Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
by
Dawit Seyoum
A thesis submitted to
The University of New South Wales for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another
person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any
other degree or diploma of a university or other institute of higher learning, except
where due acknowledgment is made in the text.
_______________________
Dawit Seyoum
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, thanks be to God who gave me the physical and spiritual health to pursue my
Ph.D. study.
I would like to thank my supervisors Associate Professor M.F. Rahman and Associate
Professor Colin Grantham for their guidance and financial assistance throughout this
study.
Special acknowledgement is due to Mr. Doug McKinnon for proof reading the thesis
and for sharing ideas. I thank Daniel Indyk from Energy Australia for his assistance to
visit a wind power site. Thank you to the laboratory staff for their logistical support.
Thanks also go to my colleagues in the Energy Systems Research Group for their
suggestions, Mr. Baburaj Karanayil, Mr. Chathura Mudannayake, Dr. Enamul Haque,
Mr. Lixin Tang, Mr. Phuc Huu To and Mr. Phop Chancharoensook.
I thank my late father who encouraged me to go to school when I was a little boy and
my mother who raised me and helped me to go to school as a single mother.
Last, but foremost, thanks go to my family. To my wife Abeba, thank you for your
patience, understanding, encouragement and help, especially when I was spending most
of the time doing research. And thanks to my little daughter, Lwam, for your patience in
enjoying the little time that I had to spend with you.
iii
ABSTRACT
This thesis covers the analysis, dynamic modelling and control of an isolated selfexcited induction generator (SEIG) driven by a variable speed wind turbine. The
voltage build up process of an isolated induction generator excited by AC capacitors
starts from charge in the capacitors or from a remnant magnetic field in the core. A
similar voltage build up is obtained when the isolated induction generator is excited
using an inverter/rectifier system with a single DC capacitor on the DC link of the
converter. In this type of excitation the voltage build up starts from a small DC voltage
in the DC link and is implemented using vector control.
The dynamic voltage, current, power and frequency developed by the induction
generator have been analysed, simulated and verified experimentally for the loaded and
unloaded conditions while the speed was varied or kept constant. Results which are
inaccessible in the experimental setup have been predicted using the simulation
algorithm.
To model the self excited induction generator accurate values of the parameters of the
induction machine are required. A detailed analysis for the parameter determination of
induction machines using a fast data acquisition technique and a DSP system has been
investigated. A novel analysis and model of a self-excited induction generator that takes
iron loss into account is presented in a simplified and understandable way.
The use of the variation in magnetising inductance with voltage leads to an accurate
prediction of whether or not self-excitation will occur in a SEIG for various capacitance
values and speeds in both the loaded and unloaded cases. The characteristics of
magnetising inductance, Lm, with respect to the rms induced stator voltage or
magnetising current determines the regions of stable operation as well as the minimum
generated voltage without loss of self-excitation.
In the SEIG, the frequency of the generated voltage depends on the speed of the prime
mover as well as the condition of the load. With the speed of the prime mover of an
isolated SEIG constant, an increased load causes the magnitude of the generated voltage
iv
and frequency to decrease. This is due to a drop in the speed of the rotating magnetic
field. When the speed of the prime mover drops with load then the decrease in voltage
and frequency will be greater than for the case where the speed is held constant.
Dynamic simulation studies shows that increasing the capacitance value can
compensate for the voltage drop due to loading, but the drop in frequency can be
compensated only by increasing the speed of the rotor.
In vector control of the SEIG, the reference flux linkage varies according to the
variation in rotor speed. The problems associated with the estimation of stator flux
linkage using integration are investigated and an improved estimation of flux linkage is
developed that compensates for the integration error.
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................................................................... ...iii
ABSTRACT
........................................................................................................... ...iv
CONTENTS
........................................................................................................... ...vi
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1
1.1
General ........................................................................................................ 1
1.2
Thesis outline............................................................................................... 4
1.3
1.4
2.2
vi
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
Summary...................................................................................................... ..42
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
Summary...................................................................................................... ..64
4.2
4.3
vii
4.4
4.5
D-Q axes induction machine model in rotating reference frame ................ ..86
4.6
4.7
Summary...................................................................................................... ..93
4.8
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
Summary...................................................................................................... 113
5.7
6.2
6.4
Summary...................................................................................................... 146
6.5
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
Magnetising inductance and its effect on stability of generated voltage .... 170
7.7
7.8
7.9
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
Summary...................................................................................................... 220
8.7
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.7
Summary...................................................................................................... 254
9.8
APPENDICES
A
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1.1 Kooragang wind turbine generator, Newcastle, NSW, Australia ...............2
Fig. 1.2 Wind farm around San Francisco, California, USA (Photo 2002) .............3
Fig. 2.1 Vertical axis wind turbine ...........................................................................23
Fig. 2.2 Horizontal axis wind turbine (a) upwind machine (b) downwind machine24
Fig. 2.3 Detail of a wind turbine driven power generation system ..........................25
Fig. 2.4 Change of wind speed and wind pressure around the wind turbine ............ ..27
Fig. 2.5 Power coefficient versus V2/V1 .................................................................... . 30
Fig. 2.6 Wind turbine output power to shaft speed characteristic curve................... . 31
Fig. 2.7 Air flow around cross section of a blade of a wind turbine ......................... . 32
Fig. 2.8 Air flow around cross section of a blade during stall condition .................. . 32
Fig. 2.9 Wind turbine output torque to shaft speed characteristic curve................... . 33
Fig. 2.10 Detail of a twisted rotor blade...................................................................... . 34
Fig. 2.11 Cross section of a twisted rotor blade from tip to base................................ . 35
Fig. 2.12 Typical power coefficient versus tip speed ratio ......................................... . 36
Fig. 2.13 Histogram and Weibull function for the probability of a given wind
speed (data measured in 1m/s intervals) ...................................................... ..37
Fig. 2.14 Wind turbine control regions ....................................................................... ..38
Fig. 2.15 Power coefficient verses tip speed ratio under yaw control ........................ ..39
Fig. 2.16 Growth of wind energy capacity worldwide................................................ ..41
Fig. 2.17 Trend in the cost of electricity generated from wind energy ....................... ..42
Fig. 3.1 Three-axes and two-axes in the stationary reference frame......................... ..46
Fig. 3.2 Three-axes and two-axes in the stationary reference frame with d-axis
and a-axis aligned ........................................................................................ ..49
Fig. 3.3 Steps of the abc to rotating dq axes transformation ..................................... ..52
Fig. 3.4 Voltage vector and its component in dq axes .............................................. ..54
Fig. 3.5 Current vector and its component in stationary dq axes .............................. ..58
Fig. 3.6 Voltage and current vectors with their components in the stationary
dq-axes ......................................................................................................... ..59
xii
xiii
xv
Fig. 7.6 Variation of magnetising inductance with phase voltage at rated frequency
165
Fig. 7.7 Flow chart to determine the minimum speed and minimum capacitance
for SEIG at no load ...................................................................................... 167
Fig. 7.8 Values of minimum capacitance and rotor speed for self-excitation at
no load.......................................................................................................... 169
Fig. 7.9 Error in capacitance when calculated using the approximate method......... 170
Fig. 7.10 Measured unsuccessful self-excitation at C=60PF (a) generated phase
voltage (b) speed .......................................................................................... 171
Fig. 7.11 Measured self-excitation at C = 60PF and lower speed (a) generated
phase voltage (b)speed ................................................................................. 172
Fig. 7.12 Measured self-excitation at C = 60PF with speed and generated voltage
close to rated values (a) generated phase voltage (b)speed ......................... 173G
Fig. 7.13 Required capacitance and speed for self-excitation with load, RL ............... 174
Fig. 7.14 Relationship between capacitance value, rotor speed and generated
voltage at no load ......................................................................................... 178
Fig. 7.15 Variation of magnetising inductance with phase voltage at different
frequencies ................................................................................................... 179
Fig. 7.16 Variation of magnetising inductance with magnetising current .................. 180
Fig. 7.17 DC motor speed regulator ............................................................................ 181
Fig. 7.18 Measured self-excitation at C = 60PF and with regulated speed
(a) generated phase voltage (b) speed (c) stator current .............................. 182G
Fig. 7.19 Simulated self-excitation at C = 60PF and with regulated speed
(a) generated phase voltage (b) speed (c) stator current .............................. 183
Fig. 7.20 Simulated self-excitation at C = 60PF and with regulated speed
(a) magnetising inductance (b) rms magnetising current (c) peak stator
flux-linkage .................................................................................................. 184G
Fig. 7.21 Three dimensional d-axis flux-linkage and q-axis flux-linkage as a
function of time during self-excitation process ........................................... 185
Fig. 7.22 Self-excitation process initiated by a charged capacitor of 60PF and
rotor speed of 1480rpm (a) experimental result (b) simulated result........... 186G
Fig. 7.23 d-q model of a loaded SEIG in a stationary reference frame (a) q-axis
xvi
xvii
Fig. 8.1 No load D-Q model of a SEIG including core loss represented by Rm
(a) d-axis (b) q-axis........................................................................................ 210
Fig. 8.2 Values of capacitance and speed for self-excitation with and without Rm
at no load........................................................................................................ 213
Fig. 8.3 No load RMS phase voltage during self-excitation with and without Rm ..... 216
Fig. 8.4 Variation of connected capacitor and resistor................................................ 218
Fig. 8.5 The dynamic rms generated voltage with variation of load and capacitance 218
Fig. 8.6 Dynamic currents in the load, capacitor and stator with variation in load
and capacitance .............................................................................................. 219
Fig. 8.7 The dynamic output power with variation in load and capacitance .............. 219
Fig. 8.8 The dynamic electromagnetic torque with variation in load and capacitance220
Fig. 9.1 Electrical and mechanical connections ........................................................ 224
Fig. 9.2 Vector diagram for rotor flux oriented vector control ................................. 226
Fig. 9.3 Vector diagram for stator flux oriented vector control ................................ 235
Fig. 9.4 System description ....................................................................................... 240
Fig. 9.5 Relationship between generator rotor speed and flux linkage ..................... 242
Fig. 9.6 Implementation of direct rotor flux oriented vector control with current
controlled PWM VSI ................................................................................................... 244
Fig. 9.7 Implementation of indirect rotor flux oriented vector control with current. 246
Fig. 9.8 Implementation of direct rotor flux oriented vector control with stator
voltage as a control variable ........................................................................ 247
Fig. 9.9 Implementation of stator flux oriented vector control with current
controlled PWM VSI ................................................................................... 248
Fig. 9.10 Generated DC voltage for different capacitance value ................................ 250
Fig. 9.11 Rotor speed and angular frequency of the generated voltage for different
capacitance value ......................................................................................... 250
Fig. 9.12 Flux linkage at different rotor speeds of the induction generator
for 1000PF ................................................................................................... 251
Fig. 9.13 Generated line to line voltage at the terminals of the induction generator .. 251
Fig. 9.14 Loading of the induction generator (a) RL (b) rotor speed (c) VDC (d) flux
linkage (e) idse (f) iqse (g) Idc (h) Output power (i) Slip (j) Electromagnetic
torque ........................................................................................................... 254
xviii
Fig. 10.1 Offset error equal to Am as a result of the integration initial condition........ 261
Fig. 10.2 No integrator error ....................................................................................... 261
Fig. 10.3 Error produced due to measurement offset .................................................. 262
Fig. 10.4 Error produced due to measurement offset and integration initial condition262
Fig. 10.5 Numerical integrator representation ............................................................ 263
Fig. 10.6 Proposed offset adjustment in a numerical integrator.................................. 265
Fig. 10.7 Proposed integrator with input offset adjustment ........................................ 265
Fig. 10.8 Detail for integration error compensation ................................................... 266
Fig. 10.9 Stator flux linkage estimation using the proposed method .......................... 267
Fig. A.1 Electromagnetic torque versus motor speed at steady state......................... 280
Fig. A.2 Variation of speed with time (a) DC motor field supply on
(b) DC motor field supply off ...................................................................... 280
Fig. B.1 Interconnection of hardware system ............................................................ 283
Fig. B.2 DSPACE DS1102 DSP controller board ..................................................... 283
Fig. B.3 Multiplexer board control to dSPACE DS1102 DSP card connection........ 283
Fig. B.4 DAC output for DC motor speed control..................................................... 284
Fig. B.5 Dead time Generator board and DS1102 DSP card connection .................. 284
Fig. B.6 Incremental encoder DS1102 DSP card connection .................................... 284
Fig. B.7 Four isolated 15V Power supply for optocoupler circuit............................. 285
Fig. B.8 Optocoupler to Mitsubishi PM50RVA120 IPM .......................................... 286
Fig. B.9 8 to 4 multiplexer with Sample and Hold .................................................... 287
Fig. B.10 Cross over protection board (dead time generator)...................................... 288
Fig. D.1 Student award............................................................................................... 300
LIST OF TABLES
xix
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Generally symbols are defined locally. The list of principal symbols is given below
Prf - Steady state wind pressure, which is equal to atmospheric air pressure, N/m2
Prf - wind pressure just after the wind turbine, N/m2
Prf - wind pressure just before the wind turbine, N/m2
fqs, fds, and fos dq axes instantaneous quantities in stationary reference frame
fqe, and fde
va, vb and vc
ia, ib and ic
ds-qs
stationary dq axes
de-qe
vds
vqs
vdr
vqr
ids
iqs
idr
iqr
imd
imq
Ods
Oqs
Odr
Oqr
Odm
Oqm
Vm
Im
Vrms
Irms
Vdq
Idq
Ts
xxi
angular speed of the space vector, speed of the general reference frame, rad/s
Ze
Zr
Zm
fe
excitation frequency, Hz
the slip of the rotor with respect to the stator magnetic field
Pp
Ne
Vs
Is
Ir
Rs
Rr
Rm
Lls
Llr
Lm
magnetising inductance, H
Ls
Lr
Es
rms induced emf in the stator winding due to the rotating magnetic field that
links the stator and rotor windings, V
Er
sZe
Te
electromagnetic torque, Nm
Tm
JJG
Om
JG
Ir
mechanical torque
inertia, Kg-m2
xxii
Aincr
Iincr
Zres
Tres
VO
IO
PO
Vsh
Ish
Psh
Superscript
*
commanded variables
Abbreviations
SEIG Self-Excited Induction Generator
emf
Electromotive force
FIR
PI
VSI
IPM
xxiii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Today, most of the electricity generated comes from fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural
gas). These fossil fuels have finite reserves and will run out in the future. The negative
effect of these fossil fuels is that they produce pollutant gases when they are burned in
the process to generate electricity. Fossil fuels are a non-renewable energy source.
However, renewable energy resources (solar, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal and
ocean) are constantly replaced, hence will not run out, and are usually less polluting [1].
In the literature, starting in the 1930s, it is well known that a three-phase induction
machine can be made to work as a self-excited induction generator (SEIG) [2, 3]. In an
isolated application a three-phase induction generator operates in the self-excited mode
by connecting three AC capacitors to the stator terminals [2-4] or using a converter and
a single DC link capacitor [5]. The dynamic performance of an isolated induction
generator excited by three AC capacitors or a single DC capacitor with a converter is
discussed in detail in this work.
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Induction machines are more robust and cheaper than other electrical machines for the
same rating. They need less maintenance when manufactured with a squirrel cage rotor.
Depending on the condition of operation the induction machine can be used as a motor
or generator. Induction machines are available in single-phase or three-phase
constructions. In this work the modelling and analysis given is only for the three-phase
induction machine and the induction machine is operated as a generator. The definition
of slip in this study is the usual one and is the same for the induction generator and
induction motor.
In a grid connected induction generator driven by a wind turbine the magnetic field is
produced by excitation current drawn from the grid. In different countries there are
many induction generators with high power ratings that use wind power as their prime
mover. These export electric power to the grid. The Kooragang wind turbine generator,
shown in Fig. 1.1, which is owned and operated by Energy Australia, in Newcastle,
NSW, Australia, is connected to the grid and has rated power of 600KW and the turbine
is a Vestas V44-600KW machine [6].
Fig. 1.1 Kooragang wind turbine generator, Newcastle, NSW, Australia (Photo 2002)
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
For this generating system the angular speed of the wind turbine rotor measured on the
wind turbine side is 28rpm. A gear box steps up the shaft speed and on the generator
side the angular speed of the generator rotor is approximately 1500rpm [6].
Multiple wind turbine generators can be installed at a given site to form a wind farm.
Fig. 1.2 shows part of a wind farm around San Francisco, California, USA.
Fig. 1.2 Wind farm around San Francisco, California, USA (Photo 2002)
The output voltage and frequency of an isolated induction generator vary depending on
the speed of the rotor and the load connected to the generator. This is due to a drop in
the speed of the rotating magnetic field [7]. The wind turbine can be designed to operate
3
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
at constant speed or variable speed. When the speed of the prime mover of the isolated
induction generator drops with load, then the decrease in voltage and frequency will be
greater than for the case where the speed is held constant. The AC voltage can be
compensated by varying the exciting AC capacitors or using a controlled inverter and a
DC capacitor. However the frequency can be compensated only if there is a change in
the rotor speed. Because the frequency of the three-phase isolated induction generator
varies with loading its application should be for the supply of equipment insensitive to
frequency deviations, such as heaters, water pumps, lighting, battery charging etc.
For applications that require constant voltage and frequency the rectified DC voltage of
the isolated induction generator should be controlled to remain at a given reference
value. Then the constant DC voltage can be converted to constant AC voltage and
frequency using an output inverter. In this way a control mechanism is implemented to
regulate the output voltage and frequency from an induction generator.
In Section 1.3 of this chapter the literature related to isolated induction generators and
wind turbines is reviewed. This involves clarifying the strengths and limitations of the
previous works and highlighting the advantages of the research covered in the thesis.
In Chapter 2 a detailed explanation about wind as a power source and the mechanism of
conversion of wind power to mechanical power is presented. The variation of output
power and output torque with rotor angular speed and wind speed is discussed. The
economics and growth of wind powered electric generation is given and the projection
for the future is also discussed.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 5 the data acquisition system and signal processing are discussed. The
measurement of voltages, currents, rotor angle and angular speed with their appropriate
sensors is explained. The detail of the digital signal processing (DSP) card and
transducer board used in the experimental setup is given. The sensors for current and
voltage are Hall-Effect devices. Rotor speed and angle measurements are taken using an
optical incremental encoder. The resolution of angle and speed for a given encoder is
derived. Anti-aliasing filters are introduced in the analog signals of the sensor outputs to
prevent the high frequencies appearing as a low frequency when the analog signal is
5
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
digitised in the A/D converter. The advantage of digital signal processing is discussed
and different types of filter design are presented which are used in the simulation and
experimental procedures.
Machine modelling requires knowledge of the parameters of the machine. Whether the
three-phase induction machine is modelled using the conventional per-phase equivalent
circuit or the D-Q method the parameters of the machine are required. Chapter 6
discusses a rapid way of determining the parameters that is fast enough to determine the
parameters at rated voltage of the induction machine without damaging it due to
overheating. The error in the values of induction motor parameters arising from
measurement error in voltage, current and power have been presented. Rotor parameter
variations in squirrel cage induction machines and the cause of this variation is
examined. The variation of induction machine parameters with temperature is also
presented.
Chapter 7 deals with the modelling, analysis and dynamic performance of an isolated
three-phase induction generator excited by three AC capacitors connected at the stator
terminals. The mathematical model of a self-excited induction generator including the
representation of the remnant magnetic flux in the iron core and the initial charge in the
capacitor is given. The initiation and process of self-excitation is presented, starting
from a simple RLC circuit as an analogy to a complete dynamic representation of a selfexcited induction generator, i.e. the complete representation includes both steady state
and transient conditions. The variation of magnetising inductance of the induction
machine is important in the voltage build up and stabilisation of the generated voltage.
It is shown that the characteristics of magnetising inductance with respect to the rms
induced stator voltage or magnetising current determines the regions of stable operation
as well as the minimum generated voltage without loss of self-excitation. The variation
of the generated voltage and frequency for a self excited induction generator driven by a
wind turbine at constant and variable speeds has been investigated. Using simulation
algorithms more results which are not accessible in an experimental setup have been
predicted.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 9 the voltage build up process and terminal voltage control in an isolated
wind powered induction generator using an inverter/rectifier excitation with a single
capacitor on the DC link is discussed. A vector control technique is developed to
control the excitation and the active power producing currents independently. That is,
the current control scheme causes the currents to act in the same way as in a DC
generator where the field current and the armature current are decoupled. When the
speed of the prime mover is varied the flux linkage in the induction generator is made to
vary inversely proportional to the rotor speed so that the generated voltage will remain
constant. Since the torque produced by a wind turbine drops at high turbine rotor speed
the induction generator will run at high generator rotor speed when loaded with a small
load and the rotor speeds decrease with an increase in load. As the turbine rotor shaft
and the generator rotor shaft are connected via a gear box, both rotor speeds will
increase and decrease proportionally at constant gear ratio. The flux linkage of the
induction generator is controlled by controlling the d-axis current in the synchronously
rotating reference frame. Two vector control strategies: rotor flux oriented vector
control and stator flux oriented vector control are presented. It is shown that the
estimation of rotor flux linkage is more dependent on the induction machine parameters
whereas estimation of stator flux linkage is dependent only on the stator resistance.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 10 investigates the problems and the solutions in the estimation of stator flux
linkage using integration of the voltage behind the stator resistance. This voltage is
calculated from the measured voltages and currents. Accurate flux estimation is very
crucial in the control of induction motor drives and induction generators using vector
control. The method of flux linkage estimation proposed in this chapter is new and
effective. It eliminates the error produced by the measurement offset error and
integrator output error due to initial integration in a continuous time integrator or
numerical/discrete time integrator. It is shown that if the integration ramp output due to
the existence of measurement offset error is large then subtracting the output of a low
pass filter of the signal from the signal to be integrated minimizes the offset. A signal
with small input offset will have a small increment of ramp that will appear at the
output of the integrator. As the time increases the ramp keeps on increasing and
eventually the distortion in flux will be unacceptable. However, if the ramp is
eliminated every cycle, the flux distortion due to the offset correction at the output is
insignificant.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
admittance method [14-15]. The loop-impedance method is based on setting the total
impedance of the SEIG, i.e. including the exciting capacitance, equal to zero and then to
find the steady state operating voltage and frequency using an iteration process. In the
nodal admittance method the real and imaginary parts of the overall admittance of the
SEIG are equated to zero. The equations are formulated based on the steady state
conditions of the SEIG.
The main draw back of using the per-phase steady state equivalent circuit model is that
it cannot be used to solve transient dynamics because the model was derived from the
steady state conditions of the induction machine.
The dynamic model of a SEIG is based on the D-Q axes equivalent circuit or unified
machine theory. For analysis the induction machine in three axes is transformed to two
axes, D and Q, and all the analysis is done in the D-Q axes model. The results are then
transformed back to the actual three axes representation. In the D-Q axes if the time
varying terms are ignored the equations represent only the steady state conditions. The
SEIG represented in D-Q axes and analysed under steady state conditions are reported
in [16-17]. In [18-21] the dynamic equations for the representation of SEIG conditions
are given. In these papers the initial conditions that take into account the initial charge
in the exciting capacitors and the remnant magnetic flux linkage in the iron core are not
given and in some of the papers the complete dynamic equations are not presented.
The D-Q axes model of SEIG given in [20] reported that the dynamic generated voltage
varies with the applied load, but there are no results that show what happens to the
dynamic speed of the rotor when the generator is loaded. Hence it cannot be proven
whether the variation in voltage is exaggerated due to a change in speed or not. To
investigate this, the characteristic of the dynamic voltage is simulated and measured
keeping the speed at a constant value by applying a speed regulator to a DC motor
which is used as a prime mover for the SEIG. For the constant speed drive test a PI
(proportional and integrator) speed controller and an inner loop PI current controller is
used. The dynamic frequency of the generated voltage, during loading conditions, is
calculated from measured voltages or from measured voltages and currents. A threeaxes to two-axes transformation is used in the calculation of the dynamic frequency
9
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
value. Here the transformation is used to simplify the calculation. The measured and
simulated dynamic currents, active power and electromagnetic torque generated by the
SEIG are also given in this paper.
The normal connection of a SEIG is that the three exciting capacitors are connected
across the stator terminals and there is no electrical connection between the stator and
rotor windings. However, in the literature a SEIG with electrical connection between
rotor and stator windings is reported [22]. This paper deals with the steady state
performance of a SEIG realised by a series connection of stator and rotor windings of a
slip-ring type induction machine and solved using D-Q analysis. In this type of
connection it has been claimed that it has the advantage of operating at a frequency
independent of load conditions for a fixed rotor speed, however the angular frequency
of the output voltage is equal to half of the rotor electrical angular speed, which means
the prime mover should rotate at twice the normal speed to generate voltage with
standard frequency. There is also concern regarding the current carrying capability of
the rotor and stator windings because both of them are carrying the same current.
Whether any wound rotor induction machine can be used in this way or not is not
specified.
Shridhar et al reported that if a single valued capacitor bank is connected, i.e. without
voltage regulator, a SEIG can safely supply an induction motor rated up to 50% of its
own rating and with a voltage regulator that maintains the rated terminal voltage the
SEIG can safely feed an induction motor rated up to 75% of its own rating [23]. In this
case the SEIG can sustain the starting transients of the induction motor without losing
self-excitation.
Since a SEIG operates in the saturation region, it has been shown that to saturate the
core, the width of the stator yoke is reduced so that the volume and the weight of the
induction generator will be less than the corresponding induction motor [24]. The
voltage drop for a constant capacitor induction motor used as a generator was 30%
while the voltage drop of the corresponding designed induction generator was 6% [24].
10
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
It has been shown that a de-excited induction generator can re-excite even if the load is
already connected to it [30], but the relationship between the value of the load,
capacitance and speed has not been given. In this thesis the relationship between speed,
capacitance and load is given so that the characteristics of the induction generator for
self-excitation with a load can be established. This relationship is also important to find
the region where the induction generator can continue to operate without loss of selfexcitation.
Wind speed can change from the minimum set point to the maximum set point
randomly and the SEIG can be started at any point within the range of speed. It is
essential to find the minimum and maximum speed required for self-excitation, when
the generator is loaded. In this thesis the author has developed the analysis and
11
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
calculation of the minimum and maximum speeds for self-excitation to occur and for a
particular value of capacitance.
One of the ways of representation is Xm as a function of Vg/f (V/Hz to relate to flux) [89, 11-13, 15, 21], where Vg is the voltage across Xm and f is the frequency of excitation,
or Lm as a function of Vg [14, 26] for a known frequency of operation. In these papers it
has been shown that the value of Xm, as the value of Vg/f or Vg increases from zero,
starts at a given unsaturated value, remains constant at the unsaturated value for low
values of air-gap voltage or ratio of air gap voltage to frequency, and then starts to
decrease up to its rated value, which is a saturated value. In fact, in [9] the measured
values show the actual variation of magnetising reactance. This is the magnetizing
reactance as the air gap voltage increases from zero. It starts at a given value, increases
until it reaches its maximum value and then starts to decrease down to its rated value,
which is a saturated value. However, in the analysis of the SEIG the magnetising
reactance for values of air gap voltage close to zero were ignored. Since Xm is
dependent on frequency it is not good for transient dynamic analysis, rather Lm should
be used.
12
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The reason for this variation in magnetising reactance and the effect on self-excitation is
discussed in this thesis. As the magnetizing reactance is dependent on frequency,
magnetizing inductance is used in the analysis and its effect on the initiation of selfexcitation and stabilisation is discussed in detail and confirmed experimentally.
The rms value of the generated voltage, irrespective of its frequency, can be controlled
using variable capacitance values [33], or a fixed capacitor thyristor controlled reactor
static VAR compensator [34], or continuously controlled shunt capacitors using
antiparallel IGBT switches across the fixed excitation capacitor [35].
It has been shown that copper loss decreases in the stator and increases in the rotor in
the generating mode when compared to the motoring mode [36]. In a SEIG, a squirrel
cage rotor is preferable to a wound rotor because the squirrel cage rotor has a higher
thermal withstand capability and requires less maintenance. Due to the higher thermal
withstand capability of the squirrel cage rotor, a higher copper loss in the rotor is
acceptable.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
machine control using power electronics feeding the rotor circuit (wound rotor
induction machine) or a second winding in the stator of an induction machine (squirrel
cage rotor or wound rotor) to adjust the frequency and generated voltage when the
generator rotor speed is varied. The second scheme applies to single stator winding fed
induction generators which produce a constant DC output voltage that is then inverted
to have an output of constant rms voltage and frequency. The generation of constant DC
voltage is implemented using scalar or vector control [44-45] or using a DC-DC
converter to produce constant DC voltage from the variable rectified DC voltage [46].
In a variable speed wind turbine system the mechanical stresses caused in the structural
elements by gusts and varying wind speed are diminished by letting the rotor follow the
wind. Also when the rotor speed is allowed to vary with the wind the turbine can be
operated at peak efficiency. However, the necessary power electronics can be
expensive.
Brushless doubly-fed induction machines have two stator windings of different pole
number [39-42]. Although the system has reduced size and cost of the power
electronics, the induction machine is expensive because it is specially made. A double
output induction generator is a wound rotor induction machine with the control power
electronics connected on the rotor circuit [43, 45]. In this arrangement the induction
generator gives more than its rated power without being overheated. The power
generation can be realised for a wide range of wind speed. They have a rotor inverter
and front end converter while the stator is linked directly to the grid.
The methods discussed above can also be used to control the output voltage from a
stand alone induction generator. In the literature it is reported that a stand alone
induction generator excited by a single DC capacitor and inverter/rectifier system can
be used instead of the AC capacitor excited system. If a constant DC voltage is achieved
then a load side inverter is used to produce a constant rms voltage and frequency. For
this application an inverter/rectifier can be shunt connected so that it carries only the
exciting current [47-49] or a converter can be connected in series so that it carries the
full current [50-51], i.e. the exciting and load current. In both cases the initiation of
voltage build up is the same. However in these papers the details of the control
mechanism and the generation of reference currents are not given. The minimum DC
14
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
capacitance required for the initiation of voltage build up has been discussed [50].
When the converter carries only the exciting current an additional rectifier is required to
produce the DC voltage that supplies the load.
It has been reported that artificial intelligent has been used extensively to optimize
efficiency and enhance performance in a grid connected variable speed wind generation
system [52-57]. A fuzzy controller tracks the generator speed with the wind velocity to
extract the maximum power. For a grid connected variable speed wind generation
system any power generated by the induction generator is absorbed by the grid. The
draw back of using Artificial Intelligence control is, at the current price of
microprocessors, it is expensive to implement in induction generators with small power
rating. Of course the general drawback of Artificial Intelligence is the inability to
untangle the complicated web of human intelligence.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
pole machines [58-60]. However others have argued that cross coupling in smooth air
gap machines is not possible and that the existence of cross coupling terms and the
inequality of mutual inductances along the d-axis and q-axis is purely a consequence of
the mathematical derivation and it has been shown that the concept of cross saturation
has no physical significance; it is an erroneous conclusion only, obtained from
otherwise correct mathematical formulation [61].
The motivation for transforming the actual three-axes model into a fictitious two-axes
or D-Q axes model is to avoid cross coupling between the D and Q phases and simplify
the analysis of induction machines. Therefore, since the contribution of cross saturation
in the area of induction machine analysis has not been resolved and since the intention
of the D-Q analysis is to decouple the axes, cross saturation will not be considered in
this thesis. Any variation due to saturation will be represented by the variation of
magnetising inductance along the q-axis and the d-axis. In this way, the basic essence of
transforming the three-axes model to the D-Q axes model is maintained.
1.4 References
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C. F. Wagner , Self-excitation of induction Motors, Trans. of the Amer. Inst. Electr, Eng., Vol.
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J. M. Elder, J.T. Boys and J.L. Woodward, Self-excited induction machine as a small low-cost
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16
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
[10] A. K. Al Jabri and A. I. Alolah, "Capacitance requirements for isolated self-excited induction
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induction generator, IEE Proceedings, Vol. 135, Pt. C, No. 4, July 1988, pp. 268 -275.
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[20] L. Wang and L. Ching-Huei, A novel analysis on the performance of an isolated self-excited
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[23] L. Shridhar, B. Singh, C. S. Jha and B. P. Singh, Analysis of self excited induction generator
feeding induction motor, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 9, No .2, June 1994, pp.
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[24] J. Faiz, A. A Dadgari, S. Horning and A. Keyhani, Design of a three-phase self-excited induction
generator, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 10, No. 3, September 1995, pp. 516523.
[25] J. L. Bhattacharya and J. L. Woodward, Excitation balancing of a self-excited induction generator
for maximum power output, IEE Proceedings, Vol. 135, Pt. C, No. 2, March 1988, pp. 88-97.
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
[26] Y.H.A. Rahim, Excitation of isolated three-phase induction generator by a single capacitor, IEE
Proceedings-B, Vol. 140, No. 1, January 1993, pp. 44-50.
[27] R. J. Harrington and F. M. M. Bassiouny, New approach to determine the critical capacitance for
self-excited induction generators, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 13, No. 3,
September 1998, pp. 244-249.
[28] C. H. Lee and L. Wang, A novel analysis of parallel operated self-excited induction generators,
IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 13, No. 2, June 1998, pp. 117-123.
[29] Li Wang and Jian-Yi Su, Dynamic performances of an isolated self-excited induction generator
under various loading conditions, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 14, No. 1,
March 1999, pp. 93-100.
[30] L. Shridhar, B. Singh and S. S. Jha, Transient performance of the self regulated short shunt self
excited induction generator, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 10 No. 2, June 1995,
pp. 261-267.
[31] Y. Kawabata Y. Morine, T. Oka, E. C. Ejiogu and T. Kawabata, New stand-alone power
generating system using wound-rotor induction machine, IEEE-Power Electronics and Drive
Systems Conference, Vol. 1, October 2001, pp. 335-341.
[32] T. F. Chan, K. Nigim and L. L. Lai, Voltage and frequency control of self-excited slip ring
induction generators, IEEE IEMDC Conference, 2001, pp. 410-414.
[33] P. G. Casielles, L. Zarauza and J. Sanz, Analysis and design of wind turbine driven self-excited
induction generator, IEEE-IAS Conference, 1988, pp. 116-123.
[34] E. S. Abdin and W. Xu, Control design and dynamic performance analysis of a wind turbineinduction generator unit, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 15, No. 1, March 2000,
pp. 91-96.
[35] M. A, Al-Saffar E.-C. Nho and T. A. Lipo, Controlled shunt capacitor self-excited induction
generator, IEEE - Industry Applications Conference, 12-15 October 1998, pp. 1486-1490.
[36] S. S.; Murthy, C. S. Jha and P. S. N. Rao, Analysis of grid connected induction generators driven
by hydro/wind turbines under realistic system constraints, IEEE Transactions on Energy
Conversion, Vol. 5, No. 1, March 1990, pp. 1-7.
[37] I. Schiemenz and M. Stiebler, Control of a permanent magnet synchronous generator used in a
variable speed wind energy system, IEEE- IEMDC 2001 Conference, 2001, pp. 872-877.
[38] J. Jayadev, Harnessing the wind, IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 32, No. 11, Nov. 1995, pp. 78-83.
[39] C. S Brune, R. Spee and A. K. Wallace, Experimental evaluation of a variable-speed, doubly-fed
wind-power generation system, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 30 No. 3,
May/June 1994, pp. 648-655.
[40] R. Spee, S. Bhowmik and J. H. R. Enslin, Adaptive control strategies for variable-speed doublyfed wind power generation systems, IEEE-Industry Applications Society Conference, 2-6 Oct.
1994, pp. 545-552.
18
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
[41] S. Bhowmik, R. Spee and J. H. R Enslin, Performance optimization for doubly fed wind power
generation systems, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 35, No. 4, July/August
1999, pp. 949-958.
[42] M. Y. Uctug, I. Eskandarzadeh and H. Ince, Modelling and output power optimisation of a wind
turbine driven double output induction generator, IEE Proc. Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 141, No. 2,
March 1994, pp. 33-38.
[43] L. Zhang and C. Watthanasarn A matrix converter excited doubly-fed induction machine as a wind
power generator, IEE - Power Electronics and Variable Speed Drives Conference, 21-23
September 1998, pp. 532 -537.
[44] A. Miller, E. Muljadi and D. S Zinger, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 12, No. 2,
June 1997, pp. 181-186.
[45] R. S Pena, R. J. Cardenas, G. M. Asher and J. C. Clare, Vector controlled induction machines for
stand-alone wind energy applications, IEEE - Industry Applications Conference, 2000, pp. 14091415.
[46] S. Jiao, G. Hunter, V. Ramsden and D. Patterson, Control System Design for a 20KW wind
Turbine Generator with a Boost Converter and Battery Bank Load, IEEE -Power Electronics
Specialists Conference, Vancouver, 2001, pp. 2203-2206.
[47] S. R. Silva, R. O. C Lyra, PWM converter for excitation of induction generators, Fifth European
Power Electronics Conference, 1993, pp 174-178.
[48] M. S. Miranda, R. O. C. Lyra, and S. R. Silva, An Alternative Isolated Wind Erlecric Pumping
System Using Induction Machines, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 14, No. 4, Dec.
1999, pp 1611-1616.
[49] L. A. C. Lopes and R. G. Almeida, Operation aspects of an isolated wind driven induction
generator regulated by a shunt voltage source inverter, IEEE - Industry Applications Conference,
Oct 2000, pp. 2277-2282.
[50] S. N. Bhadra, K. V. Ratnam and A. Manjunath, Study of voltage build up in a self-excited,
variable speed induction generator/static inverter system with DC side capacitor, International
Conference on Power Electronics, Drives and Energy Systems for Industrial Growth, 1996, 8-11
Jane 1996, pp. 964 -970.
[51] R. Cardenas, R. Pena, G. Asher and J. Clare, Control strategies for enhanced power smoothing in
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[52] H. M. Mashaly; A. M. Sharaf, A. A. El-Sattar and M. M. Mansour, Implementation of a fuzzy
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[53] R. M. Hilloowala and A. M. Sharaf, A rule-based fuzzy logic controller for a PWM inverter in a
stand alone wind energy conversion scheme, Proc. of the IEEE- IAS 1993 Annual Meeting
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19
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
[54] R. M. Hilloowala and A. M. Sharaf, A rule-based fuzzy logic controller for a PWM inverter in a
stand alone wind energy conversion scheme, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 32,
No. 1, January/February 1996, pp. 57 65.
[55] H. M. Mashaly; A. M. Sharaf, A. A. El-Sattar and M. M. Mansour, A fuzzy logic controller for
wind energy utilization, Proc. of the IEEE Conference on Control Applications, 24-26 Aug. 1994,
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[56] M. G. Simoes, B. K. Bose and R. J. Spiegel, Fuzzy logic based intelligent control of a variable
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[57] M. G. Simoes, B. K. Bose and R. J. Spiegel, Design and performance evaluation of a fuzzy-logicbased variable-speed wind generation system, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol.
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[58] J. E. Brown, K. P. Kovacs, P. Vas, A method of including the effects of main flux path saturation
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[59] K. E. Hallenius, P. Vas, J. E. Brown, The analysis of a saturated self-excited asynchronous
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20
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
Local winds are also created by the variation in temperature between the sea and land.
During the daytime, the sun heats landmasses more quickly than the sea. The warmed
air rises and creates a low pressure at ground level, which attracts the cool air from the
sea. This is called a sea breeze. At night the wind blows in the opposite direction, since
water cools at a lower rate than land. The land breeze at night generally has lower wind
speeds, because the temperature difference between land and sea is smaller at night.
Similar breezes are generated in valleys and on mountains as warmer air rises along the
heated slopes. At night the cooler air descends into the valleys. Although global winds,
due to temperature variation between the poles and the equator, are important in
21
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
determining the main winds in a given area, local winds have also influence on the
larger scale wind system.
