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Chapter 3. Specific Energy and
Control Section
Tan Lai Wai, Wan Afnizan & Zarina Md Ali
laiwai@uthm.edu.my
Updated: September 2014
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
i. Apply specific energy concept in determining
critical flow conditions
ii. Analyse flow over broad‐crested weir
iii. Analyse flow through width constriction
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1.1 Concept of Specific Energy
Specific energy (introduced by Bakhmeteff) is the energy of flow
measured with respect to the channel bottom.
V2
V12 E=y+
1 2g 2
2g
W at e r hf
surfac Energy line slope S
e or hy f
d r au l i c V22
grade
y1 line sl
op e Sw 2g
Bottom slope y2
θ S o
z1
z2
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Datum
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The concept of specific energy is useful in defining critical depth
and in the analysis of flow problems.
Q2
For constant Q, E=y+
2gA2
Variation of E with y is represented by a cubic parabola,
y y
E =
subcritical, Fr < 1
ysub V12
y1
2g
yc
critical, Fr = 1
y1 ysuper V 2
y2 2 supercritical, Fr > 1
yc y
2 45° 2g
BFC21103 Hydraulics E E1= E2 E
min
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1.2 Alternate Depths and Critical Depth
For a specific E (except Emin), there are two flow depths y1 and y2, i.e.
Subcritical y
Alternate depths
Supercritical y
Critical flow occurs when specific energy is minimum, Emin with yc =
critical depth
Note: Negative flow depth is not possible.
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Q2
Specific energy E =y+
2gA2
dE Q 2 dA
Differentiating =1− 3
dy gA dy
At minimum specific energy Emin, y = yc and A = Ac
Q2
0 = 1 − 3 Tc dA
gAc T=
Q2Tc dy
2
=1 dA
gAc Ac dy
Vc2
=1
gDc
Vc
=1
gDc
Fr = 1
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Specific Energy of Flow in Rectangular Section
q2
Since Q = qB E=y+
2gy 2
Rearranging q = 2gy 2 (E − y )
ysub subcritical, Fr < 1
yc critical, Fr = 1
y1
yc
ysuper supercritical, Fr > 1
y2
q
BFC21103 Hydraulics 1q = q2 qmax
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For a specific q (except qmax), there are two flow depths y1 and y2, i.e.
Subcritical y
Conjugate depths
Supercritical y
Critical flow occurs when discharge per unit width is maximum, i.e. qmax
Q = A 2g(E − y )
dQ d A gA
Keeping E constant, = 2g(E − y ) −
dy dy 2g(E − y )
Q gAc2
0 = Tc −
Ac Q
Q2Tc
2
=1
gAc Ac
Fr = 1
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State of flow can be established by comparing yo with yc.
Characteristics Flow condition
Fr = 1
Critical flow
yo = yc
Fr < 1
Subcritical flow
yo > yc
Fr > 1
Supercritical flow
yo < yc
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Activity 3.1
The rate of flow in a 3‐m wide rectangular channel is 10 m3/s.
Calculate the specific energy if the depth of flow is
(a) 3 m; and
(b) 1.2 m.
Q2 102
When y = 3 m, E=y+ = 3+ = 3.063 m
2gA 2
2 × 9.81 × 3 × 3
2 2
Q2 102
When y = 1.2 m, E=y+ = 1.2 + = 1.593 m
2gA 2
2 × 9.81 × 3 × 1.2
2 2
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1.3 Calculation of Critical Depth
Critical depth can be determined by:
i. Trial and error; or
ii. Graphically
1.3.1 Critical Depth from Trial‐and‐Error
For all channel sections, during critical flow (Emin)
Q2Tc
3
=1
gAc
is usually provided
Rewritten as a function Ac3 Q2
=
of critical depth, Tc g
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For rectangular channel, T = B and A = By
Ac3 Q2
=
Tc g
B3 y c3 Q2
becomes =
B g
2
Q
y c3 = 2
Bg
Q q2
Since q = yc = 3 (only applies to rectangular channel)
B g
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Critical depth also occurs when q is maximum
q = 2gy 2 (E − y )
q 2 = 2gy 2 (E − y )
Differentiating q with respect to y
dq
2q = 2gy c (2Emin − 3y c )
dy
dq
= 0 gives 2Emin − 3y c = 0
dy
3
Emin = y c (only applies to rectangular channel)
2
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Critical slope Sc is used to categorize the type of channel slope
Condition of So Type of slope
So = Sc Critical slope
So < Sc Mild slope
So > Sc Steep slope
Critical slope Sc can be calculated by equating Manning resistance flow
equation to critical flow condition
Q2Tc
3
=1
gAc
1 2
gAc3 1
At critical slope, So = Sc Q= = Ac Rc3 Sc2
Tc n
n2gAc
Sc = 4
TR 3
c c
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Activity 3.2
A 4.0 m wide rectangular channel conveys water to a reservoir.
