Overview of Religion

In this tutorial, you will learn about the religious experience in general and
some of its variations around the world. The focus will be on the types of
religious beliefs and religious leaders, especially in small-scale societies. An
exploration of Christianity, Judaism, Islam, or any other major religion is
beyond the scope of this tutorial. The approach taken is that of cultural
relativity--religious practices or beliefs are not evaluated in terms of their
"correctness" or "sophistication" but, rather, in terms of their function within the
societies that have them.

What is Religion?
A religion is a system of beliefs usually involving the worship of supernatural
forces or beings. Religious beliefs provide shape and meaning to one's
perception of the universe. In other words, they provide a sense of order in
what might otherwise be seen as a chaotic existence. Religions also provide
understanding and meaning for inexplicable events such as a loved one being
killed in an earthquake or some other unpredictable force of nature. For most
religious people, their beliefs about the supernatural are at the very core of
their world views.

Rituals in Religion
The performance of rituals is an integral part of all
religions. Rituals are stylized and usually repetitive acts
that take place at a set time and location. They almost
always involve the use of symbolic objects, words, and
actions. For example, going to church on Sunday is a
common religious ritual for Christians around the world. It
usually requires the wearing of somewhat different clothing Symbolic objects used
and interacting with others in a particular manner in a in Christian rituals
sacred location. At the heart of this experience is a sequence of traditional
ritual acts that symbolically represent aspects of the life, teachings, and death
of Jesus.

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Maya Temple in Guatemala
built on a high pyramid base
to make it a sacred location
Most religious rituals are performed in special places
and under special conditions, such as in a dedicated
temple or at a sacred spot. This is an intentional
separation between the secular and the sacred. By
being removed from the ordinary world, the sacred
acts are enhanced for the believers. The separation
makes the rituals more effective. Only allowing
initiated people to participate in religious rituals also
can have the same effect.

Religious ritual reinforces the basic tenets of religion. For instance, the
"partaking of the host" in the Catholic mass is a symbolic participation in the
"last supper" of Jesus and, by extension, an affirmation of the acceptance of
his teachings. Rituals are often charged with high emotions. The exalted
feelings people experience during rituals provide positive reinforcement for
continuing them. When rituals make people "feel good", they reinforce the
belief that their religion is the "correct" one.

Non-Religious Rituals
Not all rituals are religious. Brushing your teeth every morning in the same
place and in the same way is a non-religious ritual. Like religious rituals, it
also can make you "feel good", which reinforces your continuance of the
practice. However, it rarely involves a belief in
supernatural beings or forces.

Political ideologies and movements often have rituals that

can be profoundly important for people, especially when
they become the focus of nationalism. Communism and
extreme nationalist movements over the last century
Children displaying their
essentially became secular religions in some national flag--a powerful
countries. They had their rituals, essentially sacred secular symbolic object
objects, and beliefs that provided meaning and order for millions of people.
Even in democratic nations that are more international in their focus, there are
often symbolic political objects and rituals connected with them. An example
in the United States is the pledge of allegiance to the American flag in schools
and at public meetings. The flag takes on a powerful meaning for which
people have given up their lives despite the fact that it is only a piece of cloth
with different portions dyed red, white, or blue.

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 Psychological and Social Functions of Religion
Religions fulfill psychological needs. They help us confront and explain
death. They help relieve our fears and anxieties about the unknown.
Supernatural powers and beings may be appealed to or manipulated by
people in times of crisis, as for example in praying to win a battle or survive a
fierce storm. Religions help ease the stress during personal life crises such
as birth, marriage, serious illness, and death. It is not a coincidence that in
most societies the "rites of passage" that are performed to help people adjust
to these often highly emotional transitions are strongly religious. We also get
psychological relief from "divinely given" moral codes. They lift some of the
burden of decision making from our shoulders in difficult situations because
they tell us what is right and wrong. Knowing what to do without having to
think deeply about it provides tremendous psychological relief.

Formal North American Church wedding

(religious ritual is central to this rite of passage)

Religions also fulfill social needs. They can be powerful, dynamic forces in
society. By reinforcing group norms , they help bring about social
homogeneity. They can provide a basis for common purpose and values that
can help maintain social solidarity. A uniformity of beliefs helps bind people
together and reinforces group identity.

