers reportage.
The Trust, owned by a Muslim devoted more straight news stories, more
editorials, more opinion articles and more feature stories than the Guardian
without the Guardian surpassing in any section. This showed that ownership
55
may be an influence in the treatment of Islam especially as it is related to

the Boko Haram crisis of 2009.
This research, however considered other factors that could have influenced
the large number of reportage. The two major factors identified were
geographical and psychological proximity.
The Trust is situated in The North (Abuja) and its location may necessarily be
a factor in the large volume of reportage. In relationship to psychological
proximity, the newspaper is owned by a northerner, the crisis is happening in
the Northern part of the country, and some Northerners have died, and this
may have a psychological effect on the newspaper ownership. While the
researcher did not ignore these factors, the figures above showed that
ownership may have influenced the reportage in relationship to Islam.
TABLE 2: NAME-CALLING (ISLAM) TOOL OF PROPAGANDA AGAINST
THE BOKO HARAM SECT
NEWSPAPER
USE
OF
CALLING
NAME PERCENTAGES
TOOL
OF
GUARDIAN
ISLAM
45
71.43
TRUST
18
28.57
TOTAL
63
100
56
The technique between both newspapers was used 60 times in the month
under study. The Guardian used it 43 times representing a total of 71.67% of
the total usage of the technique. The Trust used the technique 17 times
representing 28.33% of the total usage based on percentages.
It became relevant here to explain what the name-calling tool is and how the
researcher arrived at the figures. Name-calling was employed in the
reportage every time the Boko Haram group was referred to as Islamic. This
was by calling the group an Islamic sect or an Islamic group or any other
related appellation.
This was arrived at based on the definition of Islam in the conceptualization
of terms where the researcher defined Islam as the religion of Mohammad,
Son of Abdullah, and Messenger of Allah. It was also stated clearly in
previous chapters that the group contradict Islams tenets when the
researcher cited Ali Nadwi (1979) who wrote that Mohammad allowed nonMuslims to teach Muslims, an action that contradicts what Boko Haram
preaches.
However, every time the group was referred to as Muslim was not counted.
The reason was that while the religion forbids the action, those perpetrating
the actions are Muslims and there is no error if they are referred to as
Muslims or Muslim fundamentalist, not Islamic fundamentalist.
TABLE
3:
USE
OF
ISLAMIC
COMMENTATORS
NEWSPAPERS
57
BY
THE
TWO
NEWSPAPER
NUMBER OF TIMES ALLOWED PERCENTAGE

FOR ISLAMIC COMMENTATORS
26
S
32.1
TRUST
55
67.9
TOTAL
81
100
GUARDIAN
The number of persons allowed to comment on an issue is very important in

the study of propaganda. While the Trust allowed more Islamic commentators
to comment, the Guardian allowed less. The Trust allowed 55 commentators
representing 67.9 % of the total as against the Guardians 26 representing
32.1% of the total, more than half of the Guardians.
The researcher concluded that the use of sources has influenced the way
Islam was treated in the coverage of the Boko Haram crisis. The researcher
did not deny the fact that the reason could be as a result of the propinquity
of The Trust to the North where majority of the population are Muslims.
And as was stated in the course of this research, the researcher did not test
for intention but for the existence of the anti-ideology filter, Islam in this
case. From the results above, the researcher concluded that ownership
influenced the treatment of Islam as regards the Boko Haram crisis.
RESEARCH QUESTION 2
To what extent was Islam represented as anti-ideology in the coverage of the
2009 Boko Haram crisis?
58
Two parameters were used to answer this question and the first was the
usage of the tool of name calling by ascribing the group to Islam. The mean
in relationship to the number of days studied was used to determine the
extent.
TABLE 4: USE OF NAME CALLING TOOL (ISLAM) BY THE TWO NEWS
PAPERS
NEWSPAPER
USE
OF
NAME
CALLING PERCENTAGES
GUARDIAN
TOOL OF ISLAM
45
71.43
TRUST
18
28.57
TOTAL
63
100
The table above showed that the news papers used the tool 63 times. To find
the extent at which Islam was represented as an anti-ideology, the mean in
connection with the number of the days studied was found.
MEAN: Total number of usage of name calling tool against Islam/total
number of days studied
63/60 = 1.05
From the above, the two newspapers used the name-calling tool, which made
it necessary to determine the extent of usage using the mean, as a statistical
measure.
59
Through the mean found, it was visible that between the two newspapers,
there was the tendency to use the tool of name-calling at least 1.05 times
per day. This means that Islam was slandered against its wish approximately
at least once a day by any of the two newspapers in connection to the Boko
Haram crisis.
TABLE 5: USE OF ISLAMIC AND NON- ISLAMIC SOURCES BY THE TWO
NEWSPAPERS
NEWSPAPE
NUMBER
ALLOWED
OF
TIMES NUMBER
FOR TIMES
OF TOTAL
ALLOWED
ISLAMIC
FOR NON-ISLAMIC
COMMENTATORS
COMMENTATORS
GUARDIAN
26
109
135
TRUST
55
120
175
TOTAL
81
229
310.
The data is best explained through a comparison between the totals of the
two newspapers
TABLE 6:
60
COMPARISON OF THE USE OF ISLAMIC SOURCES AS AGAINST NON

