Guidelines & Recommended Practices

Selection of Artificial Lift Systems

for Deliquifying Gas Wells
Prepared by Artificial Lift R&D Council
2.1 Fundamentals of Gas Well Deliquification
This covers such topics as what is liquid loading, how does it inhibit gas production, when is
some form of artificial lift required?

Introduction and Recognition of Liquid Loading

According to the EIA:
(http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/ng/ng_prod_wells_s1_a.htm,http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/ng/hist/n
9011us2A.htm)
The US gas well count was 448,641 in 2006 with the annual gas production being 17,942,493
MMscf. According to these figures, the average gas rate per well is about 110 Mscf/D.
Considering the critical rate for liquid loading for 2 3/8s inch ID tubing with 100 psia on the
wellhead is about 300 Mscf/D, it would appear that many gas wells are liquid loaded. However
loading is not limited to low rate producers as large diameter tubing wells load at a much higher
rate.
Comparably there are about 500,000 oil wells producing about 10 bpd.
(http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/pdf/pages/sec5_7.pdf).
Liquid loading is defined in various ways. Some Gas Production Operators say a well is suffering
from liquid loading when its gas production rate has fallen sharply off its established decline curve
and stays there. However, this change or indication will not occur if the well has been liquid
loaded for its entire life.
Other symptoms that may indicate liquid loading include:

The well will show an increasing difference between casing and tubing pressure as it loads.
Slugging may occur at the well head, upstream of any liquid knock-out device or separator,
when this has not occurred before.
A wireline pressure survey or sonic fluid level shot down the tubing while the well is producing
gas shows the existence of a gassy liquid level in the tubing.
A clear indication of liquid loading occurs when a well is still flowing, but at a lower, more
erratic rate than normal.

Turner1 and later Coleman2 characterized loading as occurring when droplets of liquid in the
tubing either rise (not loaded) or fall against the flow (loaded). They balanced the weight of liquid
droplets vs. the upward drag force from the flow of gas. The gas production velocity and
corresponding rate to just support the droplets and keep them from falling and accumulating in
the bottom of the well is referred to as the critical velocity or rate.

1. Turner Method
The Turner Equation for calculating the minimum gas velocity required to sustain flow in the
presence of liquid droplets (critical velocity) is shown below. This is correlated to well data
with surface pressures generally well above 1000 psi.

Selection of Artificial Lift Systems for Deliquifying Gas Wells

4 L g
1

1.92

Page 2

1
4

g2

ft
s
dynes
Surface tension in units of
cm
lbm
L Liquid phase density in units of
ft 3
lbm
g Gas phase density in units of
ft 3

Minimum gas velocity in units of

The following assumptions are commonly used to place the equations into a more fieldusable graphical form:

dynes
dynes
and that of water is 60
cm
cm
lbm
lbm
Liquid phase density, L of condensate is 45
3 and that of water is 67
ft
ft 3
Surface tension,

of condensate is 20

Gas gravity is 0.6 and gas temperature is 120 o F.

Often a gas compressibility or Z factor of 0.9 is used; but in the graph below, it is calculated
as a function of gas gravity, pressure, and temperature.
The equation can be expressed as a function of pressure, where p is in units of psia.

67 0.0031p 4
WATER 5.34
1
0.0031p 2
1

45 0.0031p 4
CONDENSATE 4.02
1
0.0031p 2
1

When water and condensate are both present, use the water equation.
When the flow rate is above the critical velocity, Turner predicts that liquid droplets are being
carried up by the gas velocity and are not accumulating in the well. If the flow rate is below
the critical velocity, Turner predicts that droplets are not being carried upward and are
accumulating in the well. The well may or may not cease to produce even if the gas velocity is
below the critical rate, but flowing below the critical rate will decrease the gas production rate.
Using the Turner velocity equation for water, and the assumptions stated above, a chart for
critical rate for various tubing sizes (Figure 1) can be constructed.

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Figure 1: Critical Rates according to Turner1 for water

The chart shows that for 100 psi wellhead pressure, and 2 3/8s tubing, the well must flow
approximately 320 Mscf/D or liquid loading will be predicted to occur. Similar charts can be
constructed for condensate. When both condensate and water are present, use the water
chart as water must still be removed. Charts for coiled tubing can also be constructed using
this technique.

2. Coleman Method
Coleman2, et al., correlated with well production data at lower well head pressures. Coleman
predicts that a 20% lower flow rate than Turner is required to stay above the critical rate.
Critical velocity or rate is a simple approximate method and may cause problems if applied
universally. The Coleman correlation resulted from data for wells with lower WHPs than those
tested by Turner.