In most societies, religions play an important role in social control by defining

what is right and wrong behavior. If individuals do the right things in life, they
may earn the approval of the gods. If they do the wrong things, they may
suffer supernatural retribution. For instance, the most sacred text of Islam,
the Koran , not only provides detailed lists of specific kinds of crimes and
appropriate earthly punishments, but it also gives descriptions of how to do
mundane tasks such as eating specific kinds of food.

The sacred texts of religions usually set precedents for proper behavior in
common situations. The Judeo-Christian Bible stories of Adam and Eve, Cain
and Able, Noah, Job, Moses, Solomon, and even Jesus provide examples of

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how virtuous people should lead their lives. It does not matter whether the
sacred stories or myths of a religion actually occurred in every detail--they are
still illustrative of correct thought and behavior.

Common Elements of Religion

One of the hallmarks of religion is a belief in supernatural beings and forces.
They can take a variety forms, not all of which are found in every religion. The
beliefs usually fall into one of five categories: animatism , animism
, ancestral spirits , gods or goddesses, and minor supernatural beings.

Animatism
A belief in a supernatural power not part of supernatural beings is referred to
as animatism. For those who hold this belief, the power is usually
impersonal, unseen, and potentially everywhere. It is neither good nor evil,
but it is powerful and dangerous if misused. It is something like electricity or
"the force" in the Star Wars movies.

Animatism is a widespread belief, especially in small-scale societies. Among

the Polynesian cultures of the South Pacific, this power is commonly
known as "mana" . For them it is a force that is inherent in all objects,
plants, and animals (including people) to different degrees. Some things or
people have more of it than others and are, therefore, potentially dangerous.
For instance, a chief may have so much of it that he must be carried around
all of the time. If he were to walk on the ground, sufficient residual amounts of
his mana might remain in his footprints to harm ordinary people if they later
stepped on them. Volcanoes and some other places were thought to have
concentrated mana and were, therefore, very dangerous.

Animism

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A belief that natural objects are animated by spirits is animism. The term
comes from the Latin word for soul (anima). This belief can take diverse
forms. Things in nature may all have within them different spirits--each rock,
tree, and cloud may have its own unique spirit. Alternatively, all things in
nature may be thought of as having the same spirit. This latter version of
animism was characteristic of many Native American cultures. In both forms
of animism, the spirits are thought of as having identifiable personalities and
other characteristics such as gender. A belief in a powerful, mature,
protective "mother nature" is an example. The spirits may be benevolent,
malevolent, or neutral. They can be lovable, terrifying, or even mischievous.
They can interact with humans and can be pleased or irritated by human
actions. Therefore, people must be concerned about them and will try to
avoid displeasing them.

Initially, animatism and animism may seem to be the same thing. In fact both
beliefs are often found in the same culture. The difference, however, is that
the "power" of animatism does not have a personality--it is an impersonal "it"
rather than a "he" or "she" with human-like characteristics. Spirits are
individual supernatural beings with their own recognizable traits.

Ancestral Spirits
One special category of spirit found in the belief system of most cultures
consists of the souls or ghosts of ancestors. A belief in ancestral spirits is
consistent with the widespread conviction that humans have at least two
parts--a physical body and some kind of non-physical spirit or soul. The spirit
portion is generally believed to be freed from the body by death and continues
to exist in some form. Ancestral spirits are often seen as retaining an active
interest and even membership in their family and society. Like living people,
they can have emotions, feelings, and appetites. They must be treated well to
assure their continued good will and assistance to the living.

In China, ancestral spirits are often thought of as still being active family
members. They are treated warmly with respect and honor. Traditional
Chinese families in rural villages often set a place at feast tables for their
ancestors as if they were still living. If treated well, the ancestral spirits may
help their living descendants have bigger crops, do better in business, or
achieve other desirable goals because they are still interested in the well
being of the family.