ISLAMIC SOURCES
TOTALS OF THE ABOVE VARIABLES
FIGURES
TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES ALLOWED 81
PERCENTAGES
26.13
FOR ISLAMIC COMMENTATORS

TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES ALLOWED 229
73.87
FOR NON-ISLAMIC COMMENTATORS

TOTAL
310
100
The table above showed the extent at which Nigerian journalist would give
room for non-Islamic commentators than Islamic commentators in an issue
that has direct link with Islam. Here a total of 229 (73.87% of total) was
given to non-Islamic sources as opposed to the 81 (26.13% of total) devoted
to Islamic sources.
The number of those who could really explain the issues, who could give an
insight on how to deal with the Boko Haram crises, were relatively few
compared to non-Muslims who may have a connection to the story but in the
long run, tilt the structure of the story and the real event.
The Newspapers gave close to three times the space given to Islamic
commentators to non-Islamic commentators. While the researcher concluded
that the number of sources used in the editorial contents of the newspapers
61
made Islam fairly represented, the factors of geographical and psychological

proximity were not ignored.
RESEARCH QUESTION 3:
To what extent was Terrorism represented as anti-ideology in the coverage of
the 2009 Boko Haram crisis?
The same parameter set above was used although, name calling was
directed towards terrorism, while the number of times security experts were
allowed to comment was the focus.
TABLE 7: USE OF NAME-CALLING TOOL (TERRORISM) BY THE TWO
NEWSPAPERS
NEWSPAPER
USE OF NAME CALLING TOOL OF PERCENTAGE
GUARDIAN
TERRORISM
21
S
58.33
TRUST
15
41.67
TOTAL
36
100
The same method of using the mean was employed here.

Mean: Total number of times name calling used/total number of days
under study
36/62 = 0.58
62
The figure above showed that the filter of terrorism couched in the
propaganda tool of name calling featured 0.58 times every day the crisis was
covered.
Words such as crises, structural violence and related terms were ignored,
considering the fact that the crisis clearly represents some of these words.
The figures above showed that for at least 0.56 (approximately once per day)
times, the two newspapers represented the Boko Haram issue as terroristic
in nature. And since this research rested upon the concept of Karim (2003)
that terrorism is a political contrivance, thus a tool of propaganda, the above
statistic supports the proposition.
TABLE 8: NUMBER OF TIMES ALLOWED FOR SECURITY EXPERTS AND
NON-SECURITY EXPERTS
NEWSPAPE
NUMBER
ALLOWED
OF
TIMES NUMBER OF TIMES TOTAL

FOR ALLOWED FOR NON-
SECURITY EXPERTS TO SECURITY
EXPERTS
GUARDIAN
COMMENT
37
AS COMMENTATORS
98
135
TRUST
36
139
175
TOTAL
73
237
310.
63
TABLE 9: COMPARISON BETWEEN THE NUMBERS OF TIMES ALLOWED

FOR SECURITY EXPERTS AND NON-SECURITY EXPERTS
TOTALS OF THE ABOVE VARIABLES
NUMBER
OF
TIMES
ALLOWED
FIGURES
FOR 73
PERCENTAGE
S
23.55
SECURITY EXPERTS TO COMMENT