3. Using the Methods

The Turner or Coleman equations, and observation of field symptoms, can be used to
diagnose a well to check for liquid loading. If a well is loaded and the problem can be solved,
a substantial production increase can often be achieved by returning the well to its original
decline curve.

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Note that most critical velocities or rates are computed at the wellhead pressure, as it is
available. However, higher critical rates would be calculated if a pressure at the bottom of the
flowing well were to be used in a critical velocity calculation. Also the amount of liquid
production is not considered in the critical velocity models. These and other considerations
make this an approximate but useful method of analysis.
Nodal AnalysisTM (Macco Schlumberger) modeling of gas wells can also indicate liquid
loading tendencies, but requires more well and fluid data to make the analysis.

Typical Artificial Lift Solutions for Gas Well Deliquification:

The industry uses a number of methods to remove liquid from (deliquify) gas wells. Research
and development are constantly being preformed to make these methods more effective and to
develop new methods.
Introductory comments on some of the commonly-used methods for gas well deliquification are
listed here. Section 2.2 provides guidelines to help with selection of many of the methods of
artificial lift used for deliquification. Section 2.4 and the several sub-sections which follow it
provide specific detailed information on each of the methods that are used.

1. Intermit the well

When a well first begins to show signs of liquid loading, this may be addressed by temporarily
stopping and re-starting (cycling or intermitting) production. During the shut-in period the well
pressure recovers (increases) around the well bore and some liquids may be forced back into
the formation, thus reducing the liquid load (level) in the wellbore. Then the well is returned to
production and allowed to flow until the loading again occurs and reduces the gas production
rate.
This method is sometimes used if the well has just started to experience liquid loading and is
waiting for some type of artificial lift system to be installed. It may also be used if the well has
a packer. The packer may reduce the effectiveness of some artificial lift methods. It may
need to be removed, if possible.
This method may have a serious drawback. In some formations, the presence of water can
damage or reduce the permeability for gas. So, in this case, it may damage the well to push
(re-inject) water back into the formation.
However the method is inexpensive and it can work with a packer in place. Therefore, it is
commonly used as an interim method of production before an artificial lift system can be
installed.

2. Velocity strings
Installing a smaller tubing size may be a solution in a loaded well. Figure 1 shows that for
smaller tubing sizes, a lower production rate is required to operate above the critical flow rate.
Smaller tubing may work well if it isnt too small. There are many good case histories. Very
small tubing can be hard to unload and a small amount of liquid will stand high in the tubing
and exert a high back-pressure on the formation.
Later in the wells life, even smaller tubing may be required as the reservoir depletes. For
wells with larger tubing that experience loading, smaller velocity strings are often used to

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return the well to production above the critical rate. Nodal Analysis can be very useful in
analyzing this situation.

3. Compression
Compression is often used to lower the flowing wellhead pressure. This may be
accomplished by a single wellhead compressor (to achieve lower pressures) or by a fieldwide compression system. Reciprocating compressors, screw type compressors, and other
types are used. It could be that below approximately 100 psi wellhead pressure, single well
compression may be more effective considering line losses, etc.
By reducing the wellhead pressure to a lower level, more water is maintained in the vapor
state, thus reducing the volume of water droplets to be produced. The lower wellhead
pressure translates to lower formation pressure and more gas inflow rate into the wellbore.
Lower pressure wells experience the highest percent increase in gas production rate with
compression.
Before installing compression, check the possibility of using a larger flowline or a twin or
parallel flowline to lower the wellhead pressure. Compression may be used to kick a well off if
it is weak. But lower pressure may not be enough to restart a shut-in well that is loaded.
Compression helps most other types of artificial lift systems to work more effectively.

4. Plungers
Plunger systems utilize a physical plunger or pig that travels from the bottom of the well to the
surface. At the bottom of the well, the pressure must build enough to lift the plunger and liquid
that has accumulated above the plunger to the surface. At the top of the well, a flow period of
gas is established.

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Figure 2: A typical conventional plunger lift installation.

Plunger lift is a preferred method by many Gas Production Operators. Conventional plunger
lift may work if the well produces a gas/liquid ratio (GLR) of 400 Scf/bbl or greater and the
casing pressure will build to 1 times the line or separator pressure in a reasonably short
time.
Plunger operation may be classified as conventional plunger lift ( maybe 90+% of
applications) and free cycle plunger lift where the well flows all the time except for a brief
shut-in time at the surface to allow the plunger or part of the plunger system to fall against the
flow.
Figure 3 shows a conventional plunger cycle:

Figure 3: A conventional plunger cycle

ABCDE-

Plunger at bottom with some liquid above plunger. Surface valve closed.
Surface valve opens and plunger rises with liquid above it.
Well flows at high rate for a while
Well begins to liquid load
Well shut in for plunger to fall through (1) gas and (2) liquid. A pressure build up
period is controlled if needed.