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In European cultures, the spirits of dead ancestors are usually
not thought of so kindly. The dead and their spirits have been
seen historically as dangerous. They haunt the living and
often do unpleasant, frightening, and unpredictable things.
Ghosts or spirits are feared and avoided because of the
danger inherent in encounters with them. This belief that the
dead more likely than not will be malevolent is one of the
reasons that Europeans have traditionally buried their relatives
in cemeteries, which are essentially cities of the dead
physically separated from the living. It also accounts for the success of
Hollywood's many haunted house movies. Ghosts are stereotypical villains
for people in European derived cultures. In contrast, those cultures that
believe ancestral spirits are helpful usually bury or store the remains of dead
family members in or around the home to keep them close. In some cultures,
people eat parts of the body of dead relatives or mix their cremated ashes in
water and drink it. This mortuary cannibalism is intended to allow the dead to
remain part of their living family. For the Yanomamö and some other lowland
forest peoples of South America, not consuming the ashes of their relatives
would be extremely unkind and insensitive.

Gods and Goddesses

Most religions maintain a belief in powerful supernatural beings with individual
identities and recognizable attributes. These beings are usually thought of
as gods or goddesses. Another term for them is deities. Like spirits, they
have individual identities and recognizable attributes. However, gods and
goddesses are more powerful than spirits and other lesser supernatural
beings--they can effectively alter all of nature and human fortunes. As a
result, they are commonly worshipped and requests are made of them to help
in times of need.

Religions differ in the number of gods that their followers believe exist. A
belief that there is only one god is referred to as monotheism .
Judaism , Christianity , and Islam are examples of monotheistic
religions. In contrast, a belief in more than one god is known
as polytheism . Hinduism is a polytheistic religion.

When there are many gods in a religion, they are typically ranked relative to
each other in terms of their powers and their interests. The supreme god is
often an otiose deity . That is, he or she established the order of the

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universe at the beginning of time and is now remote from earthly concerns
("otiose" is Greek for "at rest). As a result, otiose deities may be almost
ignored in favor of lesser gods who take an interest in the everyday affairs of
humans now.

The simple distinction between monotheism and polytheism may be

deceptive. The truth can be much more complex. For instance, some
scholars have argued that monotheisms, such as Catholicism , are
actually de facto polytheisms for many of the faithful. From this perspective,
Jesus, the Virgin Mary, and the saints are prayed to for guidance and help as
if they were minor gods themselves. While the Christian God is considered all
powerful, he is often not the one who is turned to by Catholics during life
crises. Perhaps, this is because he is essentially an otiose deity for them.

Hinduism is also more complex than it may seem initially. In India and Bali,
Hindus can be observed fervently worshipping hundreds of different gods.
This fits the classic description of a polytheistic religion. However, since the
many gods are only different manifestations of the supreme being, or
Bhagavan , Hinduism can also be interpreted as a monotheism. It all
depends on whether you are talking to a rural peasant farmer or an educated
priest.

Minor Supernatural Beings

Minor supernatural beings are not spirits, gods, humans, or other natural
beings. People do not pray to them for help. Yet these beings have some
supernatural capabilities. In Western European folk tradition, leprechauns ,
elves , and pixies were minor supernatural beings. They were human-
like in appearance and personality but could do things that were beyond the
abilities of humans. Minor supernatural beings often have a "trickster" role.
That is to say, they fool people, do outlandish things, and disappear. For
instance, many rural people in Ireland in the past believed that elves steal boy
children. As a result, mothers clothed their young sons in dresses and let
their hair grow long like girls to avoid their being taken. Tricksters are
frequently neither good nor bad. They do what they want and are often
trouble makers. For the Indians of Western North America, coyote usually
had such a trickster role in popular stories. For instance, he would skillfully
disarm powerful people with his words and then magically steal what they
valued most when their guard was down. In most cultures, tricksters are
small, quick moving animals. In India, the trickster is usually a mouse, and in

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Africa it is a spider. Among the Native cultures of the Americas in which
coyote did not fulfill the trickster role, it was usually a bird such as a raven.
Tricksters are still popular in the high tech, industrialized societies of the
modern world. However, we rarely make the connection with the tricksters of
earlier traditions and other cultures. For instance, the cartoon characters
Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck are classic tricksters. They are small animals
that speak and act like humans and play unexpected, humorous tricks at the
expensive of others and usually avoid the consequences for themselves.

Religious Leaders
All societies have individuals whose job it is to guide or supplement the
religious practices of others. These religious leaders may be one of three
different types--priest , shaman , or prophet . In reality, some
individuals may at times have the functions of more than one of these
categories.