NUMBER OF TIMES ALLOWED FOR NON- 237
76.45
SECURITY EXPERTS AS COMMENTATORS

TOTAL
310
100
The table above showed that the newspapers gave audience to people less
knowledgeable about security issues than they gave to experts. Here, nonsecurity experts were allowed 76.45% of the total number of sources while
security sources were allowed 23.55% of the total showing a great disparity.
Apart from the fact that a parameter had determined the extent, this showed
that the two newspapers gave more than thrice the space given to security
experts to non-security experts. While the two newspapers allowed 23.55%
(73 security experts) to comment, they allowed 76.45% (237 non-security
experts) to comment.
64
Since the researcher stated already that this is a new research where the
parameters were developed exclusively by the researcher, a definite claim
was not made. Conclusions were therefore inferred based on the parameters
set which may normally vary from researcher to researcher.REFERENCES
Ali Nadwi, S. A. (1979). Muhammad Rasullulah. Alaselsa Islamic publications,
Lagos
cultural
65
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
SUMMARY
This research was carried out to determine the extent at which Islam and
Terrorism are represented as anti-ideology in selected Nigerian newspapers,
and the same time it studied the role of ownership. The project tried to
determine the existence of the anti-ideology filter represented by Islam and
terrorism as well as the extent to which the newspapers portrayed the two
concepts as anti- ideologies.
First, the research was able to find out that ownership played a major role in
the representation of Islam as it concerned the Boko Haram crisis. It found
out that the newspaper owned by a Muslim (The Trust) gave more editorial
space to the Boko Haram issue as well as more space for Islamic
commentators that the newspaper owned by a Christian ( The Guardian). It
also found out that The Trust used the name-calling tool against Islam less
than the Guardian used it showing that ownership may be regarded as a
factor.
The research however, made it known that other factors that may have
influenced this slant could be psychological and geographical proximity of
The Trust to the Northern part of Nigeria where the crisis took place.
66
The research found out that Islam and Terrorism are filters of propaganda in
the newspapers and proceeded to check the extent at which the newspapers
made the filters visible.
First, it was found out that the two newspapers used the name-calling tool
against Islam at least 1.05 times a day in reporting and that the two
newspapers gave room to non-Islamic commentators close to three times the
space given to Islamic commentators.
Second, the research found out that the name-calling tool against terrorism
was used at least 0.58 times per day, and this approximately means once
per day. This project also found out that the two newspapers gave more
space to non-security experts more than thrice the space given to security
experts.
CONCLUSIONS
It was found out that Ownership is an influence in making Islam an antiideology filter in Journalism. The facts are that The Trust which is owned by a
Muslim had more editorial materials represented as 64.32% of all the stories
examined while The Guardian had 35.68%. The Trust also surpassed The
Guardian on all editorial contents from news stories, to Opinion articles,
editorials and features.
Also judging by the second parameter, The Trust used less of the namecalling tool than The Guardian. While The Trust of a possible 100% usage
67
used it 28.57% (18 times), The Guardian used the tool 71.43% (45 times).
The third parameter also showed the existence of ownership as a factor and
that was measured through the number of sources used. Of all the total
sources used for the 62 days studied, The Trust used 67.9% of the total while
The Guardian used 32.1% of all the total sources as Muslims.
Based on the facts gotten, it was found out the two newspapers have madeIslam an anti-ideology filter. But since this research was devoted to studying
the extent at which Islam is represented as an anti-ideology filter, the mean
was used and it was found out that the newspapers used the name-calling
tool against Islam at least 1.05 times a day which approximately is once a
day.
The other factor used to test the extent of Islams representation as an antiideology was the use of sources and this project found out that while the two
newspapers devoted 26.13% of spaces for sources to Muslims; they devoted
73.87% to non-Muslims. The extent got was that the two newspapers
devoted two times the number of space given to Muslims to Non-Muslims in
the Boko Haram crisis.
The last research question was based on terrorism and its representation as
an anti-ideology filter. This project found out that based on the number of
times the name calling tool was employed, the extent was approximately
one usage per day. While the Trust took 41.67%, the Guardian used 58.33%.
68
The extent was found at least 0.58 times per day which is approximately
once per day.
The other parameter was the time devoted to security experts and it was
found that security experts were given three times less than the space given
to non-security experts. Between the two newspapers, 23.55% was devoted
to security experts while 76.45% was devoted to non-security experts.
The findings support the concept of the propaganda model based on the idea
stated in the book Manufacturing Consent: the Political Economy of the Mass
Media. Chomsky and Herman explained that the media is tiered and are
measured by prestige, resources and outreach. The scholars then concluded
the prime objective; with the help of the pressure from investors is
profitability (Klaehn, 2009). What the statistics denote is that the closeness
of The Trust to Islam may have made it report the Boko Haram crisis in a
slightly different way from the Guardian. On the basis of prestige, it was
concluded that the Trust was trying to maintain the relationship with Islam.
Resource was not also ruled out as the newspaper is closer to Northern
Nigeria physically.
The findings are also supported by the propaganda model on the filter of
anti-ideology. The model states that This ideology helps mobilize the
populace against an enemy, and because the concept is fuzzy it can be used
against anybody advocating policies that threaten property or support
accommodation with Communist states and radicalism. This was evident
69
especially with the use of the Name-calling tool of propaganda (Islam and
Terrorism) in the reportage of the Boko Haram Crisis, as well as the difference
in the usage of sources
The findings also support the statement of Flood et al (2007) that the
operational usage of the ideological filter in the propaganda model assumes
a working definition of ideology without spelling it out.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The researcher recommends to Journalists
1. That special attention should be given to the choice of words to be
used while paying special attention to the concepts of social
responsibility.
2. It must be said that journalists should pay more attention to sources
concerned with stories as they can misjudge issues when sources are
not balanced..
3. Journalists should, regardless of whatever emotional connections to a
story, remain as public watchdogs whose aims are seeking the truth,
telling the truth and developing the society.
The researcher also makes the following recommendations for journalism