Plungers used for this cycle include brush plungers, grooved plungers, wobble washer
plungers, padded plungers, and other special types.

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Figure 4 shows a free-cycle plunger cycle or continuous plunger cycle. It can be achieved by
use of a two piece plunger as below or other contained ball and seat or contained valve type
plungers.

Figure 4: A free cycle or continuous flow plunger cycle operation.

This figure shows a two-piece plunger (sleeve and ball) but this cycle could also work with a
valved plunger such as the Weatherford RapidFloTM Plunger, the FB FreeCycleTM Plunger, the
McClainTM Plunger, or as shown above, the PacemakerTM (two-piece) plunger. Other plungers
that are not mentioned here may also work on this cycle.
A- The plunger is sealed by the ball at the bottom of a sleeve or a valve is closed in the
plunger. It is carrying up a slug of liquid with the surface valve open.
B- The plunger arrives at the surface. If the two-piece plunger is used, the sleeve is held
on a receiving rod and the ball falls against the flow. If a valve-type plunger is used,
the plunger is held on a receiving rod with the flow.
C- The gas continues to flow with the sleeve of the two-piece plunger at the surface or
with the RapidFlo, FreeCycle, or McClain plunger held by flow at the surface with

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production continuing. If the two-piece plunger is used, the ball can fall as the flow
continues.
D- After a short shut-in period of perhaps 10-20 seconds, the sleeve of the two-piece
plunger falls while gas flow continues. The entire plunger will fall if the RapidFlo,
FreeCycle, or McClain plunger is used. When the sleeve of the two-piece Pacemaker
joins the ball at the bottom of the tubing, the plunger is sealed and with flow
continuing, the ball and sleeve immediately start back up the tubing. When the
RapidFlo, FreeCycle, or McClain plungers hit bottom, a valve is closed, the plunger is
sealed, and they start back up the tubing as flow continues. If the plunger falls too
soon, an Autocatcher may be installed to hold the plunger longer at the surface.
E- The sealed continuous flow plunger is rising with the flow with a slug of liquid being
carried.

A
A

Figure 5:
A: Conventional grooved, padded and brush plungers
B: Two-piece plunger
C: Continuous RapidFlo Plunger
Other plunger techniques for weaker wells include progressive plunger lift (one plunger
running over an upper portion of the well and another plunger running over a lower portion of
the well). Also Casing Plungers may be used for weak wells with the plunger sealing in the
casing and with the tubing removed (mostly in 4/1/2 casing).
For analysis of plunger operation the Echometer Plunger Lift analysis system allows one to
monitor the travel of the plunger downhole without well intervention. The Smart Plunger
(PCS, Denver) contains an instrumented insert to capture data when the plunger is running.

5. Pumping systems
The most common type of pumping system is the beam pump. Pumping systems typically
pump liquid up the tubing and allow gas to flow up the casing/tubing annulus. Other pumping

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systems include electrical submersible pumps (ESP), progressing cavity pumps (PCP),
hydraulic pumps (reciprocating and jet), and other novel pumps. The ESP and PCP systems
can be configured so the pump can be replaced without pulling the tubing. This is refereed to
as the TTC (through tubing conveyed) system offered by Centrilift Hughes.
Problems with pumping systems can be sand and gas production. The PCP is designed to
handle some sand with reduced wear and gas interference. If the pump is landed below the
perforations, then good gas separation can be achieved. If it cant be landed below the
perforations, separators and special pumps may be employed. Results may or may not be
satisfactory depending on many factors.
Pumps are usually employed when the bottom-hole pressure is low in the well or the
gas/liquid ratio is not high enough for flowing, plunger lift, or other non pumping methods.

6. Gas-lift
Gas-lift is a method whereby additional gas is injected down the tubing/casing annulus, or in
some cases down coiled tubing. The gas is injected (hopefully) at or near the bottom of the
well. Unloading valves above the operating gas-lift valve may be necessary to permit the well
to inject at the desired depth with minimum compressor pressure to deliver the gas-lift gas.
For low pressure, low rate wells, the concept is to inject enough gas into the tubing to achieve
critical velocity or rate so that the well will not liquid load. For larger liquid rates and
pressures, more conventional gas-lift design principles may be applied.
For oil wells, gas-lift is considered to be a system that can not lower the bottom-hole pressure
as much as with a pumping system. However, if critical rate is achieved without over injecting
gas into a gas well, gas-lift may be as effective as pumping in achieving good gas production
even in low pressure wells. Once a gas-lift system is in place, the installation is usually
relatively trouble free. The compressor and gas-lift distribution systems are the most
expensive parts of the system.
Unlike pumping and other forms of artificial lift, gas-lift uses gas for its operation so it is not
hampered by gas interference as pumping systems are. Also, gas-lift systems are not
affected by modest amounts of sand production.
Continuous gas-lift is applied to wells making low liquid rates. There are intermittent gas-lift
methods and other approaches such as chamber lift, perhaps working with a plunger, which
may also be designed for low liquid rates and low well pressures.

