Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
PROJECT REPORT
Submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
By
V DATTA VISWAS KUMAR
(08241A0206)
N KRISHNA MOHAN
(08241A0219)
M MANOJ
(08241A0222)
B VIKAS NAIK
(08241A0254)
(07241A0213)
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled DC-AC FULL BRIDGE CONVERTER has
been submitted by
V DATTA VISWAS KUMAR
(08241A0206)
N KRISHNA MOHAN
(08241A0219)
M MANOJ
(08241A0222)
B VIKAS NAIK
(08241A0254)
(07241A0213)
Guide
S. Radhika
Assist. Professor
Dept of Electrical & Electronics Engg
Head of Department
P.M.Sarma
Professor & HOD
Dept of Electrical &Electronics Engg
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
There are many people who have helped us directly or indirectly in the successful completion of
our project. We would like to take this opportunity to thank one and all.
First of all, we would like to express our deep sense of gratitude towards our project guide
S Radhika (Assoc. Professor, EEE Dept) for always being available whenever we required his guidance as
well as for motivating us throughout the project work.
We are also grateful to Mr. P. M. Sarma, (Professor and Head, EEE Dept) for his valuable
guidance in the successful completion of our project. We also thank Dr. J. N. Murthy, (Principal, GRIET),
for providing useful infrastructure.
We are also grateful to Dr. S. N. Saxena, (Professor (EEE) & Dean Placements) for his valuable
guidance throughout the seminars in the college.
We would like to thank all our friends for the help and constructive criticism during our project
period. Finally, we are very much indebted to our parents for their moral support and encouragement to
achieve higher goals. We have no words to express our gratitude and we are very thankful to our
parents who have shown us this world and for every support they gave us.
V DATTA VISWAS KUMAR
(08241A0206)
N KRISHNA MOHAN
(08241A0219)
M MANOJ
(08241A0222)
B VIKAS NAIK
P N V G RAJA NARAYANA RAO
(08241A0254)
(07241A0213)
ABSTRACT
Mobility and versatility have become a must for
the fast-paced society today. People can no longer afford to be tied down to a fixed power source
location when using their equipments. Overcoming the obstacle of fixed power has led to the
invention of DC/AC power inverters. While the position of power inverter in the market is
relatively well established, there are several features that can be improved upon.
A comparison analysis of the different power inverter
has been compiled. Aside from the differences in power wattage, cost per wattage, efficiency and
harmonic contend, power inverters can be categorized into three groups: square wave, modified
sine wave, and pure sine wave. A cost analysis of the different types of inverter shows that sine
wave power inverter, though has the best power quality performance, has a big spike in cost per
unit power. Another feature which can be improved is the efficiency of the inverter. The standard
sine wave in the market has an average efficiency of 85-90%. Power dissipated due to efficiency
flaws will be dissipated as heat and the 10-15% power lost in the will shorten operational
lifespan of inverters. The quality of the output power could also be improved. It is imperative
that the output signal be as clean as possible. Distortion in the output signal leads to less efficient
output and in the case of a square wave , which has a lot of unwanted harmonics, it will damage
some sensitive equipment.
In designing any type of power supply, it is important to examine the
intended market and place the product in a particular niche market. Our market niche will be to
design a 300watts power inverter that will provide optimum pure sine wave performance with
minimal cost. In meeting the design requirements, there are several technical challenges that
must be overcome. Our single, most difficult constraint will be to produce power at a lower
power per unit cost than exists in the market. Our efficiency will be greater than 90 percent. This
insures that, with a maximum load, less than 10% of power will be dissipated as heat. The total
harmonic distortion will be less than 5 percent. With a total harmonic distortion this low and a
pure sine wave output, we will be able to power even the most sensitive loads.
The fundamental step in approaching the challenges was to examine the methods used by
existing companies for building power inverters. In examining their methods, many areas were
open for potential improvement. These areas include the DC/DC step up converter, the DC/AC
inverter, and the feedback control system.