educators:
70
1. Academics in the fields of journalism should train students on the

concepts of objectivity highlighting major pitfalls as it has been
created by the international system of journalism.
2. The universities should start teaching reporting Religious issues as
they now constitute major sources of front page news in recent times.
When a standard course is developed, journalists would become
problem solvers. The course could also be taught as conflict reporting.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES
The researcher suggests:
1. That the field of anti-ideology in the study of propaganda should be
explored in more pragmatic and dynamic ways so that a standard
parameter of testing existence of the filter is developed.
2. That the periods between every crisis relating to Islam are studied
considering stories related to Islam and not specifically to the crisis
because this would be a better way to represent the anti-ideology filter
empirically.
3. That historical analysis is done to see at every period in Nigerian
journalism, what represented the anti-ideology filter. For example the
Cold War used to be the anti-ideology filter in the world but it is now
Islam and terrorism. In Nigeria, it could have been Biafra, Military rule
or colonialism. An empirical statement would suffice.
4. Lastly, it is imperative that researchers come together to develop a
standard format for the study of anti-ideology. Standard in the sense
that a minimum requirement is set so that results are reliable. This is
71
not to say that dynamism is not encouraged, but it must be premised

on well stated principles.
72
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82
DAY
NS
OP
ED
1st
3rd
4th
5th
6th
++++
++++
++++
+
+
+
+
+++
++
+
-
7th
++
8th
++++
+
++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
46
2nd
9th
10th
11th
12th
13th
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
21st
22nd
23rd
24th
25th
26th
27th
28th
29th
30th
31st
TOT
AL
NC
(terrori
sm)
++++
IC
SEC
NISEC
+++
+++
+
-
FEA NC
(ISLA
M)
++++
+++
++ ++++
+
+
+
++++
+++
+
++
-
+
++
++++
++++
++++
++++
+++
++
+
+
++
++++
+
++
+
+
+
+
+
13
+
2
+
5
++++
++
++
+++
++
+
+
+
++
++
++
++
++
45
++++++
++
++++++
+
++
+++
++++
++++++
+++++
++++++
+
++++
+
++
+
++
+
++
+
+
21
+
++
+
+
+
+++
+
++
26
+
++
++
+++
++
++
++
37
++
++++
++
+++
+
+
+
+
++
++
+++
+
+
+
+
72
APPENDIX I
CODE SHEET FOR THE REPORTAGE OF THE BOKO HARAM CRISIS IN THE DAILY
GUARDIAN FOR THE MONTH OF AUGUST, 2009
83
DAY
NS
OP
ED
FE
A
1st
++++
+
+++
++++
+++
++++
+
++++
++
+++
+++
++
+
++
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
NC
(terrori
sm)
+
IC
SEC
NISEC
NC
(ISLA
M)
+
++
++
++++
++
+++
++++
++++
++
+++
++
++
+++
++
++
++
++
+
+
++
+
++++
+++
++
+
+++
++++++
+++++
++++++
+
++++
+
+
+
-
++
+
+
+
4
11th
12th
13th
++
+
++++
+
+++
++
+
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
+
+++
++
++
+
+
++
+
++
19th
20th
21st
22nd
23rd
24th
25th
26th
27th
28th
29th
30th
31st
TOT
AL
++
+
+
+
++++
++
+
++
+
++
+
65
+
+
++
+
++
+
++
+
+
+
40
++
++++
+
++
+
+++
+
+
++
-
+++
+
++
+
++++
++
-
+++
+
+
+
++
+
+
++
+
++
+++
+
+
+
+
10
++
++
++
++
18
+
+++
++
15
++++
++
+
+++
+++
++
++
++++
+
+
55
+
+
+++
+
++
+
+
++
++
+
36
APPENDIX II
84
++
++++
+++
+
+++
+
+
+
+
++
++++++
++++
++
+++
84
FOR THE TRUST NEWSPAPERFOR THE MONTH OF AUGUST, 2009