If the discharge in the channel Q = 25 m3/s and Manning
coefficient n = 0.02, find
(a) Critical depth
(b) Critical velocity
(c) Critical slope
q2
(a) yc = 3
g
2
25
yc = 3 = 1.585 m
9.81 × 4 2
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Vc
(b) =1
gDc
Vc
= 1 (for rectangular section, D = y)
gy c
(c) n2gAc
Sc = 4
TR
c c
3
2
n gy
Sc = 4
c
(for rectangular section, T = B)
R 3
c
0.02 × 9.81 × 1.585
2
Sc = 4
= 0.007328
⎛ 4 × 1.585 ⎞ 3
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 + 2 × 1.585 ⎠ BFC21103 Hydraulics
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Activity 3.3
(a) An infinitely wide and straight river has a discharge of 5.0 m3/s/m.
Calculate:
(i) Critical depth
(ii) Froude number of the flow when the flow depth is 6.0 m and
determine the type of flow
(iii) Critical slope of the channel if Manning coefficient n = 0.0044.
(b) Based on the river characteristics given in (a), find the possible
depth of flow y2 for the same specific energy and the
corresponding Froude number.
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q 2 3 52
(a) (i) yc = 3 = = 1.366 m
g 9.81
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(b) Specific energy at y1 = 6 m
q2 52
E 1 = y1 + =6+ = 6.035 m
2gy12
2 × 9.81 × 6 2
y2 = 0.4789 m
V q 5
At y2 = 0.4789 m, Fr = = = = 4.817
gy gy 3
9.81 × 0.4789 3
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1.3.2 Graphical Method
Ac3
Critical depth of flow yc can be solved by plotting y against or Ac Dc
Tc
Activity 3.5
For a trapezoidal channel with bottom width B = 6 m and side slope
z = 2, find the critical flow depth if the discharge is 17 m3/s
graphically.
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Ac3 Q2
=
Tc g
Ac3
= 29.46
Tc yc (m)
A (6y c + 2y )
3 2 3 1.2
Also, c
= c
1
Tc 6 + 4yc 0.84 m
0.8
yc (m) Ac3/Tc 0.6
1 51.20 0.4
2 571.43
0.2
0.5 5.36 29.46 Ac3
0
0.7 15.79 Tc
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0.8 24.43
From the graph, y c = 0.84 m
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1.4 Control Sections
A control section is where for a given discharge Q, the flow depth y
and velocity V are fixed.
The critical depth yc is also a control point since at this section Fr = 1,
effective when subcritical flow changes to supercritical flow. When
supercritical flow changes to subcritical flow, a hydraulic jumps
usually bypass the critical depth as control point.
A control section 'controls' the upstream or downstream flow.
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Examples of control sections:
(a) Flow from a mild channel (b) A mild‐slope channel
to steep channel discharging into a pool
M2
M2 control
control yo
yo S2 yc
yc
Drop
Mild Pool
Steep yo
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(c) Free overflow (sudden (d) Reservoir water flows on a
drop) steep slope
H2
control
control
S2
yc yc
Horizontal bed
Reservoir
Steep yo
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(e) Flow through sluice gate (f) Flow over spillway
control
M1 control
M1
yo Jump yo
yc yc
Mild Mild
control M3
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(g) Flow over broad‐crested (h) Flow through constricted
weir channel width
control
control
yc yc
H
Hump
Constriction
Plan view
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1.5 Flow Over Broad‐Crested Weir
Flow in a prismatic open channel is uniform if there is no obstruction
e.g. of a hydraulic structure.