In principle there are two different types of wind turbines: those which depend mainly
on aerodynamic lift and those which use mainly aerodynamic drag. High speed wind
turbines rely on lift forces to move the blades, and the linear speed of the blades is
usually several times faster than the wind speed. However with wind turbines which use
aerodynamic drag the linear speed can not exceed the wind speed as a result they are
low speed wind turbines. In general wind turbines are divided by structure into
horizontal axis and vertical axis.
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
C-shaped rotor
Guy wires
Tower support
Generator and gearbox
The primary aerodynamic advantage of the vertical axis Darrieus machine is that the
turbine can receive the wind from any direction without the need of a yaw mechanism
to continuously orient the blades toward the wind direction. The other advantage is that
its vertical drive shaft simplifies the installation of gearbox and electrical generator on
the ground, making the structure much simpler. On the disadvantage side, it normally
requires guy wires attached to the top for support. This could limit its applications,
particularly for offshore sites. Wind speeds are very low close to ground level, so
although it might save the need for a tower, the wind speed will be very low on the
lower part of the rotor. Overall, the vertical axis machine has not been widely used
because its output power can not be easily controlled in high winds simply by changing
the pitch. Also Darrieus wind turbines are not self-starting, however straight-bladed
vertical axis wind turbines with variable-pitch blades are able to overcome this problem
[3].
23
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
Wind
direction
Wind
direction
Fig. 2.2 Horizontal axis wind turbine (a) upwind machine (b) downwind machine
Wind turbines for electric generation application are in general of three blades, two
blades or a single blade. The single blade wind turbine consists of one blade and a
counterweight. The three blades wind turbine has 5% more energy capture than the two
blades and in turn the two blades has 10% more energy capture than the single blade.
[2]. These figures are valid for a given set of turbine parameters and might not be
universally applicable.
The three blade wind turbine has greater dynamic stability in free yaw than two blades,
minimising the vibrations associated with normal operation, resulting in longer life of
all components [4].
KE
1
mV 2
2
(2.1)
24
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
Generator
Gear box
Wind direction
Rotor brake
Controller
High speed
shaft
Anemometer
Wind vane
Pitch
Wind direction
Nacelle
Rotor hub
Yaw motor
Wind direction
Yaw drive
Rotor blade
Tower
Foundation
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
The power in wind is calculated as the flux of kinetic energy per unit area in a given
time, and can be written as
P
d KE
dt
1 dm 2
V
2 dt
1
2
mV
2
(2.2)
is the mass flow rate of air per second, in kg/s, and it can be expresses in
where m
in m3/s)
terms of the density of air (U in kg/m3) and air volume flow rate per second ( Q
as given below
m
UQ
U AV
(2.3)
where A-is the area swept by the blades of the wind turbine, in m2.
1
U AV 3
2
(2.4)
This is the total wind power entering the wind turbine. Remember that for this to be true
V must be the wind velocity at the rotor, which is lower than the undisturbed or free
stream velocity. This calculation of power developed from a wind turbine is an idealised
one-dimensional analysis where the flow velocity is assumed to be uniform across the
rotor blades, the air is incompressible and there is no turbulence where flow is inviscid
(having zero viscosity).
The volume of air entering the wind turbine should be equal to the volume of air leaving
the wind turbine because there is no storage of air in the wind turbine. As a result
Fig. 2.4 shows the idealised case where the speed of wind continues to flow at a value
of V2 downstream of the rotor. In reality the slow air in the wake 'diffuses' into the
surrounding air through turbulence, so that further down stream the velocity of air will
be equal to the undisturbed up stream wind speed because of the gain of energy from
the surrounding wind.
26
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
Wind turbine
VT
V1
V2
A1
AT
A2
Wind speed
V1
VT
V2
Distance in the direction of wind
Wind pressure
+
PrT
Prf
Prf
_
PrT
Distance in the direction of wind
Fig. 2.4 Change of wind speed and wind pressure around the wind turbine
As shown in Fig. 2.4 Prf is the wind at atmospheric pressure. The turbine first causes
the approaching wind to slow down gradually, which results in a rise in wind pressure.
Applying Bernoullis equation the wind has highest pressure, Prf , just before the wind
turbine and the wind has lowest pressure (lower than atmospheric pressure), Prf , just
after the wind turbine. As the wind proceeds down stream, the pressure climbs back to
atmospheric value, causing a further slowing down of the wind speed.. The pressures
immediately upwind and downwind of the rotor are related to the far upwind and
downwind velocities V1 and V2 by applying Bernoulli's equation separately upwind and
downwind. Using momentum theory the downwind force on the rotor is equal to the
pressure drop across it times the rotor blade area [2].
The force F on the rotor blades can be given by the rate of change of momentum,
27
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
V1 V2
m
(2.5)
Using equation (2.2), the power extracted by the wind turbine PT is the difference
between the upstream wind power, at A1, and the downstream wind power, at A2 given
by ,
PT
1
V12 V22
m
2
PT
1
V1 V2 V1 V2
m
2
(2.6a)
(2.6b)
This power is calculated assuming that all the power lost by the wind has been extracted
by the wind turbine and none has been lost through turbulence.
The force F on the rotor blades multiplied by the wind speed at the rotor blades, VT
produces power given by
PT
FVT
(2.7)
V1 V2 VT
m
(2.8)
V1 V2
2
(2.9)
Therefore the wind speed at the rotor blades, VT is the average of the undisturbed up
stream wind speed, V1, and the down stream wind speed, V2.
Using equation (2.3) the mass flow rate of air through the rotating blades of the wind
turbine is
m
U AT VT
(2.10)
Substituting equation (2.9) in (2.10) the mass flow rate of air at the wind turbine is
given by
m
U AT
V1 V2
2
(2.11)
Substituting equation (2.11) in (2.6a) gives the power absorbed by the wind turbine,
which is the mechanical power at the shaft of the wind turbine, as
28
CHAPTER 2
PT
WIND POWER
1
V V
U AT V12 V22 1 2
2
2
(2.12)
This power is calculated assuming that all the power lost by the wind has been extracted
by the wind turbine and none has been lost through turbulence. If all the power in the
wind were extracted, the wind speed V2 would be zero and the air could not leave the
wind turbine. However, if there is no wind leaving the wind turbine the power extracted
is zero because air has to exit the wind turbine in order to make the rotor blades rotate.
Rearranging the equation (2.12) to express the mechanical power developed in the wind
turbine in terms of the upstream wind speed at A1, shown in Fig. 2.2, gives
PT
V
1 2
V1
1
U AT V13
2
V
1 2
V1
(2.13)
1
U AT V13
2
(2.14)
Then the ratio of wind power extracted by the wind turbine to the total wind power at
area A1 is the dimensionless power coefficient Cp, where
Cp
V 2 V
1 2 1 2
V1
V1
(2.15)
Substituting equation (2.15) into equation (2.14) the wind power extracted by the wind
turbine can be written as
PT
1
U AT V13C p
2
(2.16)
PT
1
US DT2V13C p
2
(2.17)
or
29
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
In equation (2.17) it is clearly shown that the power output of a given wind turbine
depends on the square of the rotor blade diameter and the cube of the wind speed. For a
given turbine if the wind speed is doubled the output power will be multiplied by 8.
The maximum value of power coefficient Cp gives the maximum power absorbed by the
wind turbine. To simplify the calculation of Cp, the substitution of x=V2/V1 in Equation
(2.15) is made.
The maximum Cp is then obtained from
dC p
dx
V1 = -V2. The solution is V1=3V2 because V1=-V2 shows equal and opposite winds
coming from upstream and down stream towards the wind turbine, which is not
realistic.
Power coefficient Cp
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
V2/V1
Cp
16
27
(2.18)
30
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
Here maximum Cp is about 0.59. This is called the Betz limit [2]. In practical designs,
the maximum achievable Cp is below 0.5 for high speed, two blade wind turbines, and
between 0.2 and 0.4 for slow speed turbines with more blades [6].
From equations (2.14) and (2.16) the power extracted by the wind turbine is given by
PT
P1C p
(2.19)
Then the theoretical maximum extracted power by the wind turbine is given by
PT
16
P1
27
(2.20)
This shows that the maximum theoretical efficiency of a wind turbine is about 59%.
For the same wind speed the output power of the wind turbine varies with the shaft
speed. Fig. 2.6 shows a typical set of wind turbine output power versus shaft speed
characteristics for a 7.5kW machine at fixed pitch angle.
Fig. 2.6 Wind turbine output power to shaft speed characteristic curve [7]
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
wind turbine is given in Fig. 2.7. The air travelling from A to B follows two paths. The
shape of the upper surface (path 1) results in higher velocity than the lower surface
(path 2). This will create a low pressure on path 1 side of the blade. Hence force F, at
90o to the air flow, will be produced and pushes the blade upwards. This force F
multiplied by the radial distance from the hub at which the force is created gives the
torque.
F
1
A
B
2
Fig. 2.7 Air flow around cross section of a blade of a wind turbine
In reality the angle of incidence of the incoming wind can be different from the one
given in Fig. 2.7 but the principle remains the same.
If the angle between the incoming wind and blade increases for some small angle, the
force produced increases. However, if the angle increases above a given value then the
air flow on path 1 stops sticking to the surface of the blade. Instead the air whirls around
in an irregular path and creates turbulence as shown in Fig. 2.8. Then the force that was
pulling upward on the low pressure side of the blade disappears. This phenomenon is
known as stall [8].
1
B
2
Fig. 2.8 Air flow around cross section of a blade during stall condition
On a wind turbine rotor the blades are at some angle to the plane of rotation. At low
shaft speeds, the angle of incidence on a blade element at some radius from the hub is
large, the blades are stalled and only a small amount of driving force will be created. As
a result small torque will be produced at low shaft speed. As the shaft speed increases
32
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
the velocity of the wind hitting the blade element increases, because of the additional
component of wind due to the blade's rotational speed. In addition, the angle of
incidence decreases. If this angle is below the blade's stall angle, lift increases and drag
decreases, resulting in higher torque. As the shaft speed increases further, the angle of
incidence on the blade element decreases towards zero as the free wind speed becomes
insignificant relative to the blade's own velocity. Since lift generated by a blade is
proportional to the angle of incidence below stall, the torque reduces towards zero at
very high shaft speeds. This variation in torque produced by the wind turbine is shown
in the typical wind turbine torque versus shaft speed characteristics for a 7.5kW
machine given in Fig. 2.9 [9]. In Fig. 2.9, at zero shaft speed, the wind turbine produces
a small starting torque otherwise it will not self start.
Fig. 2.9 Wind turbine output torque to shaft speed characteristic curve
For a horizontal axis wind turbine, operating at fixed pitch angle, the torque developed
by the wind turbine, TT, can be expressed as
TT
PT
ZT
(2.21)
The wind which hits the rotor blades of a wind turbine will not come from the direction
in which the wind is blowing at the site, i.e. from the front of the turbine. This is
because the rotor blades themselves are moving. As the rotor blade rotates it will see
33
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
different wind speed along its length from its base to its tip. The wind will be coming
from a much steeper angle (more than from the general wind direction at the site) as you
move towards the base of the blade. Therefore, the rotor blade has to be twisted, so as to
achieve an optimal angle of incidence throughout the length of the blade and follow the
change in direction of the resultant wind as shown in Fig. 2.10. Otherwise, as discussed
above, if the blade is hit by wind at an angle of incidence which is too steep, the rotor
blade will stop producing the turning force, causing the blade to stall [2].
Wind direction viewed from
blade cross sections
Vres3
Ve=(2/3)Vw
Plane of rotation
Va3 = ZTr3
Vres2
Ve=(2/3)Vw
Plane of rotation
Va2 = ZTr2
Vres1
1
r3
r2
Ve = (2/3)Vw
Va1 = ZTr1
Plane of rotation
r1
Blade
Cross sections
Fig. 2.10 shows the detail of the twisting of the rotor blade at different radius from the
center of rotation where
Va - is the wind created due to rotation of the wind turbine and increases with
radius, Va1 = ZT r1 (Va at blade radius of r1 is Va1). Va is perpendicular to Ve
and Vw
Vres - the resultant wind speed of Va and Ve (Vres at blade radius of r1 is Vres1)
r1, r2 and r3 - radiuses at points 1, 2 and 3 of the rotor blade respectively
The twisting of the rotor blade when viewed from its tip is given in Fig. 2.11 [10].
34
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
Fig. 2.11 Cross section of a twisted rotor blade from tip to base
Vtn
Vw
ZT r
Vw
(2.22)
The tip speed ratio dictates the operating condition of a turbine as it takes into account
the wind created by the rotation of the rotor blades. A typical power coefficient Cp
versus tip speed ratio TSR is given in Fig. 2.12 [11]. The tip speed ratio shows
tangential speed at which the rotor blade is rotating compared with the undisturbed
wind speed.
As the wind speed changes, the tip speed ratio and the power coefficient will vary. The
power coefficient characteristic has single maximum at a specific value of tip speed
ratio. Therefore if the wind turbine is operating at constant speed then the power
coefficient will be maximum only at one wind speed.
35
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
Power Coefficient Cp
Usually, wind turbines are designed to start running at wind speeds somewhere around
4 to 5 m/s. This is called the cut in wind speed. The wind turbine will be programmed to
stop at high wind speeds of 25 m/s, in order to avoid damaging the turbine. The stop
wind speed is called the cut out wind speed [6].
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
P r o b a b i l i t y (%)
Fig. 2.13 Histogram and Weibull function for the probability of a given wind speed
(data measured in 1m/s intervals)
In a wind power system typically the wind turbine starts operating (cut in speed) when
the wind speed exceeds 4-5m/s, and is shut off at speeds exceeding 25 to 30m/s. In
between, it can operate in the optimum constant Cp region, the speed-limited region or
the power limited region as shown in Fig. 2.14 [6]. This design choice was made in
order to limit the strength and therefore the weight and cost of the components of the
wind turbine. Over the year some energy will be lost because of this operating decision.
However, considering the typical wind speed distribution of Fig. 2.13, the number of
hours per year is quite small when the wind speed exceeds 15m/s.
As discussed in Section 2.3 the power absorbed by the wind turbine is proportional to
the cube of the wind speed. Hence there should be a way of limiting the peak absorbed
power. Wind turbines are therefore generally designed so that they yield maximum
output at wind speeds around 15 metres per second. In case of stronger winds it is
necessary to waste part of the excess energy of the wind in order to avoid damaging the
wind turbine. All wind turbines are therefore designed with some sort of power control
to protect the machine. There are different ways of doing this safely on modern wind
turbines.
37
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
Fig. 2.15 shows a drastic drop in the power coefficient resulting from turning wind
turbines out of the wind, with consequent blade stall.
38
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
Power coefficient Cp
Fig. 2.15 Power coefficient verses tip speed ratio under yaw control
The main advantage of stall control is that it avoids moving parts in the rotor blade
itself, and a complex control system. However, stall control represents a very complex
aerodynamic design problem, and related design challenges in the structural dynamics
of the whole wind turbine, e.g. to avoid stall-induced vibrations. Around two thirds of
the wind turbines currently being installed in the world are stall controlled machines
[13].
39
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
Type
Rotor Size
Electricity Produced
Micro
0.5 1.25 m
20 300 W
Mini
1.25 2.75 m
300 850W
Household
2.75 7 m
0.85 10KW
Industrial
7 30 m
10 100KW
Utility
30 90 m
0.1 4 MW
Wind projects are relatively easy to site and expand, have low environmental impacts
(including no carbon emissions) and are highly desirable to buyers of green power
[15].
Wind power has emerged as the world's fastest growing electricity generating
technology, growing by more than 40 percent annually since 1993. Fig. 2.16 shows the
worldwide growth of wind energy capacity [17]. Total world wide wind power capacity
is now estimated at more than 24,000MW [16].
Harnessing the power of the wind has a rich tradition that is enjoying resurgence due to
recent political, economic and technological developments. The strategic plan in USA is
to provide 5 percent of the nation's electricity from wind power by the year 2020. This
plan equates to 80,000 MW of new USA wind power capacity (compared to today's less
than 3,000 MW) [18, 19].
40
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
One major trend driving the development of wind power is concern over global climate
change. In Europe, countries have established specific target dates for reducing carbon
dioxide (CO2), a pollutant which is linked to rising global temperatures. Wind power,
which is projected to reach 40,000 MW on the European continent by 2010, has become
the technology of choice to reduce CO2 emissions in Europe and much of the rest of the
world [18].
The cost depends upon the particular wind turbine, the nature of the local wind
resource, and economies of scale associated with the size of the wind farm. Prices are
projected to drop another 20 to 40 percent over the next ten years. The goal of the USA
Department of Energy (DOE) program is to get the cost down to 2.5 cents/kWh (at 6.7
m/s wind sites). However, wind turbines, particularly off-grid models, are already cost
effective throughout much of the developing world where the cost of dirty diesel-fired
41
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
power is often as high as 30 cents/kWh. The dramatic cost reductions are a result of
increased size and an increase in efficiency when converting kinetic wind energy into
electricity. The graphical decrease in the cost of electricity generated from wind energy
is given in Fig. 2.17 [21].
2.9 Summary
The general definition of wind and the source of wind have been presented in this
chapter. The analysis of power absorbed by a wind turbine is based on the horizontal
axis wind turbine. The mechanism of production of force from wind that causes the
rotor blades to rotate in a plane perpendicular to the general wind direction at the site
has been discussed in detail. The importance of having twisted rotor blades along the
length from the base to the tip is given. The variation of the torque produced by the
wind turbine with respect to the rotor angular speed has been presented.
Power absorbed by a wind turbine is proportional to the cube of the wind speed. Wind
turbines are designed to yield maximum output power at a given wind speed. In case of
stronger winds it is necessary to waste part of the excess energy of the wind in order to
avoid damaging the wind turbine. Different ways of power control to protect the
42
CHAPTER 2
WIND POWER
machine have been presented. The economics and growth of wind powered electric
generation has been discussed and the projection for the future has been presented.
2.10 References
[1] N. P. Cheremisnoff, Fundamentals of Wind Energy, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Michigan,
1978.
[2] L.L, Freris, Wind Conversion Systems, Prentice Hall International, London, 1990.
[3]
Nick Pawsey, Private conversation with Nick Pawsey, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, 2002.
43
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Introduction
Mathematical transformations are tools which make complex systems simple to analyse
and solutions easy to find. For instance, the differential equation is transformed into its
corresponding Laplace transform representation. The Laplace equation is then simply
analyzed using algebra. Once the solution is obtained in algebraic form the inverse
Laplace transform is applied to yield the time domain solution.
44
CHAPTER 3
variables and the rotor variables to a reference frame rotating in synchronism with the
rotating magnetic field. This reference frame is commonly referred to as the
synchronously rotating reference frame.
-D. S. Brereton et al, employed a change of variables which also eliminated the timevarying inductances of a symmetrical induction machine by transforming the stator
variables to a reference frame fixed in the rotor. This is essentially Parks
transformation applied to induction machines.
Park, Stanley, Kron and Brereton et al. developed changes of variables each of which
appeared to be uniquely suited for a particular application. Consequently, each
transformation was derived and treated separately in literature until it was noted in
1965[2] that all known transformations used in induction machine analysis are
contained in one general transformation which eliminates all time-varying inductances
by referring the stator and rotor variables to a frame of reference which may rotate at
any angular velocity or remain stationary. All known real reference transformations
may then be obtained by simply assigning the appropriate speed of rotation to this socalled arbitrary reference frame.
The three axes are representing the real three phase supply system. However, the two
axes are fictitious axes representing two fictitious phases perpendicular, displaced by
90o, to each other. The transformation of three-axes to two-axes can be done in such a
way that the two-axes are in a stationary reference frame, or in rotating reference frame.
The transformation actually achieves a change of variable, creating the new reference
frame. Transformation into a rotating reference frame is more general and can include
the transformation to a stationary reference frame. Transformation to a stationary
reference frame is one particular condition of transformation to a rotating reference
45
CHAPTER 3
frame. If the speed of rotation of the reference frame is zero it becomes a stationary
reference frame.
If the reference frame is rotating at the same angular speed as the excitation frequency,
when the variables are transformed into this rotating reference frame, they will appear
as a constant value instead of time-varying values.
fbs
fq s
T
fcs
fa s
fds
In the above diagram, Fig. 3.1, f can represent voltage, current, flux linkage, or electric
charge. The subscript s indicates the variables, parameters, and transformation
46
CHAPTER 3
associated with stationary circuits. The angular displacement T shows the displacement
of the two-axes, dq-axes, from the three-axes, abc-axes.
fqs and fds variables are directed along paths orthogonal to each other. fas, fbs, and fcs
may be considered as variables directed along stationary paths each displaced by 120
electrical degrees.
s
q
f
s
fd
s
fo
cos T
2
sin T
3
1
2
2S
2S
cos T cos T
3
3 f s
a
2S
2S s
sin T
sin T
fb
3
3 s
f
1
1
c
2
2
(3.1)
47
CHAPTER 3
The inverse of Equation (3.1), which can be derived directly from the relationship given
in Fig. 3.1, is
f as
s
fb
f s
c
cos T
cos T 2S
3
cos T 2S
3
sin T
2S
sin T
2S
sin T
1
f qs
1 s
fd
s
1 f o
(3.2)
The change of variables may be applied to variables of any waveform and time
sequence. However, the transformation given above is particularly appropriate for an
abc sequence. That is, as the magnetic field rotates at the speed Z in the direction
shown in Fig. 3.1, it will induce an abc phase sequence in the abc axes, i.e. voltage will
be induced first in axis-a then b then in c. This shows voltage in phase a leads the
voltage in phase b and so on. And for the dq-axes, voltage will be induced first in the daxis then in the q-axis. That is the voltage in the d-axis will lead the voltage in the qaxis.
In Fig. 3.1, if the q-axis is aligned with the a-axis, i.e. T = 0, Equation (3.1) will be
written as:
s
q
f
s
fd
s
fo
2
0
3
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
s
fa
f s
b
f cs
(3.3)
1
2
1
2
0
3
2
3
2
1
f qs
1 s
fd
s
f
1 o
(3.4)
48
CHAPTER 3
In Equation (3.3) and (3.4) the magnitude of the phase quantities, voltages and currents,
in the three (abc) axes and two (dq) axes remain the same. This transformation is based
on the assumption that the number of turns of the windings in each phase of the three
axes and the two axes are the same. Here the advantage is the peak values of phase
voltages and phase currents before and after transformation remain the same. The detail
of transformation for voltages and currents is given in Sections 3.3 and 3.4 respectively.
However, for the power, to have the same magnitude in the three axes and two axes,
there should be a multiplying factor 3/2 in the two axes power calculation as given in
Section 3.5.
Another way of transforming the three axes to two axes, with the magnitude of per
phase voltages and per phase currents remaining unchanged in both axes systems, is to
align the d-axis along the a-axis, T = 0 in Fig. 3.2. Fig. 3.2 is similar to Fig. 3.1 except
that the d-q axes are rotated by 90o while the abc axes remain the same.
fqs
fbs
Z
fds
T
fa s
fcs
Fig. 3.2 Three-axes and two-axes in the stationary reference frame with d-axis and
a-axis aligned
49
CHAPTER 3
From Fig. 3.2, for T = 0 and taking the zero sequence current into account, the
transformation equation can be written as [4, 5]
f ds
s
fq
s
fo
2
0
3
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
s
fa
f s
b
f s
c
(3.3a)
f
s
fb
f s
c
1
2
1
2
0
3
2
3
2
1
f ds
1 s
fq
s
f
1 o
(3.4b)
Whether the q-axis or d-axis is aligned along the a-axis is a matter of choice. The
difference is only a rotational translation of the d-q axes by 90o. In this thesis the option
of aligning the q-axis along the a-axis has been used.
There is another way of transformation from three-axes into two-axes where the
magnitude of the power remains the same but the magnitude of phase voltages and
currents in the two axes are higher than that of the three-axes [6, 7, 8]. In these
references the d-q axes are given as D-E axes. Replacing the D-E with d-q and making
some rearrangement, it can be written as
f qs
s
fd
s
fo
2
0
3
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
s
fa
s
fb
f s
c
(3.5)
Here the q-axis is aligned along the a-axis but their magnitude is different. The inverse
transformation will be
50
CHAPTER 3
f as
s
fb
f s
c
2 1
3 2
1
2
0
3
2
3
2
1
2 s
fq
1 s
f
2 ds
f
1 o
(3.6)
3 2 times the quantities in the three-axes. As a result when the power is calculated
In this thesis the transformation that gives constant magnitude of voltages and currents
in the two-axes and three-axes is used. In addition the q-axis of the two axes is aligned
along the a-axis of the three axes.
In the previous section the transformation from abc axes to a stationary qd axes is given.
Here the stationary qd axes will be transformed into a rotating qd reference frame,
which is rotating at Ze, excitation frequency.
To see through the eyes of the so-called moving observer is equivalent, mathematically
to resolving whatever variables that we want to see onto a rotating reference frame. This
reference frame moves at the same speed as the observer. Since we are dealing with
two-dimensional variables, the rotating reference can be any two independent basic
51
CHAPTER 3
space vectors, which for convenience another pair of orthogonal qd axes will be used
[3]. The zero-sequence component remains the same as before. Fig. 3.3 shows the abc
to rotating dq transformation in two steps, ie, first transforming to stationary dq axes
and then to rotating dq axes.
fb s
fq e
fa s
fqs
fqs
fcs
fd
(a)
fds
fde
at T= 0
T=Z t
(b)
Fig. 3.3 Steps of the abc to rotating dq axes transformation (a) abc to stationary dq axes
b) stationary ds-qs to rotating de-qe axes
The equation for the abc to stationary dq-axes transformation is given in Equation (3.7).
Using geometry, it can be shown that the relation between the stationary ds-qs axes and
rotating de-qe axes is expressed as:
f qe
e
f d
cos T
sin T
s
sin T f q
cos T f ds
(3.7)
The angle,T, is the angle between the q-axis of the rotating and stationary ds-qs axes. T
is a function of the angular speed, Z(t), of the rotating de-qe axes and the initial value,
that is
T (t )
Z (t )dt T (0)
0
(3.8)
If the angular speed of the rotating reference frame is the same as the excitation
frequency then the transformed variables in the rotating reference frame will appear
constant (DC).
52
CHAPTER 3
1
2
3
0
vqs
s
vd
1
2
3
2
1
2
3
2
v
a
vb
vc
(3.9)
Vm cos Z e t
(3.10)
vb
Vm cos(Z e t 2S 3)
(3.11)
vc
Vm cos(Z e t 2S 3)
(3.12)
vqs
vds
3 [ v v ]
2
2
3
3 va
vb
vc
va
(3.14)
(3.13)
Vm cos Zet
(3.15)
vds
1
3
vc vb
1
3
Vm cos(Z e t 2S
3) Vm cos(Z e t 2S 3)
2
2
(3.16)
vds
(3.17)
For a balanced three phase system the dq voltages, vds and vqs , are orthogonal and they
have the same peak values as the abc phase voltages. The explanation given in Section
53
CHAPTER 3
3.2.1 indicates that the voltage in the d-axis leads the voltage in the q-axis. This is
confirmed by the results given in Equations (3.15) and (3.17).
Based on the discussion given above the dq component voltages can be written as
Vdq
vqs jvds
Vdq
Vm eZet
(3.18)
So Vdq , the resultant voltage vector in the stationary reference frame, rotates counter
clockwise at a speed of Z e , as shown in Fig. 3.4, from an initial position at t=0, which
is co-phase with the a-phase axis. At t=0 vqs = Vdq and vds = 0.
vds
Vdq
Zet
vqs
q- axis
d- axis
vds 2 vqs 2
Vm
(3.19)
Vdq
2
(3.20)
From Equation (3.20) it is shown that the rms voltage can be calculated from the
measured instantaneous values of va and vb . vc is not included because for a balanced
system vc
va vb . The rms value is readily available by taking only one set of
54
CHAPTER 3
If the measured voltages are line-to-line values, like in a delta connected induction
machine, then two line-to-line voltages will be measured. The third line-to-line voltage
vca can be calculated from the other two measured values, vab and vbc , as it is assumed
the supply is a balanced three-phase system.
If the instantaneous measured line to line voltages are vab and vbc , then for a balanced
system
vab vbc
vca
(3.21a)
(3.21b)
vab
vb va
(3.21c)
vbc
vb vc
(3.21a)
vca
vc va
(3.21a)
the phase quantities can be calculated from line quantities using the above equations to
give
va
vab vca
(3.22)
vb
vbc vab
(3.23)
vc
vca vbc
(3.24)
s
q
i
s
id
s
io
2
0
3
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
ia
i
b
ic
(3.25)
55
CHAPTER 3
If the three-phase currents are balanced sinusoids which are 120 electrical degrees apart,
the sum of the three currents flowing in the phases of the system is zero. Therefore the
zero-sequence current in the system, provided there is a path for the zero-sequence
current, will be zero and Equation (3.25) is simplified to
1
2
3
0
iqs
s
id
1
2
3
2
1
2
3
2
i
a
ib
ic
(3.26)
Then,
iqs
ids
3 > i i @
2
2
3
ib
ic
3 ia 2 2
b
ids
ia
(3.27)
1
3
ic ib
(3.28)
Corresponding to the three phase voltages given in equations (3.10) to (3.12), the
currents flowing in the system may be described as
ia
I m cos(Z e t I )
(3.29)
ib
I m cos(Z e t 2S 3 I )
(3.30)
ic
I m cos(Z e t 2S 3 I )
(3.31)
Where I is the phase shift between the voltage and the current for a lagging power
factor. Substituting the instantaneous values of the currents in the abc axes into the dq
axes
iqs
I m cos(Zet I )
ids
ids
Im
> I m cos(Zet 2S
(3.32)
3 I ) I m cos(Zet 2S 3 I ) @
2
2
(3.33)
CHAPTER 3
ids
I m sin(Zet I )
(3.34)
To compare the phase of ids with the phase of iqs , ids can be expressed as
ids
I m cos(Zet S 2 I ) . This shows that the current in the d-axis leads that in the q-
axis by S 2 . The peak value of iqs and ids is the same as the peak value of ia , ib and ic .
The resultant current in the stationary dq axes, I dq , can be written in terms of the
components in the d-axis and the q-axis as,
I dq
iqs jids
I dq
I m e j (Zet I )
I m cos(Zet I ) j sin(Zet I )
(3.35)
Equation (3.35) highlights the fact that I dq is a vector with a magnitude of Im and rotates
at the excitation angular frequency Z e . The components of I dq along the d-axis and qaxis vary with time. It can also be stated that the magnitudes of the components along
the d-axis and the q-axis are instantaneous values, similar to the three-phase currents in
the abc axes. The magnitude of Idq can be calculated as
I dq
ids 2 iqs 2
I dq
I m2 [(sin(Zet I )) 2 (cos(Zet I )) 2
I dq
Im
(3.36)
id s
Idq
Zet-I
iqs
q-axis
d-axis
Fig. 3.5 Current vector and its component in stationary dq axes
57
CHAPTER 3
Since the magnitude of Idq is equal to Im and is the same as the peak magnitude of phase
current in the abc-axes, the rms current can be evaluated from the instantaneous values
in the dq-axes. Therefore using Equation (3.36)
I rms
I dq
2
(3.37)
If the system is a balanced three-phase system, then only two phase currents (ia and ib)
are required to be measured, the third one (ic) can be derived from the assumption that
the three-phase currents are 120 electrical degrees apart and instantaneously add to zero.
Taking one sample of instantaneous values of currents flowing in any two phases of a
three-phase system, the rms and the peak currents of the three-phase system can be
obtained instantaneously.
Since the voltages and currents in the three axes have the same peak values to the
currents and voltages in the two axes, the power in the two-axes system should be
multiplied by a factor 3/2 so that the transformation will keep the value of total power
the same.
Fig. 3.6 shows the voltage and current vectors with their components in the stationary
dq-axes. Once the components of the currents and voltages are calculated in the d and q
axes then power is evaluated as
3 s s s s
(id vd iq vq )
2
(3.38a)
58
CHAPTER 3
If the currents and voltages are substituted in Equation (3.38a) with the expressions
given in the voltage and current measurement sections then the classical power
expression becomes
P
3
I mVm cos I
2
(3.38b)
Vdq
vds
id
Zet
Idq
I
Zet-I
iq s
vqs
q-axis
d-axis
Fig. 3.6 Voltage and current vectors with their components in the stationary dq-axes
The two axes can be visualized as a machine having two windings. The power in the
two axes system is related to that of the three axes system by the factor 3/2. Therefore,
with the currents and voltages in the dq-axes, calculated from the instantaneous values
of two-phase currents and two-phase voltages, the value of the active power (average
power) can be computed instantaneously.
This is quite a remarkable result. Traditionally to calculate the average power, measured
values are averaged over one cycle. With the method described above, the average
power can be calculated from a single set of instantaneous voltages and currents
measured at a single instant in time.
59
CHAPTER 3
vqe
e
vd
cos T
sin T
iqe
e
id
cos T
sin T
sin T vq
cos T vds
(3.39)
s
sin T iq
cos T ids
(3.40)
If it is assumed that the reference frame is rotating at the excitation frequency, Ze, then
(3.41)
vde
(3.42)
Vdq
vde
Hence with the given arrangement and analysis of the rotating reference frame, the qaxis voltage in the rotating reference frame, vqe , and the rotating voltage space vector,
Vdq , are in the same axis and they are equal. That is why the d-axis component of the
voltage vector is always zero in the rotating reference frame rotating at the excitation
frequency Ze. The AC voltage in the stationary reference frame appears as if it is DC or
a constant value in the rotating reference frame.
For the currents, if it is assumed that the reference frame is rotating at the excitation
frequency, Ze, then Equation (3.40) will become
iqe
(3.43)
ide
(3.44)
Substituting iqs
60
CHAPTER 3
iqe
iqe
I dq [cos Zet cos I sin Zet sin I ]cos Zet I dq [sin Zet cos I sin I cos Zet ]sin Zet
iqe
I dq [cos 2 Zet cos I sin Zet sin I cos Zet sin 2 Zet cos I sin I cos Zet sin Zet ]
iqe
I dq cos I
(3.45)
I dq sin I
(3.46)
From Equation (3.45) it can be seen that the component of the current in the q-axis
contains the term cos I which is the power factor of the system
The expressions vqs
vqs
cos Zet
(3.47)
Vdq
vds
sin Zet
(3.48)
Vdq
Substituting Equations (3.47) and (3.48) in Equation (3.43) iqe can be rewritten as,
iqe
iqs
vqs
Vdq
ids
vds
Vdq
(3.49)
iqe
I dq
(3.50)
Applying the above equation, the power factor of the system can be calculated
instantaneously from data measured at any single instant of time.
Vm cos Z e t
vb
Vm cos(Z e t 2S 3)
ia
I m cos(Z e t I )
ib
I m cos(Z e t 2S 3 I )
61
CHAPTER 3
The equations given above have four known values va , vb , ia and ib , which are
measured at a single instant of time, and four unknowns Vm , Z e t , I m and I . Having four
equations and four unknowns there is a solution for all the unknowns. The three axes to
two axes transformation helps to simplify the mathematics in attaining this objective.
The information for the excitation frequency Ze is concealed in the Zet term.
Differentiating Zet with respect to time give Ze from which the frequency can be
obtained as fe=Ze/2S.
Applying Equation (3.47) at two instants of time with a small interval of time between
the two measurements
cos Zet1
cos Zet2
vqs1
Vdq
vqs 2
Vdq
===> Zet1
vs
cos 1 q1
V
dq
(3.51)
===> Zet2
vs
cos 1 q 2
V
dq
(3.52)
Then
Ze
(Z e t2 Z e t1 )
(t2 t1 )
(3.53)
Here t2-t1 can be replaced by a sampling time Ts of the measurement and Ts should be
less than one fourth of the period of the frequency to be measured. For power frequency
it is more than adequate to have a sampling time less than one millisecond.
Ze
s
vs
1 vq1
cos 1 q 2
cos
Vdq
Vdq
Ts
(3.54)
62
CHAPTER 3
Using different digital filters all harmonics with magnitude greater than a given value
can be separated. Then each three phase harmonic will be a pure sinusoidal waveform.
To transform the three axes to two axes Equations (3.9) and (3.26) are applied for
voltages and currents respectively. In the two axes the rms quantities of each harmonic
can be calculated individually.
The rms quantity for each harmonic of hth order is expressed as
f h _ rms
f h _ dq
(3.55)
The total rms value of a distorted sinusoidal waveform is calculated from each harmonic
and is given by [11]
f rms
2
1 _ rms
(3.55)
63
CHAPTER 3
And the total power measured from the distorted waveform is[12]
P
P1 P2 P3 ... Ph
(3.56)
The space vector of the fundamental signal of the distorted waveform rotates at angular
speed Ze. Consequently the angular frequency of the space vector of the hth harmonic
will be hZe.
3.9 Summary
The three-axes to two-axes transformation presented in this chapter is applicable for any
balanced three-phase system. It has been discussed that the three-axes to two-axes
transformation simplifies the calculation of rms current, rms voltage, active power and
power factor in a three-phase system. Only one set of measurements taken at a single
instant of time is required when using the method described to obtain rms current, rms
voltage, active power and power factor. And from measurements taken at two
consecutive instants in time the frequency of the three-phase AC power supply can be
evaluated. Existing electrical measuring methods, such as the Fast Fourier Transform,
require many samples from a significant period of the measured waveforms cycle to be
processed by elaborate computation techniques in order to evaluate rms or peak
magnitudes of AC currents and voltages. These traditional methods are unable to obtain
peak values in less than one quarter of a cycle. However using the three-axes to twoaxes transformation it is possible to evaluate the rms or peak magnitudes of three-phase
AC currents and voltages from one set of measurements taken at a single instant of
time.
3.10 References
[1] P.C. Krause, O. Wasynczuk and S. D Sudhoff, Analysis of Electric Machinery, IEEE press, New
York, 1995.
[2] P.C. Krause and C. H. Thomas, Simulation of Symmetrical Induction Machinery, IEEE Trans.
Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 84, November 1965, pp.1038-1053.
[3] Chee-Mun Ong, Dynamic Simulation of Electric Machinery using Matlab/Simulink, PrenticeHall Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1998.
64
CHAPTER 3
[4] Peter Vas, Sensorless Vector and Direct Torque Control, Oxford University Press, New York,
1998.
[5] Andrzej M. Trzynadlowski, The field Orientation Principle in Control of Induction Motors,
Kluwer Academic Publisher, Boston, 1994.
[6] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa and A Nabae, Generalized Theory of the Instantaneous Reactive Power in
Three-Phase Circuits, IPEC83-Int. Power Electronics Conf., Tokyo, Japan, 1983, pp. 1375-1386.
[7] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa and A Nabae, Instantaneous Reactive Power Compensator Comprising
Switching Devices without Energy Storage Components, IEEE Trans. Industry Application,
vol.20, May/June 1984, pp. 625-630.
[8] J. Afonso, C. Couto and J. Martins, Active Filters with Control Based on the p-q Theory, IEEE
Industrial Electronics Society Newsletter, September 2000, pp. 5-11.
[9] C. Grantham, D. Seyoum and H. Tabatabaei-Yazdi, Very fast and accurate Electrical
Measurements, AUPEC/EECON99 Conference Proceedings, 26-29 September 1999, Darwin,
Australia, pp 99-103.
[10] D. McKinnon, D. Seyoum and C. Grantham, "Rapid Determination of Fundamental and Harmonic
RMS Quantities in a 3-Phase System, Proc. AUPEC 2001, Perth, 23 - 26 September. 2001, pp. 73 78.
[11] Muhammad H. Rashid, Power Electronics Circuits, Devices and Applications, Prentice-Hall Inc,
New Jersey, 1993.
[12] L. Peretto, R. Sasdelli and G. Serra, Measurement of harmonic losses in transformers supplying
nonsinusoidal load currents, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. 49, No.
