Thermodynamics

Engr. Albert S. Revilla, MSERM

Instructor
Introduction and Basic Concepts
Properties of a System
Thermodynamics
The study of thermodynamics is concerned
with the ways energy is stored within a body
and how energy transformations, which
involve heat and work, may take place. One
of the most fundamental laws of nature is
the conservation of energy principle.
It
simply states that during an energy
interaction, energy can change from one
form to another but the total amount of
energy remains constant. That is, energy
cannot be created or destroyed. The laws of
thermodynamics are general restrictions
which
nature
imposes
on
all
such
transformations.
Energy is a mathematical abstraction that
has no existence apart from its functional
relationship to other variables or coordinates
that do have a physical interpretation and
which can be measured.
ex. KE of a given mass of material is a
function of its velocity and it has no other
reality.
The first law of thermodynamics is merely a
formal statement asserting that energy is
conserved.
Systems & surroundings
Any application of the first law requires the
definition of a system and its surroundings.
System can be any object, any quantity of
matter, any region of space selected for
study and set apart from everything else,
which then becomes the surroundings. The
systems of interest are finite, and the point
of view taken is macroscopic rather than
microscopic. No account is taken of the
detailed structure of matter, and only the
coarse characteristics of the system:
Its temperature and pressure which are
regarded as thermodynamic coordinates.
Since some of the thermodynamic relations
that are applicable to closed and open
systems are different, it is extremely
important that we recognize the type of
system we have before we start analyzing it.

Any characteristic of a system in equilibrium

is called a property.
The property is
independent of the path used to arrive at the
system condition.
Some
thermodynamic
properties
are
pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and
mass m.
Properties may be intensive or extensive.
Extensive properties are those that vary
directly with size--or extent--of the system.
Some Extensive Properties
a. mass
b. volume
c. total energy
d. mass dependent property
Intensive properties are those that are
independent of size.

Extensive properties per unit mass are

intensive properties. For example, the
specific volume v, defined as:

and density , defined as

are intensive properties.

Boundary of the system

The imaginary envelope which encloses a
system
and
separates
it
from
its
surroundings is called the boundary of the
system. It
has a special properties which
serve either a) to isolate the system from its
surrounding , b) to provide for interaction in
specific ways between the system and
surroundings. An isolated system can
exchange neither matter or energy with its
surroundings. If a system is not isolated, its
boundaries may permit either matter or
energy or both to be exchanged with its
surroundings. If the exchange of matter is
allowed, the system is said to be open.
If only energy and not matter may be
exchanged, the system is closed (but not
isolated) and its mass is constant.
The exchange of energy can occur by two
modes: heat and work
Potential and Kinetic energy are considered
in both mechanics and thermodynamics.
These forms of energy result from the
position and motion of a system as a whole
and are regarded as the external energy of
the system.
The special area of thermodynamics is the
energy interior to matter, the energy
associated with the internal state of a
system, and is called internal energy.
When a sufficient number of
such
thermodynamic
coordinates
such
as
temperature and pressure, are specified, the
internal state of a system is determined and
its internal energy is fixed.
State
When a system is isolated, it is not affected
by its surroundings. Changes may occur
within the system that can be detected with
measuring devices such as thermometers
and pressure gauges. These changes are
observed to cease after a period of time, and
the system is said to have reached a
condition of internal equilibrium such that it
has no further tendency to change.
For a closed system which may exchange
energy with its surroundings, a final state
condition may also eventually be reached

such that the system is not only internally at

equilibrium but also in external equilibrium
with the surroundings.
An equilibrium state represents a particularly
simple condition of a system, and is subject
to precise mathematical description because
in such state the system exhibits a set of
identifiable properties.
State represents the totality of macroscopic
properties associated with a system.
The importance of equilibrium states in
thermodynamics derives from the fact that a
system at equilibrium exhibits a set of fixed
properties which are independent of time
and which are independent of time and
which may therefore be measured with
precision.
Process
When a closed system is displaced from
equilibrium, it undergoes a process , during
which its properties change until a new
equilibrium state is attained.
The system may be caused to interact with
its surroundings so as to exchange heat and
work in a way that produces in the system or
surroundings changes considered desirable
for one reason or another.