If broad‐crested weir is installed, uniform flow changes to non‐
uniform flow. Changes to the water surface profile is influenced by
the weir height H and the flow condition before the weir (upstream
flow), i.e. either supercritical or subcritical.
0 1 2 3 yo = normal depth of flow
y1 = depth of flow just before weir
y2 = depth of flow on the weir
yo
H y3 = depth of flow just after weir
Weir
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Minimum Height of Weir Hmin
Height of weir H determines the depth of flow above the weir y2, i.e.
whether y2 = yc or not.
Hmin = minimum height of weir which will start to produce critical
flow depth above the weir (y2 starts to change to yc)
Generally, depth of flow above the weir y2 is
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Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
H y H y H y
y1 ≠ y3 ≠ yo
H < Hmin H = Hmin H > Hmin
y1 = y1′
or y1 = y3 = yo or y1 = y3 = yo or
y3 = y3′
Condition of Emin + H < Eo y2 ≠ yc Emin + H = Eo y2 = yc Emin + H > Eo
y2 = yc
upstream flow Submerged E2 = Eo − H Rarely E2 = Emin Control
E1,3 = Emin + H
weir occur weir
yo E2 = Emin
yc < y2 < yo y1′ > yo and y3′ < yc
Backwater
E2 = Emin E2 = Emin
Subcritical E2
yo > yc Eo Eo y Eo y2 = yc
yo y2 y2=yc yo y1
yc o
H H yc H y3
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
E2 = Emin
Supercritical E2 = Emin
E2
yo < yc Eo Eo
y2=yc
Eo y1 y2 = yc
y2 yc
Jump
yo H yo H yo yc H y3
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
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Steps in Analysing Flow Over Broad‐Crested Weir
1. Calculate yo and yc
Determine state of upstream flow yo, i.e. either subcritical or
supercritical by comparing with yc.
If yo > yc → subcritical upstream
If yo < yc → supercritical upstream
2. Calculate Hmin
By comparing height of weir H with Hmin, the condition of flow
over weir can be established, i.e.
If H < Hmin → Case 1
If H = Hmin → Case 2
If H > Hmin → Case 3
3. Determine y1, y2 and y3.
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Case 1: H < Hmin y
= y
EGL E
Subcritical y1 = y3 = yo
upstream E2
Eo
yo > yc yo y2 y2
yc yc
yc < y2 < yo yc
H
E
0 1 2 3 Emin E2 Eo
H
Hmin
y = y
E
EGL
Supercritical
upstream E2
yo < yc Eo
y2 yc yc
yo < y2 < yc y2
yo H y1,3 = yo
E
0 1 2 3 Emin E2 Eo
BFC21103 Hydraulics H
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Hmin
For Case 1,
H < Hmin Useful equations
H < Eo − Emin Steps
All sections Rectangular section
E1 = E 3 = Eo 2 2
y2 ≠ yc 1. Calculate Qn qn
Manning: AR = 3
Manning: yoR =3
yo and yc 1 1
S 2
o S 2
o
Ac3 Q2 q2
= yc = 3
Tc g g
2. Calculate Q2 q2
Eo = yo + 2
Eo = yo +
Hmin 2gA 2gyo2
Q2 3
Emin = y c + Emin = y c
2gAc 2
Hmin = E o − Emin
3. Determine y1 = y3 = yo
y1, y2 & y3 E2 = Eo − H
Q2 q2
y2 + 2
= E2 y2 + 2
= E2
2gA2
BFC21103 Hydraulics 2gy2
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Case 2: H = Hmin y
= y
EGL E
Subcritical E2 = Emin y1 = y3 = yo
upstream
yo > yc Eo y
o y2=yc y2 = yc
y2 = yc < yo H
E
0 1 2 3 E2=Emin Eo
H=Hmin
y = y
E
EGL
Supercritical
upstream E2 = Emin
yo < yc Eo
y2=yc y2 = yc
y2 = yc > yo
yo H y1,3 = yo
E
0 1 2 3 E2=Emin Eo
BFC21103 Hydraulics H=Hmin