2, April 2000, pp. 315 319.
65
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Introduction
The main aspect which distinguishes the induction machine from other types of electric
machines is that the secondary currents are created solely by induction, as in a
transformer, instead of being supplied by a DC exciter or other external power source,
through slip rings or a commutator, as in synchronous and DC machines. Depending on
the condition of operation, the induction machine can be used as a motor or generator.
Induction machines are available in single-phase or three-phase winding configurations.
In this thesis the modelling and investigation is given only for the three-phase induction
machine.
When the stator is excited from a balanced three-phase supply, the three phases together
create a constant magnitude, synchronously revolving mmf or field in the air gap with a
crest value 3/2 times the peak value of the alternating field due to one phase alone [1].
This field rotates around the air-gap at synchronous speed Ne, which can be calculated
as
Ne
60 f e
Pp
(4.1)
The slip of a motor, s, which is defined as the slip of the rotor with respect to the stator
magnetic field, can be given as
66
CHAPTER 4
Ne Nr
Ne
(4.2a)
Ze Zr
Ze
(4.2b)
Rotation of the rotor changes the relationships between stator and rotor emfs. However,
it does not directly change the inductance and resistance parameters. The angular
frequency of the induced current in the rotor is sZe and the induced voltage in the rotor
will be sEr, where Er is the induced voltage in the rotor when the rotor is stationary.
This is based on the assumption that the induction machine is only supplied from the
stator terminals.
Assuming that the winding is distributed sinusoidally in angular space around the stator
to produce a sinusoidally distributed magnetic field [2] and the rotor winding is similar
in form to the stator winding, then the per-phase equivalent circuit of the stator side of
the three-phase induction machine can be represented as follows
Rs
jZeLls
Is
Es
Vs
Fig. 4.1 Stator side of the per-phase equivalent circuit of a three-phase induction
machine
CHAPTER 4
Is - stator current, A
Rs - stator winding resistance, :
Lls - stator leakage inductance, H
Es - induced emf in the stator winding due to the rotating magnetic field that
links the stator and rotor windings, V
jsZeLlr
Ir
sEr
Fig. 4.2a Rotor side of the per-phase equivalent circuit of a three-phase induction
machine
Ir - rotor current, A
Rr - rotor winding resistance, :
Llr - rotor leakage inductance, H
sZe - rotor current angular frequency, rad/sec.
If all the terms in the rotor side are divided by the slip, s, a modified circuit is obtained
as shown in Fig. 4.2b.
jZeLlr
Ir
Er
Rr/s
68
CHAPTER 4
Using the appropriate voltage transformation ratio between the stator and rotor, the
rotor voltage, Er, referred to the stator is then equal to Es, in Fig. 4.1. The stator and
rotor circuits are linked because of the mutual inductance Lm. When all circuit
parameters are referred to the stator, the stator and rotor circuits can be combined to
give the circuit shown in Fig. 4.3.
Rs
jZeLls
Is
Vs
jZeLlr
Ir
Rr/s
jZeLm
In Fig. 4.3 the core loss, which is due to hysteresis and eddy current losses, is neglected.
It can be compensated by deducting the core loss from the internal mechanical power at
the same time as the friction and windage losses are subtracted [3]. The no load current
in three-phase induction machines consists of the iron loss or core loss component and
the magnetizing component. From the iron loss current component and from the applied
voltage the equivalent resistance for the excitation loss can easily be calculated. There
is also some core loss in the rotor. Under operating conditions, however, the rotor
frequency is so low that it may reasonably be assumed that all core losses occur in the
stator only [4].
The core loss can be accounted for by a resistance Rm in the equivalent circuit of the
induction machine [18]. Rm is dependent on the flux in the core and frequency of
excitation. For constant flux and frequency Rm remains unchanged. As Rm is
independent of load current it is connected in parallel with the magnetising inductance
jZeLlr
jZeLls
Ir
Is
Ic
Vs
Rm
Im
jZeLm
Rr/s
69
CHAPTER 4
When the machine is operated as a motor, power flows from the stator to the rotor,
crossing the air gap. However, in the generating mode of operation, power flows from
the rotor to the stator. Only these two modes of operation are dealt with in this
investigation. The braking region, where the rotor rotates opposite to the direction of the
rotating magnetic field, is not dealt with here.
The conventional model and the d-q (or D-Q) axes model are the same for steady state
analysis. The advantage of the d-q axes model is that it is powerful for analysing the
transient and steady state conditions, giving the complete solution of any dynamics.
The general equations for the d-q representation of an induction machine, in the
stationary stator reference frame, are given as [5]:
70
CHAPTER 4
vqs
vds
vqr
vdr
0
Rs pLs
0
Rs pLs
pLm
- Zr Lm
pLm
Zr Lm
pLm
iqs
pLm ids
- Zr Lr iqr
Rr pLr idr
0
0
Rr pLr
Zr Lr
(4.3)
Zr - electrical rotor angular speed in rad/sec and p=d/dt, the differential operator.
Q-axis
iqs
vqs
Zr
iqr
vqr
vdr
idr
vds
ids
D-axis
Equation (4.3) can be written in a first order differential equation form as given in the
following matrix equation
71
CHAPTER 4
Lr 0 Lm 0 vqs
Lr Rs L2mZr
Lm Rr LmZr Lr iqs
2
LmZr Lr Lm Rr ids
1 0 Lr 0 Lm vds 1 LmZr Ls Rs
L Lm 0 Ls 0 vqr L Lm Rs LsZr Lm Ls Rr LsZr Lr iqr
0 Lm 0 Lm vdr
LsZr Lm Lm Rs LsZr Lr Ls Rr idr
piqs
pids
pi
qr
pidr
where L
(4.4)
Ls Lr L2m .
Using the matrix shown in Equation (4.3), the d-q representation given in Fig. 4.5 can
be redrawn in detail, in a stationary stator reference frame, with separate direct and
quadrature circuits as shown in Fig. 4.6.
Rs
Lls
Llr
ids
vds
Ods
Lm
imd
Rr
- Zr Oqr
+
-
idr
vdr
Odr
(a)
Rs
Lls
Llr
iqs
vqs
Oqs
Lm
imq
Rr
Zr Odr
+
iqr
Oqr
vqr
(b)
Fig. 4.6 Detailed d-q representation of induction machine in stationary reference
frame (a) d-axis circuit (b) q-axis circuit
From the stator side (for simplicity the superscript s which indicates stationary
reference frame is not included with the currents, voltages and fluxlinkages)
Ods
Ls ids Lmidr
(4.5)
Oqs
Ls iqs Lmiqr
(4.6)
vds
Rs ids
d Ods
dt
(4.7)
vqs
Rs iqs
d Oqs
dt
(4.8)
72
CHAPTER 4
Odr
Lmids Lr idr
(4.9)
Oqr
Lmiqs Lr iqr
(4.10)
vdr
Rr idr
vqr
Rr iqr
d Odr
Zr Oqr
dt
d Oqr
dt
Zr Odr
(4.11)
(4.12)
Odm
Lmimd
Lmids Lmidr
(4.13)
Oqm
Lmimq
Lmiqs Lmiqr
(4.14)
The stator electrical input power to the induction machine during motoring operation or
the stator electrical output power in generating mode is given by
Pe
3
ids vds iqs vqs
2
(4.15)
Te
3 JJG JG
Pp Om u I r
2
(4.16)
JJG
JG
Te
3
Pp Lm iqs idr ids iqr
2
(4.17)
Te
d Zm
DZm Tm
dt
(4.18)
Tm
d Zm
DZ Te
dt
(4.19)
73
CHAPTER 4
Te - electromagnetic torque, Nm
The mechanical power generated during motoring or the mechanical power required to
drive the induction generator is given by
Pm
TeZm
(4.20)
The induction machine used in this investigation is a three-phase wound rotor induction
motor with specification: 415V, 7.8A, 3.6kW, 50Hz, and 4 poles. The simulation of the
induction machine is done using the d-q equivalent circuit because it provides the
complete solution, comprising of both the transient and the steady state. The parameters
of the induction machine obtained using the standstill test and the no-load test data at
rated values of voltage, current and frequency are Lls = Llr = 12mH, Lm = 181mH,
Rs = 1.6:, Rr = 2.75:.
74
CHAPTER 4
DC Supply
Three-phase
supply
Ammeter and
Voltmeter
d
Speed meter
DC machine
Induction
machine
Fig. 4.7 Experimental setup to find the characteristics of induction machine in the
motoring and generating regions
The simulation is carried out based on the fact that when the induction machine is
operating as a motor it drives the DC machine so that the DC machine is operating as a
generator. When the induction machine is operating as a generator it is driven by the
DC machine, operating as a DC motor. Since the area of interest is in the characteristics
of the induction machine the investigation is done only for the induction machine. The
DC machine is used as a prime mover and as a load for the induction machine. In the
simulation, to avoid the transients in the motoring region, the induction machine is
started by rotating in the reverse direction. However, the region of operation
investigated here is between zero speed and twice the synchronous speed. A constant
full voltage is applied and the induction machine is allowed to accelerate at constant
acceleration. The system takes 10 seconds to accelerate from standstill (zero speed) to
twice the synchronous speed. In this case the synchronous speed is 1500rpm (4-pole,
50Hz machine).
CHAPTER 4
76
CHAPTER 4
10*Current
Voltage
9
time(sec)
10
(a)
Detail of A
500
Detail of B
500
Voltage
Voltage
(b)
(c)
10*Current
10*Current
-500
2.62
-500
2.63
2.64
Detail of C
500
5.01
5.02
10*Current
(d)
Voltage
-500
6.64
6.65
6.66
Fig. 4.8 Variation of stator phase current for constant supply voltage and frequency
(a) Current and voltage when the rotor speed is varied from standstill to twice the
synchronous speed (b) detail of motoring region (c) detail around the synchronous
speed (d) detail in the generating region
From Fig. 4.8 it can be seen that the phase current lags the voltage by an angle less than
90o in the motoring region. Close to synchronous speed the current lags by about 90o
77
CHAPTER 4
and in the generating region the lag angle is greater than 90o. The time varying phase
current shown in Fig. 4.8 can be iqs or ids and for the voltage it can be vqs or vds. The
currents iqs and ids correspond to the voltages vqs and vds respectively. The angle between
the phase current and the phase voltage remains the same in the q-axis and the d-axis as
well as in the three axis representation a, b and c.
I
I
(a)
(b)
I
(c)
Fig. 4.9 Relationship between phase voltage vector and phase current vector
(a) in the motoring region (b) between motoring and generating (at synchronous speed)
(c) in the generating region
In Fig. 4.9, V is the stator voltage and I is the stator current. In the two axis
representation V can be Vds or Vqs and in three axis representation V is the phase voltage
and can be Va, Vb or Vc and I represents phase current, i.e. Ids, Iqs, Ia, Ib or Ic.
The stator electrical input/output power, the mechanical output/input power, the
electromagnetic torque and efficiency are given in Fig. 4.10. The electrical input power
and the mechanical output power are considered as positive during motoring operation.
Hence during generating operation the electrical output power and the mechanical input
power are negative because the flow of power is reversed. Positive slip is motoring and
negative slip is generating.
78
CHAPTER 4
Torque (Nm)
100
-100
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
20
Pe (KW)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Slip
(a)
10
0
-10
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
Pm (KW)
(b)
10
0
-10
-20
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
Efficiency (%)
(c)
100
75
50
25
0
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
(d)
Efficiency
Pm
u100
Pe
Efficiency
Pe
u100
Pm
79
CHAPTER 4
The instantaneous space vector angles and magnitudes of the stator voltage Vs, stator
current Is, magnetising current Im, rotor current Ir, and stator flux linkage Os are
calculated using
fq
tan 1
fd
f d2 f q2 and f
Tf
0
-30
(a) -60
-90
-120
-150
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.8
Slip
0
-30
(b)
-60
-90
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
-30
(d) -60
-90
-120
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
Fig. 4.11 Space vector angles measured with respect to the stator voltage space vector
angle for (a) stator current Is (b) stator flux linkage Os (c) rotor current Ir
(d) magnetising current Im
80
CHAPTER 4
To have a comparison between the different space vectors, all the space vector angles
are calculated with respect to the stator voltage space vector angle. Fig. 4.11 shows the
space vector angle for stator current, stator flux linkage, rotor current and magnetising
current.
(a)
Vs (V)
340
200
0
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Slip
(c)
O s (web-Turn)
(b)
Is (A)
60
40
20
0
-1
1
0.5
0
-1
(d)
Ir (A)
60
40
20
0
-1
6
(e)
Im (A)
4
2
0
-1
Fig. 4.12 Magnitude of space vector for (a) stator voltage (b) stator current Is
(c) stator flux linkage Os (d) rotor current Ir (e) magnetising current Im
The magnitude of stator voltage, stator current, stator flux linkage, rotor current and
magnetising current are shown in Fig. 4.12. Using the angles given in Fig. 4.11 and the
81
CHAPTER 4
magnitudes given in Fig. 4.12, the space vectors for stator voltage, stator current, stator
flux linkage, rotor current and magnetising current are shown in Fig. 4.13.
Ir
qe
TIr
qs
Vs
TIm
Im
TIs
TOs
Is
Te
Os
de
Ze
(a)
Ir
qe
TIr
qs
Vs
TIm
Im
TOs
TIs
Is
Te
ds
Os
de
Ze
(b)
Fig. 4.13 Space vector diagram for stator voltage, stator current, rotor current,
magnetising current and stator flux linkage (a) during motoring mode
(b) during generating mode
From Fig. 4.10d maximum efficiency occurs close to synchronous speed and efficiency
is zero at synchronous speed (s = 0) and at standstill when the rotor is stationary (s = 1).
82
CHAPTER 4
In Fig. 4.11 it can be observed that compared to the angle of the stator voltage space
vector, the stator current space vector always lags. Because of the stator winding
resistance, the maximum magnitude of angle for the stator flux linkage is close to 90o
lag but not exactly 90o. Close to synchronous speed the rotor current is more resistive,
and there is a reversal of current when it goes from the generating mode to the motoring
mode. The magnetising space vector, which is the sum of the stator current space vector
and the rotor current space vector, has an angle of 90o lag close to synchronous speed.
As can be seen in Fig. 4.12, the magnitude and frequency of the terminal voltage space
vector are kept constant during the motoring and generating modes. There is a minimum
stator current space vector at synchronous speed. The magnitude of the stator flux
linkage space vector shows that there is a small increase as the machine goes from
motoring to generating. The variation in stator flux linkage is a reflection of the
variation in the emf of the induction machine. There is no closed-loop control to control
the exciting current and the stator flux linkage. As will be discussed in the vector
control of induction machines in Chapter 8 the magnitude of the terminal voltage space
vector can be controlled by varying the stator flux linkage. At synchronous speed the
rotor current is zero and the magnetising current approaches its maximum value.
Fig. 4.13 shows the diagram of all the magnitudes and angles of the space vectors
discussed above. The space vectors shown in Fig. 4.13 are helpful in analysing and
designing stator oriented vector control of the induction machine in the generating and
motoring regions.
To transform the signals into the rotating reference frame the d-axis of the rotating
reference frame (de) is aligned with the stator flux linkage. Hence at T e = 0 the d-axis
component of the stator flux linkage in the stationary reference frame is equal to the
total stator flux linkage. At a given operating slip the space vectors are rotating at the
same speed Ze. Therefore, all the components of the space vectors appear as DC values
in the rotating reference frame.
83
CHAPTER 4
20
0
-20
-40
-1
60
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
(a)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Slip
40
20
0
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
(b)
Fig. 4.14 Stator current in the d -q axes of the excitation reference frame (a) qe-axis
current (b) de-axis current
Vds in the exitaion reference frame (V)
100
50
0
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
(a)
Vqs in the exitaion reference frame (V)
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
slip
300
200
100
0
-1
0
(b)
Fig. 4.15 Stator voltage in the de-qe axes of the excitation reference frame
(a) de-axis voltage (b) qe-axis voltage
84
CHAPTER 4
0
-1
2
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
(a)
Imq in the exitaion reference frame (A)
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
slip
1
0
-1
-2
-1
0
(b)
Fig. 4.16 Magnetising current in the de-qe axes of the excitation reference frame
(a) de-axis magnetising current (b) qe-axis magnetising current
Idr in the ex ita ion re fere nce frame (A)
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-1
40
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
(a)
Iqr in the ex ita ion re ference frame (A)
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
slip
20
-20
-1
0
(b)
Fig. 4.17 Rotor current in the de-qe axes of the excitation reference frame
(a) de-axis rotor current (b) qe-axis rotor current
85
CHAPTER 4
As shown in Figures 4.14 4.17, all time varying signals transformed to the excitation
reference frame look like DC quantities. In the excitation reference frame it is easier to
see the components of currents that produce the electromagnetic torque.
Transforming the rotor current to a reference frame fixed on the rotor gives an
alternating current with a frequency equal to the slip frequency Ze-Zr or sZe. Fig. 4.18
shows the rotor current in a reference frame fixed to the rotor and in a reference frame
fixed to the stator, which is a stationary reference frame. The transformation angle to
the rotor reference frame is calculated using the rotor speed as
Tr
Z dt T
r
(4.21)
r t o
The magnitude of the rotor current given is when it is referred to the stator side.
rotor current in the rotor reference frame (A)
50
25
0
-25
-50
5
(a)
10
50
25
0
-25
-50
5
(b)
9
10
time (sec)
Fig. 4.18 Rotor current in different reference frames (a) rotor current in a rotating
reference frame that is rotating at the rotor speed (b) rotor current in the stator
(stationary) reference frame
86
CHAPTER 4
have any value. If the reference frame is rotating exactly at the excitation frequency
then the difference between the speed of the rotating reference frame, Ze, and the rotor
speed, Zr, gives the slip frequency Zsl.
Assuming the induction machine is only supplied from the stator side the equivalent
circuit in the excitation reference frame of the d and q axes is shown in Fig. 4.19.
e
Rs +-ZeOqs
Llr
Lls
Rr
(Ze-Zr)Oqre
+
idre
idse
Vdse
Odse
Lm
Odre
(a)
e
Rs +ZeOds
Rr
-(Z e -Z r )Odre
+
iqre
iqse
Vqse
Llr
Lls
Oqse
Lm
Oqre
(b)
Fig. 4.19 D-Q representation of induction machine in the excitation (Ze) reference frame
(a) d-axis circuit (b) q-axis circuit
Unlike the stationary reference frame, in the excitation or synchronous reference frame
the reference frame is rotating at the same speed as the excitation frequency or the
synchronous speed. Since the voltages and currents have the excitation frequency they
will appear as DC values.
CHAPTER 4
parallel with the magnetizing reactance, Xm. To simplify the analysis of the three-phase
induction machine, Rm is often neglected from the per-phase equivalent circuit [7].
To date the three-phase induction machine d-q axes model has been represented
neglecting Rm [8, 9, 19]. Neglecting Rm will definitely simplify the analysis of the
induction motor, but it will introduce some error in the results that are obtained from the
d-q axes model. The error, which is introduced by neglecting Rm, will have more effect
especially if the application of the analysis is to compute efficiency or analyse losses in
the machine [10, 11].
There is an interest in modelling the iron loss in the d-q model of an induction machine.
In the literature different ways of representing iron loss have been presented that
attempt to treat iron loss in a unified way [12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. These representations do
not give the relationship between the conventional model and the d-q model of a threephase induction machine. The d-q model of a three-phase induction machine including
iron loss needs to be presented in an easily understandable way.
In this analysis a novel d-q model of an induction machine for analysing the effects of
iron loss under steady-state and transient conditions is provided. In collaboration with
D. McKinnon, a fellow research student, the d-q model including iron loss is presented
in a simple, understandable way [17]. It should be noted that Mr McKinnon contributed
more to the inclusion of iron loss into the traditional d-q model. The author, Mr
McKinnon and C. Grantham exchanged ideas frequently in this area of the
investigation.
Using Fig. 4.3, the conventional steady state per-phase equivalent circuit model of a
three-phase induction machine with Rm neglected and all rotor quantities referred to the
primary/stator side, the following substitution is made (Ze-Zr)/ Ze = s and p=jZe, and
with power being supplied only on the stator side, the voltages and currents can be
related as:
vs Rs +Ls p
0 = L p-j L
m
r m
Lm p
is
Rr +Lr p-jr Lr ir
(4.22)
88
CHAPTER 4
Where
vs
0 =
R s + L sN E W p
L p -j L
r
N
N
LN p
R r + L rN E W p -j r L rN E W
is
i
r
(4.23)
Where
LN =
Rm Lm
Rm +Lm p
From Equation (4.3), neglecting Rm and with vdr = vqr = 0, the following matrix equation
can be obtained.
Lm p
vqs Rs +Ls p 0
0
Rs +Ls p
vds = 0
0 Lm p
-r Lm Rr +Lr p
Lm p
r Lr
0 r Lm
iqs
Lm p ids
-r Lr iqr
Rr +Lr p idr
0
(4.24)
To represent Rm in the d-q model, Equation (4.24) needs to be modified. Using the
comparison between Equation (4.22) and (4.24), Equation (4.23) gives the matrix
Equation in the d-q model, i.e. including Rm, as:
LN p
0
vqs Rs +LsNEW p 0
Rs +LsNEW p 0
LN p
vds = 0
0 LN p
-r Lm
Rr +LrNEW p -r LrNEW
LN p
r LrNEW
Rr +LrNEW
0 r LN
iqs
i
ds
iqr (4.25)
p idr
89
CHAPTER 4
This is a new form of matrix expression, which takes into consideration the effect of Rm
in the model. Equation (4.25) is the matrix form for the relationship between voltages
and currents and it can be used for dynamic analysis of induction machines with Rm
included.
With only a stator supplied induction machine, i.e. vdr = vqr = 0, the d-q model,
including Rm, is derived from Equation (4.25) and is given in Fig. 4.20. The d-q model
of the induction machine, including Rm, given in Fig. 4.20 is the same as the model
given in Fig. 4.6 except that Rm is now added in parallel with Lm.
Rs
Lls
Llr
ids
vds
Ods
Rm Lm
Rr
-Zr Oqr
+
-
Rr
idr
imd
Odr
(a)
Rs
Lls
Llr
iqs
vqs
Oqs
Rm
Lm
Zr Odr
-
iqr
imq
Oqr
(b)
Fig. 4.20 D-Q model of induction machine in the stationary reference frame including
core loss represented by Rm (a) d-axis (b) q-axis
From Fig. 4.20 it is clear that iqs iqr z imq and ids idr z imd . There is current flowing in
(4.26)
90
CHAPTER 4
Where
iqs
ids , V
iqr
idr
vqs
, Ao
vds
1
L
ls
0
, A1
1
Lls
Rm
L L
m ls
Rm
Lm Lls
Bo
Rs Rm Rm
Rm
0
0
Lls
Lls Lm Lls
R R
R
R
s m m
m
0
0
Lls
Lls Lm Lls
Rr Rm Rm
Rm
Zr
0
L
lr
Llr Lm Llr
R R
R
R
m
Zr r m m
0
Llr
Llr Lm Llr
B1
Rm Rs
L L
m ls
Zr Rm
Llr
0
Rm Rs
Lm Lls
Zr Rm
Llr
0
0
0
Rm Rm
Rm Rr
Zr
Lm Llr
Llr Lm
R
R
R R
Zr m m m r
Lm Llr
Llr Lm r
From the magnetising inductance branch circuit of Fig. 4.20 the q-axis magnetising
current is
imq
Rm
iqs iqr
Rm Lm p
(4.27a)
imq
Rm
Lm
qs
iqr imq dt
(4.27b)
imd
Rm
ids idr
Rm Lm p
(4.28a)
CHAPTER 4
imd
Rm
Lm
ds
idr imd dt
(4.28b)
Omq
Lmimq
Rm Lm
iqs iqr
Rm Lm p
(4.29)
Omd
Lmimd
Rm Lm
ids idr
Rm Lm p
(4.30)
From the stator side the q-axis stator flux linkage is given as
Oqs
Lls iqs
Rm Lm
iqs iqr
Rm Lm p
(4.31)
Ods
Lls ids
Rm Lm
ids idr
Rm Lm p
(4.32)
From the rotor side the q-axis stator flux linkage is given as
Oqr
Llr iqr
Rm Lm
iqs iqr
Rm Lm p
(4.33)
Odr
Llr idr
Rm Lm
ids idr
Rm Lm p
(4.34)
Te
JJG
3 JJG JG
Pp Om u I r
2
(4.35)
JG
where Om and I r are the space vectors for the air gap flux linkage and for the rotor
current respectively.
JJG
JG
Te
Rm Lm
3
Pp
iqsidr idsiqr
2 Rm Lm p
(4.36)
92
CHAPTER 4
R
3
Pp Rm iqs idr ids iqr m Te dt
2
Lm
(4.37)
4.7 Summary
The modelling of an induction machine using the conventional or steady state model
and the d-q or dynamic model are explained in detail. The voltage, current and flux
linkage in the rotating reference and their phase relationships in the motoring region and
generating region are presented. For the same stator terminal voltage the magnitude of
the electromagnetic torque in the generating region is higher than the electromagnetic
torque in the motoring region. The reason for the difference in electromagnetic torques
is that during the motoring region all the electrical losses in the induction machine are
supplied by an external electrical power source and the electromagnetic torque is the
output of the system. However, in the generating region the electromagnetic torque is
equivalent to the external mechanical input torque and all the electrical power losses in
the induction machine are indirectly supplied by the external mechanical power source
and the terminal voltage is the output of the system. Hence to overcome all the internal
power losses in the induction machine and have the same terminal voltage as in the
motoring region the electromagnetic torque in the generating region is higher than the
motoring region.
D. McKinnon and C. Grantham, in collaboration with the author, has improved the
induction machine model in D-Q axes including the equivalent iron loss resistance, Rm,
is presented in a simple and understandable way. Using this model the dynamic current,
torque and power can be calculated.
4.8 References
[1]
P. L. Alger, The nature of induction machines, Gordon and Breach Inc., New York, 1965.
[2]
G. R. Slemon, Electric Machines and Drives, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, New York,
1992.
[3]
A. E. Fitzgerald and JR. Charles Kingsley, Electric Machinery, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1961.
[4]
J. Rosenblatt, and M. H. Friedman, Direct and Alternating Current machinery, CBS Publishers
and Distributors, New Delhi, 2000.
93
CHAPTER 4
[5]
N. N. Hancock, Matrix Analysis of Electrical Machinery, Pergamon Press, New York, 1974.
[6]
B. K. Bose, Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives, Printice-Hall, New Jersey, 2002.
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10] H. Auinger, Efficiency of electric motors under practical conditions, IEE Power Engineering
Journal, June 2001, pp. 163 - 167.
[11] C. Grantham and H. Tabatabaei-Yazdi, Rapid Parameter Determination for use in the Control
High Performance Induction Motor Drives, IEEE 1999 International Conference on Power
Electronics and Drive Systems, PEDS99, July 1999, Hong Kong, pp. 267 - 272 .
[12] E. Levi, Impact of iron loss on behavior of vector controlled induction machines, IEEE Trans.
On Industry Applications, Vol. 31, No. 6, November/December 1995, pp. 1287 - 1296.
[13] E. Levi, M. Sokola, A. Boglietti and M. Pastorelli, Iron loss in rotor-flux-oriented induction
machines: identification, assessment of detuning, and compensation, IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics, Vol. 11 No. 5, Sept. 1996, pp. 698 - 709.
[14] G.O. Garcia, J.A. Santisteban and S.D. Brignone, Iron losses influence on a field-oriented
controller, In Proc. IECON '94, Vol. 1, 1994, pp. 633 - 638.
[15] Sung-Don Wee, Myoung-Ho Shin and Dong-Seok Hyun, Stator-flux-oriented control of induction
motor considering iron loss, IEEE Trans. On Industrial Electronics, Vol. 48, No. 3, June 2001, pp.
602 - 608.
[16] J.W. Choi, D. W. Chung, and S. K. Sul, Implementation of Field Oriented Induction Machine
Considering Iron Losses, IEEE- APEC '96. Conference Proceedings, 1996, pp. 375-379.
[17] D. McKinnon, D. Seyoum and C. Grantham, "Novel Dynamic Model for a Three-Phase Induction
Motor With Iron Loss and Variable Rotor Parameter Considerations", Proc. AUPEC 2002,
Melbourne, 29 Sept. - 2 Oct. 2002. ISBN 0-7326-2206-9.
[18] M.G. Say, Alternating current machines Pitman, London, 1983, pp. 260-262.
[19] P. C., Krause, O. Wasynczukand and S. D. Sudhoff, Analysis of Electric Machinery, IEEE press,
New York, 1995.
94
CHAPTER 5
DATA
ACQUISITION
AND
DIGITAL
SIGNAL
PROCESSING
5.1 Introduction
The remarkable increase in the speed and power of digital computers and special
purpose hardware over recent years has ensured the continued growth of interest in data
acquisition and Digital Signal Processing (DSP) for monitoring and control of electrical
machines. A signal is any variable that contains information from a transducer or from a
controller that can be manipulated for a given application. Digital Signal Processing, as
the term suggests, is the processing of signals by digital means.
Parameter to
be measured
sensor
Analog
signal
A/D
Digital
converter signal
Digital
Digital
D/A
signal
signal converter
processor
Analog
signal
Fig. 5.1 Block diagram for data acquisition and signal processing
Filtering reduces noise errors in the signal. This can be done with either an analog or
digital filter. For most applications a low-pass filter is used. This allows the lower
frequency components through but attenuates the higher frequencies. The cut-off
frequency must be compatible with the frequencies present in the actual signal (as
opposed to possible contamination by noise) and the sampling rate used for the A/D
95
CHAPTER 5
conversion. A high pass filter is used to remove DC component or signals with low
frequency.
Fast data acquisition and Digital Signal Processing systems are used to acquire
thousands of samples of a measured signal in a second. This was impossible to
implement a few years ago. Data acquisition deals with the way a signal is sensed and
conditioned, whilst Digital Signal Processing deals with the manipulation of a signal in
digital form.
a
b
Sensor
board
ia ib
Induction
machine
vab vbc
Anti-aliasing filter
DS1102 DSP
board
3 axes to 2 axes
transformation
id iq
Speed measurement
Hardware
Software
vd vq
CHAPTER 5
relative ease of use, freeing the designer from the burden of manually programming the
DSP. The operation of the DS1102 DSP board requires the Texas Instrument C
compiler, assembler, linker and loader. The LD31 utility program performs the actual
loading of the TMS320C31 DSP object code modules and optionally the TMS320P14
object code modules. The C environment of the DS1102 controller board contains a
library with predefined functions, header files and other application files.
The TMS320P14 can be used for numerical calculation through loading the program
into its memory. The TMS320C31 communicates with the slave TMS320P14 through a
32 bit communication port and programs can be executed in both processors
concurrently by two separate timers. The block diagram of the DS1102 is shown in Fig.
5.3 [1].
26
TMS 320P14
Digital I/O
128Ku32
static RAM
zero wait states
16-bit ADC 2
12-bit ADC 3
JTAG
connector
TMS320C31
12-bit ADC 4
12-bit DAC 1
12-bit DAC 2
12-bit DAC 3
JTAG
Interface
DS1102 DSP-board
12-bit DAC 4
Host
Interface
Incr. encoder 1
Noise filter
Incr. encoder 2
Noise filter
serial
interface
16-bit ADC 1
PC
From Fig. 5.3 the signal groups used in the experimental set up are:
x
Four ADC (analog to digital conversion) inputs: The two ADC inputs are of 16
bit with A/D conversion time of 10Ps and two ADC inputs are of 12 bit with
97
CHAPTER 5
A/D conversion time of 3Ps. All ADCs have single ended bipolar inputs with
10V input span. 10V appears as 1V in the software environment.
x
Four DAC outputs: All DAC outputs are of 12 bit with programmable output
voltage range. The DACs have single ended voltage outputs with 10V span.
The sensors used for voltage and current measurement are based on the Hall-Effect
principle and are able to measure voltage and current signals in the frequency range of
DC up to 100 KHz. The principle of measurement for the Hall-Effect voltage
measurement and current measurement are the same. Hall-Effect produces Hall-Voltage
based on a magnetic flux created by current. If a conducting material is placed in a
magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of current flow, a Hall-Voltage is
98
CHAPTER 5
developed across the material in a direction perpendicular to both the initial current
direction and the magnetic field.
The sensors for current and voltage are isolated from the circuit being measured and use
a separate power supply to avoid any effect on the voltages and currents being
measured. To avoid ground loops between the sensor boards and the DSP card separate
return lines are used for the connected sensors and the signal line is shielded to avoid
any external interference. The voltage and current sensors and their associated
amplification circuits are located on one PCB. This is referred to as the Sensor Board.
The DS1102 has only 4 analog ADC inputs, however to measure 6 analog inputs (2 AC
voltages, 2 AC currents, 1 DC voltage and 1 DC current) an 8 to 4 multiplexer is used
and the multiplexer circuit is controlled by 2 lines from the 16 I/O pins. The function
ds1102_ad(channel) returns the ADC input value of the converter specified by the
parameter channel which must be set to 1, 2, 3 or 4. The ADC data is read subsequently
and scaled to its floating-point value in the range -1.0 +1.0. Since the ADC input
value is a 16 or 12-bit signed integer left aligned within a 32-bit data word, the factor
2-31 is required for scaling. The conversion of the ADCs must be started by a preceding
call to the function ds1102_ad_start( ).
One way of avoiding the problem of aliasing is to apply a low-pass filter to the signal
prior to the sampling stage to remove any frequency components above the "folding" or
Nyquist frequency (half the sampling frequency) [3]. The anti-aliasing filters are
introduced at the end of the analog signal conditioning and just before the analog to
digital converter. These anti-aliasing filters are implemented using conventional analog
99
CHAPTER 5
circuitry with cut off frequency below half of the minimum sampling frequency
(maximum sampling time) used in the DS1102 application programs.
The anti-aliasing filter also helps to have smooth voltage and current signals in the
PWM controlled inverter source. Each analog signal from voltage and current sources
must have an anti-aliasing filter.
When the voltage required for measurement is connected across terminals a-b, a
proportional current flows through resistor RV (47K). This current produces a magnetic
flux, which in turn is proportional to the voltage. The magnetic flux is constantly
controlled at zero by a compensating current flowing through the secondary coil using
the Hall-Effect device and associated electronic circuit. The amount of secondary
(compensating) current required to hold the zero flux is a measure of the primary
current flowing multiplied by the ratio of the secondary winding. The secondary current
multiplied by RM is the output voltage of the sensor. The signal conditioning part of the
circuit is calibrated by adjusting the potentiometer P2 in such a way that the maximum
voltage to be measured will give an output voltage signal of peak value 10V. To
protect the ADC input of the DS1102 board from over voltage, two zener diodes
(BZX55-C9V1), with breakdown voltage of 9.1V, are connected back to back. The
zener voltage of 9.1V is chosen so that when the back to back diode combination is
conducting, the voltage drop will not exceed 10V (9.1V + forward biased voltage drop).
The output of the voltage measurement circuits are connected to ADC3 and ADC4 of
the DS1102 board. ADC3 and ADC4 contain 12 bit successive approximation analog to
100
CHAPTER 5
digital converters with integrated sample and hold units. Each converter achieves a
conversion time of 3Ps.
RV
a
+
Voltage to be 47K
measured
b
LV 25-P
+15V
IM
Sensed voltage
-15V
RM
100R
(a)
P2
R6
9K1
20K
C1
0.01PF
+15V
13
From voltage
sensor
R1
5K6
+15V
10
R2
5K6
4
12
+ 11
LT1058
14
+
LT1058
R7
To DS1102
2K2
DSP board
9.1VZ
-15V
R3
10K
P1
2K
9.1VZ
Jumper
R5
R4
270R
10K
-15V
(b)
Fig. 5.4 Voltage measurement system (a) voltage sensor (b) signal conditioning for the
sensed voltage
The connection of resistor R5 to ground in the signal conditioning part of the voltage
measurement system reduces the effect of offset error to a negligible value as compared
to the measured signal of interest. The voltage sensor given here is good for measuring
voltages above 10V. For input voltages below 10V there is more error because the
accuracy is given as absolute error relative to the nominal current. The voltage sensor
can go up to its rated insulation capability by increasing the value of the resistance RV.
101
CHAPTER 5
In Fig 5.5(a) Vout is the output voltage signal of the current transducer and this has to be
signal conditioned to be fed to the DS1102 board. The signal conditioning part of the
circuit is calibrated by adjusting the potentiometer P2 in such a way that the maximum
current to be measured will give an output voltage signal of peak value 10V.
The output of the current measurement circuits are connected to ADC1 and ADC2 of
the DS1102 board. ADC1 and ADC2 contain 16 bit successive approximation analog to
digital converters with integrated sample and hold units. Each converter achieves a
conversion time of 10Ps.
The purpose of the resistor R5, capacitor C1, zener diode and other resistors is similar to
that of the voltage measurement set up described in the previous Section.
102
CHAPTER 5
1
2
4
5
6
-15V
Vout
+15V
Current to be measured
(primary current)
(a)
P2
R6
9K1
20K
C1
0.01PF
+15V
13
From current
sensor
R1
5K6
+15V
10
R2
5K6
4
12
+ 11
LT1058
14
R7
To DS1102
2K2
DSP board
LT1058
9.1VZ
-15V
R3
10K
P1
2K
R4
10K
9.1VZ
Jumper
R5
270R
-15V
(b)
Fig. 5.5 Current measurement system (a) current transducer (b) signal conditioning for
the sensed current in terms of voltage signal
103
CHAPTER 5
In the experimental set up, the position measuring system is based on a ROD 426
incremental rotary encoder produced by Heidenhain GmbH with 5,000 lines (or
increments) per revolution [4]. The ROD 426 operates on the principle of photo
electrically scanning very fine gratings forming an incremental track. Output signals are
incremental with TTL square wave pulse trains Ua1, Ua2, and their inverted pulse trains
U a1 and U a 2 produced by four-field scanning. A reference signal of a single square
wave pulse Ua0 is produced every revolution and there is a U a0 , which is the inverted
pulse of Ua0. Ua2 lags Ua1 by 90o (1/4 of a cycle) with clockwise rotation (viewed from
shaft side) as shown in Fig. 5.6. One signal cycle of 360o electrical corresponds to the
angle of rotation for one pitch of the radial grating (i.e. one line and one space).
Signal period
360oelec.
Ua1
90oelec.
phase shift
Ua2
edge separation
a
90oelec.
Ua0
td
td
The output Ua2 and Ua1 pulses produce four states represented by 2 bits 00, 01, 11 and
10 for each line space of the encoder, as shown in Fig. 5.6. Hence the minimum
resolution of the increment encoder is one fourth of the grating pitch of the radial
grating. The value of the edge separation, a, is greater than or equal to 0.45Ps at the
maximum scanning frequency 300 KHz. The lag time of pulse Ua0 to signals Ua1 and
Ua2 is less than 50ns. In this application with a sampling time around 200Ps, equivalent
104
CHAPTER 5
to a scanning frequency of about 5KHz, the requirements for edge separation is satisfied
and the effect of lag time is negligible.
The DS1102 DSP card contains two incremental sensor interfaces (Channel 1 and
Channel 2) to support optical incremental sensors commonly used in position control.
Each interface contains line receivers for the input signals, a digital noise pulse filter
eliminating spikes on the phase lines, a quadrature decoder which converts the sensors
phase information to count-up and count-down pulses, a 24-bit counter which holds the
current position of the sensor and a 24-bit output latch [1]. Using a C program the
current value of the position counter is read from the output latch. Fig. 5.7 shows a
block diagram for an incremental sensor interface.