KEY
NS: NEWS STORIES; OP: OPINION; IC: ISLAMIC COMMENTATORS; ED: EDITORIAL
SEC: SECURITY EXPERTS AS COMMENTATORS; FEA: FEATURES; NC (ISLAM): NAME CALLING
(ISLAM); NC (TERRORISM): NAME CALLING (TERRORISM)
NISEC: NON-ISLAMIC AND SECURITY EXPERTS AS COMMENTATORS
85

The Propaganda Model and Boko Haram Crises in NIgeria

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ISLAM AND TERRORISM AS FILTERS OF PROPAGANDA IN NIGERIAN

JOURNALISM: A STUDY OF THE COVERAGE OF THE 2009 BOKO

BEING A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

IBIKUNLE, TAOFEEK OLAWALE

Mrs. Ifeoma Amobi

Prof. Ralph A. Akinfeleye

Someone who deserves special mention is my uncle, Mr. Abdullah Durodola

concerned to the stories in relationship to other sources used. The

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Scope and Limitation of Study

Operational Definition of Terms

Terrorism: Ideology or Ideological Channel?

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Data Collection Instrument

Method of Data Collection

Method of Data Analysis

Brief Profile of Sampled Newspapers

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Suggestions for Further Studies

employed the tools of propaganda to first, devalue the ideology of the

PROPAGANDA: This is a model of propaganda developed by Herman

organizations who are Muslims by virtue of their mentioning it or the

Enahoro, A. (1990). The Nigerian journalist A praise singer or the watchdog.

New York, Simon & Schuster

Any good research on issues relating to propaganda must be premised on

percentage would be shared amongst Christians, Jews, Hindus, Buddhists,

TERRORISM: IDEOLOGY OR IDEOLOGICAL CHANNEL?

In order to study terrorism as a filter of propaganda, it was necessary to

emphasize tactical motivations is both inaccurate and dangerous (Fine,

ideologues of forbidding western ideology. The group was founded in 2002 in

2009: Hundreds killed when Maiduguri police stations stormed

2009: Boko Haram leader Mohammed Yusuf captured by army, handed

2010-2011: Dozens killed in Maiduguri shootings

May 2011: Bombed several states after president's inauguration

Jun 2011: Police HQ bombed in Abuja

Aug 2011: UN HQ bombed in Abuja

emphasis was given to the filters of ownership and anti-ideology which

principal source of revenue for most mainstream, commercial media, thus

governments, business and experts funded and approved by these primary

Analytically, the fifth filter is extremely useful and applicable to a range of

accommodation with Communist states and radicalism. And since the

justify the existence of an anti-ideology filter. According to Klaehn (2009), the

dimensions of the propaganda model a case study of public

propaganda model. Ontario, Canada: Sage

DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

The number of Islamic commentators

relationship with non-Islamic commentators

with non-security experts

all the analysed materials

experts were allowed to comment.

may be an influence in the treatment of Islam especially as it is related to

NUMBER OF TIMES ALLOWED PERCENTAGE

The number of persons allowed to comment on an issue is very important in

COMPARISON OF THE USE OF ISLAMIC SOURCES AS AGAINST NON

TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES ALLOWED 81

FOR ISLAMIC COMMENTATORS

FOR NON-ISLAMIC COMMENTATORS

made Islam fairly represented, the factors of geographical and psychological

USE OF NAME CALLING TOOL OF PERCENTAGE

The same method of using the mean was employed here.

TIMES NUMBER OF TIMES TOTAL

SECURITY EXPERTS TO SECURITY