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
For Case 2,
H = Hmin Useful equations
Hmin = Eo − Emin Steps
All sections Rectangular section
E1 = E 3 = Eo 2 2
E2 = Emin 1. Calculate Qn qn
Manning: AR = 3
Manning: yoR =
3
yo and yc 1 1
y2 = yc S 2 S 2
o o
Ac3 Q2 q2
= yc = 3
Tc g g
2. Calculate Q2 q2
Eo = yo + 2
Eo = yo +
Hmin 2gA 2gyo2
Q2 3
Emin = y c + Emin = y c
2gAc 2
Hmin = E o − Emin
3. Determine y1 = y3 = yo
y1, y2 & y3 y2 = yc
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y
y1′ > yo and y3′ < yc y
EGL E =
Subcritical Backwater E2 = Emin y1 = y1′ ≠ yo
upstream yo
yo > yc Eo y1 y2 = yc y2 = yc
yo
y2 = yc < yo yc H y3 y3 ≠ yo
y′1 > yo E
0 1 2 3 E2=Emin Eo E′1,3
y′3 < yc
Hmin
H>Hmin
y1′ > yc and y3′ < yo
y = y
EGL y1 = y1′ ≠ yo E
Supercritical E2 = Emin
upstream
yo < yc Eo Jump y1 y2 = yc y2 = yc
y2 = yc > yo yo
yo yc H y3 ≠ yo
y′1 > yo y3
E
y′3 > yc 0 1 2 3 E2=Emin Eo E′1=E3
BFC21103 Hydraulics Hmin
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my) H>Hmin
For Case 3,
H > Hmin Useful equations
H > Eo − Emin Steps
All sections Rectangular section
E′ 1 = E′ 3 ≠ Eo 2 2
y2 = yc 1. Calculate Qn qn
yo and yc Manning: AR = 3
1 Manning: yoR =3
1
S 2
o S 2
o
Ac3 Q2 q2
= yc = 3
Tc g g
2. Calculate Q2 q2
Eo = yo + 2
Eo = yo +
Hmin 2gA 2gyo2
Q2 3
Emin = y c + Emin = y c
2gAc 2
Hmin = E o − Emin
3. Determine y′1 ≠ y′3 ≠ yo
y1, y2 & y3 E′1,3 = Emin + H
Q2 q2
′ +
y1,3 = E1′ ,3 ′ +
y1,3 = E1′ ,3
2gA1′ ,3
BFC21103 Hydraulics
2
′2
2gy1,3
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Activity 3.6
10 m3/s of flow is conveyed in a rectangular channel of 4 m width, n
= 0.015 and So = 0.0075. If a weir with height 0.92 m is built in the
channel, determine the depth of flow on the weir.
Step 1. Determine yo and yc
2
qn
yoR =
3
1
S 2
o
2 ⎛ 10 ⎞ × 0.015
⎛ 4 yo ⎞ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
3 y
yo ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎝ 4 + 2 y o ⎠
1
0.00752 B
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2
⎛ 4 yo ⎞ 3
yo ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.4330
⎝ 4 + 2y o ⎠
yo = 0.6804 m
2
⎛ 10 ⎞
q 2 3 ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
yc = 3 = = 0.8605 m yo < yc → supercritical flow
g 9.81
Step 2. Calculate Hmin 2
⎛ 10 ⎞
q2 ⎜ ⎟
Eo = yo + = 0.6804 + ⎝4⎠ = 1.369 m
2gyo2
2 × 9.81 × 0.6804 2
3 3
Emin = y c = × 0.8605 = 1.291 m
2 2
Hmin = E o − Emin = 1.369 − 1.291 = 0.078 m
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Step 3. Determine y2
Since H = 0.92 m > Hmin = 0.078 m → Case 3 Hydraulic jump &
y2 = yc = 0.8605 m
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Activity 3.7
A rectangular channel conveys flow at yo = 1.6 m and R = 0.77 on
So = 1/3000 and Manning n = 0.01.
(a) What is the minimum height of weir to control the flow in
the channel?
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Given yo = 1.6 m, R = 0.77, So = 1/3000, n = 0.01
Step 2. Calculate Hmin
q2 2.4542
Eo = yo + = 1.6 + = 1.720 m
2gyo2
2 × 9.81 × 1.6 2
3 3
Emin = y c = × 0.8499 = 1.275 m
2 2
Hmin = E o − Emin = 1.720 − 1.275 = 0.445 m
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(b) Step 3. Determine y1, y2 & y3.