Priest
A religious leader who is part of an organized religion is
considered to be a priest or priestess. Of course, different
religions have different terms for these individuals--they
may be known as rabbis, ministers, mullahs, Imams, or
something else. These individuals are the keepers of the
sacred law and tradition. They are found mostly in large-
scale societies.

Priests are authorized by a Hindu priest leading

Catholic monks on a pilgrimage
(members of a "priesthood")
a ritual at a shrine
priesthood, or some other
religious organization, to perform
religious rituals designed to influence the
supernatural world and to guide the believers in
their religious practices. Priests personally do not
have supernatural powers at their command.
Priests are initiated and ceremonially inducted

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members of an established religious organization. That is, they are members
of a priesthood. Their rank and function results from holding a religious office
held by others before them.

Shaman
A shaman is a person who is not part of an organized religion and is in direct
contact with the spirit world, usually through a trance state. A shaman has
spirit helpers at his or her command to carry out curing, divining ,
and bewitching . Shamanistic power is acquired individually, usually in
physical and/or mental solitude and isolation from other humans. Spirits or
some other supernatural entities are revealed to the shaman and he or she
learns how to control them.

A shaman is essentially a religious entrepreneur who acts for human clients.

He or she intervenes on behalf of a human client to influence supernatural
beings to perform some act such as curing an illness or discovering the cause
of an unexpected death. The shaman essentially acts as a middleman in
this. In contrast, a priest's clients are the gods. A priest tells people what to
do. A shaman tells the supernatural beings what to do. However, both
shamans and priests are paid for their services with material things and/or
prestige.

Shamans are common in small-scale societies. However, they do not

completely disappear in large-scale societies that have organized religions.
For example, in the Philippines and in some American Philippine
communities, there are individuals who perform "spirit surgery." Evangelical
Christian "faith healers" somewhat fit the definition of a shaman also. It
depends on what they believe is the source of their "power." They are
shamans if they personally have power to compel their God to cure people.

Prophet
A prophet is an individual who receives divine revelation concerning a
restructuring of religion and usually of society as well. They call for dramatic
change while priesthoods usually act as conservative forces in preserving
long-standing traditions. Not surprisingly, prophets are usually outside of the
priesthood and are seen by priests as irritating, disruptive trouble-makers. It
is not unusual for prophets to come from humble or unknown origins.

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When Jews and Christians think of prophets, people like Isaiah, Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, and Daniel usually come to mind. However, the most striking
example of a biblical prophet was Jesus. He essentially came out of nowhere
as prophets often do and insisted on a radical restructuring of Judaism.

If a prophet is successful in convincing enough people that he or she is right,

a new religion is usually established. That was the case with Mohamed and
the beginning of Islam. Likewise, Joseph Smith's divine revelation and
subsequent prophetic teaching in the 1830's and early 1840's led to the
creation of the Church of the Latter Day Saints (the Mormons).

Trancing in Religion
Trancing is activity that results in an altered state of consciousness in
which an individual is in a hypnotic-like mental state or at least profoundly
absorbed. This is a common technique used by shamans all over the world to
enter the spirit world. When they go into a trance, they commonly report that
they are taking a journey in which they must pass through difficult situations in
order to reach their own spirit helpers. Those friendly spirits then aid the
shaman in curing an illness, bewitching someone, or in some other
supernatural way.

Around the world, shamans and mystics use a variety of methods to achieve a
trance state. These include:

1. fasting
2. self-torture (flagellation)
3. sensory deprivation (prolonged isolation from normal human contact)
4. breathing exercises and meditation
prolonged, repetitive, ritual dancing and/or drumming (this can alter brain wave
5.
patterns)
6. hallucinogenic drugs

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 Early 20th
century Crow Turkish
Indian Dervishes using
on the Great prolonged,
Plains of North repetitive, ritual
America using dancing to enter
self-torture in an altered
order to receive state of
a vision from awareness.
the supernatural Accompanied by
world. Skewers music,
of bone are they slowly
inserted through dance around
the in a large circle
chest skin and while
tied with leather constantly
thongs to a "sun spinning. The
pole." He Dervishes are a
will dance mystic
around it until the Sufi sect of
skewers tear Islam.
free.