The term weight is often misused to express

mass. Unlike mass, weight Wt is a force.
Weight is the gravitational force applied to a
body, and its magnitude is determined from
Newton's second law,
where m is the mass of the body and g is the
local gravitational acceleration (g is 9.807
m/s2 at sea level and 45latitude). The
weight of a unit volume of a substance is
called the specific weight w and is
determined from w = g, where is
density.
Oftentimes, the engineer must work in other
systems of units. Comparison of the United
States Customary System (USCS), or English
System, and the slug system of units with
the SI system is shown below.
Units
An important component to the solution of
any engineering thermodynamic problem
requires the proper use of units. The unit
check is the simplest of all engineering
checks that can be made for a given
solution.
Since units present a major
hindrance to the correct solution of
thermodynamic problems, we must learn to
use units carefully and properly. The system
of units selected for this course is the SI
System, also known as the International
System (sometimes called the metric
system). In SI, the units of mass, length, and
time are the kilogram (kg), meter (m), and
second (s), respectively. We consider force
to be a derived unit from Newton's second
law, i.e.,

Sometimes we use the mole number in place

of the mass. In SI units the mole number is
in kilogram-moles, or kmol.
Newtons second law is often written as

where gc is called the gravitational constant

and is obtained from the force definition. In
the SI System 1 newton is that force required
to accelerate 1 kg mass 1 m/s2.
The
gravitational constant in the SI System is

In SI, the force unit is the newton (N), and it

is defined as the force required to accelerate
a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2. That is,
This definition of the newton is used as the
basis of the conversion factor to convert
mass-acceleration units to force units.
In the USCS 1 pound-force is that force
required to accelerate 1 pound-mass 32.176
ft/s2. The gravitational constant in the USCS
is

In the slug system, the gravitational constant

is

Kinetic Energy:
Consider a baseball flying through the air.
The ball is said to have "kinetic energy" by
virtue of the fact that its in motion relative to
the ground.
Potential Energy:
Consider a book sitting on a table. The book
is said to have "potential energy" because if
it is nudged off, gravity will accelerate the
book, giving the book kinetic energy.
Therefore, it has potential.
Thermal or Heat Energy:
Consider a hot cup of coffee. The coffee is
said to possess "thermal energy", or "heat
energy," which is really the collective,
microscopic, kinetic, and potential energy of
the molecules in the coffee.

Units of Heat
Calorie
A calorie is
the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram of water 1oC.
1 kcal = 1000 cal
The calorie is outdated and commonly
replaced by the SI-unit Joule.
Joule
The unit of heat in the SI-system the Joule is
The mechanical energy which must be
expended to raise the temperature of a unit
weight (2 kg) of water from 0oC to 1oC, or
from 32oF to 33oF.
1 J (Joule) = 9.478 10-4 Btu
Why is the
important?

study

of

Thermodynamics

The study of thermodynamics is important

because many machines and modern
devices change heat into work, such as an
automobile engine or turn work into heat or
cooling, such as with a refrigerator.
Understanding how thermodynamics works
helps you understand how machines that use
thermodynamics work.
What are the different forms of energy?
Energy has a number of different forms, all of
which measure the ability of an object or
system to do work on another object or
system.
In other words, there are different ways that
an object or a system can possess energy.
Basic Forms of Energy

Chemical Energy:
Consider the ability of your body to do work.
The glucose (blood sugar) in your body is
said to have "chemical energy" because the
glucose releases energy when chemically
reacted (combusted) with oxygen.
Electrical Energy
All matter is made up of atoms, and atoms
are made up of smaller particles, called
protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons
orbit around the center, or nucleus, of atoms,
just like the moon orbits the earth. The
nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons.
Material, like metals, have certain electrons
that are only loosely attached to their atoms.
They can easily be made to move from one
atom to another if an electric field is applied
to them. When those electrons move among
the atoms of matter, a current of electricity
is created.
Sound Energy:
Sound waves are compression waves
associated with the potential and kinetic
energy of air molecules. When an object
moves quickly, for example the head of
drum, it compresses the air nearby, giving
that air potential energy. That air then
expands, transforming the potential energy
into kinetic energy (moving air). The moving
air then pushes on and compresses other air,
and so on down the chain.
Electromagnetic Energy (light):
Consider the energy transmitted to the Earth
from the Sun by light (or by any source of