25MHz
Ua1
Ua2
Phi0 1
Ua0
index
Line
Phi90 1 receiver
Noise
filter
Quadrature
decoder
RESET
STROBE
24-bit
position
counter
24-bit
output
latch
Line
receiver
105
CHAPTER 5
counts down when Ua2 is the leading sequence. When digitized, both edges of Ua1 and
Ua2 are counted, thus the incremental position Iincr in radians is given by
Iincr
2S
Aincr Io
4u N
(5.1)
To express the incremental position between 0 and 2S, when the angle exceeds 2S it
resets to 0. To have this option the angle measurement can be implemented using
Iincr
Iincr
2S
Aincr _ new Aincr _ old
4u N
(5.2)
where Aincr_new and Aincr_old are the new and old incremental count of the position counter
respectively. At start Iincr is equal to Io.
A function read_inc(1) is derived from the original dSPACE function ds1102_inc from
the DS1102 software environment to read Channel 1 of the 24 bit position counter
register and return the output as a 32 bit left aligned data word. The left alignment is
done by shifting the 24 bits by 8 bits towards the left or it is multiplied by 28 = 256. In
the DS1102 software environment the angle measurement is implemented as
Iincr
Iincr
2S
Aincr _ new Aincr _ old
4 u N u 256
(5.3)
where Aincr_new and Aincr_old are the new and old values of the function
106
CHAPTER 5
Zres
T res
(5.4)
Ts
Zres
5 u 10 5
u 60
Ts
0.003
rpm
Ts
(5.6)
With a sampling time of 200Psec (Ts = 200Ps) the speed resolution will be 15rpm. This
means that the speed measurement is expressed as a discrete value in 15rpm steps. The
maximum error, irrespective of the speed, will be 15rpm. At high speed the relative
error in speed measurement is small however at low speed the relative error is large. If
the sampling time is 500Ps then the speed resolution is 6rpm. For a sampling time of
1ms the speed resolution is 3rpm.
The accuracy of speed measurement is dependent on the sampling time. The sampling
time has to be large enough so that the accuracy of the speed measurement will be
improved. However the sampling time should not be increased to an extent where it will
not be able to follow the change in speed quickly and affect a control system dependent
on rotor speed.
107
CHAPTER 5
speed
uk
(5.7)
where k is the multiplication factor, k = 25165.824. count_new and count_old are the new
and old value of the function ds1102_inc(Channel1) respectively. The value of count_new
and count_old is between -1.0 and 1.0 floating point value.
The multiplying factor k is derived from the way the counted value is stored in the
register and returned from the function ds1102_inc(Channel1) to the software
environment. Based on the encoder used 1rpm = 333.333counts/sec. The 333.333 is
stored in the 24-bit signed integer left aligned position counter register. When the 24-bit
is converted to a left aligned 32-bit word, it has effectively been multiplied by 256 or 28.
Finally the function ds1102_inc(Channel1) returns the counted value in 32-bit form
divided by 231 to have a scaling in the range -1.0 +1.0 floating point value so that
1rpm will be returned from the function as 3.974u10-5/sec. To express the speed
measurement in rpm the incremental counted value per second should be multiplied by
a factor k calculated as
k
60
2 31
u
20000 256
25165.824
(5.8)
108
CHAPTER 5
response sequence, h(k) (where k = 0, 1, 2, ). The input and output signals to the filter
are related by the convolution sum, which is given in Equation (5.9) for the IIR and
Equation (5.10) for the FIR filter [2, 6].
f
y ( n)
h(k )x(n k )
(5.9)
k 0
M 1
y ( n)
h(k )x(n k )
(5.10)
k 0
From Equations (5.9) and Equations (5.10) it is clear that for the IIR filter the impulse
response is of infinite duration, whereas for the FIR it has finite duration.
y ( n)
k 0
k 0
(5.11)
k 1
where x(n) is the input signal, y(n) is the output signal and the constants a0, a1, a2 aM,
b1, b2 bL are filter coefficients.
The current output sample y(n), is a function of past outputs as well as present and past
input samples. That is, an IIR filter is some sort of feedback system. The transfer
function for the IIR filter consists of poles and zeroes and the generalized form is:
M
H ( z)
Y ( z)
X ( z)
a z
k
k 0
1
bk z k
k 1
(5.12)
IIR filters are implemented in a recursive fashion. An important part of the IIR filter
design process is to find suitable values for the coefficients ak and bk such that some
aspect of the filter characteristic behaves in a desired manner. The transfer function of
the IIR filter, H(z), given in Equation (5.10) can be factorised as
H (Z )
K ( z z1 )( z z2 )" ( z z N )
( z p1 )( z p2 )" ( z pL )
(5.13)
109
CHAPTER 5
where z1, z2, , zN are the zeros of H(z), and p1, p2, , pL are the poles of H(z).
Instability can occur if any of the magnitudes of the roots of the poles are greater than 1
(outside the unit circle in the z plane).
x(n)
z-1
h(0)
z-1
z-1
h(2)
h(1)
h(M-2)
h(M-1)
y(n)
Using Equation (5.10) the transfer function for FIR filters is expressed as
H ( z)
Y ( z)
X ( z)
M 1
h( k ) z
k
(5.14)
k 0
Upon expansion the equation yields M-1 poles at the origin, meaning that FIR filters are
unconditionally stable as the poles cannot ever lie outside the unit circle in the z-plane
[7].
H ( z)
Y ( z)
X ( z)
1
z M 1
M 1
h( k ) z
( M 1) k
(5.15)
k 0
In Equation (5.11) when bk = 0 the filter is of non recursive type and becomes an FIR
filter where h(k) = ak, (k= 0,1, ).
110
CHAPTER 5
FIR filters are realised non recursively and are always stable. The stability of IIR
filters cannot always be guaranteed. Round off noise and quantisation errors are
much less severe in FIR filters than in IIR filters.
FIR filters can have linear phase response however IIR filters have non linear
phase response, especially at the band edges.
IIR filters require fewer coefficients than FIR filters for sharp cut off filters.
Fewer coefficients mean less processing time and less storage requirement.
In IIR filters there is no direct relationship between complexity and the length of
the impulse response, which is infinite by definition. Filters with high selectivity
can be realised with relatively low complexity. However, in FIR filters
complexity is proportional to the length of the impulse response.
Analog filters can be readily transferred into equivalent IIR digital filters
meeting similar specifications, but FIR filters have no analog counter part.
IIR filters can be designed using design formulae. FIR filter design procedures
are normally iterative procedures and design equations do not exist.
2 1 z 1
T 1 z 1
2 z 1
T z 1
(5.16)
in the analog filter in the s-domain. With the bilinear transformation, the entire left half
s-plane maps to the interior of the unit circle in the z-plane. Hence all stable analog
filters will result in stable digital ones. Also, the bilinear transformation maps the entire
imaginary axis in the s-plane onto the unit circle in the z-plane.
111
CHAPTER 5
It can be shown that the digital frequencies, (ZD), are related to frequencies in the splane, (ZA), by a mapping of the frequency in the s-plane to the frequency in the zplane, that is,
ZD
2
Z T
tan 1 A
T
2
(5.17)
Zke
2
Z T
tan 1 k
T
2
(5.18)
dv
can be approximated by using a backward
dt
v(n) v(n 1)
v(n) v(n 1)
or
,where Ts
+t
Ts
sampling rate is the time between two samples and its inverse is the sampling
frequency.
112
CHAPTER 5
In Fig. 5.9 y is the filtered output and x is the unfiltered input. The differential equation
relating the input and output is
RC
dy
y
dt
(5.19)
The Laplace transform, which is the analog transfer function in the frequency domain, is
Zc
s Zc
Y (s)
X (s)
where Zc =
(5.20)
1
is the cut-off frequency.
RC
Using the backward Euler method the differential equation given in Equation (5.19) can
be approximated by a finite difference equation given by
RC
y (n) y (n 1)
y ( n)
+t
substituting Zc =
y ( n)
x ( n)
(5.21)
1
and Ts = 't and rearranging leads to
RC
1
1 ZcTs
y (n 1) ZcTx(n)
(5.22)
Here y(n) is the filtered value and x(n) is the unfiltered value.
A second order low pass filter and high pass filter can be derived in a similar way as
given in the first order low pass filter.
5.6 Summary
The data acquisition system which is used for the measurement of voltages, currents,
angle and speed with their sensors is explained. The outputs of the voltage and current
measurements are calibrated so that the voltage signals of the sensor outputs will not
exceed the ADC input rating of the DS1102 DSP board. The sensors for current and
voltage are Hall-Effect devices. Anti-aliasing filters are introduced in the analog signals
of the sensor outputs to prevent the high frequencies appearing as a low frequency when
the analog signal is digitised in the A/D converter.
113
CHAPTER 5
Speed and angle measurements are taken using an optical incremental encoder. The
resolution of angle and speed for a given encoder is derived. For a given encoder the
resolution of the angle measurement is constant; however the resolution of speed
measurement is dependent on the sampling period used. High sampling period (low
sampling frequency) gives small resolution in speed (discrete steps) producing less error
in the measurement of the speed.
The advantage of digital signal processing is discussed. Different types of filter design
are presented. Digital filters are used in the simulation and experimental results
presented in the following chapters.
5.7 References
[1]
[2]
Alan V. Oppenheim and Ronald W. Schafer, Discrete time Signal Processing, Prentice-Hall Inc.,
Upper Saddler River, N.J., 1999.
[3]
Paul A. Lynn and Wolfgang Fuerst, Introductory Digital and Signal Processing with Computer
Applications, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1989.
[4]
[5]
[6]
Emmanuel C. Ifeachor and Barrie W. Jervis, Digital Signal Processing a Practical Approach,
Addison-Wesley Publishers Ltd., Wokingham, England, 1993.
[7]
John G. Proakis and Dimitris G. Manolakis, Digital Signal Processing Principles, Algorithms, and
Applications, Prentice-Hall Inc., Upper Saddler River, N.J., 1996.
[8]
Charles L. Philips and Troy H. Nagle, Digital Control System Analysis and Design, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1995.
114
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Introduction
Machine modelling requires knowledge of the parameters of the machine. Whether the
three-phase induction machine is modelled using the conventional equivalent circuit or
dq method, the parameters of the machine are required. To have an accurate model of
the machine, which represents all the characteristics of the physical machine, the
parameters need to be determined accurately. An in depth analysis and simulation of an
induction machine can be carried out only with accurate parameters that represent the
actual machine. Consequently to accurately model a three-phase induction machine,
accurate parameter values which represent the actual operating conditions being
modelled should be known.
There are different ways to determine the parameters of an induction machine modelled
by the conventional or steady state method. In this work the parameters are obtained by
taking measurements of input voltage, current and power over a wide speed range [1, 2].
For a three-phase induction machine with variable rotor parameters or constant rotor
parameters, the determination of parameters is dependent on phase voltage, phase
current, phase power and rotor speed.
The parameter determination method is based on the well known equivalent circuit
shown in Fig. 6.1. In this equivalent circuit the arrow through Xlr and Rr/s indicates that
these two parameters may be treated as variables for the case where rotor parameter
variations are taken into account
115
CHAPTER 6
Rs
jXlr
jX ls
jX m
Rm
Rr/s
Fig. 6.1 The per-phase equivalent circuit with shunt magnetising branch impedance
represented in parallel
To convert the shunt magnetising branch impedance from parallel to series form
RM
Rm X m2
Rm2 X m2
(6.1)
XM
Rm2 X m
Rm2 X m2
(6.2)
Where RM and XM are the resistive and the reactive equivalent components, respectively,
of the shunt magnetising branch represented in series form.
RM2 X M2
RM
(6.3)
Xm
RM2 X M2
XM
(6.4)
The modified form of the per-phase equivalent circuit is given in Fig. 6.2. Here the
shunt magnetising branch elements are connected in series.
Rs
jXlr
jXls
RM
jXM
Rr/s
Fig. 6.2 Per-phase equivalent circuit with shunt magnetising branch impedance
represented in series form
116
CHAPTER 6
for skin effect. Alternatively a Ware test [3] can be used, where Rs is measured by
removing the rotor and supplying the stator with AC voltage at 50Hz .The difference
between the Ware test and the simple DC test can be about 5%. The details of the tests
are given below.
Rs
Xls
IO
RM
VO
XM
Fig. 6.3 Per-phase equivalent circuit of three-phase induction machine under no load
test
CHAPTER 6
PO
3I O2
(6.5)
VO
IO
(6.6)
Then
Z O2 RO2
(6.7)
RM
RO Rs
(6.8)
XM
X O X ls
(6.9)
Rs
jXlr
jXls
Ish
RM
Vsh
Rr
jXM
At slip s = 1
Total input resistance under short-circuit condition Rsh
Psh
3I sh2
Vsh
I sh
(6.10)
Rsh jX sh
Z sh2 Rsh2
(6.11)
(6.12)
118
CHAPTER 6
From Equation (6.11) and Fig. 6.4 the exact expression for the short-circuit test is given
as
Rsh jX sh
Rs jX ls
( RM jX M )( Rr jX lr )
( Rr RM ) j ( X lr X M )
(6.13)
Using the assumption that Xls = Xlr and substituting the expressions for RM and XM,
Equations (6.8) and (6.9) respectively, into Equation (6.13) gives
Rsh jX sh
Rs jX lr
( RO Rs j ( X O X ls )( Rr jX lr )
( Rr RO Rs ) jX O
(6.14)
Rr
(6.15)
X lr
Rsh X O X sh Rr X sh RO X sh Rs Rs X O X O Rr
2( RO Rs )
(6.16)
b1
(6.17)
X O X sh
2( X O a1 b0 c0 )
119
CHAPTER 6
c1
c02 X sh d 02 X O X O X sh a1
b0
RO Rsh
c0
RO Rs
d0
Rsh Rs
X lr
(6.18a)
Here there are two mathematical solutions for the rotor leakage reactance. To determine
the realistic solution the terms can be partially substituted to obtain
X lr
XO
RO Rsh RO Rs r
2 X O X sh
b12 4a1c1
2a1
(6.18b)
In Equation (6.18b), if the + sign is chosen the rotor leakage reactance, Xlr, will be more
than the total input reactance during the Open-circuit test, XO. This is not a realistic
solution. Hence the solution must be
X lr
(6.18c)
Minimising Equation (6.15) using the coefficients given in Equation (6.17) gives
Rr
d 0 c0 X sh X O 2 X lr X O X lr2
b0
(6.19)
120
CHAPTER 6
Stator
Air gap
Rotor
Current
Rotor leakage
magnetic flux
(a)
(b)
Rotor bar
(c)
Fig. 6.5 Current displacement with rotor speed a) zero speed b) intermediate speed
c) close to synchronous speed
The variation of rotor resistance and rotor leakage reactance can be explained as
follows. At zero rotor speed, slip equal to one, there is maximum relative speed between
the rotor and the rotating magnetic flux set by the stator current. As a result, at zero
rotor speed the frequency of the induced rotor current is the same as the stator excitation
frequency. The leakage flux produced by the rotor current will pass through the iron
below the bottom of the rotor bar, as shown in Fig. 6.5, because of high permeability of
the iron core. Now imagine the bar to consist of an infinite number of layers of
differential depth. The layers at the lower part of the bar will be linked by all rotor
leakage flux produced by the rotor current flowing in all layers of the bar. However the
layers at the upper part of the bar will be linked only by the flux produced due to the
current flowing in these layers. As inductance is flux linkage per unit current, the
leakage inductance at the bottom of the rotor bar is greater than that of the upper part of
the rotor bar. With alternating current flowing in the bars this leakage inductance effect
produces leakage reactance, which is higher at the bottom of the bar than at the top of
the bar. This is significant when the frequency of the rotor current is the same as the
frequency of the stator excitation current, i.e. at slip s = 1. The leakage reactance
decreases along the bar from the bottom to the top. Hence at slip equal to one current
will be displaced upwards and almost all the current will flow in the upper part of the
bar, as shown in Fig. 6.5a. This phenomenon is basically the same as skin and proximity
effect in any system of conductors with alternating current in them. Since the upper part
121
CHAPTER 6
is close to the air gap the possibility of the flux produced by the rotor current crossing
the air gap and linking the stator core to become part of the mutual flux increases. As
the flux produced by the rotor current crossing the air gap to link the stator increases the
leakage flux in the rotor will decrease. A decrease in rotor leakage flux per unit current
decreases the rotor leakage inductance and thereby the rotor leakage reactance when
referred to the stator side.
However the resistance will increase because the effective area utilized by the current
decreases. Hence, referred to the stator, at high slip, the rotor resistance is high but the
rotor leakage inductance is at its lowest value. The frequency of the rotor current
decreases with an increase in rotor speed (a decrease in slip) because of the decrease in
relative motion between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor bars. For this reason at
a speed half way between standstill and synchronous speed, about s = 0.5, the crosssectional area of the bar used by the current has increased, as shown in Fig. 6.5b. At a
rotor speed close to synchronous speed, s = 0, the rotor current frequency is low and
there is almost no rotor current displacement, as shown in Fig. 6.5c. Close to
synchronous speed the magnitude of the induced current is low and this small current
flows over almost all of the cross-sectional area of the rotor bar. The spread of the
current over almost the whole cross-sectional area of the bar increases the effective
cross-sectional area and consequently the resistance to the flow of current decreases. As
a result the rotor resistance will have a lower value at higher speeds. In this condition
the rotor flux linking only the rotor increases and the rotor leakage inductance also
increases. A typical example of rotor parameter variation for an induction motor with
double-cage rotor is given in Fig. 6.6 [5].
122
CHAPTER 6
9
Rotor leakage reactance
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
Rotor resistance
1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Slip
Fig. 6.6 Rotor parameter variations with slip for deep bar induction machine
For an induction machine with variable rotor parameters, once the open-circuit test and
short-circuit tests are carried out the rotor parameters at slip equal to one can be
calculated in the same way as in the induction machine with constant rotor parameters.
The variation of rotor parameters at different slip can be obtained by measuring the
stator phase voltage (VS(S)), phase current (IS(S)) and the three-phase power (PS(S))
supplied to the induction machine at a given slip. At slip equal to one Xlr(1) = Xls. Fig.
6.7 shows the variable rotor parameters and associated variation in input quantities
which are functions of slip.
Rs
jXlr(S)
jXls
IS(S)
RM
VS(S)
jXM
Rr ( S )
s
123
CHAPTER 6
Xlr(S) and Rr(S) are the rotor leakage reactance and rotor resistance respectively, referred
to the stator. They vary as functions of slip (rotor frequency) or rotor speed. Viewed
from the stator input side
Total input impedance at any slip, s, Z S ( S )
VS ( S )
(6.20)
I S (S )
PS ( S )
(6.21)
3 I S2 ( S )
Z s2( S ) Rs2( S )
(6.22)
RM jX M
RS ( S ) jX S ( S )
Rs X ls
Rr ( S )
jX lr ( S )
s
Rr ( S )
RM
j X lr ( S ) X M
(6.23)
Rr ( S )
s
RS ( S ) Rs RM X lr ( S ) X ls X S ( S ) X M
RM Rs RS ( S ) X M ( X S ( S ) X ls
(6.24)
X S ( S ) X ls X M X lr ( S ) RS ( S ) Rs RM
RM X ls X S ( S ) X M Rs RS ( S )
(6.25)
ARr ( S ) BX lr ( S )
(6.26)
CRr ( S ) DX lr ( S )
(6.27)
Solving the above two equations simultaneously, the rotor resistance and the rotor
leakage reactance at a given slip can be calculated from:
Rr ( S )
BF ED
BC AD
(6.28)
124
CHAPTER 6
X lr ( S )
Where A
B
C
CE AF
BC AD
(6.29)
RS ( S ) Rs RM
s
X ls X S ( S ) X M
X S ( S ) X ls X M
s
RS ( S ) Rs RM
RM Rs RS ( S ) X M X S ( S ) X ls
RM X ls X S ( S ) X M Rs RS ( S )
Brown & Grantham[6] devised a method whereby the parameters are determined using
a variable speed test, where a speed control method, such as Ward-Leonard, is used to
vary the speed, and the values of voltage, current and power are measured at each value
of speed. However, the test time can be quite long for this method so the temperature
can change during the test, hence changing the resistance values. Also, because of the
period of time spent at each speed to record the data, it is not possible to determine the
parameters under rated conditions. The motor temperature would become excessive at
high slips due to the increased current (up to ten times the full-load current at standstill)
causing overheating and damage to the induction machine.
To avoid the temperature change during the test, the data can be collected rapidly using
a DSP data acquisition system. The DSP data acquisition can be done so quickly that
the required data can be collected as the induction machine runs up to speed without
any variation in temperature and it allows the standstill test to be implemented at full
voltage.
CHAPTER 6
B
A
R
Thermocouple
Temperature display
Digital
Filters
V
2
Digital
Filters
Incremental Encoder
I
2
The parameter determination algorithm discussed in the previous section together with
the above monitoring system were used for the parameter evaluation of a 3-phase,
7.5kW, 4-pole, 13.8A, 415V, 50Hz delta connected induction motor with a single-cage
rotor and fully enclosed 215T frame. The speed was monitored by a very accurate
incremental encoder with 10000 lines/revolution, together with a four-fold pulse
multiplication mechanism i.e. 40000 pulses/revolution and a 24-bit counter at the
incremental encoder input.
In any induction machine parameter determination technique the most important data to
be measured are the ones at zero and synchronous speed, which for on-line systems, are
the most difficult values to sample. The difficulty at zero speed is that when a machine
126
CHAPTER 6
is switched on with full voltage supply, there exists a transient current, the peak value of
which can be substantially higher than the steady state current. Furthermore, as soon as
voltage is applied to the machine, the rotor will start to rotate. Consequently a separate
test is normally needed to measure the necessary data at zero speed.
Both of the above problems can be overcome by simply rotating the motor in the
reverse direction, reversing the phase sequence of the supply and then start sampling as
soon as the machine reaches zero speed. It has also been established that a convenient
method of reducing the severity of the speed reversal transients is to ramp up the
voltage in the negative speed region such that the voltage is at rated value as the
machine approaches zero speed.
Initially 50% of the rated voltage was applied while the induction machine was rotating
in the reverse direction. The motor decelerated in the reverse direction to zero and then
accelerated in the forward direction. All the transients are settled when the machine
crosses zero speed. The measured voltage, current and power as a function of time is
shown in Fig. 6.9 and Fig. 6.10 shows the input quantities as a function of speed.
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Time (Sec)
(a)
127
CHAPTER 6
30
25
20
15
10
0
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Time (Sec)
(b)
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
-500
-1000
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Time (Sec)
(c)
Fig. 6.9 Three-phase induction motor input quantities as a function of time (a) measured
line voltage (b) measured line current (c) measured input power
128
CHAPTER 6
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
Speed (rpm)
(a)
30
25
20
15
10
300
600
900
1200
1500
Speed (rpm)
(b)
129
CHAPTER 6
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
-500
-1000
300
600
900
1200
1500
Speed (rpm)
(c)
Fig. 6.10 Three-phase induction motor input quantities as a function of speed
(a) measured line voltage (b) measured line current (c) measured input power
The negative power close to synchronous speed clearly indicates that the speed actually
passes through synchronous speed and consequently synchronous speed data can be
evaluated from this test to calculate Xm and Rm. The value of power measured when the
rotor speed crosses the synchronous speed is still in the transient condition. It is difficult
to calculate the steady state parameters from this transient condition. However, the
measured power when the rotor speed crosses the synchronous speed for the last time or
when it just reaches the synchronous speed, gives parameters close to the actual values.
Even though the values are not exact, this method of parameter determination does not
suffer from several problems identified for the existing method. That is, there is no need
to carry out a separate open-circuit and short-circuit tests, there is no need for a variable
speed drive and the problem associated with temperature rise and voltage levels is
eliminated due to the very much shorter period of time required for the test. Fig. 6.11
shows the variation of Xlr and Rr with rotor frequency for the test machine with singlecage rotor. The test was carried out at room temperature and the value of stator winding
resistance measured was 1.8:. The small dip in power Fig. 6.10(c) is related to the 5th
130
CHAPTER 6
harmonic torque [7] and it is suspected also that the natural resonance frequency of the
mechanical system has contribution to this slight dip.
Rotor Resistance and Reactance (:)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
Rotor Resistance
1
0
Slip
In Fig. 6.11 it is important to notice that even for the single-cage type of rotor there is a
variation of rotor parameters due to rotor current displacement effect i.e. the skin and/or
proximity effect. The variation in rotor parameters cannot be identified by the
conventional open-circuit and short-circuit tests.
At rated voltage, the free-running motor suffers under severe transient conditions and
the steady-state model can no longer be applied. Therefore, in order to capitalize on the
benefits of the fast data acquisition system and the parameter determination method, an
inertial load was coupled to the shaft of the machine to provide damping of the transient
conditions. Whilst this treatment diminishes the transient effect, it has the disadvantage
of preventing the machine from accelerating up through synchronous speed, thus
inhibiting the calculation of the effective iron loss resistance, Rm, and the magnetization
reactance, Xm. Therefore, a synchronous machine was coupled to the induction motors
shaft, providing both the inertial load and the means for driving the induction motor at
synchronous speed. When the induction motor neared synchronous speed the
synchronous motor was activated to draw the machine up to exactly synchronous speed.
With this method the parameters at synchronous speed are obtained very accurately,
131
CHAPTER 6
because there is no transient condition and the synchronous motor is locked at precisely
synchronous speed.
Fig. 6.12 shows the results of this test method for various supply voltages at a constant
motor temperature of 40oC. The run up to speed tests were conducted over an
appropriate time period for the applied voltage, that is, a long duration (30 seconds) for
low voltage and a short duration (5 seconds) for high voltage.
8
Rotor Leakage Reactance
7
6
lowest Voltage
5
200VL-L
250VL-L
300VL-L
350VL-L
4
highest Voltage
lowest Voltage
highest Voltage
1
0
Rotor Resistance
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9 1.0
Slip
Fig. 6.12 Variation of rotor parameters with slip and supply line to line voltage
The set of results in Fig. 6.12 shows that both the rotor leakage reactance and rotor
resistance decrease with increasing supply voltage at each slip. This can be attributed to
saturation of the iron core. Due to saturation, for the same slip or rotor current
frequency, if the voltage is increased the rotor leakage inductance (rotor leakage flux
per unit rotor current) will decrease. The decrease in rotor leakage reactance with
increased voltage is as expected due to saturation of the leakage paths. The rotor
leakage inductance decreases and there will be less shifting of the rotor current towards
the upper part of the rotor bars due to current displacement effect. When current flows
in an increased effective cross-sectional area, the resistance of the current path drops
and therefore rotor resistance decreases.
132
CHAPTER 6
The induction machine can operate at different temperature values depending on the
loading condition and surrounding air temperature. The temperature of the induction
machine was varied to see the effect of temperature on the rotor parameters. The data
acquisition system and the parameter determination algorithm were used to identify the
effect of temperature variation on induction machine parameters. Because the test is so
rapid the temperature remains almost the same even as the speed of the induction
machine varies. It is not possible to achieve the result with the conventional way of
manual data recording.
Fig. 6.13 shows the variation of Xlr and Rr with slip at 50% of the rated voltage. The test
was carried out under the same operating conditions, but at two different temperatures:
40 and 75oC. A thermocouple is embedded in the stator winding for temperature
measurement. When the temperature of the stator is changed the temperature of the
rotor will also change. In this experiment the aim is to see the variation of rotor
parameters with temperature. The rotor temperature will follow the stator temperature
variation. If necessary the rotor temperature can be measured by inserting a
thermocouple in the rotor when the induction machine stops and compare with the
stator temperature. This will give the gradient of temperature between the stator core
and rotor core and be able to determine the exact temperature of the rotor while the
temperature sensor is in the stator.
From Fig. 6.13 it can be seen that, as expected, a rise in temperature causes a rise in
resistance at each slip or rotor current frequency. This rise in resistance results in a
lower induced current in the rotor and therefore causes a small rise in the leakage
inductance because the rotor leakage flux linkage per unit of rotor current slightly
increases. That is, since at each rotor current frequency the rotor flux linkage is almost
constant due to saturation for a particular supply voltage, the leakage inductance must
increase as current decreases. However, it is clear that temperature rise affects the rotor
resistance significantly more than the rotor reactance.
133
CHAPTER 6
8
40 oC
75 oC
6
Rotor Leakage Reactance
5
2
Rotor Resistance
1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Slip
Fig. 6.14 shows the variation for magnetising reactance Xm and iron loss resistance Rm
with supply voltage. These results were derived from measurements made as the
induction machine was driven at synchronous speed (open-circuit test) by a
synchronous machine and the supply voltage varied accordingly. Two techniques were
used to confirm the synchronous speed test data. In the first technique discrete data is
stored for 30 seconds for each temperature at each fixed voltage level. This method is
referred to as the discrete method. The average of each quantity during this period is
then used to evaluate Xm and Rm. The second technique varies the supply voltage
continuously during the test, from 50V to rated voltage, for each temperature. This
method is referred to as the continuous method. The duration of this test is 60 seconds
for each temperature.
Fig. 6.14(a) and Fig. 6.14(b) show the comparison of the results from the test methods
carried out at synchronous speed. The result shows that there is no difference between
discretely varying and continuously varying the supply voltage. The results were taken
134
CHAPTER 6
when the motor temperature was 95oC. A low pass filter is applied during the
continuous method to aid in identifying Rm. It is clear that the two test methods are in
excellent agreement.
Fig. 6.14(c) and Fig. 6.14(d) present the effects that variations in supply voltage and
temperature have on the effective magnetizing reactance, and iron loss resistance
respectively. Only the results from the discrete voltage method have been shown for
clarity in these figures.
As shown in Fig 6.14 the magnetizing reactance rises to a peak value and then, due to
saturation, decreases steadily as the voltage rises. The iron loss resistance curve exhibits
the predicted linear rise with voltage up to close to the rated supply voltage. It is noted
that the magnetizing reactance rises slightly with temperature, whereas the iron loss
resistance appears to have no consistent relationship with temperature.
200
Discrete voltages
Continuous voltages
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
(a)
135
CHAPTER 6
6000
Discrete voltages
Continuous voltages
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
(b)
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
Xm 40oC
Xm 55oC
Xm 65oC
Xm 75oC
Xm 95oC
60
40
20
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Line voltage
(c)
136
CHAPTER 6
6000
5000
4000
3000
Xm 40oC
Xm 55oC
Xm 65oC
Xm 75oC
Xm 95oC
2000
1000
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
(d)
Fig. 6.14 Variation of (a) magnetizing reactance with voltage at 95oC (b) iron loss
resistance with voltage at 95oC (c) magnetizing reactance with temperature and voltage
(d) iron loss resistance with temperature and voltage
137
CHAPTER 6
randomly, which follow the normal curve in statistics. All the randomly generated data
are above and below the true value within a predetermined range.
mt
u 100
t
(6.30)
Here e is the size of the error in percent when the measured value of a quantity is
compared with its true value.
138
CHAPTER 6
Rearranging Equation (6.30), can give a measured quantity expressed in terms of the
percentage error and the true value as follows.
m
1 e t
(6.31)
a r ea
(6.32)
bm
b r eb
(6.33)
When the two measured quantities are added, subtracted, multiplied or divided the
combined error in the result will be the sum of the individual errors [9].
and the values of rotor leakage reactance and rotor resistance with respect to speed were
as shown in Fig. 6.15 below.
139
CHAPTER 6
Ohms
Rr
4
Xlr
1
0
-1500
-1000
-500
500
1000
1500
Speed(rpm)
Fig. 6.15 Values of rotor resistance, Rr, and rotor leakage reactance, Xlr
The values of Rr, and Xlr are dependent on speed, as shown in Fig. 6.15. All parameters
in the per-phase equivalent circuit of the three-phase induction motor were substituted
with the parameter values given above. The advantage of using a hypothetical machine
for the sensitivity study is that the value of the parameters and parameter variations are
precisely known. These exact values can then be compared precisely with the new
values calculated as a result of the known error in the simulated measured data.
The preferred statistical tool for the analysis of this measurement error is the normal
(Gaussian) distributions. Normal distributions are continuous probability distributions.
140
CHAPTER 6
They are frequently used as a population model because they provide a reasonable
approximation to the distribution of many different variables [10]. It is an assumption
that the distribution of error as measured from the true value follows the normal curve.
According to an Empirical Rule [10] if the distribution of error can be reasonably well
approximated by a normal curve, as shown in Fig. 6.16, then:
x
Approximately 68% of the measured data are within one standard deviation of
the actual measured value
Approximately 95% of the measured data are within two standard deviations of
the actual measured value
Approximately 99.7% of the measured data are within three standard deviations
of the actual measured value.
error
error
2V
2.35%
13.5%
3V
2V
34%
34%
1V
1V
1V
Actual measurement
2.35%
13.5%
1V
1V
Any deviation from the actual measurement (mean), P, is an error of measurement. The
measurement error can be expressed in terms of standard deviation (V) or percentage of
error. Using the normal curve approximately 99.7% of all the observations are within
three standard deviations of the mean. If the actual value is 100 and the standard
deviation is 0.333 then one standard deviation is 0.333 in the unit of measured value.
Therefore, a value three standard deviations from the mean will give an error of 0.999
which is about 1%. To simulate 1.5% error for an actual value of 100 the standard
deviation is 0.5 in the unit of measured value.
141
CHAPTER 6
The speed was allowed to vary from 1500rpm to 1500rpm. The corresponding values
of slip were 2 to 0. The synchronous speed was assumed to be 1500rpm (i.e. 4-pole).
The simulation was carried out at a constant supply voltage and then finding the actual
values of current and power for a given speed or slip. The given value of voltage and
the calculated values of current and power from the equivalent circuit model of the
induction machine represent the actual values of measurement. Any deviation from
these actual values would signify an error of measurement in a practical application of
the parameter determination technique. Parameters calculated from the actual values of
voltage, current and power correspond to the actual parameters of the motor and any
calculation with the introduction of some error in voltage, current and/or power gives
the values of parameters with a given percentage of error from the actual values.
Random generated measured values using MATLAB functions that fit to a normal
(Gaussian) distribution were used in the investigation. The measurement error was
expressed in terms of percentage error. The standard deviation of the true (actual)
measured value can be calculated from the percentage measurement error.
For the implementation of the measurement error analysis expressed in terms of the
standard deviation of the true value, a MATLAB program was developed with the
possibility of adjusting measurement error in the voltage, current, and/or power. The
percentage of error was selected in such a way that it would represent the practical
error, which could occur in a practical measurement setup. To simulate the different
measurement errors that can occur in the conventional meters and sensors for measuring
the values of current, voltage and power a MATLAB function given by
normrnd(mean, standard deviation, N o of columns, N o of rows)
was used to generated the hypothetical measured values with distribution as shown in
Fig. 6.17.
142
Density
CHAPTER 6
actual value
In Fig. 6.17 since the values were generated randomly, at any point there is any
possibility of minimum or maximum error to represent the error in voltage, current or
power measurement. In general the possibility of measuring the precise value or a value
with maximum error is a matter of probability. Of course the extent of the deviation
from the true value is proportional to the percentage of measurement error or the
standard deviation. At each speed there are 200 hypothetical measured values generated
by the MATLAB program to represent the possibility of measurement error within a
given percentage error of the conventional meter reading.
As shown in Fig. 6.18 to Fig. 6.20 the maximum error in the rotor parameters increases
as the percentage measurement error in voltage, current and/or power increases. Close
to synchronous speed, when the slip approaches zero, there is greater error, in the
calculated values of Xlr, but reduced error in the calculated values of Rr.
143
CHAPTER 6
Ohms
8
7
6
3
2
-1000
-500
500
1000
1500
Speed (rpm)
Fig. 6.18 Error in rotor parameters due to 0.5% error in voltage current and/or power
Ohms
8
7
6
3
2
-1000
-500
500
1000
1500
Speed (rpm)
Fig. 6.19 Error in rotor parameters due to 1% error in voltage current and/or power
144
CHAPTER 6
Ohms
8
7
6
3
2
-1000
-500
500
1000
1500
Speed (rpm)
Fig. 6.20 Error in rotor parameters due to 1.5% error in voltage current and/or power
The reason for the error close to synchronous speed is the magnitude of Xlr is very small
compared to Rr /s. The result shows that induction motor performance is very insensitive
to large errors in rotor leakage reactance close to synchronous speed.
From the result of the simulation, i.e. for 1% measurement error, the maximum error in
Xls is 6.4%, in Xm 1.5% and in Rm 2.2%. For the rotor parameters, as can be seen in
Fig.19, the maximum error in the motoring region for Rlr is 3.3% and 11.4% for that of
Xlr. Except near to synchronous speed, the absolute error of all values of Xlr and Rr is
The developed shaft torque for the hypothetical induction motor discussed above, using
constant rotor parameters and variable rotor parameters, is shown in Fig. 6.21. When
the rotor parameter variations are ignored there is a maximum error of 61%. Similar
percentage error is obtained for current and power [1, 2]. These differences in the
calculated results are enormous when compared with the errors introduced by the
inaccuracy in measurement. This vividly illustrates the need to take rotor parameter
145
CHAPTER 6
variations into account for squirrel-cage machines which exhibit any significant degree
of rotor current displacement effect.
Torque (Nm)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-1500
-1000
-500
500
1000
1500
Speed (rpm)
Fig. 6.21 Simulated shaft torque for variable and constant rotor parameters
6.4 Summary
The results of an investigation into the variation of magnetizing reactance, iron loss
resistance and rotor parameters with temperature and supply voltage have been
presented. A monitoring system employing digital signal processing techniques was
used to observe these effects.
To date parameter identification methods over a large speed range have typically
required reduced voltages to prevent the motor overheating from excessive current at
high slips. The run up to speed test described enables the parameters to be determined at
supply voltages up to and including the rated voltage without damaging the motor under
test. A separate test was used to determine the iron loss resistance and magnetizing
reactance. This test incorporated two methods. Both methods were conducted at
synchronous speed, one using continuously varied supply voltage, the other at discrete
voltages. Agreement between the results was excellent. All tests were performed at
corresponding temperatures.
146
CHAPTER 6
The error in the values of induction motor parameters arising from measurement error in
voltage, current and power used to determine the parameters have been presented.
These three measurement quantities are essential for accurate parameter determination.
Even with measurement errors of r1.5% the determined parameters are still very
acceptable and considerably more accurate than if rotor parameter variations are
ignored. Only very close to synchronous speed is there substantial error in the value of
Xlr determined, but this is almost irrelevant in any meaningful analysis of the inductive
machine, because close to synchronous speed the effect of Xlr is swamped by the effect
of Rr /s. When rotor parameter variations are ignored the percentage errors in the
current, power and torque are substantial for machines which exhibit a significant
degree of rotor current displacement effect.
6.5 References
[1]
C. Grantham and H. Tabatabaei-Yazdi, "Rapid Parameter Determination for use in the Control
High Performance Induction Motor Drives" IEEE 1999 International Conference on Power
Electronics and Drive Systems, PEDS99, July 1999, Hong Kong, pp. 267-272.
[2]
D. McKinnon, D. Seyoum and C. Grantham Investigation of the effects of supply voltage and
temperature on parameters in a 3-phase induction motor including iron loss, Proc. AUPEC02,
Melbourne, Sep29-Oct 2, 2002, ISBN0-7326-2206-9.
[3]
D. H. Ware, Measurement of stray load losses in induction machines, Trans., AIEE, 1945, pp.
194-196.
[4]
P. L Alger, The nature of Induction Machines, Gordon and Breach Inc., New York, 1965, pp.
111.
[5]
C. Grantham and H. Tabatabaei_Yazdi, "Rapid Parameter Determination for use in the Control of
High Performance Induction Motor Drives, Proc. AUPEC 2001, Perth, 23 - 26 September. 2001,
pp. 31 - 36.
[6]
J. E. Brown and C. Grantham, "Determination of the parameters and parameter variations of a 3phase induction motor having a current displacement rotor", Sept.1975, Proc. IEE, 122, No. 9, pp.
919-921.