In (a), H = Hmin → Case 2.
For Case 2, y1 = y3 = yo = 1.6 m
y2 = yc = 0.8499 m
Through trial‐and‐error,
y′1 = 1.778 m and y′3 = 0.4669 m
since y′1 > yo and y′3 < yc
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1.6 Flow Through Constricted Channel
If width of a prismatic channel is reduced/enlarged at a section, uniform
flow changes to non‐uniform flow. Changes to the water surface profile is
influenced by the width of constriction B2 and the flow condition before the
constriction, i.e. either supercritical or subcritical.
Plan view Since B2 < Bo, q2 > qo
V12 Q2
q q2 E 1 = y1 + = y 1 +
B B2 2g 2gB12 y12
V22 Q2
E 2 = y2 + = y2 +
0 1 2 3 2g 2gB22 y22
Bed elevations at 1 and 2 are the same, E1 = E2
qo2 Q2
q 2 y y yc2 = 3 2
2gyo2 2 Side view 2 B2 g
2
2gy2 y c = Emin
EGL 3 yo
yo
y2 y2
yc
q yo y1 q2 y y3
2
q2
qo
0 1 2
BFC21103 Hydraulics
3
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qo q2 qmax q E
Maximum Width of Constriction Bmax
Width of constriction B2 determines the depth of flow at the
constricted section y2, i.e. whether y2 = yc2 or not.
Bmax = maximum width of constriction which will start to produce
critical flow depth at the constriction (y2 starts to change to yc2)
yco or yc1 = critical depth of flow along the unconstricted section
yc2 = critical depth of flow at the constricted section.
Generally, depth of flow at constriction y2 is
If B2 > Bmax → y2 ≠ yc2
If B2 = Bmax → y2 = yc2
If B2 < Bmax → y2 = y′c2> yc2
Therefore, y2 = yc2 or y′c2 and E2 = Emin if B2 ≤ Bmax
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Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
B y B y B y
B2 < Bmax y1 ≠ y3 ≠ yo
B2 > Bmax B2 = Bmax
y1 = y3 = yo or y1 = y3 = yo
or y1 = y1′
or Emin 2 > Eo
y2 ≠ yc2 Emin 2 = Eo y2 = yc2 y3 = y3′
Emin 2 < Eo
Condition of
E2 = Eo or E2 = Emin 2 = Eo
or y2 = yc2
or q > qmax
upstream flow
q = qmax E1,3 = E'min 2 ≠ Eo
q < qmax
yo Control constriction E2 = E'min 2
yc2 < y2 < yo y1′ > yo and y3′ < yc2
Backwater
E2 = Emin 2 = Eo E2 = E′min 2
E2 = Eo
Subcritical
yo > yco Eo Eo y Eo
yo yo y1
y2 yc2
o
y2=yc2 y2=yc2
yco yco yco y3
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
E2 = E′min 2
Supercritical E2 = Eo E2 = Emin 2 = Eo
yo < yco Eo Eo Eo y1
yco y2 yc2 yco y2=yc2 Jump y2=yc2
yo yo yo yco y3
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
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Steps in Analysing Flow Through Constriction
1. Calculate yo and yco
Determine state of upstream flow yo, i.e. either subcritical or
supercritical by comparing with yco.
If yo > yco → subcritical upstream
If yo < yco → supercritical upstream
2. Calculate yc2, qmax and Bmax
When width of a channel is being constricted, yc2 can be obtained
since Emin = Eo. Once Bmax is calculated, the condition of flow
through the constriction can be established, i.e.