7. Use of surfactants
Foam is used with best results in gas wells making only water. It can handle deep wells and
wells with moderate liquid rates. Chemical companies are making progress on developing
foam or other chemical methods for wells that produce condensate.
From the discussion of critical rate, an intermediate equation for critical velocity was shown
as:

4 L g
1

1.92

g2

1
4

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This equation is a function of surface tension and liquid density. Surfactants will lower the
values of both parameters, and as such will lower the required gas rate so that a lower gas
rate can still be above critical rate.
Surfactants can be introduced into the well using three methods:
1. Soap sticks dropped down the tubing.
2. Surfactants dropped or pumped down the casing/tubing annulus (no packer).
3. Lubricate a capillary string (1/4 stainless steel tubing) through the wellhead down the
tubing to the perforations.
Although soap sticks may be the most common method, the capillary string insures chemicals
get to the desired depth in the well.

8. Injection
In some cases, it is possible to separate produced water down hole and inject it below a
packer, below the gas zone, and into an underlying disposal zone, if all factors are in place.
Some beam and ESP systems have been developed to do this job.

9. Systems for long pay zones

PerfliftTM (Schlumberger) is a method for installing a production string below a packer so gaslift can occur below the packer and through a long perforated zone. The goal is to reduce the
pressure across even deep set perforations.
The CVRTM (Weatherford) system uses a large dead string in the perforated interval with
assistance from surfactant injection to get flow to carry liquids from deep perforated intervals.
Plunger lift can be incorporated into the system.

10. Survey of artificial lift systems used for gas well deliquification
A survey of Gas Production Operators was conducted at the 2006 Gas Well Deliquification
Workshop held in Denver, Colorado on Feb. 27- Mar. 1, 2006. Operators were asked a
series of questions about their gas well deliquification practices. One that is pertinent here
concerned the types of artificial lift systems they use.
Of 89 respondents, 78 (88%) said that they use plungers on some wells. The other
responses can be seen in the table. Many Operators use more than one type or artificial lift.
This makes sense since different wells have different needs.
Artificial Lift Systems Used
Total No. Returned Forms
Plunger Lift
Batch Chemical
Continuous Chemical
ESP
PCP
Sucker Rod Pump
Continuous Gas-Lift
Intermittent Gas-Lift
Capillary Tube
Stop Cock (Intermit)

#
89
78
38
45
7
11
42
15
6
36
27

%
100%
88%
43%
51%
8%
12%
47%
17%
7%
40%
30%

Selection of Artificial Lift Systems for Deliquifying Gas Wells

Heater
Other

1
14

Page 11

1%
16%

It is worth noting that while many Operators use what may be termed as conventional
methods of artificial lift for gas well deliquification; there is a large continuing focus on
development and testing of new techniques in virtually all areas of artificial lift technology.
People are continuing to look for more economical artificial lift systems to install and operate
that will result in high gas production rates and higher ultimate recoveries.

11. Automation of artificial lift systems

Automation and optimization of artificial lift systems that are used for gas well deliquification is
becoming a major concern. Several companies are developing or enhancing their artificial lift
systems to monitor, control, and optimize plunger lift, pumping systems, gas-lift systems, etc.
This is a large field by itself and may become the subject of a future article or series of
articles.

Summary
Liquid loading is a condition that will eventually occur in nearly all gas wells. The industry is
responding by optimum application of older artificial methods and development of new
techniques. The reward of higher gas production rates and larger ultimate gas recovery
volumes is very real.

References
1. Turner, R. G.; Hubbard, M. G. and Dukler, A. E. Analysis and Prediction of Minimum Flow
Rate for the Continuous Removal of Liquids from Gas Wells, J. Petroleum Technology, Nov.
1969. pp.1475-1482.
2. Coleman, S. B, Clay, H. B., McCurdy, D. G and Norris, H. L. III, A New Look at Predicting
Gas-Well Load Up, Journal of Petroleum Technology, March, 1991, pp. 329-333
3. Gas Well Deliquification, by J. Lea, H. Nickens, and M. Wells, 1st Edition, Gulf Professional
Publishing- Elsevier, 2003.
4. Gas Well Deliquification, by J. Lea, H. Nickens, and M. Wells, 2nd Edition, Gulf Professional
Publishing- Elsevier, 2008.