[7]
G. R. Slemon, Electric Machines and Drives, Addison-Wesley Publishing Inc., Ontario, 1992.
147
CHAPTER 6
[8]
[9]
Donald T. Graham, Principles of radiological Physics, Edinburgh, UK, 1996, pp. 86-88.
[10] J. Devore and R. Peck, STATISTICS The Exploration and Analysis of Data, Duxbury press,
Belmont 1997, pp. 187 - 232.
148
CHAPTER 7
EXCITATION
OF
THREE
PHASE
INDUCTION
7.1 Introduction
Any induction machine requires excitation current to magnetise the core and produce a
rotating magnetic field. The excitation current for an induction generator connected to
an external source, such as the grid, is supplied from that external source. If this
induction generator is driven by a prime mover above the synchronous speed, electrical
power will be generated and supplied to the external source. An isolated induction
generator without any excitation will not generate voltage and will not be able to supply
electric power irrespective of the rotor speed.
In general an induction generator requires reactive power for its operation. Three
charged capacitors connected to the stator terminals of the induction generator can
supply the reactive power required by the induction generator. Provided that the
conditions for self-excitation are satisfied the charged capacitors cause the terminal
voltage to build up at the stator terminals of the induction generator. When the charged
capacitors are connected to the terminals a transient exciting current will flow and
produce a magnetic flux. This magnetic flux will generate voltage and the generated
voltage will be able to build the charge in the capacitors. As the charge increases, more
exciting current is supplied to the induction generator. The magnetic flux continues to
increase hence producing a higher generated voltage. In this way voltage is built up.
However, if the capacitors are not charged, and a remnant magnetic flux in the core
exists, then a small voltage will be generated at the terminals of the induction generator
due to that remnant flux. This small voltage will charge the capacitor. The charged
149
CHAPTER 7
capacitor will now be able to produce a small exciting current. With time the exciting
current grows and produces magnetic flux more than the remnant magnetic flux and
voltage will be built up. This is similar to the way that current and voltage interact in a
resonant circuit. For the voltage to build up across the terminals of the induction
generator, there are certain requirements for minimum rotor speed and capacitance
value that must be met. When capacitors are connected across the stator terminals of an
induction machine, driven by an external prime mover, voltage will be induced at its
terminals. The induced emf and current in the stator windings will continue to rise until
steady state is attained. At this operating point the voltage and current will continue to
oscillate at a given peak value and frequency. The rise of the voltage and current is
influenced by the magnetic saturation of the machine. In order for self-excitation to
occur with a particular capacitance value there is a corresponding minimum speed.
Self-excited induction generators are good candidates for wind powered electricity
generation, especially in remote areas, because they do not need an external power
supply to produce the excitation magnetic field. Permanent magnet generators can also
be used for wind energy applications; however the generated voltage increases linearly
with wind turbine speed. An induction generator can cope with a small increase in
speed from its rated value because, due to saturation, the rate of increase of generated
voltage is not linear with speed. Furthermore when there is a short circuit at the
terminals of the self-excited induction generator (SEIG) the voltage collapses providing
a self-protection mechanism. Additional advantages of SEIGs include lower cost,
reduced maintenance, they are rugged with simple construction, and they have a brushless rotor (squirrel cage). Fig. 7.1 shows the SEIG driven by a wind turbine.
Rotor blade
Gear box
Wind direction
C
C
Induction
generator
Fig. 7.1 SEIG with a capacitor excitation system driven by a wind turbine
150
CHAPTER 7
The representation shown in Fig. 7.2 can be redrawn in detail, in a stationary stator
reference frame, with direct and quadrature circuits separately represented as given in
Fig. 7.3. The capacitance is labelled C in Fig. 7.3.
1
iqs dt Vcqo
C
(7.1)
Vcd
1
ids dt Vcdo
C
(7.2)
t 0
capacitors, respectively.
Oqr
(7.3)
Odr
(7.4)
Where Oqro
Odr t
Then, with an electrical rotor speed of Zr, the rotational voltage in the rotor circuit
along the q-axis is
Zr Odr
Zr Odr
Zr Lm ids Lr idr K qr
(7.5)
151
CHAPTER 7
Q-axis
iqs
Zr
iqr
Q-axis
ids
idr
Vcq
Rs
Lls
Llr
iqs
Oqs
Lm
imq
Zr Odr
Rr
Rr
-Zr Oqr
+
-
iqr
Oqr
(a)
Vcd
Rs
Lls
Llr
ids
Ods
Lm
imd
idr
Odr
(b)
Fig. 7.3 Detailed d-q model of SEIG in stationary reference frame (a) q-axis circuit
(b) d-axis circuit
152
CHAPTER 7
Zr Oqr
Zr Lm iqs Lr iqr K dr
(7.6)
where Kdr Zr Oqro and Kqr Zr Odro are constants, which represent the initial induced
voltages along the d-axis and q-axis, respectively. The constants Kdr and Kqr are due to
the remnant or residual magnetic flux in the core. And Zr is the equivalent electrical
rotor speed in radians per second. That is,
Electrical speed = number of pole pairs u mechanical speed
The matrix equation for the d-q model of a self-excited induction generator, in the
stationary stator reference frame, using the SEIG model given in Fig. 7.3 and from
Equations (7.5) and (7.6), is given as:
0
0
0
0
0
pLm
Rs pLs 1 pC 0
iqs Vcqo
0
Rs pLs 1 pC 0
pLm ids Vcdo
Zr Lm
pLm
Rr pLr Zr Lr iqr K qr
Zr Lm
Zr Lr Rr pLr idr K dr
pLm
IV
(7.7)
VV
Where Z is the impedance matrix, IV is the stator and rotor currents vector and VV is the
voltage vector due to initial conditions.
153
CHAPTER 7
i(t)
+
Vco
In Fig. 7.4 assume that at the instant the switch is closed, the current is zero and the
voltage across the capacitor is vc = -Vco. When the switch is closed, the voltage equation
in the RLC circuit is given by
Ri L
di 1
idt Vco
dt C
(7.8)
1
R pL
i (t ) Vco
pC
(7.9)
pVco
p L pR 1 C
2
(7.10)
(7.11)
154
CHAPTER 7
Equation 7.11 is called the characteristic equation because it contains the information
about the behaviour of the resulting current. The roots of the characteristic equation are
2
p1
R
1
R
2L
2 L LC
and
p2
R
1
R
2L
2 L LC
(7.12)
Using the roots given in Equation (7.12) the complete solution for the current
expression in Equation (7.10) is
i (t )
(7.13)
where A1 and A2 are determined from the initial conditions and circuit parameters, and
p1 and p2 are determined from the values of the circuit parameters R, L, and C. If the
voltage across the capacitor vc(t) is the output voltage of interest then
vc (t )
1
idt Vco .
C
1
R
In Equation (7.12), if
then the roots p1 and p2 of Equation (7.13) are
LC
2L
complex quantities which can be expressed as p1=V +jZ and p2=V -jZ. Relating these
expressions with Equation (7.12), the real part of the roots, V, is always negative
provided the resistance R is positive. As a result with positive R there will be a decaying
oscillation. V represents the rate at which the transient decays and Z, the imaginary part
of the roots, represents the frequency of oscillation. In passive circuits, like the RLC
circuit mentioned above, all transient solutions have negative V, meaning that the
transient is reducing in magnitude with the progression of time and finally decays to
zero. However, if V is positive, this implies that the transient is growing with the
progression of time, and in theory would increase to infinity. V can be positive only if
the resistance R is negative. Negative resistance implies a power source whereas
positive resistance implies a power sink. Fig. 7.5 shows the current in the RLC circuit
when L = 0.1H, C = 100PF, Vco = -10V and the magnitude of resistance R is 1.2: with
positive value in Fig. 7.5(a) and negative value in Fig. 7.5(b). Close to t = 0 the
magnitude of the instantaneous current flowing in the RLC circuit in both cases is the
same.
155
CHAPTER 7
0.3
detail of A 0
-0.3
0
0.05
0.1
150
Current (A)
Current (A)
0.3
0.2
0.1
100
50
-0.1
-50
-0.2
-100
-0.3
-0.4
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
time (sec)
-150
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
time (sec)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7.5 Current in series RLC circuit (a) for R = 1.2: and (b) for R = -1.2:
Transients which grow in magnitude as shown in Fig. 7.5(b), with a positive value of V,
are very rare. There is no variation in any of the values of R, L or C and as a result the
current keeps on growing. Any current flowing in a circuit dissipates power in the
circuit resistance. If there is an increasing current that dissipates increasing power, there
must be some energy source available to supply the increasing power. This is in fact the
case in the self-excited induction generator. The example above of a very rare transient
is characteristic of a SEIG where the power source is a prime mover.
CHAPTER 7
saturation is to modify the magnetisation inductance Lm, such that the real part of the
roots becomes zero; the transient then neither increases nor decreases and becomes a
steady-state quantity giving a continuous self-excitation.
The energy source, referred to above, which is necessary for this type of unusual
transient to occur, is provided by the kinetic energy (KE) of the rotor. If the rotor is
driven by an external prime mover, the KE of the rotor is maintained and self-excitation
and energy transfer continues permanently. The initiation of the process of selfexcitation is therefore a transient phenomenon and is better understood if analysed using
instantaneous values of currents and voltages.
Unlike the simple RLC circuit that has been discussed, the roots for the self-excited
induction generator which can be derived from Equation (7.7), are dependent on the
induction machine parameters, the capacitor connected at the stator terminals of the
induction generator and the rotor speed when coupled to an external prime mover.
Determination of the roots of the characteristic equation of the currents in the induction
generator is the key to finding out whether the induction generator will self-excite or
not.
0
Rs pLs 1 pC 0
pLm ids
Zr Lm
pLm
Rr pLr Zr Lr iqr
Zr Lm
Zr Lr Rr pLr idr
pLm
Vcqo
Vcdo
K qr
K dr
(7.14)
The characteristic equation of the currents can be obtained from the expression for the
current vector in Equation (7.14). This characteristic equation for the currents can be
solved using a matrix partitioning, which gives a compact polynomial expression or a
direct matrix inversion, which produces an expression with a lower order polynomial
characteristic equation.
157
CHAPTER 7
Z ss
Z
rs
Z sr I s
Z rr I r
Vos
V
or
(7.15)
Where
Vos
Vcqo
Vor
K qr
Is
iqs
, and
ids
Z ss
0
Rs pLs 1 pC
0
Rs pLs 1 pC
Z rs
pLm
Z L
r m
Ir
iqr
,
idr
Z r Lm
,
pLm
Z rr
Z sr
Rr pLr
ZL
r r
pLm
0
,
pLm
Zr Lr
Rr pL
Z ss I s Z sr I r
(7.16)
Vor
Z rs I s Z rr I r
(7.17)
Z rr1Vor Z rr1Z rs I s
Z rr1
Where
(7.18)
1
( Rr pLr ) 2 Zr2 L2r
Zr Lr
Rr pLr
Z L
Rr pL
r r
( Z ss Z sr Z rr1Z rs ) I s
(7.19)
Rr pLr K dr
' Zr Lr
Vcdo
Rs pLs 1 pC p 2 L2m ( Rr pLr ) pL2mZr2 Lr '
pL2m RrZr ' iqs
2
2
2 2
pL2m RrZr '
ids
R
pL
pC
p
L
R
pL
pL
L
Z
1
(
)
'
m r r
s
s
m r r
where '
(7.20)
158
CHAPTER 7
(7.21)
and in detail
Rs pLs 1 pC p 2 L2m ( Rr pLr ) pL2mZr2 Lr ' pL2m Rr Zr '
' Zr Lr Rr pLr K d
Vcdo
iqs
ids
Where 4
R pL 1 pC p L (R pL ) pL Z L ' pL R Z '
s
2 2
m
2
m
2
r
2
m
When a balanced three phase system is transformed to a two axis system the stator
currents iqs and ids have similar waveforms. The difference is that iqs lags ids by 90o.
Hence it suffices to analyse only the expression for ids. The numerator of Equation
(7.22) helps to determine the multiplying constants for the solution of the current in the
time domain and these constants are dependent on the machine parameters, capacitance
value, rotor speed and initial conditions. However, setting the denominator of Equation
(7.22) equal to zero, 4 = 0, gives the characteristic equation because it contains the
information about the behaviour of the resulting current. If any of the roots of the
characteristic equation has a positive real part then there will be a growing transient
indicating that there will be self-excitation. If there is no positive real root then there
will not be any self-excitation.
ids
U
2
(7.23)
where
159
CHAPTER 7
pC '
In Equation (7.23) U represents all the terms on the numerator and is dependent on the
initial charge in the capacitors, the remnant flux in the core, capacitance, rotor speed
and the machine parameters. U only has an effect on the coefficients of the partial
fraction expansion of (2), which determine the constants that will be multiplied with the
exponential current expression in the time domain, and does not affect the behaviour of
the current. The detail of the expression of U is long and it is not necessary to consider
when determining whether there is self-excitation or not. The analysis here is to identify
if there is self-excitation or not which is solely dependent on the expression in the
denominator of Equation (7.23).
Setting the denominator of Equation (7.23) to zero gives the characteristic equation
expressed by
2
p 2 CL2m Rr Zr
pC ( R
2
r
0 (7.24)
Hence
( Rr pLr ) 2 Zr2 L2r ( pCRs p 2 CLs 1) p 3 CL2m ( Rr pLr ) p 2 CL2m Zr2 Lr
p CL Rr Zr
2
2
m
(7.25)
m
r
r
3
2
2
2
2
p CLm ( Rr pLr ) p CLm Zr Lr
(7.26)
CHAPTER 7
Ap
Bp 3 Dp 2 Ep F Gp 2
C ( L2r Ls L2m Lr )
C ( L2r Rs 2 Rr Lr Ls L2m Lr )
2R L R
CL2m Rr Zr
(7.27)
where
(7.28)
where
a8
A2
a7
2 AB
a6
2 AD B 2
a5
2 BD 2 AE
a4
2 AF 2 BE D 2 G 2
a3
2 BF 2 DE
a2
2 DF E 2
a1
2 EF
a0
F2
It is easy to find the roots of Equation (7.28), the characteristic equation, using
MATLAB or any mathematical equation solving program.
(7.29)
161
CHAPTER 7
If any of the roots in Equation (7.29) has a positive real value then there is selfexcitation. To determine the required capacitance value for an induction generator
running at a given rotor speed, the roots in Equation (7.29) are evaluated by increasing
the capacitance value until one of the real parts in the roots becomes positive.
Cramers rule [1] is a mathematical tool for finding one of the variables in an unknown
vector in a matrix equation based on the calculation of determinants. Applying
Cramers rule to Equation (7.14) results in
Rs pLs 1 pC Vcqo
ids
Vcdo
pLm
K qr
Zr Lm
pLm
0
Zr Lr
Rs pLs 1 pC
pLm
Rr pLr Zr Lr
K dr
Rs pLs 1 pC
Rr pLr
pLm
pLm
pLm
Zr Lm
Rr pLr
Zr Lm
pLm
Zr Lr
(7.30)
Zr Lr
Rr pLr
Since the characteristic equation of the d-axis stator current is the determinant of the
denominator, only the denominator part of ids will be expanded. The determinant of the
numerator will be represented by a variable U, which is dependent on the machine
parameters, initial conditions, capacitance and electrical rotor speed. U affects only the
magnitude of the current ids and does not contain any information on the behaviour of
the resulting current. The determinants in Equation (7.30) can be evaluated to give
ids
U
( A6 p A5 p A4 p A3 p 3 A2 p 2 A1 p A0 ) /(C 2 p 2 )
6
(7.31)
where
A6
162
CHAPTER 7
A5
A4
C 2 L2s (Zr2 L2r Rr2 ) L2r Rs2 4 Lr Rs Rr Ls 2 Lr Ls L2mZr2 L4m Zr2 2 Rs Rr L2m
2C Ls L2r Lr L2m
A3
A2
2 Ls C (Zr2 L2r Rr2 ) Rs2 C 2 (Zr2 L2r Rr2 ) 2 Lr CL2m Zr2 L2r 4 Lr Rs CRr
A1
A0
Z r2 L2r Rr2
(7.32)
Equation (7.32) is a sixth order characteristic equation and it has six distinct roots which
are first order complex roots in the form of
( p - V 1 jZ1 )( p - V 1 - jZ1 )( p - V 2 jZ 2 )( p - V 2 - jZ 2 )( p - V 3 jZ 3 )( p - V 3 - jZ 3 )
0
(7.33)
If any of the roots has a positive real part, then at that given specific operating point
there will be self-excitation.
The current and voltage will grow until the magnetising inductance saturates and makes
the real part of the roots zero, which shows that there is a continuous oscillation
(Alternating Current and Voltage) as long as the prime mover is driving the induction
generator. The transient and steady state solution due to each of the roots can be
obtained by using partial fraction expansion.
The eighth order and the sixth order expressions given in Equations (7.28) and (7.32),
respectively, are solutions for the same variable in the same machine. The eighth order
ended up as a higher order because it has a term with a second order expressed as
L2r p 2 2 Rr Lr p Z r2 L2r Rr2 that can be factorized in the numerator of Equation (7.24)
163
CHAPTER 7
and cancelled with one of the expressions in the denominator. As the eighth order
polynomial is very long it is difficult to factorise and see the terms that can be readily
cancelled. At a specific operating point, i.e., for a given speed and capacitance two of
the roots in the eighth order polynomial due to the terms that would be cancelled can be
determined as
L2r p 2 2 Rr Lr p Z r2 L2r Rr2
p ( Rr jZ r Lr ))
Lr p ( Rr jZ r Lr )) Lr
(7.34)
For any speed and capacitance values, the real part of the roots for the expression given
in Equation (7.34) is always negative and is given by -Rr/Lr. This means that whether
the 8th order or the 6th order characteristic equation is used the result is exactly the same.
The roots with positive real parts in both characteristic equations are exactly the same.
The additional roots in the 8thorder have a negative real part which gives a damped
transient response.
164
CHAPTER 7
The variation of the magnetising inductance, measured at rated frequency, for the
induction machine used in this investigation is given in Fig. 7.6, where the dots are
experimental results and the curve is a fourth order curve fit given by:
Lm
1.62 u 1011V ph4 2.67 u 108 Vph3 1.381 u 105 Vph2 1.76 u 103 V ph 0.23
(7.35)
0.3
0.25
A
0.2
C
- Experimental
0.15
0.05
50
100
150
200
250
300
As can be observed in Fig. 7.6, Lm starts from a small value then increases to reach its
peak value and finally starts to drop. This change in Lm is due to the characteristics of
the magnetising curve and the fact that:
Lm
Om
I
(7.36)
165
CHAPTER 7
It was found by conducting a test in the laboratory that the variation of magnetising
inductance in a transformer follows a similar pattern to the one shown in Fig. 7.6.
When the three capacitors are connected in star the voltage rating of each capacitor is
equal to the rated phase voltage. However, if the capacitors are connected in delta the
voltage rating of each capacitor should be equal to the line-to-line voltage. In delta
connected capacitors, even though the voltage rating of each capacitor is higher than the
rating of the capacitors in star connection by a factor of 1.73, the magnitude of the
capacitance is lower by a factor 3, i.e. 1/3 of the capacitance in the star connection.
When the induction machine, as shown in Fig. 7.3, with switch S closed, is driven by a
prime mover, voltage will start to develop at a corresponding minimum speed. The
minimum speed for the onset of self-excitation can be obtained by solving the roots of
the 8th order polynomial equation given in Equation (7.28) or the 6th order polynomial
equation given in Equation (7.32) and then searching if there is a positive real part in
the roots. The minimum capacitance required for a given rotor speed of the induction
generator can be found by fixing the rotor speed and then increasing the value of the
capacitance until one of the real parts of the roots changes from negative to positive,
passing through zero. The value of capacitance that makes the real part of one of the
complex roots greater than zero is the minimum value of capacitance required for selfexcitation. To have a smooth plot of the minimum rotor speed versus minimum
capacitance requirement, the capacitance was incremented by a small value. The detail
of this procedure, theoretical determination of the minimum speed and minimum
166
CHAPTER 7
capacitance for a fixed speed by incrementing the capacitance, is given in the flow chart
of Fig. 7.7.
Another way of finding the minimum rotor speed and corresponding minimum
capacitance required for self-excitation is first to set the capacitance at a given value
and then increase the rotor speed until one of the real parts of the complex roots
becomes positive. This is a good way to find the minimum capacitance and its
corresponding minimum rotor speed in the experimental setup.
start
Read machine
parameters
C=0
Minimum
Z r =0
Increment
C
No
Any positive
real root?
Increment
Zr
Yes
Reset
C to zero
Save values of
C and Z r
No
Maximum
Z r?
No
Yes
Stop
Fig. 7.7 Flow chart to determine the minimum speed and minimum capacitance for
SEIG at no load
In the experimental setup a DC motor was used as a prime mover. The rotor speed of
the SEIG was varied by varying the speed of the DC motor while the capacitance was
kept at a given value. It is possible to increase the capacitance for a given speed,
167
CHAPTER 7
however it is not as convenient as varying the speed and it is difficult to find capacitor
values that will give a smooth variation of capacitance.
There are two important rotor speeds; the first is the point at which self-excitation
occurs and the second is where self-excitation is lost. For a given capacitance value the
speed of the test machine was increased until the SEIG started to generate voltage, this
is the normal way of achieving self-excitation. The capacitance value and the rotor
speed at which the self-excitation started were recorded. Another test was conducted
where the self-excited induction generator is already generating voltage and the speed is
reduced until the SEIG loses its self-excitation. For a particular capacitance value, the
minimum rotor speed for self excitation, determined by increasing the rotor speed from
zero, is greater than the minimum rotor speed obtained by decreasing the rotor speed
until the SEIG losses its self-excitation. Because the SEIG is always started in the
unexcited mode, that is, from zero speed, the correct minimum rotor speed is chosen
from the first test, even though the second test produces a lower minimum speed.
The minimum rotor speed and minimum capacitance for self-excitation calculated and
measured are given in Fig. 7.8. For the theoretical determination of minimum rotor
speed and minimum capacitance, the effect of magnetising inductance on the onset of
self-excitation using the rated value of Lm (i.e. 0.18H), as used in motoring analysis, and
the unsaturated value of 0.23H is shown in Fig. 7.8. The different values of Lm are
obtained from Fig. 7.6. If the rated Lm, 0.18H, is used for determining the onset of selfexcitation there will be an error as shown in Fig. 7.8. It was found out that the minimum
rotor speed and minimum capacitance required for self-excitation are dependent on
magnetising inductance but not on rotor parameters variation.
The principle of finding the minimum capacitance and the minimum rotor speed for
self-excitation at no load can be approximated by neglecting the stator winding
resistance and stator leakage inductance so that the capacitive reactance and the
inductive reactance will be equal. Since the induction generator starts without load the
rotor speed is almost the same as the synchronous speed of the induction machine.
Hence the approximate minimum capacitance required for self-excitation can be
calculated using
168
CHAPTER 7
1
Z Lm
Cmin
(7.37)
2
r
Speed
Speed(rpm)
(rpm)
1500
1000
- measured values
- using Lm =0.18H (saturated value)
- using Lm =0.23H (unsaturated value)
500
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Capacitance
Capacitance(PF)
micro F
Fig. 7.8 Values of minimum capacitance and rotor speed for self-excitation at no load
CHAPTER 7
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
Speed (rpm)
Fig. 7.9 Error in capacitance when calculated using the approximate method
The SEIG needs to be started at no load. Hence it can be generalised that the
capacitance required for the onset of self-excitation in the SEIG rotating at a rotor speed
of Z r, is almost equal to the capacitance required to have a unity power factor in a
motoring application, as the induction motor operates at no load and with an angular
supply frequency of Z r.
CHAPTER 7
characteristic equation and consequently the generated voltage grows faster. Beyond
point B, up to point C, Lm decreases while the voltage continues to grow until it reaches
its steady state value determined by the Lm value, capacitance and the rotor speed.
Referring to Fig. 7.6, the unstable region is between points A and B. If the SEIG starts
to generate in this region, a small decrease in speed will cause a decrease in voltage and
this will bring a decrease in Lm, which in turn decreases the voltage, and finally the
voltage will collapse to zero. Once the voltage collapses there is no transient
phenomenon and there will not be voltage build up even if the speed increases once
again to its initial value as shown in Fig. 7.10. This condition can cause
demagnetisation of the core. When the core is demagnetised there will not be selfexcitation. In order to initiate self-excitation in the demagnetised core, the core should
be magnetised by running the generator as a motor or exciting the windings from a DC
supply. The other arrangement is to charge the exciting capacitors from a DC supply.
200
100
0
-100
-200
10
12
10
12
(a)
Speed (rpm)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
(b)
time (sec)
Fig. 7.10 Measured unsuccessful self-excitation at C=60PF (a) generated phase voltage
(b) speed
Between points B and C is a stable operating region. When the speed of the prime
mover decreases voltage will decrease and Lm increases which enables the self-excited
171
CHAPTER 7
400
200
0
-200
-400
10
12
10
12
(a)
1200
Speed (rpm)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
time (sec)
(b)
For the same capacitance value, if the rotor speed is increased the generated voltage
also increases. The rated voltage given in Fig. 7.12 can be generated by increasing the
rotor speed above the speed given in Fig. 7.11(b) to a speed close to the synchronous
speed. The result given in Fig. 7.12 shows the voltage build up for the case where the
speed is close to the synchronous speed and is typically of the result to be expected
172
CHAPTER 7
from a SEIG driven by a wind turbine. The small drop in speed is due to the power loss
in the self-excited induction generator associated with the generation of voltage.
400
200
0
-200
-400
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
1.4
1.6
1.8
(a)
Speed (rpm)
1500
1000
500
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
(b)
time (sec)
Fig. 7.12 Measured self-excitation at C=60PF with speed and generated voltage close to
rated values (a) generated phase voltage (b)speed
RL
0
0
pLm
Rs pLs 1 R pC
i V
L
qs cqo
i
V
RL
0
0
Rs pLs
pLm ds cdo (7.38)
1 RL pC
iqr K q
i K
Zr Lm
pLm
Rr pLr Zr Lr
dr d
Z
Z
L
pL
L
R
pL
r m
m
r r
r
r
173
CHAPTER 7
Equation (7.38) can be solved to obtain its characteristic equation using a similar
procedure to that used to solve Equation (7.7). Analysing in a similar way, as discussed
in Section 7.3.2, the curves in Fig. 7.13 are obtained for different load resistors.
Speed (rpm)
1500
RL = 11:
RL = 25:
RL = 9.5:
RL = 13:
1000
RL > 1000:
500
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Capacitance (PF)
Fig. 7.13 Required capacitance and speed for self-excitation with load, RL
For a given capacitance value the wind speed can vary without warning. Without load
the SEIG requires only a minimum speed for self-excitation, but a loaded SEIG has a
minimum and maximum speed for self-excitation as shown in Fig. 7.13. When RL is
large the characteristic is similar to the no load self-excitation case. If RL is small, larger
load, there is a minimum and maximum speed to produce self-excitation at a particular
capacitance value.
The characteristics in Fig. 7.13 help to find the minimum and maximum speed set
points for a given capacitance value. Once the minimum and maximum speed points are
obtained, the speed range for a safe generating range can be identified. It is clear that a
loaded generator has different onset of self-excitation characteristics for different values
of load resistance. This also helps to determine the speed range for the steady-state
generating characteristic of the SEIG. At high load resistance or at no load the
maximum speed limit is so high that it is not necessary to take that into consideration.
CHAPTER 7
Using the self-excited induction generator model shown in Fig. 7.3 the remnant or
residual flux linkages along the d-axis Odro and along the q-axis Oqro can be estimated
from the stator terminal voltage of the induction machine measured without the exciting
capacitors, i.e. when the switch S is open. Then the rotational initial voltages in the
rotor are calculated from the remnant flux linkages and the rotor speed using
K qr
Zr Odro and K dr
Zr Oqro .
The initial voltage in the exciting capacitor can be measured using a conventional
voltmeter while the switch S in Fig. 7.3 is open. The initial voltage in the capacitor
175
CHAPTER 7
decreases with time because of the internal leakage and discharge through the internal
resistance of the voltmeter.
Rr pLr idr K dr
(7.39)
0
0
0 iqs Vcq
Ls 0 Lm 0 piqs Rs
L
L
pi
R
i
V
0
0
0
0
0
s
m
ds
s
ds
cd
Lm 0 Lr 0 piqr 0 Zr Lm Rr Zr Lr iqr K qr
0 Lm 0 Lr pidr Zr Lm 0 Zr Lr Rr idr K dr
0
0
(7.40)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Rs pLs
0
Rs pLs
Zr Lm
pLm
Zr Lm
pLm
pLm
0
Rr pLr
Zr Lr
(7.41)
where
IV
Ls 0 Lm 0
0 Ls 0 Lm
Lm 0 Lr 0
0 Lm 0 Lr
iqs
ids
i
qr
idr
VV
0
0
0
Rs
Rs
0
0
0
0 Zr Lm Rr Zr Lm
0
Zr Lr Rr
Zr Lm
Vcq
Vcd
K
qr
K dr
176
CHAPTER 7
(7.42)
Where
A1
Lm
Lr
0
0
L
L
Lm
Lr
0
0
L
L and
L
Lm 0 Ls 0
L
Lm
Ls
0
L
L
Ls Lr L2m
piqs
pids
pi
qr
pidr
Lr Rs
L2mZr
L
L
2
LmZr
Ls Rs
L
L
Ls Zr Lm
Lm Rs
L
L
Ls Zr Lm Lm Rs
L
L
LrVcq Lm K qr
Lm Rr
LmZr Lr
L
L
L
i L
qs
LmZr Lr
Lm Rr LrVcd Lm K dr
ids L L
L
L
Ls Zr Lr iqr LmVcq Ls K qr
Ls Rr
L L
L
L
idr
Ls Zr Lr Ls Rr
LmVcd Ls K dr
L
L
L
(7.43)
Expanding Equation (7.43) gives four sets of first order differential equations as given
below
1
Lr Rs iqs L2mZr ids Lm Rr iqr LmZr Lr idr LrVcq Lm K qr
L
1 2
pids
LmZr iqs Lr Rs ids LmZr Lr iqr Lm Rr idr LrVcd Lm K dr
L
1
piqr
Lm Rs iqs LsZr Lm ids Ls Rr iqr LsZr Lr idr LmVcq Ls K qr
L
1
pidr
LsZr Lm iqs Lm Rs ids Ls Zr Lr iqr Ls Rr idr LmVcd Ls K dr
L
and from the equations of the capacitors
piqs
pVcq
pVcd
iqs
C
ids
(7.44)
(7.45)
(7.46)
(7.47)
(7.48)
(7.49)
177
CHAPTER 7
Vcd and Vcq are the no load output generated voltages and the three phase voltages can
Since the mechanical time constant is much larger than the electrical time constant, in
equations 7.44 - 7.47 the rotor speed is assumed constant for small changes in the
voltages and currents.
The relationship between capacitance, rotor speed and generated voltage at the no load
condition is given in Fig. 7.14.
Generated voltage
C1
C2
C3
Z r3
Z r2
Z r1
C3 > C2 > C1
Z r3 > Z r2 > Z r1
Exciting current
The capacitor provides the exciting current required by the induction generator and the
induction generator charges the capacitor to increase the terminal voltage. An increase
in capacitor voltage provides an increase in exciting current to the induction generator.
In this way the voltage build up continues until the magnetising inductance decreases to
its saturated value and an equilibrium point is attained. The process of voltage build up
178
CHAPTER 7
in a SEIG is similar to a shunt connected DC generator [2]. It can be assumed that point
O is the rated voltage in Fig. 7.14. The rated voltage can be generated using capacitance
C2 at rotor speed Zr2. To generate the same amount of voltage at lower rotor speed, Zr1,
the capacitance increases to C3 and the exciting current can exceed the rating of the
stator current of the induction machine. And at higher speed, Zr3, the rated voltage can
be generated with a small capacitance value C1.
The magnetising inductance given in Fig. 7.6 applies only at rated frequency 50Hz. The
characteristic of magnetising inductance as a function of voltage at other frequencies is
shown in Fig. 7.15. The magnetising inductance can be expressed as a function of
magnetising current as shown in Fig. 7.16. However, since voltage is the output
parameter of interest in a SEIG, the magnetising inductance as a function of voltage
clearly indicates the generated voltage at a given operating point and also shows the
minimum voltage that can be generated without loss of self-excitation.
LLm (H)
(H)
m
0.25
55Hz
0.2
0.15
50Hz
35Hz
0.1
0.05
40Hz
45Hz
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
V
(V)
Vph
ph (V)
400
CHAPTER 7
From Fig. 7.15 the minimum stable generated voltage operating at low frequency,
corresponding to low speed (large capacitance value), is less than the minimum stable
generated voltage operating at high frequency corresponding to high speed (small
capacitance value). For example the minimum stable generated voltage at 35Hz is lass
than that of 50Hz.
In the simulation, the polynomial equations for the curves in Fig. 7.15, derived from the
polynomial curve for 50Hz, can be used. The current in a capacitor is calculated from
the voltage across the capacitor by applying differentiation and differentiation can be
represented by a high pass filter. Hence the rms current might need a low pass filter to
avoid unnecessary noise if a polynomial curve fit for Lm as a function of the
magnetising current is used.
(H)
LLmm(H)
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
10
Magnetising current
Im (A) Im (A)
(7.50)
180
CHAPTER 7
(7.51)
imq 2 imd 2
(7.52)
(7.53a)
In order to have a constant speed before and after self-excitation of the induction
generator the rotor was driven at constant speed using a DC motor with speed regulator
as shown in Fig. 7.17.
3 phase
supply
Speed
controller
Reference
speed
DC motor
Current
controller
PI
Controlled
3 phase
rectifier
PI
KI
KS
When the induction generator is driven using the DC motor with speed regulator, as
illustrated in Fig. 7.17, it is easier to compare the experimental results with the results
obtained from the simulation of the dynamic model. SIMNON [3] simulation software
was used to predict the generated voltage of a three-phase SEIG rotating at a given
speed with appropriate capacitors connected at the stator terminals.
181
CHAPTER 7
With zero initial charge in the capacitors the experimental dynamic self-excitation
process with per-phase capacitance of 60PF is given in Fig. 7.18. Since the initial
charge in the capacitors is zero, the initial condition for self-excitation is coming from
the remnant or residual flux in the iron core. Fig. 7.19 is the dynamic simulated result
with the same initial conditions, capacitance values and speed as the experimental
results shown in Fig. 7.18. In the experimental result of Fig. 7.18b there is a small
transient dip in speed during the self-excitation process because of the associated
electrical power loss in the induction generator. However this small dip in speed is
compensated for by the speed regulator.
Experimental result for capacitance 60micrF
400
RMS phase
voltage
Va (V)
200
0
-200
-400
0.5
0.5
0.5
(a)
1.5
2.5
3.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Speed (rpm)
1500
1450
1400
(b)
Is (A)
(c)
time(sec)
Fig. 7.18 Measured self-excitation at C=60PF and with regulated speed (a) generated
phase voltage (b) speed (c) stator current
182
CHAPTER 7
The experimental results in Fig. 7.18 and the simulated results in Fig 7.19 are in good
agreement. The rms current and voltage are calculated at each sampling time using the
algorithm developed in Chapter 3. The rms and instantaneous voltages are captured
during the transient condition. The algorithm for calculating rms values is based upon
instantaneous measurements, and therefore is effective for both steady state and
transient conditions.
400
RMS phase
voltage
Va (V)
200
0
-200
-400
0.5
0.5
0.5
(a)
1.5
2.5
3.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Speed (rpm)
1500
1450
1400
(b)
Is (A)
(c)
time(sec)
Fig. 7.19 Simulated self-excitation at C=60PF and with regulated speed (a) generated
phase voltage (b) speed (c) stator current
183
CHAPTER 7
Since the experimental and simulated results given in Fig. 7.18 and Fig. 7.19,
respectively, are in good agreement it is possible to predict with confidence other
parameters which are not convenient to measure in the real induction generator. The
magnetising current, magnetising inductance and the stator flux-linkage are given in
Fig. 7.20, where the speed of the induction generator and capacitance values are the
same as that of Fig. 7.19. The dynamic magnetising inductance varies with the
generated voltage and/or exciting current during the self-excitation process. The
magnetising current and stator flux linkage grow with the generated voltage.
Lm (H)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
Im (A)
6
4
2
0
flux (web-turn)
1.5
1
0.5
0
3
time(sec)
3.5
Fig. 7.20 Simulated self-excitation at C=60PF and with regulated speed (a) magnetising
inductance (b) rms magnetising current (c) peak stator flux-linkage
The simulation results in Fig. 7.20 indicate that as the magnetising current increases
from zero the magnetising inductance increases, reaches its peak value, then starts to
decrease and finally reaches its saturated value.
184
CHAPTER 7
Fig. 7.21 shows the build-up of d-axis stator flux-linkage and q-axis stator flux-linkage
during the self-excitation process as a function of time in a three dimensional plot. The
flux-linkages continue to grow until they reach their steady state values which are the
saturated flux-linkages. The peak values of the d-axis flux-linkage and the q-axis flux
linkage are equal.
1.5
time (sec)
0.5
0
1
flux-q (web-turn)
0
-1
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
flux-d (web-turn)
Fig. 7.21 Three dimensional d-axis flux-linkage and q-axis flux-linkage as a function of
time during self-excitation process
The results of the dynamic self-excitation process given in the previous figures are
based on remnant or residual flux in the iron core providing the initial condition
required by the self-excited induction generator. When the initial conditions for selfexcitation are satisfied the flux grows and associated with the growth of flux linkage the
generated voltage also grows.
As discussed previously the self-excitation process can be also initiated with a charged
capacitor. A charged capacitor will provide magnetising current to the induction
generator and the flux and the terminal voltage will grow. When the self-excitation
process is started from a charged capacitor there is a step voltage at the moment the
185
CHAPTER 7
capacitors are connected to the terminals of the induction generator and provides a
transient exciting current. The experimental and simulated results for the self-excitation
process initiated by a charged capacitor for a capacitance of 60PF and rotor speed of
1480rpm are given in Fig. 7.22 below.
For capacitance
For
capacitance 60micrF
of 60PF and speed 1480rpm
400
Va (V)
200
0
-200
-400
0.5
0.5
(a)
1.5
2.5
3.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
400
Va (V)
200
0
-200
-400
(b)
Fig. 7.22 Self-excitation process initiated by a charged capacitor of 60PF and rotor
speed of 1480rpm (a) experimental result (b) simulated result
CHAPTER 7
currents of the loaded SEIG. With a good model and implementing the model using
simulation software the dynamic characteristics of generated voltage, stator current,
capacitor current, load current, magnetising current, power, and electromagnetic torque
can be studied with confidence.
Rs
iLq
RL
icq
Vcq
Lls
Llr
iqs
Lm
Oqs
imq
Zr Odr
Rr
Rr
-Zr Oqr
+
-
iqr
Oqr
(a)
Rs
iLd
RL
icd
Vcd
Lls
Llr
ids
Lm
Ods
imd
idr
Odr
(b)
Fig. 7.23 d-q model of a loaded SEIG in a stationary reference frame (a) q-axis circuit
(b) d-axis circuit
The differential equations given in Equations (7.44) to (7.47) are also used for the
loaded condition of the SEIG. For a resistive load the additional equations needed are:
iLq
iLd
Vcq
RL
Vcd
RL
(7.54)
(7.55)
icq
iqs iLq
(7.56)
icd
ids iLd
(7.57)
icq
(7.58)
pVcq
187
CHAPTER 7
pVcd
icd
(7.59)
The dynamic equations developed for the loaded SEIG are simulated using SIMNON
[3] simulation software. Using this simulation algorithm it is possible to determine the
characteristic of a loaded SEIG and the dynamic change in the parameters during
loading and unloading of a SEIG. The no load condition can be represented by
introducing a very large value of load resistance.