If B2 > Bmax → Case 1
If B2 = Bmax → Case 2
If B2 < Bmax → Case 3
3. Determine y1, y2 and y3.
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Case 1: B2 > Bmax y
= y
EGL E
Subcritical y1 = y3 = yo
upstream E2 y2
Eo Bmax or qmax
yo > yco yo yc2
y2 yco B2 or q2
yc2 < y2 < yo yco yc2
Emino B or qo
Emin 2 E =E =E =E E
0 1 2 3 o 1 2 3
y
= y
EGL E
Supercritical
upstream Bmax or qmax
Eo E2 yc2
yo < yco
yc2 yco
y2 B2 or q2
yo < y2 < yc2 yco B or qo
yo y2 y1 = y3 = yo
E
0 1 2 3 Emino Emin 2 Eo=E1=E2=E3
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
For Case 1,
B2 > Bmax Steps Useful equations
Emin 2 < Eo 2 2
1. Calculate Qn qn
E2 = Eo yo and yco
AR = 1 3
Manning: or yoR 3 = 1
y2 ≠ yc2 So2 So2
q2
y co = 3
g
2. Calculate q2 3
Eo = yo + ; Emin = y c 2
yc2, qmax and 2gyo2 2
Bmax
2
qmax Q
yc2 = 3 ; qmax =
g Bmax
3. Determine y1 = y3 = yo
y1, y2 & y3 E2 = Eo
q2
y2 + 2
= E2
2gy2
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
Case 2: B2 = Bmax y
= y
EGL E
Subcritical y1 = y3 = yo
upstream E2 y2 = yc2
Eo Bmax or qmax
yo > yco yo
yco
y2 = yc2 < yo yco y2=yc2
B or qo
E
0 1 2 3 Emino Emin 2 = Eo
y
= y
EGL E
Supercritical
upstream E2 Bmax or qmax
yo < yco Eo y2 = yc2
yco
y2 = yc2 > yo yco y2 =yc2 B or qo
yo y1 = y3 = yo
E
0 1 2 3 Emino Emin 2 = Eo
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
For Case 2,
B2 = Bmax Steps Useful equations
Emin 2 = Eo 2 2
1. Calculate Qn qn
E2 = Emin 2 = Eo y and y AR = 1 3
Manning: or yoR 3 = 1
y2 = yc2 o co
So2 So2
q2
y co = 3
g
2. Calculate q2 3
Eo = yo + ; Emin = y c 2
yc2, qmax and 2gyo2 2
Bmax
2
qmax Q
yc2 = 3 ; qmax =
g Bmax
3. Determine y1 = y3 = yo
y1, y2 & y3 y2 = yc2
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
Case 3: B2 < Bmax y
EGL = y
E
Backwater E2=E′min y′1
Subcritical yo
upstream y2 = y′c2
Eo B2<Bmax
yo > yco yo y′1 y
yco c2
y′c2 y′3 Bmax
y2 = yc2 < yo yco B or qo
y′3
E
0 1 2 3 Emino Emin 2 E′min 2
y
EGL = y
E
E2=E′min
Supercritical y′1
Jump
upstream y2 = y′c2
yo < yco Eo y′1 B2<Bmax
yco Bmax or qmax
y2 = yc2 > yo y′c2 yo
yo yco y′3 y′3 B or qo
E
0 1 2 3 Emino Emin 2 E′min 2
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
For Case 3,
B2 < Bmax Steps Useful equations
E′min 2 ≠ Eo
2 2
1. Calculate Qn qn
AR = 1 3
Manning: or yoR = 1
3
E2 = E′min 2 yo and yco
So2 So2
y2 = y′c2
q2
y co = 3
g
2. Calculate q2 3
Eo = yo + ; Emin = y c 2
yc2, qmax and 2gyo2 2
Bmax
2
qmax Q
yc2 = 3 ; qmax =
g Bmax
3. Determine Q ′2
qmax
y1, y2 & y3 ′ =
qmax ; y c′ 2 = 3
B2 g
3 ′2
qmax
Emin = y c′ 2
′ ; E1,3 ′ = y1,3′ +
2 ′2
2gy1,3
y1 = y3 ≠ yo ; y2 = y′c2
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
Activity 3.8
A bridge is to be built across a 50‐m wide rectangular channel
carrying flow of 200 m3/s at depth 4.0 m. For reducing the span of
the bridge, what is the minimum width of channel such that the
upstream water level will not be influenced by the constriction?
E2 = Eo = 4.051 m
At B2 = 30 m,
Q2
y2 + 2 2
= E2
2gB2 y2
2002
y2 + = 4.051
2 × 9.81 × 30 × y2
2 2
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
Activity 3.10
A rectangular channel of 2.0 m width is required to convey 3 m3/s
of flow. The normal depth is 0.8 m. At downstream of the channel,
the width of the channel is to be reduced.