The shamanistic use of hallucinogenic drugs has been widespread, especially

in the Americas. Their use has been particularly common in small-scale,
egalitarian societies. When such drugs are available, they are usually
considered to be the easiest and the fastest method of contacting the
supernatural. Hallucinogenic drugs derived from plants are the most common
sources. Some of these drugs can quickly bring on visions of an
overwhelming nature in addition to causing strong physical reactions. The
use of hallucinogens traditionally was not limited to shamans in Siberia, the
Amazon Basin of South America, and Europe until the late Middle Ages. In
these regions, an experienced shaman usually functioned as a facilitator and
guide for a group of people taking these drugs in an attempt to contact or
enter the supernatural world.

Magic and Religion

Most cultures of the world have religious beliefs that supernatural powers can
be compelled, or at least influenced, to act in certain ways for good or evil
purposes by using ritual formulas. These formulas are, in a sense, magic.
By performing certain magical acts in a particular way, crops might be

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improved, game herds replenished, illness cured or avoided, animals and
people made fertile. This is very different from television and stage "magic"
that depends on slight-of-hand tricks and contrived illusions rather than
supernatural power.

For those who believe that magic is an effective method for causing
supernatural actions, there are two major ways in which this commonly
believed to occur--sympathy and contagion. Sympathetic magic is based
on the principle that "like produces like." For instance, whatever happens to
an image of someone will also happen to them. This is the basis for use of
Voodoo dolls in the folk tradition of Haiti. If someone sticks a pin into the
stomach of the doll, the person of whom it is a likeness will be expected to
experience a simultaneous pain in his or her stomach. Sympathetic magic is
also referred to as imitative magic. Contagious magic is based on the
principle that things or persons once in contact can afterward influence each
other. In other words, it is believed that there is a permanent relationship
between an individual and any part of his or her body. As a consequence,
believers must take special precautions with their hair, fingernails, teeth,
clothes, and feces. If anyone obtained these objects, magic could be
performed on them which would cause the person they came from to be
affected. For instance, someone could use your fingernail clippings in a
magical ritual that would cause you to love them or to fall ill and die.

In a belief system that uses magic as the most logical explanation for illness,
accidents, and other unexpected occurrences, there is no room for natural
causes or chance. Witchcraft provides the explanation--it can be the cause
for most effects. Since it can be practiced in secret, the existence of
witchcraft cannot be easily refuted with arguments. Believers are not
dissuaded by pointing out that there is no evidence that any witchcraft was
used against them. For example, you may wake up in the middle of the night
and go to get a drink of water. On the way, you trip over a chair in the dark,
which causes you to break your leg. You may be convinced that it was an
accident. However, if you believe in witchcraft, you will ask why this accident
happened to you and why now. Magic practiced in secret by someone who
wants to harm you is the answer. The only reasonable questions are who
performed the magic and why. The answers to these questions come
through divination which is a magical procedure by which the cause of a
particular event or the future is determined. Once the guilty person is
discovered, retribution may be gained by public exposure and punishment or
by counter witchcraft.

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Divination is accomplished by many different methods around the world.
Shamans usually go into a trance to find out the answers from their spirit
helpers. The ancient Romans divined the outcome of battles or business
deals by autopsying chickens and examining the condition of their livers.
Divination is still popular with many people in the United States today. There
are individuals who set up business to divine the future for their clients by
examining such things as tea leaves in the bottom of a cup, lines in the hand,
and tarot cards.

In societies in which magic and witchcraft are accepted as realities, mental

illness is usually explained as being a consequence of witchcraft or the
actions of supernatural beings and forces. In Nigeria, folk curers are licensed
by the government to use supernatural means and herbal remedies to cure
people who are suffering from mental illness. Nigeria also licenses doctors
trained in Western medicine, which totally rejects the idea of illness being
caused by magic or other supernatural causes. However, the Western trained
doctors and the folk curers in Nigeria often work cooperatively and send each
other patients that they cannot cure with their own approaches.

When witchcraft is a widespread belief in a society, it may be used as a

means of social control. Anti-social or otherwise deviant behavior often
results in an individual being labeled as a witch in such societies. Since
witches are feared and often ostracized or even killed when discovered, the
mere threat of being accused of witchcraft can be sufficient to force people
into modal behavior.

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