When the induction machine operates as a motor at a constant frequency, the speed of
the air gap rotating magnetic field is fixed. When this motor is loaded the rotor speed
will be varied relative to the synchronous speed to produce an output power equivalent
to the mechanical power demand. For a SEIG, with constant rotor speed, the speed of
the rotating magnetic field lags behind the rotor speed. When the load of the SEIG is
increased the magnitude of the negative slip also increases. In this case, as the rotor
speed is the input and is constant, the increase in slip is only due to a decrease in the
speed of the rotating magnetic field. The generated frequency and voltage are
proportional to the speed of the rotating magnetic field. For the same capacitance value
a decrease in the speed of the rotating magnetic field will inevitably decrease the
generated voltage and its frequency. This explanation is illustrated in Fig. 7.24.
When the SEIG is operating at no load, point A in Fig. 7.24, the slip is almost zero and
the generated voltage is equal to its rated value, curve 1. When the SEIG is loaded the
rotor speed remains at point A. However, the synchronous speed has to decrease to
point B in order to operate at a negative slip equivalent to the electrical load demand
which is equivalent to the electromagnetic torque at point O, curve 2. The speed of the
rotating magnetic field at point B is less than that of point A. Since the generated
voltage is proportional to the speed of the rotating magnetic field a decrease in the
synchronous speed decreases the generated voltage. Hence loading will decrease the
generated voltage and frequency of the SEIG. The simulation and experimental results
given in Figs. 7.25 to 7.30 confirm this.
188
CHAPTER 7
The instantaneous phase voltage is measured using a data acquisition board. The
instantaneous frequency is calculated by applying a d-q transformation to two voltage
samples as discussed in Chapter 3 or it can be calculated from flux-linkages of the
induction machine using the differentiation technique [4].
Torque (Nm)
60
40
20
2
A
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Speed (rpm)
Fig. 7.24 Relationship between rotor speed and synchronous speed in a SEIG
The steady state variation of voltage and frequency are given in Fig. 7.29 and Fig. 7.30,
respectively. The voltage and frequency are dependent on the amount of loading. In Fig.
7.30 the frequency of the generated voltage, due to remnant magnetic flux in the core,
of the free running induction generator without capacitance and at no load, is given by:
nPP
60
(7.60)
189
CHAPTER 7
Experimental
and and
RL =RL=55ohm
55:
Experimental result
result for
for capacitance
capacitance60PF
60micrF
Va (V)
500
-500
0.5
(a)
1.5
2.5
3.5
0.5
(b)
1.5
2.5
3.5
0.5
(c)
1.5
2.5
3.5
0.5
(d)
1.5
2.5
3.5
0.5
(e)
1.5
2.5
3.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
speed(rpm)
1500
1450
1400
frequency(Hz)
60
40
20
0
Vrms (V)
300
200
100
0
Power (W)
3000
2000
1000
Is-rms(A)
4
2
0
(f)
3
time (sec)
3.5
Fig. 7.25 Experimental loading of SEIG after the voltage has developed to its steady
state value (a) phase voltage (b) speed (c) frequency (d) rms phase voltage (e) generated
power (f) rms stator current
190
CHAPTER 7
Simulation
60PF
and Rand
L = 55:
Simulationresult
resultfor
forcapacitance
capacitance
60micrF
RL=55ohm
Va (V)
500
-500
0.5
(a)
1.5
2.5
3.5
0.5
(b)
1.5
2.5
3.5
0.5
(c)
1.5
2.5
3.5
0.5
(d)
1.5
2.5
3.5
0.5
(e)
1.5
2.5
3.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
speed(rpm)
1500
1450
1400
frequency(Hz)
60
40
20
0
Vrms (V)
300
200
100
0
Power (W)
3000
2000
1000
0
Is-rms(A)
6
4
2
0
(f)
3
time (sec)
3.5
Fig. 7.26 Simulated loading of SEIG after the voltage has developed to its steady state
value (a) phase voltage (b) speed (c) frequency (d) rms phase voltage (e) generated
power (f) rms stator current
191
CHAPTER 7
For 60micrF
and RL=55ohm
For 60PF
and RL = 55:
Is (A)
6
4
2
0
0.5
1.5
0.5
1.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
(b)
2.5
3.5
(c)
2.5
3
time (sec)
3.5
(a)
Ic (A)
4
2
0
6
IL (A)
4
2
0
Fig. 7.27 Simulated loading of SEIG (a) rms stator current (b) rms capacitor current (c)
rms load current
For 60m
icrF and
For 60PF
andRL=55ohm
RL = 55:
Lm (H)
0.2
0.1
0
0.5
1.5
0.5
1.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
(b)
2.5
3.5
(c)
2.5
3.5
(a)
flux (web-turn)
1.5
1
0.5
0
Im (A)
4
2
0
time (sec)
Fig. 7.28 Simulated loading of SEIG (a) Lm (b) peak flux-linkage (c) rms magnetising
current
192
CHAPTER 7
No load
RL=139ohm
RL=70ohm
RL=55ohm
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
1500
1550
speed (rpm)
Speed
Fig. 7.29 Measured variation of generated voltage with load for a 60PF
capacitance
Frequency (Hz)
55
50
45
40
35
30
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
speed(rpm)
Fig. 7.30 Measured variation of generated frequency with load for a 60PF
capacitance
193
CHAPTER 7
When the capacitors are connected to the induction machine, voltages and currents
build up and power is dissipated in the machine. The induction generator has to absorb
an equivalent amount of power from the prime mover, which makes it operate at a
synchronous speed which is marginally lower than the rotor speed. When the load of the
induction generator increases, its synchronous speed keeps on decreasing to produce the
required amount of slip at each operating point.
There are different torque-rotor speed curves representing different wind speeds. The
torque produced by the wind turbine and measured at the shaft of the induction
generator can be represented by a function dependent on the linear wind speed and
angular rotor speed at the induction generator. However to simplify the representation
and dynamics of the torque produced by the wind turbine, it is assumed that the wind
speed is constant at 9m/s during the operation of the self-excitation and the torque
produced by the wind turbine will follow a single characteristic curve as shown in Fig.
7.31 represented by the solid line. The torque-speed characteristic is approximated
using a fifth order polynomial curve fit given by:
Tt
(7.61)
where Tt - wind turbine torque measured at the generator shaft, Nm
n - angular rotor speed, rpm
194
CHAPTER 7
100
12m/s
Wind speed
80
11m/s
10m/s
60
9m/s
40
8m/s
7m/s
20
6m/s
5m/s
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Rotor speed (rpm)
1400
1600
1800
Here the aim is not to operate at maximum output power or maximise the output torque
of the wind turbine but is simply to analyse the dynamic effect of variation in load and
variation in angular rotor speed on the characteristic of the SEIG. The analysis is
simplified when the wind speed is assumed constant. At constant wind speed variation
in the load connected to the SEIG will change the electromagnetic torque developed by
the induction generator. A change in the electromagnetic torque will vary the
mechanical torque demand from the wind turbine. The torque output from the wind
turbine is adjusted by changing the rotor speed. The equation that relates the mechanical
output torque produced by the wind turbine measured at the shaft of the induction
generator and the electromagnetic torque developed by the induction generator is given
by
Tt
d Zm
DZm Te
dt
(7.62)
195
CHAPTER 7
Fig. 7.32 and Fig. 7.33 show the dynamic characteristics of different parameters of the
induction generator when driven by the wind turbine given in Fig. 7.31. At t = 0 sec a
capacitor with capacitance of 60PF is connected at the stator terminals of the induction
generator without any load, i.e. RL = f, and voltage is generated because of the
available rotor speed at t = 0. The generated voltage Vph, shown in Fig. 7.32d, is
expressed as an instantaneous value and rms value. At t = 2sec a 55: load resistor is
connected. The generated voltage, frequency, capacitor current (ic) and stator current
(is) decrease. However, the load current (iL) and induced electromagnetic torque
increase.
At t = 6sec the capacitance is increased to 201PF to compensate for the voltage drop.
The voltage rises to its no load value but the frequency of the generated voltage
decreases further. All currents, torque and output power increase.
At t = 10sec the resistance value is increased to 90:, which demands less power, and
the generated voltage rises to a value higher than the no load voltage. The stator current,
capacitor current, frequency, and speed increase. However the load current, output
power and torque decrease.
196
CHAPTER 7
100
R (ohm)
80
60
40
20
0
(a)
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
14
16
18
20
250
C (micro F)
200
150
100
50
0
(b)
Speed (rpm)
1500
1000
500
(c)
500
V rms
(V)
250
ph
0
-250
-500
(d)
60
f (Hz)
40
20
(e)
time (sec)
Fig. 7.32 Simulated results for wind turbine with variable rotor speed (a) load resistance
(b) capacitance (c) rotor speed (d) phase voltage (e) frequency as a function of time
197
CHAPTER 7
10
(A)
15
(a)
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
14
16
18
20
15
(A)
10
(b)
(A)
(c)
T (Nm)
e
60
40
20
(d)
Power (W)
6000
4000
2000
(e)
time (sec)
Fig. 7.33 Simulated results for wind turbine with variable rotor speed (a) rms stator
current (b) rms capacitor current (c) rms load current (d) electromagnetic torque (e)
output power as a function of time
198
CHAPTER 7
At a given speed, adjusting the excitation capacitance might compensate the variation in
voltage caused by loading. However the frequency is dependent on the rotor speed and
amount of connected load. Adjusting the capacitance does not have direct effect on the
frequency.
The hypothetical three-phase induction machine that was selected for this simulation
has parameters L1s = 6mH, Rs = 1.5: and Lm = 318mH. The variation of magnetising
inductance with voltage at rated frequency, which was derived from Equation 7.35, is
given by
Lm
1.757(1.62 u 1011Vph4 2.67 u 108 Vph3 1.381 u 105 Vph2 1.76 u 103 Vph 0.23)
(7.63)
The multiplying factor 1.757 was chosen from the ratio of that for Lm at rated values so
that the variation of magnetising inductance will be similar to the real machine. When
the magnetising inductance is expressed as a function of rms magnetising current Im, it
is represented by two polynomial curve fits given by:
(7.64a)
(7.64b)
199
CHAPTER 7
The values of rotor leakage inductance Llr and rotor resistance Rr with respect to the
magnitude of slip were determined from Fig. 6.15 and are expressed as
Rr
(7.65)
Llr
(7.66)
In the calculation, the magnitude of the slip was taken because the rotor current
frequency is the same whether the slip is positive or negative.
If the rotor parameters are considered constant then Llr = 6mH and Rr = 4.6:, which are
the values at s = 1. For variable rotor parameters the parameters start close to Llr =
20mH and Rr = 1.4:, which are the values at s = 0, no load operation. The variations of
load resistance and excitation capacitance at the input of the SEIG, and the rotor speed
are given in Fig. 7.34.
C (micro F)
100
50
(a)
10
12
14
16
10
12
14
16
10
12
14
16
RL (ohm)
100
50
(b)
speed (rpm)
2000
1000
(c)
time (sec)
Fig. 7.34 Input to the hypothetical SEIG (a) capacitance, PF (b) load resistance, :
(c) speed, rpm
200
CHAPTER 7
The capacitance is 40PF for time t less than 10sec and then increased to 68PF to make
the generated voltage equal to the no load voltage. The SEIG is operating at no load
(infinity load resistance) for time t less than 5sec and then loaded with load resistance of
45:. The rotor speed is fixed at 1500rpm during the operation.
The results for the hypothetical SEIG with both constant and variable rotor parameters
are given in Fig. 7.35 and Fig. 7.36 for the variation of excitation capacitance, load
resistance and rotor speed shown in Fig. 7.34. The simulation results for the variable
rotor parameters are indicated with black lines and for the constant rotor parameters
with grey lines.
It has been previously established that the minimum capacitance and minimum rotor
speed required for the initiation of self-excitation are not dependent on the variation of
rotor parameters. The onset of self-excitation is mainly dependent on the magnitude of
magnetising inductance.
The total rotor inductance is the sum of the magnetising inductance plus the leakage
inductance. The leakage inductance is very small compared to the magnetising
inductance and so any change in leakage inductance will have a negligible effect on the
rotor circuit time constant. However, the rotor circuit time constant is inversely
proportional to the rotor resistance. And as discussed in Chapter 6, the rotor resistance
of an induction machine with variable rotor parameters increases with an increase in the
magnitude of slip. Consequently, variation in the rotor resistance causes the rotor circuit
time constant to change. For an induction machine with constant rotor parameters,
however, the value of the rotor resistance which is obtained at slip equal to one (locked
rotor test), remains constant and hence the rotor circuit time constant does not change.
During the initiation of self-excitation the induction generator operates at slip close to
zero. An induction machine with variable rotor parameters has minimum rotor
resistance at slip close to zero. Hence if the rotor resistance of an induction machine
with variable rotor parameters is calculated only from the locked rotor test then this
rotor resistance will be higher than the value of rotor resistance that occurs at low slips
(close to zero).
201
CHAPTER 7
The dynamic performances of stator current (Fig. 7.35b), capacitor current (Fig. 7.35c)
and magnetising current (Fig. 7.35e) are affected by variation in rotor parameters during
the process of self-excitation, loading conditions and change in excitation capacitance.
The dynamics of the load current (Fig. 7.35d) during loading and changes in excitation
capacitance is similar to the dynamics of the stator and capacitor currents. The dynamic
variation of magnetising inductance is shown in Fig. 7.35f.
202
CHAPTER 7
Vrms (V)
400
200
variable
0
10
12
14
16
10
12
14
16
10
12
14
16
10
12
14
16
10
12
14
16
(f) 8
10
12
14
16
(a)
Is (A)
10
(b)
Ic (A)
6
4
2
0
(c)
IL (A)
6
4
2
0
(d)
Im (A)
2
variable
0
(e)
Lm (H)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
time (sec)
Fig. 7.35 Comparison of constant and variable rotor parameters performance in SEIG
(a) rms phase voltage (b) rms stator current (c) rms capacitor current (d) rms load
current (e) rms magnetising current (f) magnetising inductance
203
CHAPTER 7
frequency (Hz)
60
40
20
0
10
12
14
16
10
12
14
16
10
12
14
16
10
12
14
16
10
12
14
16
(f) 8
10
12
14
16
(a)
0.1
slip s
variable
0
-0.1
-0.2
(b)
Torque (Nm)
300
200
100
0
(c)
Pelec (KW)
variable
4
2
Pmech (KW)
(d)
6
4
2
0
(e)
Efficiency %
100
75
50
25
0
time (sec)
Fig. 7.36 Comparison of constant and variable rotor parameters performance in SEIG
(a) generated frequency (b) slip (c) electromagnetic torque (d) electrical generated
output power (e) mechanical input power (f) efficiency
204
CHAPTER 7
The operating point of an induction generator is close to synchronous speed (slip equal
to zero). Taking the rotor parameter variations into consideration the rotor resistance
will have its minimum value in its operating region. However, when the rotor parameter
variations are ignored the value of rotor resistance will be high, because the rotor
resistance corresponds to a slip equal to one. As shown in Fig. 7.36 the effect of using
constant rotor parameters for an induction generator exhibiting variable rotor
parameters is the same as if external rotor resistance is added to the rotor circuit. When
constant rotor parameters are used, the frequency (Fig. 7.36a) and efficiency (Fig.
7.36f) drop. Also, the magnitude of the operating slip (Fig. 7.36b) increases. In general,
using constant rotor parameters means a larger rotor resistance than if the variable rotor
resistance is used, resulting in the synchronous speed and efficiency both decreasing. A
decrease in frequency reduces the generated voltage for the same magnitude of
magnetising current. For electromagnetic torque, generated power and required
mechanical power, they are dependent on the generated voltage and load current;
however their dynamic performance is slower when modelled with variable rotor
parameters.
It is noted that when the generated output power, calculated using constant rotor
parameters, is almost the same as that when calculated using variable rotor parameters,
the former requires greater mechanical power than the latter.
7.11 Summary
The use of the variation in magnetising inductance with voltage leads to an accurate
prediction of whether or not self-excitation will occur in a SEIG for various capacitance
values and speeds in both the loaded and unloaded cases. The characteristics of
magnetising inductance, Lm, with respect to the rms induced stator voltage or
magnetising current determines the regions of stable operation as well as the minimum
generated voltage without loss of self-excitation. Once self-excitation has been initiated
and a steady state condition has been reached, the speed at which self-excitation ceases
is always lower than the speed to initiate self-excitation.
205
CHAPTER 7
At a particular speed the capacitance required for self-excitation, when the machine
operates at no load, is less than the capacitance required for self-excitation when it is
loaded.
When an induction machine operates as a motor the speed of the rotating air gap
magnetic field is totally dependent on the excitation frequency. In synchronous
generators the frequency of the generated voltage is dependent only on the speed of the
prime mover, for a given number of poles. However, in the SEIG the frequency of the
generated voltage depends on the speed of the prime mover as well as the condition of
the load. Keeping the speed of the prime mover constant with increased load causes the
magnitude of generated voltage and frequency of an isolated SEIG to decrease. This is
due to a drop in the speed of the rotating magnetic field. When the speed of the prime
mover drops with load, then the decrease in voltage and frequency will be greater than
for the case where the speed is held constant.
The dynamic voltage, current, power and frequency developed by the induction
generator have been analysed, simulated and verified experimentally for the loaded and
unloaded conditions while the speed was varied or kept constant. Using the simulation
algorithm more results which are not accessible in an experimental setup have been
predicted. Increasing the capacitance value can compensate for the voltage drop due to
loading but the drop in frequency can be compensated only by increasing the speed of
the rotor. The variation of magnetising inductance follows the variation in terminal
voltage or magnetising current. Increasing the capacitance can compensate the
generated voltage, however it increases stator current. Hence care should be taken not to
exceed the stator rated current.
The dynamic calculated performance comparison between the machine with constant
and variable rotor parameters has been simulated and discussed considering a
hypothetical induction machine that represents a typical double-cage or deep-bar rotor
induction machine where rotor parameter variation is significant.
206
CHAPTER 7
All of these characteristics are the basic tools required to develop a control system,
using power electronics, which will regulate the generated voltage and frequency for a
SEIG over a wide variation in speed.
7.12 References
[1]
G. Strang, Linear Algebra and its Application, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, San
Diego, 1988.
[2]
[3]
[4]
B. K. Bose, Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives, Printice-Hall, New Jersey, 2002.
[5]
Z. Zhang, C. Watthanasarn and W. Shepherd, Application of a matrix converter for the power
control of a variable-speed wind-turbine driving a doubly-fed induction generator, in Proc. 1997
IEEE IECON97 Conference, pp. 906-911.
207
CHAPTER 8
MODELLNG
OF
AN
ISOLATED
SELF-EXCITED
8.1 Introduction
As discussed in Chapter 4, the iron loss in induction machines arises due to hysteresis
and eddy current losses. Iron loss or core loss is represented in the induction machine
model using Rm, a resistance value which has the same power loss as the total iron loss
in the induction machine. For induction generators with small iron loss, i.e. large Rm,
neglecting Rm in the machine model will make negligible difference to predicting the
performance of the induction machine.
The steady state analysis of the SEIG including iron loss has already been reported [1,
2]. However, the steady state analysis is not able to show the dynamics of the SEIG. In
all analyses reported in the literature based on the generalized machine theory and using
the D-Q axes model of the SEIG, iron loss has been neglected. It is important to note
that for stable operation of the self-excited induction generator, the machine has to
operate in the region of magnetic saturation. Therefore, iron loss should be included in
any accurate analysis. For small induction machines, the current associated with iron
loss has almost the same per-unit value as the magnetising current [3]. Neglecting the
iron loss in this case will cause a large error in the analysis. Few works have been
reported which include iron loss in the D-Q axes model of an induction motor [4-6].
In this chapter a novel analysis (to the best knowledge of the author) for the dynamics
of the self-excited induction generator driven by a variable speed prime mover and
taking iron loss into account is given and establishes the error introduced if iron loss is
208
CHAPTER 8
neglected. Iron loss is represented as resistance Rm in the standard D-Q axes equivalent
circuits. The D-Q model of the induction generator discussed in this chapter takes into
account the actual non-linear variation of magnetising inductance Lm as a function of air
gap voltage or magnetising current, and Rm as functions of air gap voltage and predicts
the dynamics of the self-excitation process in the time domain. The complete study of
the stability behaviour of the SEIG was previously not possible; however, this new
model that includes the iron loss and variation in magnetising inductance provides the
tool to do so and is presented below in a simplified way.
For motoring application these parameters can be used directly. However, for selfexcited induction generator application the variation of Lm with the induced stator
voltage or magnetising current, and variation of Rm with the induced stator voltage
should be taken into consideration to find the correct voltage build up. Using the correct
parameters the dynamic currents, output power and induced electromagnetic torque can
be predicted accurately during no load and loaded conditions.
209
CHAPTER 8
Lls
Rs
S
iLd
C
ids
iCd
RL
Llr
Vcd
Rm Lm
Ods
Rr
-Zr Oqr
+
-
Rr
idr
imd
Odr
(a)
Lls
Rs
S
iLq
C
iqs
iCq
RL
Llr
VCq
Rm
Oqs
Lm
Zr Odr
-
iqr
imq
Oqr
(b)
Fig. 8.1 No load D-Q model of a SEIG including core loss represented by Rm
(a) d-axis (b) q-axis
The variation of magnetising inductance, Lm, used in this investigation is the same as
the one used in Chapter 7. The machine investigated in Chapter 7 is not a good example
to illustrate the effect of iron loss because Rm is very large with that machine and its
effect is minimal. However, this is not the case for all practical machines and an
example to illustrate this is the machine investigated by Grantham [3]. The variation in
Rm is modeled by the following curve fit [2]
Rm = 3Vph+50
(8.1)
210
CHAPTER 8
where Vph is the phase rms voltage across Rm in parallel with Lm.
Vph can be calculated by subtracting the sum of the voltage drop in the stator winding
resistance and stator leakage inductance from the stator terminal voltage of the
induction machine while the induction machine is motoring. For generator application
Vph is the sum of the voltage drop in the stator impedance and the voltage at the
terminals of the stator.
0
pLN
Rs pLsNEW 1 pC 0
iqs Vcqo
i V
0
Rs pLsNEW 1 pC 0
pLN
ds cdo
pLN
Rr pLrNEW Zr LrNEW iqr K qr
Zr Lm
Zr LN
Zr LrNEW Rr pLrNEW idr K dr
pLN
IV
(8.2)
VV
Where
LN =
Rm Lm
Rm +Lm p
Vcq
t 0
t 0
capacitors respectively.
K qr
Zr Odro and K dr
voltages along the d-axis and q-axis respectively, and are due to remnant or
residual d-axis magnetic flux (Odro) and q-axis magnetic flux (Oqro) in the core.
(8.3)
The self-excitation currents are obtained from Equation (8.3) in the normal way, i.e.
[I] = [Z]-1[Vo]
(8.4)
211
CHAPTER 8
from which, following a similar procedure as in Section 7.3.2.1, the stator selfexcitation current along the d-axis is given by:
id
U
Ap Bp Dp Ep Fp 4 Gp 3 Hp 2 Jp M
8
(8.5)
Here,
U is a function of the machine parameters, capacitance C, rotor speed and initial
conditions. As U is in the numerator its detail is not important at this stage. However,
the terms in the denominator contain the roots which are important in the determination
of a growing or decreasing transient solution. In the denominator A, B, D, E, F, G, H, J,
and M are functions of the machine parameters. The full expression for each of these
coefficients is included in the Appendix C.
If one of the roots of the denominator in the expression for id has a positive real part
then there is self-excitation. A positive real part of the root produces a growing transient
response until saturation of the magnetising inductance is reached. Hence to find the
roots, the denominator of Equation (8.5) is set to zero as in Equation (8.6) below.
Ap8 Bp 7 Dp 6 Ep 5 Fp 4 Gp 3 Hp 2 Jp M
(8.6)
When there is self-excitation at least one of the eight roots will have a positive real part.
During the initiation of self-excitation, as the generated voltage is close to zero, the
values of Rm and Lm should be selected corresponding to a phase voltage close to zero.
The curve for the onset of self-excitation is given in Fig. 8.2.
As can be seen in Fig. 8.2, when the magnitude of Rm is almost the same as Xm, for the
same rotor speed, the SEIG requires more capacitance to have an onset of selfexcitation. Or it can be said that to have self-excitation for a given capacitance value the
model including Rm requires a higher speed than the model with Rm neglected. If the
magnitude of Rm is very much larger than the magnitude of Xm there is no difference
whether Rm is included or neglected.
212
CHAPTER 8
1500
|Rm|=|Xm|
1000
Speed (rpm)
neglecting Rm
500
50
100
150
200
250
Capacitance (micro F)
300
p2 I
Ao pI A1 I Bo pV B1V
(8.7)
Where
iqs
ids
iqr
idr
Vcq
Vcd
K qr
K dr
213
CHAPTER 8
Ao
Rs Rm Rm
Rm
0
0
Lls
Lls Lm Lls
R
R
R
R
s m m
m
0
0
Lls
Lls Lm Lls
Rr Rm Rm
Rm
Zr
0
L
lr
Llr Lm Llr
R
R
R
R
m
Zr r m m
0
Llr
Llr Lm Llr
A1
Rm Rs
L L
m ls
Zr Rm
Llr
Bo
B1
Vcq
0
1
L
ls
Rm Rs
Lm Lls
Zr Rm
Llr
0
Rm
L L
m ls
0
0
R
R R
R
Zr m m
m r
Lm Llr
Llr Lm
Rm Rm
Rm Rr
Zr
L
L
L
L
m r
m lr
lr
0
Rm
Lm Lls
0
0
1
Lls
1
iqs dt Vcqo ,
C
Rm
Lm Llr
0
1
Llr
0
R
m
Lm Llr
0
1
Llr
Vcd
1
ids dt Vcdo
C
214
CHAPTER 8
Expanding Equation (8.7) gives four sets of second order differential equations which
are given below
p 2 iqs
pVcq
( L R Rm Lls Rm Lm )
Rm Rs
R
R
iqs m s
piqs m piqr m Vcq
Lm Lls
Lm Lls
Lls
Lm Lls
Lls
(8.8)
p 2 ids
Rm Rs
( L R Rm Lls Rm Lm )
R
R
pV
ids m s
pids m pidr m Vcd cd
Lm Lls
Lm Lls
Lls
Lm Lls
Lls
(8.9)
p 2 iqr
Rm
ZR
R R
( L R Rm Llr Rm Lm )
piqs r m ids m r iqr m r
piqr
Llr
Llr
Lm Llr
Lm Llr
pK qr
Z ( R L Llr Rm )
R
idr Zr pidr m K qr
r m m
Lm Llr
Lm Llr
Llr
p 2 idr
Zr Rm
R
Z ( R L Llr Rm )
R R
iqs m pids r m m
iqr Zr piqr m r idr
Llr
Llr
Lm Llr
Lm Llr
( L R Rm Llr Rm Lm )
R
pK dr
pidr m K dr
m r
Lm Llr
Lm Llr
Llr
(8.10)
(8.11)
Since the SEIG is operating at no load the stator current is equal to the capacitor
current. Hence the equations relating the capacitor currents and capacitor voltages are
pVcq
pVcd
iqs
C
ids
(8.12)
(8.13)
The simulation was carried out using SIMNON [8] to solve the 1st order and 2nd order
differential equations given in Equations (8.8) to (8.13). The dynamic simulation of the
SEIG operating at no load is given in Fig. 8.3.
The error in the steady state no load developed voltage, shown in Fig. 8.3, is very small
such that it can not be seen with the given scale. From the simulation it was discovered
that if the SEIG is operating at no load or if the magnitude of Rm is much greater than
215
CHAPTER 8
300
Without Rm
Rm
250
(V)
200
ph
With Rm
Rm
150
100
50
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
time(sec)
Fig. 8.3 No load RMS phase voltage during self-excitation with and without Rm
Since Rm is included, the magnetising current is not the sum of the stator current and the
rotor current. Some of the current is bypassed through Rm. Hence from the magnetising
inductance branch circuit of Fig. 8.1 the q-axis magnetising current is
imq
Rm
iqs iqr
Rm Lm p
(8.14a)
216
CHAPTER 8
imq
Rm
Lm
qs
iqr imq dt
(8.14b)
imd
Rm
ids idr
Rm Lm p
(8.15a)
imd
Rm
Lm
ds
idr imd dt
(8.15b)
As discussed in the induction machine model including Rm in Section 4.6, the induced
electromagnetic torque or the mechanical torque required to drive the SEIG is given by
[9]:
Te
3 JJG JG
Pp Om u I r
2
JJG
(8.16)
JG
Te
Rm Lm
3
Pp
iqsidr idsiqr
2 Rm Lm p
(8.17)
The dynamic induced electromagnetic torque with Rm included can be expressed in the
integral form as
Te
R
3
Pp Rm iqs idr ids iqr m Te dt
2
Lm
(8.18)
The results given below are from the simulation of the SEIG when it is driven at
constant speed (1500rpm) and variable capacitance and resistive load are connected at
the stator terminals. The variations of capacitance and resistance are given in Fig. 8.4.
The dynamic variation of voltage current, power and torque, for variations in resistive
load and capacitance, are shown in Figs. 8.5 to. 8.8. At no load the effect of Rm is
insignificant. However, when the induction generator is loaded, neglecting Rm will
result in an error. When Rm is included, which depicts the actual situation, the generated
voltage, currents, and output power, are lower than for the case when Rm is neglected.
217
CHAPTER 8
However, due to additional losses the electromagnetic torque developed in the model
with Rm included is higher than that without Rm.
C (micro Farad)
80
70
60
50
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
14
tim e (s ec)
16
18
20
80
R (ohm)
100
60
40
3 00
w ith out R m
2 50
w ith R m
ph
(V)
2 00
1 50
1 00
50
10
12
14
16
18
tim e (s e c)
20
Fig. 8.5 The dynamic rms generated voltage with variation of load and capacitance
218
CHAPTER 8
6
w ithout Rm
iL(A)
4
2
0
w ith Rm
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
ic(A)
w ithout Rm
5
w ith Rm
0
10
is(A)
w ithout Rm
5
w ith Rm
0
time (sec)
Power (W)
2500
2000
1500
w ith Rm
1000
500
10
12
14
time (sec)
16
18
20
Fig. 8.7 The dynamic output power with variation in load and capacitance
219
CHAPTER 8
30
T (Nm)
25
w ith Rm
20
15
w ithout Rm
10
10
12
14
16
18
20
time (sec)
Fig. 8.8 The dynamic electromagnetic torque with variation in load and capacitance
8.6 Summary
In this chapter a novel D-Q axes model that includes the iron loss equivalent resistance
Rm in the dynamic analysis and simulation of the SEIG has been described in a simple
and understandable way. In some instances it is possible to neglect the iron loss;
however its effect has to be shown to be negligible. This paper provides the tool to
reach such a decision. When Rm is included, which depicts the actual situation, the
generated voltage, currents, and output power, are lower than that when Rm is neglected.
However, due to additional losses the electromagnetic torque necessary to drive the
machine is higher when Rm is included than when it is neglected.
Additionally, the method presented here is the first to include the effects of iron loss in
the more general dynamic analysis of induction machines and their high performance
drives. It is noted that this method is easily understood, having drawn on many familiar
concepts and using the standard terminology and nomenclature of D-Q unified machine
theory.
220
CHAPTER 8
8.7 References
[1] N. H. Malik and S. E. Haque, Steady state analysis and performance of an
isolated self-excited induction generator, IEEE Transaction on EC, Vol. 1, No.3,
1986, pp.134-139.
[2] T. F. Chan, Analysis of Self-Excited induction generators using an iterative
method, IEEE Transaction on EC, Vol. 10, No.3, 1995, pp.502-507.
[3] C. Grantham, Determination of Induction Motor Parameter Variations From a
Variable Frequency Standstill test, Electric Machines and Power Systems,
Vol.10, No.2-3, 1985, pp.239-248.
[4] S. D. Wee M. H. Shin and D. S. Hyun, Stator-flux-oriented control of induction
motor considering iron loss, IEEE Trans. on Industrial Electronics, Vol.48, No.3,
June 2001, pp. 602-608.
[5] J. W. Choi D. W. Chung and S. K. Sul, Implementation of field oriented
induction machine considering iron losses, IEEE- APEC '96. Conference
Proceedings, 1996, pp. 375-379.
[6] E. Levi M. Sokola A. Boglietti and M. Pastorelli, Iron loss in rotor-flux-oriented
induction machines: identification, assessment of detuning, and compensation,
IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, Vol.11, 1996, pp. 698 709.
[7] D. Seyoum C. Grantham and F. Rahman, Analysis of an isolated self-excited
induction generator driven by variable speed prime mover, Proc. AUPEC01,
2001, pp.49-54.
[8] Simnon-Simulation of nonlinear systems, SSPA Systems, Gothenburg, Sweden,
1993.
[9] B. K. Bose Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives, Prentice-Hall, NJ, 2002.
221
CHAPTER 9
9.1 Introduction
The main drawback of using induction generators excited by three AC capacitors is
their inherently poor voltage regulation and uncontrollable frequency of operation. The
output voltage of a SEIG can be controlled by introducing an appropriate voltage
regulating scheme. A number of schemes have been suggested for this purpose [1-5].
However, the variation of the frequency of the SEIG with load and speed cannot be
regulated by static means. As a result the equipment supplied by the three-phase SEIG
discussed in Chapter 7 should be frequency insensitive (e.g. heater, water pump,
lighting, battery charging etc).
The scheme based on switched capacitors [1] finds limited application because it
regulates the terminal voltage in discrete steps. A saturable reactor scheme of voltage
regulation [3, 5] involves a potentially large size and weight, due to the necessity of a
large saturating inductor. In the short/long shunt configuration [4] the series capacitor
used causes the problem of resonance while supplying power to an inductive load.
In a three phase capacitor excited induction generator the value of capacitance should
be varied so that the terminal voltage remains constant at different rotor speeds. It is
also shown that the value of capacitance is influenced by the load as well as by the load
power factor [1]. The problem is further aggravated by the uncertainty of the machine to
re-excite after a short circuit unless some charge is provided [6]. Loss of self-excitation
could be disastrous in applications like aircraft power supplies. There should be a way
to avoid this problem. An isolated induction generator with an excitation system
222
CHAPTER 9
provided by a single capacitor on the DC link side of the inverter can re-excite even
after a short circuit. Since a battery is required to control the switching of the IGBTs of
the inverter, the same battery can be used for the initiation of voltage build up using
vector control.
The excitation provided by a single capacitor on the DC link side of the inverter is
reported in [7-9]. In these papers the mechanism of maintaining constant output DC link
voltage for variable rotor speed is not clearly indicated. When the excitation comes
from the DC side capacitor of the converter, as covered in this chapter, then varying the
current flowing to the generator by controlling the switching of the IGBTs varies the
flux in the generator. Due to the switching of the inverter/rectifier the single DC side
capacitor acts like a three-phase capacitor. When the fundamental switching frequency
of the converter is varied the reactive capacitance of the DC side capacitor will be
varied as seen from the induction machine side. Overall the single DC side capacitor
provides all the reactive current or the VAR required by the induction generator.
In a grid connected induction generator, the grid acts as a stiff voltage source so that the
generator control structure is similar to a standard drive with sinusoidal front-end
converter, i.e. by varying the modulation index the terminal voltage at the induction
generator can be varied with the rotor speed while the DC bus is maintained at constant
voltage.
For an induction generator operating in stand-alone mode there should be a system that
regulates the output voltage. The output voltage is the DC voltage and the control
system, which is implemented using vector control, is required to keep this DC voltage
at a constant level. The frequency of the AC voltage can vary with speed but the aim is
to have constant peak voltage and as a result to have constant DC voltage. Once a
constant DC voltage is achieved a DC load can use it directly or, if required, it is a
matter of having an inverter to produce a constant voltage and frequency AC output.
The electrical and mechanical connections for an isolated induction generator driven by
a wind turbine are shown in Fig. 9.1. To simplify the diagram the control system is not
included in Fig. 9.1.
223
CHAPTER 9
In Fig. 9.1 the turbine rotor speed will be varied depending on the wind speed. The
system is loaded by a DC load connected at the terminals of the DC capacitor or an AC
load can be connected via a second inverter that adjusts the frequency and peak voltage
of the generated AC power supply. Induction generators can be excited from a single
DC capacitor by using an inverter/rectifier arrangement. The voltage build up process is
started from a small voltage in a charged DC capacitor or from a battery. During the
voltage build up process the DC capacitor gets its charge from the induction generator
via the rectifier and the capacitor in turn supplies the excitation current or the reactive
VA (VAR) required by the induction generator for its operation. This is implemented
using the well established field oriented vector control technique.
Rotor blade
Gear box
Wind direction
Cdc
Induction
generator
224
CHAPTER 9
are controlled independently by the naturally decoupled armature current and field
current, respectively.
The technique of vector control established to control induction motor drives will be
used in the control of an induction generator to control the generated voltage for
different loading conditions and variable rotor speeds. In a DC generator the main flux
(due to field current) and the load current can be controlled independently because they
are fixed in space. The field current is fixed, corresponding to a given speed, to generate
rated voltage. The armature current increases without affecting the field current when
the DC generator is loaded. For an increase in armature speed the flux should be
decreased by decreasing the field current to maintain the generated voltage at the rated
value. The generated voltage in the DC machine is given by [15]
Ea
kIZa
(9.1)
225
CHAPTER 9
flux linkage space vector. This technique makes the q-axis rotor flux linkage to be equal
to zero and the d-axis flux linkage to be equal to the total rotor flux linkage in the
induction machine.
The vector diagram for the rotor flux oriented vector control of an induction machine is
shown in Fig. 9.2. In Fig 9.2 the rotor flux linkage, which is aligned along the d-axis of
the rotating reference frame, is rotating at synchronous speed, however the rotor speed
is lagging behind the rotor flux linkage space vector when the induction machine is
motoring and it is leading when the machine is generating, as discussed in Chapter 4.
O qr
iqse
Oqrs
qs
idse
Tsl
O
s
dr
Odre = Or
Tr
a
tor
Ro
Te
Zsl
xis
Zr
Ze
Fig. 9.2 Vector diagram for rotor flux oriented vector control
If the d-axis rotor flux linkage, Odrs, and the q-axis rotor flux linkage, Oqrs, in the
stationary reference frame, are calculated, then the modulus or magnitude of the rotor
flux linkage will be
Or
(Odr s ) 2 (Oqr s ) 2
(9.2)
Te
O s
tan 1 qr s
O
dr
(9.3)
226
CHAPTER 9
If the magnitude of the rotor flux linkage, Or, is calculated in the rotating reference
frame the space angle of Or cannot be evaluated from components of the rotor flux
linkage. In this case the space angle Te is obtained from the slip angle Tsl and rotor angle
(9.4)
With rotor flux oriented vector control the space vector of the rotor flux linkage is
aligned along the d-axis of the synchronously rotating reference frame so that all the
rotor flux linkage will be produced by the d-axis current in the rotating reference frame.