light). Light, which is also called "electromagnetic radiation". Why the fancy term?
Because light really can be thought of as
oscillating, coupled electric and magnetic
fields that travel freely through space
(without there having to be charged particles
of some kind around).
It turns out that light may also be thought of
as little packets of energy called photons
(that is, as particles, instead of waves). The
word "photon" derives from the word
"photo", which means "light".
Nuclear Energy:
The Sun, nuclear reactors, and the interior of
the Earth, all have "nuclear reactions" as the
source of their energy, that is, reactions that
involve changes in the structure of the nuclei
of atoms.
How is energy transported from place to
place and transferred between objects?
HEAT
There are three important ways that heat
energy can be transported or transferred,
called conduction, convection, and radiation.
The first two refer to transfer of the thermal
energy, whereas the last is really a
conversion of energy to a different form,
(photons of light) and the subsequent travel
(transport) of those photons.
Conduction
The "diffusion" of thermal energy (heat)
through a substance, which occurs because
hotter molecules (those that are vibrating,
rotating, or traveling faster), interact with
colder molecules, and in the process transfer
some of their energy.
Metals are excellent conductors of heat
energy, whereas things like wood or plastics
are not good conductors of heat. Those that
are not so good conductors are called
insulators.
Convection
The transfer of heat energy by the
movement of a substance, such as a heated
gas or liquid from one place to another.
For example, hot air rising to the ceiling is an
example of convection (in this case called a
convection current).

Radiation
In the context of heat transfer, however, the
term "radiation" refers just to light (electromagnetic waves), and in particular, to the
surprising fact that all objects, even those
that
are
in
equilibrium
(at
equal
temperature)
with
their
surroundings,
continuously
emit,
or
radiate
electromagnetic waves (that is, light waves)
into their surroundings.
The source of this radiation is the thermal
energy of the materials, that is, the
movement of the object's molecules.
Conductionscorching your hand when you
grab the handle of a hot pot
Convectionboiling water
Radiationstanding in front of your fireplace
PVT SYSTEM
The simplest thermodynamic system consists
of a fixed mass of an isotropic fluid
uninfluenced by chemical reactions or
external fields.
The system is described in terms of the three
measurable coordinates: Pressure P, volume
V, and the temperature T
The of an equation of state is that for an
ideal gas:
PV = RT
Where V is the molar volume, R is the
universal gas constant, and T is the absolute
temperature
R = 8.314 J/gmole.K
= 1.987 cal/gmole.K
= 1.986 BTU/lbmole.R
= 0.7302 atm.ft3/lbmole.R
= 0.08205 L.atm/mole.K
Mechanical Work
Work in thermodynamics always represents
an exchange of energy between a system
and its surroundings.
Mechanical work occurs when a force acting
on the system moves through a distance.
Work is defined by the integral:
W = FdL
And the differential form w= FdL
Where F is the component of the force acting
in the direction of the displacement dl
(external force)

The sign of work W is negative when work is

done on the system and positive when work
is done by the system.
In thermodynamics one often finds work
done by a force distributed over an area, by
a pressure P acting through a volume V.
Ex. Fluid pressure exerted on a piston
W = PdV where p is an external pressure
exerted on the system
The unit of work and hence the unit of
energy comes from the product of force and
distance or of pressure and volume.
The SI unit of work and energy is N.m or
Joules (J) .
Power is the rate of doing work and the SI
unit is watt (W) or J/s
In the English system unit of work and
energy is ft-lb and also BTU.
Problem
A gas is confined initially to a volume , V1 in
a horizontal cylinder by a frictionless piston
held in place by latches. When the piston is
released, it is forced outward by the internal
pressure of the gas acting on the interior
piston face. A constant external pressure P
acts on the external piston face and resists
the motion of the piston. Calculate the work
of the system (piston, cylinder, and the gas) ,
if the gas expands to a final volume Vf of 0.5
ft3 where the piston is in equilibrium position
with the gas pressure equal to P = 20 psi.
W = PV
= 20lb/in2 x 144in2/ft2 x 0.5 ft3 = 1440
ft-lb