(a) Determine the width of the maximum constriction for critical
depth to occur.
(b) Calculate the depth of flow upstream, downstream and at
the constriction if the constricted width is 1.2 m.
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
(a) Step 1. Determine yo and yco
yo = 0.8 m
Q 3
qo = = = 1.5 m3 /s/m
B 2
q 2 3 1.52
y co = 3 = = 0.6121 m Since yo > yco → subcritical flow
g 9.81
Step 2. Calculate yc2 and Bmax
qo2 1.52
Eo = yo + = 0.8 + = 0.9792 m
2gyo 2
2 × 9.81 × 0.8 2
2 2
y c 2 = Emin = × 0.9792 = 0.6528 m
3 3
qmax = gy c32 = 9.81 × 0.65283 = 1.652 m2 /s
Q 3
Bmax = = = 1.816 m
qmax 1.652
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
(b) If B2 = 1.2 m,
Step 3. Calculate y1, y2 and y3
Q 3
′ = = = 2.5 m2 /s
qmax
B2 1.2
′2
qmax 2.52
y2 = y c′ 2 = 3 =3 = 0.8605 m
g 9.81
3 3
′ = y c′ 2 = × 0.8605 = 1.291 m
Emin
2 2
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
′
E1′ = E3′ = Emin
′2
qmax
′ +
y1,3 ′
= E1,3
′
2gy1,32
2.52
′ +
y1,3 = 1.291
′
2 × 9.81 × y1,3
2
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
Activity 3.11
Flow inside a rectangular channel of 3.0 m width has a velocity of
3.0 m/s at 3.0 m depth. The channel is experiencing a step of 0.61
m high at the channel bottom. What is the constriction to be made
to the channel width in order to ensure the depth of flow
upstream does not change.
Step 1. Determine yo and yco
yo = 3.0 m
q 2 3 92
y co = 3 = = 2.021 m Since yo > yco → subcritical flow
g 9.81
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
Step 2. Calculate Hmin
q2 92
Eo = yo + = 3+ = 3.459 m
2gyo2
2 × 9.81 × 32
3 3
Emin = y c = × 2.021 = 3.032 m
2 2
Hmin = Eo − Emin = 3.459 − 3.032 = 0.427 m
Step 3. Determine y1, y2 and y3
Since H = 0.61 m > Hmin = 0.427 m
→ Case 3: Backwater upstream of weir
E1′ ,3 = Emin + H = 3.032 + 0.61 = 3.642 m
In order to maintain the same specific energy and reduce
y′1 to yo, q has to be increased, i.e. via width constriction.
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
y (m)
y1′ > yo and y3′ < yc
EGL = y
E
Backwater Emin=3.032 m y1 = y1′ ≠ yo
Eo = yo =3.459
3.459 m y1 yc=2.021 m yc =2.021
3 m
yc=2.021 m 0.61 m y y3 ≠ y o
3
E (m)
0 1 2 3 E2=Emin Eo E′1,3
Hmin=0.427 m
H=0.61 m
y (m)
y1′ > yo and y3′ < yc
EGL = y
E
Backwater Emin=3.032 m y1 = y1′ ≠ yo
Eo = yo =3.459
3.459 m y1 yc=2.021 m yc =2.021 yc2
3 m
yc=2.021 m 0.61 m y y3 ≠ y o
3
E (m)
0 1 2 3 E2=Emin Eo E′1,3 E′′1,3
Hmin=0.427 m
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my) H=0.61 m
′ = E1′ ,3 = 3.642 m
Emin
2 2
′ = × 3.642 = 2.428 m
y c 2 = Emin
3 3
qmax = gy c32 = 9.81 × 2.4283 = 11.85 m2 /s
Q 9
Bmax = = = 0.7595 m
qmax 11.85
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
y (m)
EGL = y
E
Emin=3.642 m y′1 = yo =3.459
Eo =
yc2 =2.021
3.459 m 3 m y1=3 m yc2=2.428 m
yc=2.021 m y′3
0.61 m y
3
Eo E′min E′′1,3 E (m)
0 1 2 3
Hmin=0.427 m
Plan view H=0.61 m
qo q2
B=3 m B2=0.7595 m
0 1 2 3
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
Activity 3.12
A rectangular channel of 2.6 m width with Manning n = 0.015, and
longitudinal slope of 0.0008 is conveying flow at 9.8 m3/s. If a
constriction is made by reducing channel width to 2.4 m, calculate
depth of flow upstream and downstream of the constriction.