The space angle Te is used for transformation from stationary reference frame to the
rotating reference frame and vice versa. The rotor flux oriented vector control is
implemented using two schemes, direct and indirect, to obtain the magnitude and space
angle of the rotor flux linkage space vector.
a) Rotor flux linkage calculation utilising monitored stator voltages and currents in the
stationary reference frame
Once the stator flux linkage is calculated from the measured stator voltages and currents
then using Equation (4.5) the d-axis rotor current is expressed as
idr s
Ods s Lsids s
Lm
(9.5)
iqr s
Oqs s Lsiqs s
Lm
(9.6)
227
CHAPTER 9
Lr
Ods s V Lsids s
Lm
Odr s
where V
1
(9.7)
Lm 2
Lr Ls
Oqr s
Lr
Oqs s V Lsiqs s
Lm
(9.8)
Here the estimation of rotor flux linkage is dependent on the parameters of the induction
machine Ls, Lm, Lr, and Rs, where the effect of stator resistance is coming from the
estimation of stator flux linkage.
b) Rotor flux linkage calculation utilising monitored stator currents and rotor speed
evaluated in the stationary reference frame
With a shorted rotor circuit Equations (4.11) and (4.12), the rotor side voltage
equations, are rewritten as
d Odr s
Rr idr s Zr Oqr s
dt
d Oqr s
dt
Rr iqr s Zr Odr s
(9.9)
(9.10)
From Equation (4.9) and (4.10) the rotor currents are expressed in terms of rotor flux
linkages and stator currents as
idr s
iqr
Odr s Lmids s
Lr
Oqr s Lmiqs s
Lr
(9.11)
(9.12)
The rotor flux linkages can be expressed in terms of the stator currents by substituting
Equation (9.11) in (9.9) and Equation (9.12) in (9.10) and after simplifying gives
Odr s
Lm s Odr s
s
Tr ids Tr Zr Oqr dt
(9.13)
228
CHAPTER 9
Oqr s
Where Tr
Lm s Oqr s
s
Tr iqs Tr Zr Odr dt
(9.14)
Lr
is the rotor circuit time constant.
Rr
From Equations (9.13) and (9.14) the modules and space angle of the rotor flux linkage
can be estimated using Equations (9.2) and (9.3), respectively. However, the accuracy
of the estimation is dependent on the rotor inductance and rotor resistance. Hence any
variation in rotor parameters will affect the estimation procedure.
c) Rotor flux linkage calculation utilising monitored stator currents and rotor speed
evaluated in the rotor flux linkage oriented rotating reference frame
Using the D-Q representation of an induction machine in the reference frame rotating at
synchronous speed, as illustrated in Fig. 4.19, the voltage equations from the rotor side
are given by
d Odre
Rr idre Ze Zr Oqre
dt
d Oqre
dt
Rr iqre Ze Zr Odre
(9.15)
(9.16)
Odre
Lm idse Lr idre
(9.17)
Oqre
Lm iqse Lr iqre
(9.18)
From Equations (9.17) and (9.18) the rotor currents are given as
idre
e
qr
e
dr
Lmidse
(9.19)
Lr
e
qr
Lmiqse
(9.20)
Lr
To express the Equations (9.15) and (9.16) in terms of accessible and measurable stator
currents, Equations (9.19) and (9.20) are used to give
d Odre Rr e Lm
Odr
Rr idse Zsl Oqre
dt
Lr
Lr
(9.21)
229
CHAPTER 9
d Oqre
dt
where Zsl
Rr e Lm e
Oqr Rr iqs Zsl Odre
Lr
Lr
(9.22)
With rotor flux oriented vector control, shown in Fig. 9.2, the total rotor flux is aligned
along the d-axis of the rotating reference frame so that
Odr e
Or
(9.23)
Oqr e
(9.24)
and
Then
d Oqr e
dt
(9.25)
Substituting Equations (9.23) to (9.25) in Equation (9.21) and utilising Tr = Lr/Rr gives
Tr
d Or
Or
dt
Lmids e
(9.26)
Equation (9.26) shows that the rotor flux linkage can be evaluated from the d-axis
measured stator current in the rotating reference frame. It is implemented by applying a
low pass filter to ids e , with a cut off frequency of 1/Tr and a gain of Lm. Since the flux
linkage is dependent only on the d-axis current and not on the q-axis current the rotor
flux oriented vector control scheme gives decoupled control when implemented with a
current regulated source.
Zsl
Lm e
iqs
OrTr
(9.27)
At steady state the rotor flux linkage is constant. Hence Equation (9.26) can be rewritten
as
Or
Lmids e
(9.28)
and
230
CHAPTER 9
Zsl
e
1 iqs
Tr ids e
(9.29)
Here also, the accuracy of the rotor flux linkage estimation is dependent on the rotor
inductance and rotor resistance. Any variation in rotor parameters will affect the
estimated rotor flux linkage and slip speed. The rotor resistance can vary with
temperature and the rotor inductance can be varied with the magnetising saturation level
of the iron core.
The derivation is the same as given in Part c of Section 9.2.1.1. The main difference is
that in the indirect flux oriented scheme the rotor flux linkage is given as a reference
value and then the reference current is evaluated from Equation (9.26) given by
idse *
1 Tr p Or*
Lm
(9.30)
At steady state the derivative term in Equation (9.30) is eliminated because at a given
operating point the magnitude of the rotor flux linkage is constant.
Zsl
e*
Lm iqs
Tr Or*
(9.31)
This scheme is a simple one; however it needs a good prior knowledge of the
characteristics of the rotor flux linkage because there is no flux controller. As in Part c
of Section 9.2.1.1 the calculation of reference current and the slip speed is dependent on
rotor parameters.
231
CHAPTER 9
9.2.2 Rotor flux oriented control with voltage as the controlled variable
The implementation of the rotor flux oriented vector control method discussed in
Section 9.2.1 is based on a current regulated source with the current controllers in the
stator stationary reference frame. However it is also possible to utilise stator voltage
equations in the synchronously rotating reference frame and express the stator voltage
equations using rotor flux linkages and stator currents. In this case the current
controllers are implemented in the synchronously rotating reference frame to produce
the voltage reference signal.
Using the D-Q representation of an induction machine in the reference frame rotating at
synchronous speed illustrated in Fig. 4.19 the voltage equations from the stator side are
given by
Vds
Vqs e
Rsids Ze Oqs
d Ods e
dt
Rsiqs e ZeOds e
d Oqs e
dt
(9.32)
(9.33)
Odse
Lsidse Lmidre
(9.34)
Oqse
Lsiqse Lmiqre
(9.35)
Substituting Equation (9.19) into (9.34) and Equation (9.20) into (9.35) and then
simplifying gives
Odse
V Lsidse
Lm e
Odr
Lr
(9.36)
Oqse
V Lsiqse
Lm e
Oqr
Lr
(9.37)
where V
1
Lm 2
Lr Ls
Substituting Equations (9.36) and (9.37) into Equations (9.32) and (9.33) and then
rearranging to give
232
CHAPTER 9
Vds e
Vqs e
Ze Lm
Lr
Ze Lm
Lr
Oqr e V Ls
Odr e V Ls
dids e Lm d Odr e
dt
Lr dt
diqs e
dt
e
Lm d Oqr
Lr dt
(9.38)
(9.39)
Since the stator voltage equations are to be expressed in the reference frame fixed to the
rotor flux linkage space vector, the total rotor flux linkage space vector is aligned along
the d-axis of the reference frame rotating at synchronous speed Ze. Hence the conditions
given in Equations (9.23) to (9.25) will be substituted into Equations (9.38) and (9.39)
to give
Vds e
Vqs
dids e Lm d Or
dt
Lr dt
Ze Lm
Lr
Or V Ls
diqs e
dt
(9.40)
(9.41)
In Equation (9.40) the q-axis term iqs e appears in the d-axis voltage expression and in
Equation (9.41) the d-axis terms ids e and Or (equal to Odr e ) appear in the q-axis voltage
expression. These give rise to unwanted coupling and do not produce the ideal DC
machine like characteristics, where the d-axis stator current, ids e , is the rotor flux
linkage producing component and the q-axis stator current, iqs e , is the active power
producing component. The stator currents ids e and iqs e can only be independently
controlled if the stator voltage Equations (9.40) and (9.41) are decoupled. Then
controlling the stator voltages of the induction machine will indirectly control the stator
currents ids e and iqs e .
Taking the rotor flux linkage as constant at a given rotor angular speed the stator current
components can be independently controlled if the decoupling rotational voltage
components are arranged in such a way that they will cancel the effect of the coupling.
The decoupling technique is implemented by adding the coupling terms to the voltage
signals obtained from the output of the controllers for the d-axis and q-axis stator
currents in the synchronously rotating reference frame.
The decoupling term to be added in the d-axis voltage is
233
CHAPTER 9
ZeV Lsiqs e
Vddeco
(9.42)
ZeV Lsids e
Ze Lm
Lr
Or
(9.43)
Using the decoupling terms in the calculation of d-axis reference voltage and q-axis
reference voltages the currents that control the flux and the active power generated by
induction generator will be controlled indirectly.
Ods s
(v
Rsids s )dt
(9.44)
Ods s
(v
Rsids s )dt
(9.45)
ds
ds
Then the modulus or magnitude of the stator flux linkage will be calculated using
Os
(Ods s ) 2 (Oqs s ) 2
(9.46)
Te
O s
tan 1 qs s
O
ds
(9.47)
In the estimation of the stator flux linkage space vector the stator resistance is the only
machine parameter involved. Hence the accuracy of the estimated stator flux linkage
space vector is dependent on the stator resistance. Because of accessibility the stator
resistance can be measured with good accuracy and it is possible to predict its variation
with temperature. In the rotor flux oriented vector control, with the involvement of rotor
resistance, the rotor resistance variation becomes dominant due to temperature and skin
effect in squirrel cage induction machines as discussed in Chapter 6. Compensation of
this parameter is difficult because of inaccessibility, but it is easier to compensate stator
resistance [16].
234
CHAPTER 9
It can be shown that using trigonometric identities and derivative rules for
tan T
then
dT
dt
d
tan 1 x
dt
1 dx
1 x 2 dt
(9.48)
Using Equations (9.44), (9.45), (9.47) and (9.48) the synchronous angular frequency
can be estimated as
Ze
Ze
dT e
dt
Ods
d 1 Oqs
tan
dt
Ods s
d Oqs s
dt
Oqs
d Ods s
dt
Oqs2 Ods2
(9.49)
Oqs2 Ods2
The vector diagram for stator flux oriented vector control is illustrated in Fig. 9.3
O qs
i qs
Oqss
qs
idse
Odse = Os
s
ds
Te
d
Ze
d
Fig. 9.3 Vector diagram for stator flux oriented vector control
235
CHAPTER 9
Since in the stator oriented reference frame all variables are expressed in a reference
frame oriented to the stator flux linkage space vector, a mathematical model needs to be
developed to find the relationship between the stator flux linkage and the stator
currents. The rotor flux linkages in the synchronously rotating reference frame can be
expressed in terms of stator flux linkages and stator currents from Equations (9.36) and
(9.37) as
Odr e
Lr
Ods e V Lsids e
Lm
(9.50)
Oqr e
Lr
Oqs e V Lsiqs e
Lm
(9.51)
where V
1
Lm 2
Lr Ls
Using the induction machine model in a reference frame rotating at synchronous speed,
as shown in Fig. 4.19, the stator flux linkages are expressed as
Odse
Lsidse Lmidse
(9.52)
Oqse
Lsiqse Lmiqse
(9.53)
From Equations (9.52) and (9.53) the rotor currents can be expressed as
idr e
iqr e
Ods e Lsids e
(9.54)
Lm
Oqs e Lsiqs e
(9.55)
Lm
Equations (9.50), (9.51), (9.54) and (9.55) are substituted in the voltage equations (9.15)
and (9.16) to eliminate the rotor flux linkages and rotor currents from the induction
machine equations and to express the machine equations in the reference frame fixed to
the stator flux linkage space vector. The new expressions are given by
Rr Ods e Lr
Rr Oqs e Lr
d Ods e
di e
Rr Ls ids e LrV Ls ds Zsl Lr Oqs e Zsl LrV Ls iqs e
dt
dt
d Oqs e
dt
Rr Ls iqs e LrV Ls
diqs e
dt
(9.56)
(9.57)
236
CHAPTER 9
With stator flux oriented vector control, illustrated in Fig. 9.3, the total stator flux is
aligned along the d-axis of the synchronously rotating reference frame so that
Ods e
Os
(9.58)
Oqs e
(9.59)
and
Then
d Oqs e
dt
(9.60)
Using Equations (9.58) to (9.60) and utilising Tr = Lr/Rr, Equations (9.56) and (9.57)
can be rewritten as
(9.61)
(9.62)
In rotor flux oriented vector control with current as the controlled variable, the total
rotor flux linkage, as derived in Equation (9.26), is controlled by the d-axis current in
the synchronously rotating reference frame. That is the rotor flux oriented vector control
with current as the controlled variable gives a natural decoupling. However, as shown in
Equation (9.61), with stator flux oriented vector control, which is based on an impressed
stator current controller, the total stator flux linkage, Os , and the q-axis stator current
iqs e , are coupled. This means that any change in iqs e without changing ids e will cause
The undesirable coupling can be eliminated by utilising a decoupling circuit in the flux
linkage control loop. The decoupling circuit is implemented at the output of the stator
flux linkage controller. The stator flux linkage controller is a PI controller and its output
is designed to be the d-axis current required to produce the reference stator flux linkage
say ids e1 given by
ids e1
G Os* Os
(9.63)
237
CHAPTER 9
However, due to the coupling problem, ids e1 does not have total control over the stator
flux linkage. The reference d-axis current, idse * , with full control of the stator flux
linkage is expressed as
idse *
ids e1 ideco
idse *
G Os* Os ideco
(9.64)
(9.65)
For decoupled control with the help of ideco the last two terms of Equation (9.65) should
be cancelled, i.e.
(9.66)
so that
ideco
ZslTrV iqs e
1 V Tr p
(9.67)
Zsl
Ls 1 V Tr p iqs e
Tr Os V Lsids e
(9.68)
Zsl
ZslTrV iqs e
Lsiqs e
Tr Os V Lsids e
(9.69)
(9.68)
In stator flux oriented vector control the rotor speed can be estimated from the estimated
synchronous angular frequency and the estimated angular slip frequency given by
Zr
Ze Zsl
238
CHAPTER 9
In induction generators the value of Zsl and iqs e are negative because power is being
converted from mechanical to electrical power.
The advantage of the stator flux oriented vector control is that the stator flux linkage
vector is derived by integration of the voltage behind the stator resistance and it is
sensitive to stator resistance only, which can be compensated somewhat easily because
of accessibility. The drawback of the stator flux oriented vector control is the coupling
effect which requires the introduction of the decoupling compensation ideco . In the stator
flux oriented vector control the induction generator behaves like a separately excited
DC generator by aligning the total stator flux linkage of the induction generator along
the d-axis of the rotating reference frame. Hence the stator flux linkage in the induction
machine is controlled by the d-axis stator current in the rotating (excitation) reference
frame.
239
CHAPTER 9
Inverter/
Rectifier
Induction
Generator
Load
Voltage
and current
sensors
Wind
Turbine
Vb
Speed sensor
PWM generator
Vabc
Iabc
VDC
Zr
PC with dSPACE
DS1102
As a result an initial voltage is required in the DC capacitor to start the vector control
and to allow the voltage build up process. The initial voltage can be obtained from a
previously charged DC capacitor or from a battery connected to the DC capacitor. The
easiest method is to utilise the battery that supplies power to the IGBT drivers. The
minimum initial voltage required in the DC capacitor is dependent on the components
used in the inverter/rectifier, their combined forward voltage drop in the converter
240
CHAPTER 9
arrangement and the parameters of the induction generator. The simulation of the
system is implemented using Matlab/Simulink. From the simulation, the voltage build
up process can start for voltage as low as 10V. However, to have a good control and
faster voltage build up process 48V is used. 48V is appropriate to implement the
proposed scheme at the lowest speed and the 48V can also be obtained from connecting
several standard commercially available 12V batteries in series.
In motoring applications, all control schemes use constant flux for rotor speeds lower
than the rated speed. The flux will be reduced inversely proportional to the speed when
the induction motor is operated above its rated value. That is, the motor is being
operated in the flux weakening mode. For all speeds less than the rated value the control
scheme adjusts the voltage and frequency to regulate the desired reference speed or
torque while keeping the flux at a constant value. With an induction generator the aim is
to have a constant generated voltage. Of course the frequency of the generated voltage
is dependent on the rotor speed but once it is rectified the DC voltage depends only on
the magnitude of the peak AC voltage.
K Zr O
(9.69)
where K - constant
CHAPTER 9
The maximum speed is limited by the mechanical rating of the mechanical system of the
induction generator. The minimum flux linkage corresponds to the maximum generator
rotor speed.
Once the allowable variation between maximum and minimum rotor speeds is defined it
is required to find the corresponding minimum and maximum (saturated) flux linkages
respectively. Graphically the variation of flux linkage with generator rotor speed is
shown in Fig. 9.5.
O
Omax
Omin
Zr_min
Z r_max
Zr
Fig. 9.5 Relationship between generator rotor speed and flux linkage
Since the maximum value of flux linkage is determined by the saturation level of the
core, the flux linkage required at any speed is calculated based on this maximum flux
linkage, the minimum set speed and the speed of operation. Hence,
Zr _ min
Omax
Zr
(9.70)
242
CHAPTER 9
When the rotor speed decreases to a value lower than Zr_min, theoretically the flux
linkage should increase to a value higher that Omax. However, in an induction machine
once the saturation level is reached the controller forces more direct axis current in the
synchronously rotating reference frame to produce more flux linkage. The magnitude of
this exciting current can exceed the rated current of the machine without approaching
the required reference flux linkage. As a result the magnitude of the generated voltage
drops for speeds lower than the minimum set value which is Zr_min.
From Fig. 9.5, the maximum speed, Zr_max, is determined by the mechanical limitation
of the induction generator and the wind turbine. A minimum exciting d-axis current in
the synchronously rotating reference frame that will be enough to produce the minimum
flux linkage, Omin, corresponding to the maximum speed, Zr_max, is provided by the
controller.
In Chapter 2 it was shown that at a particular wind speed the output power and the
output torque of a wind turbine decreases at high turbine rotor speeds. Hence at no load
the induction generator operates at high speed. When the induction generator driven by
the wind turbine is loaded, the generator rotor speed decreases. The operating points of
the output power and output torque characteristic of the wind turbine follow the output
power and the induced electromagnetic torque of the induction generator. The reference
243
CHAPTER 9
flux linkage of the induction generator varies inversely proportional to the variation in
angular rotor speed. For different loading conditions the generator rotor speed can
remain constant provided that there is variation in wind speed. In this case the reference
flux linkage remains constant and any change in loading will only affect the DC voltage
controller in which its output is the q-axis reference current in the rotating reference
frame.
Induction
Generator
Load
Voltage
and current
sensors
Wind
Turbine
PWM generator
Speed sensor
Vabc
Iabc
Current
controllers
ic
ib
ia
Zr
Flux linkage
estimation
Te
Numerator
O r*
- +
ia*
- +
- +
ib*
ic*
e e
d q / abc
ids
Or
Zr_min .Or_max
Vb
e*
VDC*
iqse*
+
PI
PI
VDC
Fig. 9.6 Implementation of direct rotor flux oriented vector control with current
controlled PWM VSI
In Fig. 9.6 the current controllers are implemented using hysteresis controllers or
proportional integral (PI) controllers. With the utilization of hysteresis controllers the
actual current continuously tracks the reference or command current within a given
hysteresis band. For a hysteresis band of h, if the measured current is less than the
reference current minus the hysteresis band then an output signal 1 is generated to
increase the actual current by turning on the upper power switch of the inverter. When
the measured current is less than the reference current plus hysteresis band then an
244
CHAPTER 9
output signal -1 is generated to decrease the actual current by turning off the upper
power switch of the inverter. The implementation of a hysteresis controller is very
simple. However, the drawbacks are uncontrolled and high switching frequencies when
a small hysteresis band is used or high ripple when the hysteresis band is larger. The
selection of the hysteresis band needs some compromise for the magnitude of the ripple
and switching frequency. The output signals -1 and 1 are chosen instead of 0 and
1 because the range of the value -1.0 to 1.0, when using the function for PWM
generation in the DSPACE DS1102 DSP card, represents a duty cycle of 0 to 100%.
Three similar hysteresis controllers are used for the three phases.
When the current controller is implemented using a PI controller the error between the
reference current and the actual current will be fed to the PI controller. The PI controller
converts the error signal to the sinusoidal reference voltage. This sinusoidal reference
voltage signal is then fed to the converter as a PWM signal. The PI controller is simple
and the switching frequency can be predicted, however due to its limited bandwidth
there will be a phase lag and a magnitude error between the reference current and the
actual current [12]. The phase lag and magnitude error are detrimental and they will
increase with rotor speed because at high rotor speed the frequency of the current will
be high.
As shown in Fig. 9.6 and which will be also given in the implementation of other
schemes of vector control, the control mechanism involves cascaded control structures
with inner and outer closed loop systems. From control theory the cascaded control
structure can only work under the assumption that the bandwidth of the control
increases towards the inner closed loops [14, 17]. The most inner loop of the cascaded
control structure should be the fastest and the most outer loop the slowest. The inner
loop can perform well if there is enough time to execute the command given by the next
outer loop. The fact that each feedback variable can be limited by limiting the reference
signal of importance is a major advantage of cascade control.
CHAPTER 9
synchronously rotating reference frame, idse * , is calculated from the magnitude of the
rotor flux linkage divided by the magnetising inductance as given in Equation (9.30).
S
Inverter/
Rectifier
Induction
Generator
Load
Wind
Turbine
Vb
Speed sensor
PWM generator
Current controllers
ic
ib
ia
Zr
Te estimation
ids
Zr_min .Or_max
Numerator
O r*
e*
iqs
e*
Te
- +
- +
ia + ib* ic*
deqe/ abc
idse*
1 Tr p
Lm
iqse*
VDC*
+
PI
VDC
Fig. 9.7 Implementation of indirect rotor flux oriented vector control with current
controlled PWM VSI
The previous explanation for the types of current controllers discussed in the direct
rotor flux oriented vector control also applies in this indirect rotor flux oriented vector
control scheme.
CHAPTER 9
In this section the outputs of the d-axis and q-axis current controllers in the
synchronously rotating reference frame are added with their respective decoupling
signals to produce d-axis and q-axis reference voltages in the synchronously rotating
reference frame. Then using the transformation from two-axes in the synchronously
rotating reference frame to three-axes in the stationary reference frame the three-phase
stator voltages in the stationary reference frame are obtained. The overall
implementation is shown in Fig. 9.8.
Fig. 9.8 shows only the direct rotor flux oriented voltage control scheme. However the
same figure can be used to implement the indirect rotor oriented vector control provided
that the evaluation for the d-axis current is changed.
S
Inverter/
Rectifier
Induction
Generator
Load
Voltage and
current sensors
Wind
Turbine
Vb
Speed sensor
Vabc
PWM generator
Iabc
Zr
abc / deqe
Te
Ze
Or
vc*
va* vb*
ids
iqs
deqe/ abc
e*
Vdse*
VLs
+ +
L m /L r
Vqse*
+
+
Zr_min .Or_max
VDC
Zr
VLs
Or
Numerator
O r*
PI
idse* + -
PI
- ddeco
PI
iqse*
PI
+
- + VDC*
Fig. 9.8 Implementation of direct rotor flux oriented vector control with stator voltage
as a control variable
CHAPTER 9
Inverter/
Rectifier
Induction
Generator
Load
Voltage
and current
sensors
Wind
Turbine
Speed sensor V
abc
Vb
PWM generator
Iabc
Current controllers
ic
ib
Zr
Os
Zr_min .Or_max
Numerator
Os*
Ze
PI
ia* + ib*
ia
Te
- +
ic*
e e
d q / abc
iqse
idse
decoupling
idcou
- +
idse*
iqse*
VDC*
+
PI
VDC
Fig. 9.9 Implementation of stator flux oriented vector control with current controlled
PWM VSI
The current controllers in Fig. 9.9 can be hysteresis or PI controllers. The detail in using
these two types of controllers is discussed in Section 9.5.1.
The stator flux oriented vector control can be implemented with stator voltage as a
control variable; however it requires additional decoupling in the stator voltage
equations expressed in the synchronously rotating reference frame and is not studied in
this work.
9.6 Results
The simulation for rotor oriented vector control and stator oriented vector control are
implemented using MATLAB/SIMULINK. The features in the Power Systems Blockset
are used to model an inverter, rectifier and all circuit components. The induction
machine model in the Power Systems Blockset is modified to include speed as an input
and to update the variation of magnetising inductance as the voltage builds up during
self-excitation.
248
CHAPTER 9
The results obtained in using direct rotor oriented vector control and the stator oriented
vector control are similar. It is simply a matter of tuning the PI controllers in the DC
voltage controller and flux linkage controller.
The dynamics of the DC voltage build up process, at a rotor speed of 1500rpm for a
capacitance value of 1000PF and 1500PF, is shown in Fig. 9.10. When the capacitance
is large it takes a longer time to reach its steady state value. If the capacitance is too
small there will not be enough exciting current and as a result there will not be any
voltage build up.
In Fig. 9.11 the frequency of the generated voltage is estimated using Equation (9.49).
For a rotor speed of 314rad/s the AC voltage build up process starts with a low
frequency and then rises until it reaches its steady state value of 311 rad/sec. The small
slip is required to overcome all power loses in the induction machine and in the inverter
that supplies the exciting current and the load current.
From Fig. 9.12 it can be observed that the value of the flux linkage in the machine
varies inversely proportional to the rotor speed of the induction generator. Fig. 9.13
shows the generated voltage.
The loading for the induction generator is shown in Fig. 9.14. The no load resistance is
simulated by a large resistance. The load resistance is decreased from its large value at
no load to an effective resistance of about 120: and the rotor speed is varied from
1500rpm (157rad/sec) to about 2400rpm (250rad/sec). In response to these variations in
load and rotor speed the variations in DC voltage and induction generator flux linkage
are shown in Fig. 9.14c and Fig. 9.14d. Fig. 9.14e shows the variation in d-axis stator
current in the rotating reference frame and Fig. 9.14f shows the variation in q-axis stator
current in the rotating reference frame.
DC current in the load output electrical power, operating slip of the induction generator
and the induced electromagnetic torque in the induction generator are also given in in
Fig. 9.14
249
CHAPTER 9
DC voltage @ n=1500rpm
700
600
C=1000micr F
500
V dc (V)
C=2000micr F
400
300
200
100
0.5
1.5
time (sec)
350
wr
300
C=1000 micro F
250
we (rad/s)
C=2000 micro F
200
150
100
50
0.5
1.5
time (sec)
Fig. 9.11 Rotor speed and angular frequency of the generated voltage for different
capacitance value
250
CHAPTER 9
1.4
Rotor speed=1500rpm
1.2
Rotor speed=1900rpm
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.5
1.5
time (sec)
Fig. 9.12 Flux linkage at different rotor speeds of the induction generator for 1000PF
800
600
400
Vab (V)
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
0.5
1.5
time (sec)
Fig. 9.13 Generated line to line voltage at the terminals of the induction generator
251
CHAPTER 9
RL (ohm)
150
100
50
10
12
14
10
12
14
10
12
14
10
(a)
Speed (rpm)
3000
2000
1000
(b)
800
Vdc (V)
600
400
200
0
(c)
Flux (web-turn)
1.5
0.5
(d)
12
time (sec)
14
252
CHAPTER 9
Ide (A)
6
4
2
0
10
12
14
10
12
time (sec)
14
10
12
14
10
12
time (sec)
14
(e)
0
Iqe (A)
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
(f)
Idc (A)
(g)
Power (KW)
4
3
2
1
0
(h)
253
Slip
CHAPTER 9
-0.03
-0.06
10
12
14
10
12
time (sec)
14
(i)
Torque (Nm)
-10
-20
-30
(j)
Fig. 9.14 Loading of the induction generator (a) RL (b) rotor speed (c) VDC (d) flux
linkage (e) idse (f) iqse (g) Idc (h) Output power (i) Slip (j) Electromagnetic torque
In Fig 9.14 when the speed increases the flux linkage decreases and the d-axis current in
the rotating reference frame decreases also. This d-axis current is not affected by the
load. Loading affects the magnitude of q-axis current in the rotating reference frame. At
no load there is a small slip and induced electromagnetic torque to overcome the power
loses in the induction generator and in the converter.
The vector control can be implemented in real time using commercially available DSPs,
microcontrollers and PLCs. The versatile commercially available DSP from Texas
Instruments is TMS320LF2407 and an advanced one is the TMS320LF2812. This
project is, however, not concerned with the implementation of the proposed techniques
in appropriate real time hardware.
9.7 Summary
The voltage build up process of an induction generator with a single capacitor on the
DC side of the inverter using vector control is discussed. Since the induction generator
254
CHAPTER 9
operates at a frequency away from the DC frequency, any integration offset error is
easily removed by offset adjustment, as discussed in Chapter 10, when stator flux
linkage estimation is used.
With stator flux oriented vector control the total flux linkage is aligned to the d-axis of
the stator flux linkage and with rotor flux oriented vector control the total flux linkage is
aligned to the d-axis of the rotor flux linkage in the excitation reference frame. A
decoupling signal is generated to cancel the effect of the q-axis current on the d-axis
flux for the stator oriented vector control. The main advantage of stator flux oriented
vector control is that the error in the estimated flux depends only on the stator
resistance. Unlike the rotor resistance the variation of stator resistance depends mainly
on temperature. If the variation of stator resistance causes a significant error in the
estimated flux then a compensation block can be added in the model.
The advantage of rotor oriented vector control is that there is no need to generate a
decoupling signal because the flux linkage is dependent only on the d-axis current and
not on the q-axis current. The rotor flux oriented vector control scheme gives a
decoupled control when implemented with a current regulated source.
When the load is varied iqse varies to provide the current demand of the load. When the
rotor speed is varied idse is varied to provide the required amount of flux linkage
corresponding to the rotor speed in a similar way as in flux weakening operation of
induction motors. In this way the DC voltage will remain constant as the speed of the
wind turbine varies.
In a similar way the different flux oriented vector control schemes discussed here can be
used in an automotive combined starter/generator system which is an area likely to be
very typical in the future due to the expected change from 12V to 36V electrical
systems.
255
CHAPTER 9
9.8 References
[1]
[2]
[3]
H. C. Rai and A. K. Tandan, Voltage regulation of self-excited induction generator using passive
elements, 6th International Conf. on Electrical Machines and Drives, 1993, pp. 240-245.
[4]
S. S. Murthy, C. Parabhu, A. K. Tandon and M. O. Vaishya, Analysis of series compensated selfexcited induction generators for autonomous power generation, IEEE Conference on Power
Electronics, Drives and Energy Systems for Industrial Growth, 1996, pp.687-693.
[5]
[6]
L. Shridhar, B. Singh and C. C. Jha, Transient performance of the self regulated short shunt self
excited induction generator, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol.10, No.2, June 1995,
pp. 261-267.
[7]
S.N., Bhadra, K.V., Ratnam, and A, Manjunath, Study of Voltage Build up in a Self-Excited,
Variable Speed Induction Generator/ Static Inverter System with D.C. Side Capacitor,
International Conference on Power Electronics, Drives and Energy System, Vol. 2, 1996, pp. 964970.
[8]
M. S., Miranda, R.O, Lyra, and S.R., Silva, An Alternative Isolated Wind Electric Pumping
System Using Induction Machines, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 14, No. 4,
December 1999, pp. 1611-1616.
[9]
R., Cardenas, R., Pena, G., Asher, and , J. Clare., Control Strategies for Enhanced Power
Smoothing in Wind Energy Systems Using a Flywheel Drive by a Vector-Controlled Induction
Machine, IEEE Transaction on Industrial Electronics, Vol.48, No. 3, June 2001, pp. 625 635.
[10] F. Blaschke, The principle of field orientation as applied to the new Transvektor closed loop
control system for rotating field machines, Siemens Review, Vol. 34, 1972, pp. 217 220.
[11] Peter Vas, Sensorless Vector and Direct Torque Control, Oxsford University Press, New York,
1998.
[12] B. K. Bose, Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives, Prentice-Hall, NJ, 2002.
[13] T. Matsuo, V. Blasko, J. C. Moreira and T. A. Lipo, Field oriented control of induction machines
employing rotor end ring current detection, IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, Vol. 9, No. 6,
November 1994.
[14] Werner Leonhard, Control of Electrical Drives, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, New York,
1996.
256
CHAPTER 9
[15] G. R. Slemon, Electric Machines and Drives, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, New York,
1992.
[16] E. D. Mitronikas, A. N. Safacas and E. C. Tatakis, A new stator resistance tuning method for
stator-flux-oriented vector-controlled induction motor drive, IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics, Vol. 48 Issue: 6, Dec. 2001, pp. 1148 1157.
[17] W. S. Levine, The Control Handbook, CRC press with IEEE press, New York 1996.
257
CHAPTER 10
10.1 Introduction
Flux information is needed in induction machine control for the purpose of synchronous
angle and synchronous speed estimation, flux regulation and torque regulation.
Accurate flux estimation is very crucial in the control of induction motor drives and
induction generators if vector control or direct torque control (DTC) is used.
The stator flux is calculated by integrating the back electromotive force (emf), which is
the terminal voltage minus the voltage drop in the stator resistance. This method is
preferred because it requires knowledge of only one parameter of the induction
machine, namely the stator resistance. The stator resistance can be easily obtained from
measurement. If there is variation of stator resistance due to change in temperature it
can be readily compensated [1]. The back emf is calculated from the stator terminal
phase voltage and from stator phase current. When a pure integrator is implemented in
discrete form such as that used when controlling an induction machine from a DSP
system, an error can arise. This error comprises a drift produced by the discrete
integrator and also a drift produced by the offset error in the back emf. The offset error
in the back emf is due to the use of analog components in the sensor and amplifier
circuits for the measurement of voltages and currents. A small DC offset in the
measured signal, no mater how small it is, can drive the pure integrator into saturation.
The integration error associated with the implementation of the integrator is constant
and appears as an offset in the initial integrated value. From the signal at the input of the
integrator it is not easy to know whether the integrated signal will have an offset or not.
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The constant offset available at the output of the integrator can be explained as follows.
Generally, when a sine signal (sinZ t) is applied to the input of an integrator with an
integrator gain of Z then a negative cosine (-cosZ t) signal is obtained at the output of
the integrator. In a discrete integrator this is only true when the input sine wave is
applied at its positive peak, sin(Z t+S/2), or negative peak, sin(Z t-S/2). If the sine signal
is applied at any other initial condition, a constant DC offset will appear at the output of
the integrator. This DC offset is an undesirable error and it distorts the output of the
integrated signal. When a sine input signal (sinZ t) is applied to the integrator, the
maximum constant DC offset that can occur is equal to the peak value of the sine signal.
Attempts have been made to modify the pure integrator by implementing it using a low
pass filter [2]. A low pass filter will produce errors in magnitude and phase angle,
especially if the excitation frequency is lower than the cut off frequency of the low pass
filter. It has also been reported that the pure integrator can be replaced by a
programmable low pass filter which is implemented by tuning the angle and changing
the magnitude of the output vector of the low pass filter according to the calculated
error [2-7]. In all these applications the cut off frequency of the low pass filter is
decided from the estimated excitation frequency. However the accuracy of the
calculated excitation frequency depends on the estimated flux. As a result the
magnitude and phase of the estimated flux is dependent on the calculated cut off
frequency of the low pass filter.
The measurement-offset error will appear as a ramp signal at the output of the
integrator. The modified integrator proposed in this chapter has feedback to cancel the
DC offset value due to the integrator output initial condition and the ramp due to
measurement offset error.
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CHAPTER 10
to an integrator then an integrated output signal Y will be obtained. This can be written
as:
Y
for X
Xdt
(10.1)
Am sin Z t , then
Y
Y
Z
1
A
cos Z t Am cos Z t t
A
cos Z t Am
Am sin Z t S
However, if X
Y
Am
(10.2)
Am cos Z t then
sin Z t
(10.3)
A cos Z t A cos Z t A t A t
m
Z
1
A
However, if X
Y
Am
t 0
dc
dc t 0
cos Z t Am Adct
Am sin Z t S
sin Z t Adc t
(10.4)
A
dc
(10.5)
In Equation (10.2) there is a constant offset error Am/Z at the output of the integrator
due to the initial value of the limit of integration, i.e. taking t = 0 as the starting point.
The input and output signals are displayed in Fig. 10.1. However in Equation (10.3)
there is no error in the integrated output, which is the expected type of signal in the
determination of flux linkage. These signals are shown in Fig. 10.2. Depending on the
phase shift of the sinusoidal function the value of the integration error can vary from
zero to Am/Z.
From Equation (10.5) the ramp error Adc t at the output of the integrator is due to a DC
signal or offset in the signal that is fed to the input of the integrator and is shown in Fig.
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CHAPTER 10
10.3. However, in Equation (10.4) there are two types of errors involved: the first one is
similar to that expressed in Equation (10.2) and the second one is similar to the error
expressed in Equation (10.5). The ramp error signal Adc t keeps on increasing with time.
This type of error is displayed in Fig. 10.4.
sin Z t
Z Xdt
Fig. 10.1 Offset error equal to Am as a result of the integration initial condition
sin Z t S
Z Xdt
CHAPTER 10
sin Z t S
0.08
Z Xdt
sin Z t 0.08
Z Xdt
Fig. 10.4 Error produced due to measurement offset and integration initial condition
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saturation irrespective of the non-zero magnitude of offset Adc occurring in the input
signal.
Figs. 10.1 to 10.4 show the different conditions that the input AC signals can have and
the different conditions the integrator output can exhibit. These results represent the
conditions that can happen to the back emf at the input of the integrator and the
computed flux linkage at the output of the integrator in any experimental flux linkage
estimation. The output of the integrator is multiplied by a constant, which is the angular
frequency of the signal to be integrated, so that the peak to peak value of the AC signal
at the input and output remain constant. Then the input and output signals can be
compared easily.
Yk
X T
(10.6)
n s
n 0
Ts
The average of a pure sinusoidal signal in a full cycle is zero. This information is used
to correct the offset present at the output of the integrator. Every cycle the average value
is calculated and then subtracted from the integrator output. This method is dealt with in
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Strategy I below. The measurement offset error is almost constant for a given duration
of time. However the integration error due to the offset at the input of the integrator
keeps on increasing with time. If the measurement offset error present in the signal of
interest is small then the ramp build up within a cycle is insignificant compared with the
integrated signal. Strategy II deals with a technique of minimizing the offset of the
signal at the input of the integrator.
Since the mechanical time constant of induction machines is large, the change of peak
current within a given cycle is small. The main advantage of the proposed technique is
that a pure integrator is used, as it is, without any approximations.
Ts
+
+ -
Output error
adjustment
Average in a
period
Once in a
cycle
In Fig 10.6 the period of one cycle used in the proposed offset adjustment can be
obtained from the measured voltage or current using the zero crossing points. The time
between two zero crossing points is equal to half the period of the signal. The period
can be also calculated from the frequency of the signal to be integrated.
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The offset at the output of the integrator generated due to the initial condition, as given
in Equation 10.2 and Fig. 10.1, cannot be removed using any adjustment at the input of
the integrator. The offset generated from the integrator due to integration initial
condition is constant and once it is adjusted it will not appear again during the rest of
the procedure.
Low Pass Filter
Z-1
X
Ts
+
+ -
Output error
adjustment
Average in a
period
Once in a
cycle
A sinusoidal signal, shown in Fig. 10.8a, with an offset of 0.008 and a peak value of 1
unit is applied to the proposed integration error correction system. The integrator output
without any integration error compensation and with the proposed integrator error
compensation is shown in Figs. 10.8b and 10.8d respectively. The magnitude of the
error adjustment signal generated every cycle to compensate the integration error at the
output of the integrator is shown in Fig. 10.8c.
CHAPTER 10
2
1
(a)
0
-1
-2
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
0.14 0.16
time (sec)
0.18
0.2
0.01
0.008
0.006
(b)
0.004
0.002
0
-3
x 10
3
(c)
2
1
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.01
(d)
-0.01
Fig. 10.8 Detail for integration error compensation (a) input X = sin(Z t)+0.008 (b)
output Y Xdt without output error adjustment (c) output error adjustment signal
value (d) output with output error adjustment
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In the estimation of stator flux linkage the voltages and currents in the three axes model
are transformed to voltages and currents in the two axes model using the method
discussed in Chapter 3 and then all the analysis is done in the two axes model [9].