Sketch the flow surface profile.
Step 1. Determine yo and yco
2
Qn
AR =
3
1
S 2
o
2
⎛ 2.6yo ⎞ 9.8 × 0.015
3
2.6yo ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎝ 2.6 + 2 y o ⎠
1
0.00082
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
2
⎛ 2.6yo ⎞ 3
2.6yo ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 5.197
⎝ 2.6 + 2yo ⎠
Through trial‐and‐error, yo = 2.270 m
2
⎛ 9.8 ⎞
q 2 3 ⎜⎝ 2.6 ⎟⎠
y co = 3 = = 1.131 m Since yo > yco → subcritical flow
g 9.81
Step 2. Calculate yc2 and Bmax
2
⎛ 9.8 ⎞
qo2 ⎜ ⎟
Eo = yo + = 2.27 + ⎝ 2.6 ⎠ = 2.411 m
2gyo 2
2 × 9.81 × 2.272
Step 3. Calculate y1, y2 and y3
y1 = y3 = yo = 2.270 m
Q 9.8
q2 = = = 4.083 m2 /s
B2 2.4
q 2 3 4.0832
y co = 3 = = 1.193 m
g 9.81
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
q22
E 2 = y2 +
2gy22
EGL
2
4.083
y2 + = 2.411
2 × 9.81 × y2
2
Eo = yo=2.270m
E2
2.411 m y2=2.242m
yc2=
0.8497 yco=1.193m 1.607m
y2 + 2
= 2.411
y2 0 1 2 3
Through trial‐and‐error,
y2 = 2.242 m or y2 = 0.7059 m
Since it is subcritical upstream, y2 = 2.242 m
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
1.7 Choking
Choking of flow occurs when
i.e. when the specific energy or depth of flow immediately upstream
of the weir or constriction increases or is being controlled.
Choked conditions are undesirable in the design of culverts and
other surface drainage features involving channel transitions.
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan et al. (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
Assignment #3
Q1. (a) Critical depth occurs in an open channel when the specific
energy is minimum. Sketch the corresponding flow depth versus
specific energy graph. From this concept, derive the general
equation used to determine critical flow depth in an open
channel.
(b) A rectangular channel 3.05 m wide carries 3.4 m3/s uniform
flow at a depth of 0.6 m. A 0.2 m‐high weir is placed across the
channel.
(i) Does the weir cause hydraulic jump upstream of the weir?
Provide reason why.
(ii) Calculate the flow depth above the weir, and just
upstream of the weir. Classify the surface profile of flow
upstream of the weir. Sketch the resulting flow‐surface
profile and energy line, showing the critical depth yc and
normal depth yo.
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan Lai Wai (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
Q2. (a) An engineer is to analyze flow in an open channel in which the channel is
designed to be constricted by placing bridge embankment at both sides
of the channel. Explain the consequences due to the constriction.
(b) An 8‐m wide rectangular channel is conveying flow uniformly at a rate of
18.6 m3/s and depth of 1.2 m. A temporary short span bridge is to be
built across the channel in which bridge embankment is needed at both
sides of the channel causing the channel to be constricted under the
proposed bridge.
(i) Calculate the maximum channel width under the proposed bridge
which will not cause backwater upstream.
(ii) If the channel width under the proposed bridge is 4 m due to the
unavoidable condition, calculate the expected flow depth under
the bridge, at just upstream and just downstream of the bridge.
(iii) If the flow depth just upstream of the proposed bridge is to be
limited to 0.2 m higher than the normal depth, calculate the
channel width under the bridge.
‐ End of Question ‐
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan Lai Wai (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)
THANK YOU
BFC21103 Hydraulics
Tan Lai Wai (laiwai@uthm.edu.my)