The integration given in Equations (9.44) and (9.45) is implemented in the numerical
integrator using the proposed integrator described in Section 10.4. The implementation
of the d-axis flux linkage estimation and q-axis flux linkage estimation using the
proposed scheme are illustrated in Fig. 10.9.
ids
Rs
Vds
Proposed
integrator
Ods
(a)
iqs
Rs
Vqs
Proposed
integrator
Oqs
(b)
Fig. 10.9 Stator flux linkage estimation using the proposed method (a) d-axis flux
estimation (b) q-axis flux estimation
10.6 Summary
The method of flux estimation proposed in this chapter is new and effective. It
eliminates the error produced by the measurement offset error and integrator output
error due to initial integration in a continuous time integrator or numerical/discrete time
integrator. The numerical integrator can be used in a discrete system such as in digital
signal processing applications. The integrator output offset due to the initial condition is
not dependent on frequency.
If the integration ramp output due to the existence of measurement offset error is large
then subtracting the output of a low pass filter of the signal from the signal to be
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integrated minimizes the offset. A signal with small input offset will have a small
increment of ramp that will appear at the output of the integrator. As the time increases
the ramp keeps on increasing and eventually the distortion in flux will be unacceptable.
However, if the ramp is eliminated every cycle, the flux distortion due to the offset
correction at the output is insignificant.
Overall a simple method is proposed to compensate the error produced due to the initial
limit of integration as well as measurement error at the input of the integrator.
10.7 References
[1]
E. D. Mitronikas, A. N. Safacas and E. C. Tatakis, A new stator resistance tuning method for
stator-flux-oriented vector-controlled induction motor drive, IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics, Vol. 48, Issue: 6, Dec. 2001, pp. 1148 1157.
[2]
K. D. Hurst, T. G. Habetler, G. Griva and F. Profumo, Zero speed tacholess IM torque control:
simply a matter of stator voltage integration, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol.
34, No. 4, July/August 1998, pp. 790-795.
[3]
B. K. Bose and N. R. Patel, A programmable cascaded low-pass filter-based flux synthesis for
stator flux-oriented vector-controlled induction motor drive, IEEE Transaction on Industrial
Electronics, Vol.44, No.1, February 1997, pp.140-143.
[4]
J. Hu and B. Wu, New integration algorithms for estimating motor flux over a wide speed range,
IEEE Transaction on Power Electronics, Vol. 13, No. 5 September 1998, pp.969-977.
[5]
M. H. Shin, D. S. Hyun, S. B. Cho and S. Y. Choe, An improved stator flux estimation for
speed sensorless stator flux oriented control of induction motors, IEEE Transaction on Power
Electronics, Vol. 15, No. 2, March 2000, pp.312-318.
[6]
[7]
M. Hinkkanen, and L. Luomi, Modified integrator for voltage model flux estimation of induction
motors, IECON01: The 27th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, 2001,
pp.1339-1343.
[8]
X. Xu, R. D. Doncker and D. Novotny A stator flux oriented induction machine, in Conf. Rec.
IEEE-PESC, 1988, pp. 870-876.
[9]
P. Vas, Sensorless Vector and Direct Torque Control, Oxford University Press, New York, 1998.
268
CHAPTER 11
CONCLUSIONS
AND
SUGGESTION
FOR
FUTURE
WORK
11.1 Conclusions
Many important and interesting aspects of an isolated self-excited induction generator
have been discussed and presented in this thesis. The study comprises theoretical
analysis, simulation and experimental results related to induction generators. The
modelling and characteristics of induction machines in general has also been presented
to provide an overall perspective of induction generators.
For a grid connected induction generator all the power generated can be supplied to the
grid as the grid can absorb theoretically an infinite amount of power. However for an
isolated induction generator the maximum power available in the wind might not be
utilised by a constant electrical load connected to the induction generator. If an isolated
self-excited induction generator is supplying a constant load then the operating points of
the output power and output torque of the wind turbine will be adjusted as per the
operation of the induction generator.
269
CHAPTER 11
The literature related to isolated induction generators and wind turbines is reviewed in
Chapter 1. This has involved clarifying the strengths and limitations of the previous
works and highlighted the advantages of the research covered in this thesis.
A detailed explanation about wind as a power source and the mechanism of conversion
of wind power to mechanical power is presented in Chapter 2. The general definitions
of wind and wind as a source of power have been presented in this chapter. The analysis
of power absorbed by a wind turbine is based on the horizontal axis wind turbine. The
mechanism of production of force from wind that causes the rotor blades to rotate in a
plane perpendicular to the general wind direction at the site has been discussed in detail.
The importance of having twisted rotor blades along the length from the base to the tip
is given. The variation of the torque produced by the wind turbine with respect to the
rotor angular speed has been presented and associated with this output torque the power
output from a wind turbine is evaluated.
Power absorbed by a wind turbine is proportional to the cube of the wind speed. Wind
turbines are designed to yield maximum output power at a given wind speed. In case of
stronger winds it is necessary to waste part of the excess energy of the wind in order to
avoid damaging the wind turbine. Different ways of power control to protect the
machine have been presented. The economics and growth of wind powered electric
generation is given and the projection for the future is also discussed.
Existing electrical measuring methods, such as the Fast Fourier Transform, require
many samples from a significant period of the measured waveforms cycle to be
processed using elaborate computation techniques in order to evaluate rms or peak
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CHAPTER 11
magnitudes of AC currents and voltages. These traditional methods are unable to obtain
peak values in less than one quarter of a cycle. Therefore, the measurement system
presented here supersedes the traditional methods for the monitoring of dynamically
changing quantities in a three-phase system.
For the same stator terminal voltage of an induction machine the magnitude of the
electromagnetic torque in the generating region is higher than the electromagnetic
torque in the motoring region. The reason for the difference in electromagnetic torques
is that during motoring all the electrical losses in the induction machine are supplied by
an external electrical power source and the electromagnetic torque is the output of the
system. However, in the generating region the electromagnetic torque is equivalent to
the external mechanical input torque and all the electrical power losses in the induction
machine are indirectly supplied by the external mechanical power source and the
terminal voltage is the output of the system. Hence to overcome all the internal power
losses in the induction machine and have the same terminal voltage as in the motoring
region the electromagnetic torque in the generating region must be higher than the
electromagnetic torque for motoring.
The D-Q axes induction machine model has been improved to include the equivalent
iron loss resistance, Rm. This improved model was developed by D. McKinnon and C.
Grantham in collaboration with the author and is presented here in a simple and
understandable way. Using this model the dynamic current, torque and power can be
calculated more accurately.
The data acquisition system which is used for the measurement of voltages, currents,
angle and speed with their appropriate sensors is explained in Chapter 5. The outputs of
the voltage and current measurement circuits are calibrated so that the voltage signals of
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CHAPTER 11
the sensor outputs will not exceed the ADC input rating of the DS1102 DSP board. The
sensors for current and voltage are Hall-Effect devices. Anti-aliasing filters are
introduced in the analog signals of the sensor outputs to prevent the high frequencies
appearing as a low frequency when the analog signal is digitised in the A/D converter.
Speed and angle measurements for the induction machine are taken using an optical
incremental encoder. The resolution of angle and speed for a given encoder is derived.
For a given encoder the resolution of the angle measurement is constant; however the
resolution of speed measurement is dependent on the sampling period used. High
sampling period (low sampling frequency) gives small resolution in speed (discrete
steps) producing less error in the measurement of the speed. The advantage of digital
signal processing is discussed. Different types of filter design are presented. Digital
filters are used in the simulation and experimental set up with the results presented in
the thesis.
Induction machine parameter determination and the results of an investigation into the
variation of magnetizing reactance, iron loss resistance and rotor parameters with
temperature and supply voltage have been presented in Chapter 6. Most of the
experimentation was carried out by D. McKinnon. A monitoring system employing
digital signal processing techniques was used to observe these effects. To date,
parameter identification methods over a large speed range have typically required
reduced voltages to prevent the motor overheating from excessive current at high slips.
The run up to speed test described enables the parameters to be determined at supply
voltages up to and including the rated voltage without damaging the motor under test.
A separate test was used to determine the iron loss resistance and magnetizing
reactance. This test incorporated two methods. Both methods were conducted at
synchronous speed, one using continuously varied supply voltage, the other at discrete
voltages. Agreement between the results was excellent. All tests were performed at
corresponding temperatures.
272
CHAPTER 11
ignored. It has been shown that rotor parameter variations exist even for a single-cage
induction motor.
The error in the values of induction motor parameters arising from measurement error in
voltage, current and power used to determine the parameters have been presented.
These three measurement quantities are essential for accurate parameter determination.
Even with measurement errors of r1.5% the determined parameters are still very
acceptable and considerably more accurate than if rotor parameter variations are
ignored. Only very close to synchronous speed is there substantial error in the
determined value of Xlr, but this is almost irrelevant in any meaningful analysis of the
inductive machine, because close to synchronous speed the effect of Xlr is swamped by
the effect of Rr /s.
When rotor parameter variations are ignored the percentage errors in the current, power
and torque are substantial for machines which exhibit a significant degree of rotor
current displacement effect.
Once self-excitation has been initiated and a steady state condition has been reached,
the speed at which self-excitation ceases is always lower than the speed to initiate selfexcitation. At a particular speed the capacitance required for self-excitation, when the
machine operates at no load, is less than the capacitance required for self-excitation
when it is loaded.
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When an induction machine operates as a motor the speed of the rotating air gap
magnetic field is totally dependent on the excitation frequency. However, in the SEIG it
is shown that the frequency of the generated voltage depends on the speed of the prime
mover as well as the condition of the load. Keeping the speed of the prime mover
constant with increased load causes the magnitude of generated voltage and frequency
of an isolated SEIG to decrease. Modelling and experimental results show that this is
due to a drop in the speed of the rotating magnetic field. When the speed of the prime
mover drops with load, then the decrease in voltage and frequency will be greater than
for the case where the speed is held constant.
The dynamic voltage, current, power and frequency developed by the induction
generator have been analysed, simulated and verified experimentally for the loaded and
unloaded conditions while the speed was varied or kept constant. Using the simulation
algorithm more results which are not accessible in an experimental setup have been
predicted.
Increasing the capacitance value can compensate for the voltage drop due to loading but
the drop in frequency can be compensated only by increasing the speed of the rotor. The
variation of magnetising inductance follows the variation in terminal voltage or
magnetising current. Increasing the capacitance can compensate the generated voltage,
however it increases stator current. Hence care should be taken not to exceed the stator
rated current.
The variation of the generated voltage and frequency for a self excited induction
generator driven by a wind turbine at constant and variable speeds has been
investigated. The dynamic calculated performance comparison between the machine
with constant and variable rotor parameters has been simulated and discussed
considering a hypothetical induction machine that represents a typical double-cage or
deep-bar rotor induction machine where rotor parameter variations are significant.
A novel D-Q axes model that includes the iron loss equivalent resistance Rm in the
dynamic analysis and simulation of the SEIG has been described in Chapter 8 in a
simple and understandable way. It is noted that this method is easily understood, having
274
CHAPTER 11
drawn on many familiar concepts and using the standard terminology and nomenclature
of D-Q unified machine theory. In some instances it is possible to neglect the iron loss;
however its effect has to be shown to be negligible. This study provides the tool to
reach such a decision. When Rm is included, which depicts the actual situation, it has
been shown that the generated voltage, currents, and output power, are lower than that
when Rm is neglected. However, due to additional losses the electromagnetic torque
necessary to drive the induction generator is higher when Rm is included than when it is
neglected.
Using vector control the voltage build up process and terminal voltage control in an
isolated wind powered induction generator using an inverter/rectifier excitation with a
single capacitor on the DC link is discussed in Chapter 9. Due to the fundamental
switching of the IGBTs of the inverter, controlled by the vector control principle, the
single DC capacitor appears as if three capacitors were connected across the three stator
terminals of the induction generator.
Different types of vector control techniques are developed to control the excitation and
the active power producing currents independently. That is, the current control scheme
causes the currents to act in the same way as in a DC generator where the field current
and the armature current are decoupled. When the speed of the prime mover is varied
the flux linkage in the induction generator is varied inversely proportional to the rotor
speed so that the generated voltage will remain constant.
Since the torque produced by a wind turbine drops at high turbine rotor speed the
induction generator will run at high generator rotor speed when loaded with a small load
and the rotor speeds decrease with an increase in load. As the turbine rotor shaft and the
generator rotor shaft are connected via a gear box, both rotor speeds will increase and
decrease proportionally for a constant gear ratio. The flux linkage of the induction
generator is controlled by controlling the d-axis current in the synchronously rotating
reference frame. All vector control strategies presented are either rotor flux oriented
vector control or stator flux oriented vector control.
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CHAPTER 11
It is shown that the estimation of rotor flux linkage is more dependent on the induction
machine parameters whereas estimation of stator flux linkage is dependent only on the
stator resistance. If the variation of stator resistance is causing a significant error in the
estimated flux then a compensation block can be added in the model, however it is
difficult to compensate the variation in rotor parameters, especially rotor resistance. The
dynamic results for generated voltage, current, power, torque and slip for different rotor
speed and load have been given.
When the load is varied the q-axis current in the synchronously rotating reference frame
varies to provide the current demand of the load. Hence the q-axis current in the
synchronously rotating reference frame is varied when there is variation in load. When
the rotor speed is varied the d-axis current in the synchronously rotating reference frame
is varied to provide the required amount of flux linkage corresponding to the rotor speed
in a similar way as in flux weakening operation of induction motors. In this way the DC
voltage will remain constant as the speed of the wind turbine varies and also when the
electrical load changes. Once a constant DC voltage is achieved a DC load can use it
directly or, if required, it is a matter of having an inverter to produce a constant voltage
and frequency AC output.
The estimation of stator flux linkage using integration of the voltage behind the stator
resistance is the easiest way of estimating the flux linkage. However, there are problems
associated with the integration. The method of flux estimation proposed in Chapter 10 is
an effective method to compensate the error produced by the integrator. The cause of
the error in an integrator is illustrated in detail by using a sinusoidal signal as an input to
the integrator and then solutions are proposed in a simple and understandable way.
The compensation method eliminates the error produced by the measurement offset
error and integrator output error due to the initial integration in a continuous time
integrator or numerical/discrete time integrator. The numerical integrator can be used in
a discrete system such as in digital signal processing applications. The integrator output
offset due to the initial condition is not dependent on frequency.
276
CHAPTER 11
If the integration ramp output due to the existence of measurement offset error is large
then subtracting the output of a low pass filter of the signal from the signal to be
integrated minimizes the offset. A signal with small input offset will have a small
increment of ramp that will appear at the output of the integrator. As the time increases
the ramp keeps on increasing and eventually the distortion in flux will be unacceptable.
However, if the ramp is eliminated every cycle, the flux distortion due to the offset
correction at the output is insignificant. Overall a simple method is proposed to
compensate the error produced due to the initial limit of integration as well as
measurement error at the input of the integrator.
Development of a model that takes into account the variation in stator resistance
or a way of compensating the stator resistance in the rotor resistance. Stator
resistance is important in the estimation of stator flux linkage.
277
CHAPTER 11
between the output power and the available power in the prime mover is to be
envisaged.
278
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
DETERMINATION
OF
INERTIA
AND
FRICTION
The induction generator system consists of an induction machine and a DC motor. Here
the DC motor is the prime mover and is always coupled to the induction machine.
Therefore the total inertia and friction coefficient determined here consists of the sum of
the inertia in the induction machine and in the DC motor.
dZ r
DZ r TL
dt
(A.1)
where
Te electromagnetic torque (Nm),
TL load torque (Nm),
To determine J and D the induction generator system was driven by the DC motor.
During the test the terminals of the induction machine were open. Hence no load torque,
i.e TL =0.
From the voltage equation of the DC motor, the back emf in the armature can be
calculated as:
Ea
V I a Ra
(A.2)
278
APPENDIX A
where
Ea back-emf (V),
V applied voltage (V),
Ia motor current (A) and
Ra Armature winding resistance (ohm)
Ea I a
(A.3)
and the electromagnetic torque is the mechanical power divided by the shaft speed,
which is calculated as:
Te
Ea I a
Zr
(A.4)
DZ r
(A.5)
Te
Zr
(A.6)
For the determination of D, the voltage and current measurements at a given speed were
taken by giving some time until steady state speed was attained. In this part the
measurement was taken manually making sure that there was no change of speed at a
particular value of speed. The torque versus speed graph to determine D is given in Fig.
A.1. A line is drawn using Matlab linear curve fit and the slop of this line is the friction
coffiecient..
From (A.6) D is the slope of the line in the plot Te versus Zr. From the curve fit the slop
of the line is 0.0027, which is the average gradient.
Therefore
D=0.0027 Nm/(rad/sec)
279
APPENDIX A
Torque, Te (Nm)
Speed or Zr (rad/sec)
The effect of J appears when there is change in speed. To calculate J the variation of
speed with time should be recorded accurately. In this part of the test a fast data
acquisition system (dSPACE DS1102 DSP card) was used. The speed of the DC motor
reaches at a given point and then the DC supply to the motor is switched off.
If the supply to the DC motor is switched off, while the motor is running at a specific
speed, then the dynamics of the motor is given by:
0
dZ r
DZ r
dt
(A.7)
Zr
Z ro e
D
t
J
(A.8)
where Zro is the initial speed, which is the speed of the motor when the DC supply was
switched off.
The magnitude of
D
can be calculated by solving the equation in (A.8) using curve
J
fitting or based on the value of speed and time obtained from measurement.
280
APPENDIX A
DZr
(A.9)
d Zr
dt
The DC supply to the armature of the motor and to the field winding of the motor
should be switched off at the same time. The variation of motor speed recorded when
the DC motor field supply was on and off is shown in Fig. A.2. Of course the armature
supply of the DC motor was switched off.
Speed or Zr (rad/sec)
(b)
(a)
Fig. A.2 Variation of speed with time (a) DC motor field supply on (b) DC motor field
supply off
When the supply is switched off at t = 0 there is transient due to the collapsing of the
field and this transient filed will enable the machine to generate a transient condition
Close to t = 0 the curves with field supply on and with field supply off appear as if they
overlap. Hence the inertia for the test with field supply off appears as if there is smaller
inertia than the rest of the time.
Using curve (a) in Fig. A.2 can lead to a wrong answer because the DC machine field
supply was on during the test. If the DC machine field supply is on, while the motor
armature supply is off, the DC motor will act as a generator and it will generate an open
281
APPENDIX A
circuit voltage. Due to the generation of open circuit voltage it will have some internal
electrical losses. These losses will decelerate the speed faster. The effect of faster
deceleration is reflected on the value of the J in the system and it will appear as if it has
a smaller value than the J obtained from the test with the DC motor field supply off. J
calculated from curve (a) in Fig. A.2 is 0.025Kg-m2 and J calculated from Fig. A.2
curve (b) is 0.045Kg-m2/rad.
The correct value of the inertia J is the one calculated from the speed versus time
variation when the supplies to the field winding as well as the supply to the armature are
switched off at the same time. The curve that satisfies this condition is curve (b) given
in Fig. A.2. Hence the correct value of inertia, J, for the induction generator system
used in the lab is 0.045Kg-m2/rad.
Reference
Werner Leonhard, Control of Electrical Drives, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, New York, 1996
282
APPENDIX B
Incremental
encoder
Voltages and
currents sensors
MITSBUSHI
PM50RSA120
MITSBUSHI
PM50RVA120 IPM
8 to 4
multiplexer
Optocoupler
board
Optocoupler
board
Encoder interface
and 5V encoder
power supply board
DS1102
DSP card in PC
DC motor speed
reference
Multiplexer
board
5 IOP0
IOP1
1
GND
3
CON1 Output1
Red
IOP0
Orange
Black
IOP1
GND
28
7
60
ADC1
Output2
ADC2
Output3
ADC3
CON4 Output4
ADC3 4
CON2
CON3
DSP
dSPACE DS1102
card
2
3
Fig. B.3 Multiplexer board control to dSPACE DS1102 DSP card connection
283
APPENDIX B
BNC socket
for speed
feed back
DAC4 46
GND 47
Coaxial cable
DSP dSPACE
DS1102 card
PWM1
blue
PWM1
CMP0
PWM2
green
PWM2
CMP1
PWM3
yellow
PWM3
CMP2 56
Orange
PWM4
CMP3
Red
PWM5
CAP3 52
Brown
PWM6
CAP4
Break
White
0V
Black
3
2
1
7
8
54
55
57
dSPACE
DS1102 DSP
card
53
digitalGND 15
GND
Fig. B.5 Dead time Generator board and DS1102 DSP card connection
Ua1
brown
Ua1
U a1
green
U a1
Ua2
gray
Ua2
U a2
pink
U a2
2
3
4
Encoder
Incremental
Uao
Uao
red
rotary encoder
5 interface
board with
HEIDENHAIN U a0
black U a0
6 5V supply
ROD 426
5V(sensor) blue 5V
5000line
7
0V(sensor) White 0V 8
5V(Up) Brown/green 5V
14
0V(UN)White/green 0V
15
2
3
4
5
Ua1
blue
Phi0 1
U a1
yellow
Phi0 1
Ua2
gray
Phi90 1
U a2
orange
Phi90 1
Uao
green
U ao
Red
6
8
0V
Black
20
41
19
40 dSPACE
DS1102
Index1
21 DSP card
Index1 42
Digital GND 60
284
APPENDIX B
+15V
33PF,
50V
0V
20V
11 12
a240V
Diode
bridge
GBU6K
220PF,
400V
Mitsubishi
M57120L-01
DC-DC
converter
6
Mitsubishi
M57140-01
4u15V isolated
DC output
330PF,
50V
1
VN1
22K:
+15V
10
10PF,
50V
VUP1
22K:
0V
+15V
12
10PF,
50V
VUP1
22K:
0V
11
+15V
14
10PF,
50V
VWP1
22K:
13
0V
Fig. B.7 Four isolated 15V Power supply for optocoupler circuit
285
APPENDIX B
286
APPENDIX B
Input
+1 V+ 1
-15 V- 4 LF398 Output
5
Input
Ch
10nF
L. Ref
3
6
7
Logic
2
Offset adjust
+15
Input
2
1K 24K
+1 V+ 1
-15 V- 4 LF398 Output
5
Input
Ch
10nF
3
6
7
Logic
+15
1K 24K
+1 V+ 1
V
-15 - 4 LF398 Output
5
Input
S2
3
Ch
6
L. Ref 7
Logic
10nF
L. Ref
3
6
7
1
9.1V
D1
8
DG403
D3 1K : ADC2
2
6
GND
9.1V
13
Analog
Switch
9
5
15
To
DS1102
ADC3 3
DSP card
ADC
inputs
10
Offset
adjust
1K 24K
+1 V+ 1
-15 V- 4 LF398 Output
5
Input
Ch
S4
1 D1
1K : ADC1
3 D3
IN1 IN2
22
+15
ADC4 4
9.1V
+5V
Logic
1K :
1K :
22
Offset
adjust
1K 24K
+15
Input
S1 16
S3
10nF
Input
VL
V+ V12
11 14
22
L. Ref
Offset adjust
Input
+15 -15V +5
+1 V+ 1
-15 V- 4
Input
3
Ch
6
10nF L. Ref
7
9.1V
1K :
LF398 5 Output
8
22
1K :
Offset adjust
+15
Input
1K 24K
+1 V+ 1
-15 V- 4 LF398 Output
5
Input
Ch
10nF
L. Ref
3
6
7
Logic
22
Offset adjust
+15
Input
1K 24K
+1 V+ 1
-15 V- 4 LF398 Output
5
Input
Ch
10nF
L. Ref
3
6
7
Logic
IOP0
IOP1
+5V
Logic
10
9 pin socket
Connector
to DS1102
DSP card
IN1 IN2
Offset adjust
+15
Input
8
1K 24K
+1 V+ 1
-15 V- 4 LF398 Output
5
Input
Ch
10nF
L. Ref
3
6
7
Logic
Offset adjust
+15
1K 24K
+5V
7
+5
18 Vcc
2 ENAR
4 ENAS
Br
1K:
PWM4
PWM5
1K:
+5V
PWM6
8
17
Dead time 16
Generator
S 3 IXYS 15
IXDP630 14
13
12
R
1
11
T 5
1K:
+5V
5
+5V
1
14
4
3
9
6
12 74LS00 8
2 NAND 11
5
7
10
13
6 ENAT
+5V
6
Break 8
RESET
RU
RL
SU
SL
TL
1K:
To
DSP card
1
14
4 74LS00 3
2 NAND 6
7
5
TU
47K:
10
20K:
GND
4.7pF
+5V
3
PWM1
T 5
1K:
PWM2
1K:
PWM3
1K:
3
Vcc
ENAR
ENAS
+5
18
2
4
6 ENAT
8
17
+5V
16
IXYS
S
15
3 IXDP630
14
13
+5V
12
R
11
1
9
10
Dead time
Generator
1
2
+5V
1
1
4
3
9 74LS00 6
1 NAND 8
2
1
5
7
1
1
1
74LS00 1
4 NAND 3
2
6
5
7
RESET
RU
RL
SU
SL
TU
TL
47K:
20K:
15
AND 1
SN74LS08N
OUTEN
+5
11
10
INHIBIT 14
UP 2
To optocoupler
UN 5
IGBT gate
VP 3
driver
VN 6
WP 4
WN 7
+5V
OUTEN
To Single IGBT for
DC voltage control
+5
+5V
+5V
11
10
INHIBIT 14
UP 2
To optocoupler
UN 5
IGBT gate
VP 3
VN 6
WP 4
WN 7
15
4.7pF
APPENDIX C
C.1 Introduction
In this part of the appendix the relationship between the induction machine parameters
in the conventional steady state equivalent circuit model and in the dynamic equivalent
d-q model is explained. The expanded form of the equations representing the dynamic
d-q model of an induction machine including Rm are given.
iqs
Lm p ids
-r Lr iqr
Rr +Lr p idr
0
(C.1)
The steady state form is obtained by substituting p by jZe and Zr by (1-s)Ze where Ze
and s are the excitation angular frequency and rotor slip respectively
0
jX m
vqs Rs +jX s
0
Rs +jX s
vds = 0
0 jX m
X m (1 s ) Rr +jX r
jX m
X r (1 s )
0 X m (1 s)
iqs
jX m ids
-X r (1 s ) iqr
Rr +jX r idr
0
(C.2)
289
APPENDIX C
The rotor current terms can be eliminated easily by partitioning the matrix equation and
rewriting as
V1
0
Z11 Z12 I1
Z
21 Z 22 I 2
(C.3)
where
V1
vqs
Z11
vds
Z 22
Rs +jX s 0
0 R +jX Z12
s
s
-X r (1 s)
Rr +jX r
X (1 s ) R +jX
r
r
r
Z 22 1
Rr +jX r
iqs
I2
ids
I1
X r (1 s )
jX m
0
0
Z 21
jX m
jX m X m (1 s)
X (1 s) jX
m
m
iqr
idr
X r (1 s )
Rr +jX r
X (1 s) R +jX
r
r
r
I2
Z 22 1 Z 21 I1
(C.4)
V1
(C.5)
11
Z12 Z 22 1 Z 21 I1
vqs
vds
Rs +jX s 0 jX m 0 1 Rr +jX r
X r (1 s ) jX m X m (1 s) iqs
Where
'
Rr +jX r
X r (1 s)
Rr +jX r
'
Rr
jX r (1 s ) Rr +jX r jX r (1 s)
jX r (2 s ) Rr +jsX r
(C.7)
Rs +jX s 0 jX m 2
'
0 Rs +jX s
X r (1 s ) j (1 s ) iqs
1 0 Rr +jX r
0 1 X (1 s ) R +jX (1 s ) j
r
ids
r
r
vqs
vds
Rs +jX s 0 jX m 2 jRr s 2 X r
iqs
Rr (1 s)
R
+jX
0
'
R
s
sX
s
jR
(1
)
(2
)
s
s
r
r
r
ids
290
APPENDIX C
vqs
vds
jX m 2 ( jRr s 2 X r )
jX m 2 Rr (1 s)
R
+jX
s
i
s
'
'
qs
2
2
jX m Rr (1 s )
jX sX r (2 s ) jRr ids
Rs +jX s m
'
'
(C.8)
jX 2 sX r (2 s ) jRr
jX m 2 Rr (1 s )
iqs Rs +jX s m
ids
'
'
(C.9)
As discussed in Chapter 3 the q-axis current lags the d-axis current by 90o.Hence
substituting iqs
vds
X m 2 jsX r (2 s ) sRr
R
+jX
s
ids
s
'
(C.10)
vds
X m 2 jsX r (2 s ) sRr
R
+jX
s
ids
s
R
jX
(2
s
)
R
+jsX
r
r
r
r
vds
sX m 2
R
+jX
s
ids
s
R
+jsX
r
r
(C.11)
Bur Xs and Xr are the total stator reactance and rotor reactance respectively. Expressing
the reactances with the mutual and their leakage reactances
Xs
X ls X m
Xr
X lr X m
vds
jX m r jX lr
s
i
Rs +jX ls
ds
Rr
s +jX lr jX m
(C.12)
Equation (C.12) represents the steady state per-phase equivalent circuit which can be
derived from Fig. 4.3. Hence at steady state the D-Q model converges to the
conventional steady state model.
APPENDIX C
The matrix equation representing a stator supplied induction machine, from Equation
4.25, including Rm is
LN p
0
vqs Rs +LsNEW p 0
Rs +LsNEW p 0
LN p
vds = 0
0 LN p
-r Lm
Rr +LrNEW p -r LrNEW
LN p
r LrNEW
Rr +LrNEW
0 r LN
iqs
i
ds
iqr
p idr
(C.13)
where
LN =
Rm Lm
Rm +Lm p
For the D-Q model of a self-excited induction generator the matrix equation including
Rm, as given in Equation 8.1, is,
0
0
0
0
0
pLN
Rs pLsNEW 1 pC 0
iqs Vcqo
0
Rs pLsNEW 1 pC 0
pLN
ids Vcdo
pLN
Rr pLrNEW Zr LrNEW iqr K qr
Zr Lm
pLN
Zr LN
Zr LrNEW Rr pLrNEW idr K dr
(C.14)
292
vqs
vds
0
0
0
0
0
0
Rm Lm
Rm Lm p
0
Rs Lls
p
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm
0
0
Rs Lls
p
Rm Lm p
ZR L p
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm
- r m m
Rr Llr
p
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm p
R L p
Zr Rm Lm p
Rm Lm p
Zr Llr m m
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm p
i
Rm Lm p
qs
ids
Rm Lm p
R L p iqr
- Zr Llr m m
Rm Lm p
i
dr
Rm Lm
Rr Llr
p
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm
Rm Lm p
1
0
Rs Lls
p
Rm Lm p
pC
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm
1
0
0
Rs Lls
p
Rm Lm p
pC
ZR L p
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm
- r m m
Rr Llr
p
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm p
R L p
Zr Rm Lm p
Rm Lm p
Zr Llr m m
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm p
Rm Lm p
(C.15
i V
Rm Lm p
qs cqo
ids Vcdo
Rm Lm p
Kq
R L p iqr
- Zr Llr m m
Rm Lm p
idr K d
Rm Lm
Rr Llr
p
Rm Lm p
(C.16)
293
From Equation (8.5) the d-axis current for the SEIG including Rm is given by
id
U
Ap Bp Dp Ep Fp 4 Gp 3 Hp 2 Jp M
8
(C.17)
The roots in the denominator (poles) contain the behaviour of the solution for the d-axis
current. To find the roots of the denominator
Ap 8 Bp7 Dp6 Ep 5 Fp 4 Gp 3 Hp 2 Jp M
(C.18)
C 2 Lls 2 Llr 2 Lm 2
2(C 2 Lls 2 Rr Lm 2 Llr RmC 2 Lls 2 Llr Lm 2 RsC 2 Lls Llr 2 Lm 2 RmC 2 Lls Llr 2 Lm 2 2 RmC 2 Lls 2 Llr 2 Lm )
C 2 Lls 2 Rr 2 Lm 2 2CLls Llr 2 Lm 2 2 Rm 2C 2 Lls Llr Lm 2 4 RmC 2 Lls 2 Rr Llr Lm 2 RmC 2 Lls 2 Rr Lm 2
C 2 Lls 2Zr 2 Llr 2 Lm 2 4 Rs C 2 Lls Rr Lm 2 Llr Rm 2C 2 Lls 2 Lm 2 Rm 2C 2 Lm 2 Llr 2 2 Rm Rs C 2 Llr 2 Lm 2
4 Rm RsC 2 Lls Llr Lm 2 4 Rm Rs C 2 Lls Llr 2 Lm 2 4 RmC 2 Lls Rr Lm 2 Llr Rs 2C 2 Llr 2 Lm 2
2 Rm 2C 2 Lls 2 Llr Lm Rm 2C 2 Lls 2 Llr 2 2 Rm 2C 2 Lls Llr 2 Lm
294
Llr 2 Lm 2 4CRm Rr Lm 2 Llr 2CRm 2 Llr 2 Lm 2CRm 2 Llr Lm 2 2CLls Rr 2 Lm 2 2 Rm 2 CLls Llr 2 2 Rm 2 CLls Lm 2 4 Rm 2 CLls Llr Lm 2CLls Zr 2 Llr 2 Lm 2
4 Rs CRr Lm 2 Llr 8 Rm CLls Rr Llr Lm 4 Rm CLls Rr Lm 2 4 Rm Rs CLlr 2 Lm 4 Rm Rs CLlr Lm 2 Rs 2 C 2 Rr 2 Lm 2 Rs 2 C 2 Zr 2 Llr 2 Lm 2 2 Rm Rs C 2 Rr 2 Lm 2
2 Rm Rs C 2 Zr 2 Llr 2 Lm 2 4 Rm Rs 2 C 2 Rr Llr Lm 2 Rm Rs 2 C 2 Rr Lm 2 Rm 2 Rs 2 C 2 Lm 2 2 Rm 2 Rs C 2 Rr Lm 2 4 Rm 2 Rs C 2 Rr Llr Lm 2 Rm 2 C 2 Lls Zr 2 Llr Lm 2
4 Rm 2 Rs C 2 Lls Zr 2 Rr Llr 4 Rm 2 Rs C 2 Lls Zr 2 Rr Lm 4 Rm Rs C 2 Lls Zr 2 Llr 2 Lm 4 Rm Rs C 2 Lls Zr 2 Llr Lm 2 Rm Rs C 2 Lls Rr 2 Lm Rm 2 C 2 Lls 2 Zr 2 Llr 2
2 Rm 2 C 2 Lls 2 Zr 2 Llr Lm Rm 2 C 2 Lls 2 Rr 2 Rm 2 C 2 Lls 2 Zr 2 Lm 2 2 Rm 2 Rs 2 C 2 Llr Lm Rm 2 Rs 2 C 2 Llr 2 Rm 2 C 2 Lm 2 Zr 2 Llr 2 Rm 2 C 2 Lm 2 Rr 2
2 Rm 2 C 2 Lls Zr 2 Llr 2 Lm 2 Rm 2 C 2 Lls Rr 2 Lm
G =2*Rr*Lm^2*Llr+2*Llr^2*Rm*Lm+2*Llr*Lm^2*Rm+2*c*Rm*Rr^2*Lm^2+2*c*Rm^2*Rr*Lm^2 +2*c*Rm*wr^2*Llr^2*Lm^2
+2*Rs*c*wr^2*Llr^2*Lm^2+2*Rm^2*Rs*c*Lm^2+4*Rm^2*c*Lls*Rr*Llr+4*Rm^2*c*Lls*Rr*Lm+2*Rs*c*Rr^2*Lm^2
+4*c*Rm^2*Rr*Llr*Lm+2*Rm^2*Rs*c*Llr^2+4*Rm*c*Lls*wr^2*Llr^2*Lm+4*Rm*c*Lls*wr^2*Llr*Lm^2+4*Rm^2*Rs*c*Llr*Lm
+4*Rm*c*Lls*Rr^2*Lm+8*Rm*Rs*c*Rr*Llr*Lm+4*Rm*Rs*c*Rr*Lm^2+2*Rm^2*Rs*c^2*wr^2*Llr^2*Lm+2*Rm^2*Rs*c^2*Rr^2*Lm
+2*Rm^2*Rs*c^2*wr^2*Llr*Lm^2+2*Rm*Rs^2*c^2*wr^2*Llr^2*Lm+2*Rm*Rs^2*c^2*Rr^2*Lm+2*Rm*Rs^2*c^2*wr^2*Llr*Lm^2
+2*Rm^2*Rs*c^2*Lls*wr^2*Llr^2+4*Rm^2*Rs*c^2*Lls*wr^2*Llr*Lm+2*Rm^2*Rs*c^2*Lls*Rr^2+2*Rm^2*Rs^2*c^2*Rr*Llr
+2*Rm^2*Rs^2*c^2*Rr*Lm+2*Rm^2*Rs*c^2*Lls*wr^2*Lm^2
H = wr^2*Llr^2*Lm^2+4*Rm^2*Rs*c*Rr*Lm+4*Rr*Rm*Llr*Lm+Rm^2*Lm^2+2*Rr*Lm^2*Rm+Llr^2*Rm^2+2*Llr*Rm^2*Lm
+2*c*Rm^2*wr^2*Llr*Lm^2+Rm^2*Rs^2*c^2*wr^2*Lm^2+4*Rm*Rs*c*Rr^2*Lm+2*Rm^2*c*Lls*Rr^2+4*Rm^2*Rs*c*Rr*Llr
+2*c*Rm^2*Rr^2*Lm+Rm^2*Rs^2*c^2*Rr^2+2*c*Rm^2*wr^2*Llr^2*Lm+4*Rm*Rs*c*wr^2*Llr^2*Lm+4*Rm^2*c*Lls*wr^2*Llr*Lm
+4*Rm*Rs*c*wr^2*Llr*Lm^2+2*Rm^2*c*Lls*wr^2*Llr^2+2*Rm^2*Rs^2*c^2*wr^2*Llr*Lm+2*Rm^2*c*Lls*wr^2*Lm^2+Rr^2*Lm^2
+Rm^2*Rs^2*c^2*wr^2*Llr^2
295
APPENDIX D
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
This appendix contains the lists of authors publications during the course of this study.
Journal Publications
[1] D. Seyoum, C. Grantham and M. F. Rahman, The dynamic characteristics of an
isolated self-excited induction generator driven by a wind turbine, scheduled for
publication in the IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 39, No. 4,
July-Aug. 2003, pp. 936 -944.
[2] D. Seyoum, M. F. Rahman and C. Grantham, Improved flux estimation in
induction machines for control application, accepted for publication in the special
issue of Journal of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Australia (JEEEA),
Institute of Engineers Australia (IEAust), Vol. 22, No. 23, 2003, pp. 243-248.
[3] 3 D. McKinnon, D. Seyoum and C. Grantham, Novel dynamic model for a threephase induction motor with iron loss and variable rotor parameter considerations,
accepted for publication in the special issue of Journal of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering Australia (JEEEA), Institute of Engineers Australia (IEAust), Vol. 22,
No. 23, 2003, pp. 219-225.
[4] C. Grantham, M.F. Rahman and D. Seyoum, A regulated self-excited induction
generator for use in a remote area power supply, International Journal of
Renewable Energy Engineering, Vol. 2, Curtin University of Technology, 2000,
pp. 135-140.
Conference Publications
[5] D. Seyoum, M. F. Rahman and C. Grantham Inverter Supplied Voltage Control
System for an Isolated Induction Generator Driven by Wind Turbine, accepted in
IEEE Industry Applications Society 38th Annual Meeting, The Grand America
Hotel, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA, October 12 - 16, 2003.
296
APPENDIX D
LIST OF PUBLICATION
APPENDIX D
LIST OF PUBLICATION
298
APPENDIX D
LIST OF PUBLICATION
299
APPENDIX D
LIST OF PUBLICATION
300