The DC/DC step up converter in our design will use a high frequency
transformer, enabling us to reduce the size of the converter considerably. The use of a high
frequency transformer will also enable us to meet our efficiency constraint. A high switching
frequency will improve the efficiency of the inverter. In theory, a 100 percent efficient converter
could be created. However, due to the limitations of actual device material, our efficiency will be
between 90 and 100 percent. The DC/AC inverter circuit will use a microprocessor to digitally
pulse the transistors. This will allow us to produce a pure sine wave output. This feature will also
allow us to enter other markets more easily. For instance, in Europe the fundamental frequency is
50 Hz. The frequency can be changed from 60 Hz to 50 Hz by simply editing the source code.
The feedback control system will be used to regulate the output voltage of the DC/DC converter.
This is necessary since the current will vary will the load. The feedback control
system will be accomplished using by sampling the output with an integrated circuit.
Most of the design constraints set for the inverter were met. However, the one important
constraint which the power inverter didnt meet was the 300W continuous power, which was
probably because of the transformer and the traces on the PCB. The inverter produces a clean
sine wave with 7% of harmonic distortion and has efficiency greater than 90%. Overall, it is a
well designed project and a lot has been accomplished over the two semesters. This design if
well marketed, will offer the power inverter market a premium product at a lower cost than
before. Future work could be done to further improve efficiency, total harmonic distortion, and
size. With these additional improvements, the standard could be raised for
future DC/AC power supplies.
CONTENTS
Page numbers
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABSRACT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2
2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
2.1 Technical design constraints
2.2 Practical design constraints
CHAPTER 3
3 APPROACH
3.1 DC power supplies
3.1.1 power inverters
3.2 Hardware design
3.2.1 PWM control circuit
3.2.2 Sinusoidal PWM control circuit
3.2.3 Full bridge inverters
3.3.4 Low pass filter
3.3 Software design
CHAPTER 4
4 EVALUATION
4.1 Test specification
4.2 Test certificate - Simulation
4.3 Test certificate Hardware
4.4 Test certificate- Software
i
ii - iii
iv
v vi
1
1
CHAPTER 5
5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6
6 PROBLEMS
CHAPTER 7
7 SOFTWARE USED
CHAPTER 8
8 IC DETAILS
8.1 DESCRIPTION OF IC
8.2 OPERATION
8.3 OP-AMP CHARACTERISTICS
8.3.1 ideal op-amps
8.3.2 Real op-amps
8.4 DC IMPERFECTIOS
8.4.1 finite gain
8.4.2 finite input impedance
8.4.3 non-zero output impedance
8.4.4 input current
8.4.5 input off-set voltage
8.4.6 common mode gain
8.4.7 output sink current
8.4.8 temperature effects
8.4.9 power supply rejections
8.4.10 drifts
8.4.11 noise
8.5 AC IMPERFECTIONS
8.5.1 finite bandwidth
8.5.2 input capacitance
8.5.3 common mode gain
CHAPTER 9
9 HARDWARE
CHAPTER 10
10 RESULT
CHAPTER 11
11 APPENDIX
11.1 DATA SHEETS OF COMPONENTS
CHAPTER 12
12 REFERENCES
List of figures
Figure 3.1 Block diagram of power inverter.
Figure 3.2 Triangular wave generator and its wave form
Figure 3.3 Theory of PWM components
Figure 3.4 Full bridge converter
Figure 3.5 unfiltered output
Figure 3.6 Frequency spectrum of unfiltered full
Bridge inverter.
Figure 3.7 Schematic diagram of low pass filter
Figure 3.8 Hand made inductor
Figure 3.9 Circuit diagram
Figure 4.1 Test setup for full bridge inverter
Figure 4.2 Test setup for low pass filter
Figure 4.3 DC/AC inverter
Figure 4.4 simulation certificate for DC/AC inverter
Figure 4.5 Simulation certification of filtered DC/AC inverter
Figure 8.1:An op-amp without negative feedback
Figure 8.2: An op-amp with negative feedback (a non-inverting
Amp)
Figure 8.3 ideal op-amps
Figure 8.4 comparator
Figure 8.5 various comparators
Figure 8.6 pin diagram of lm 339
Figure 9.1 DC-AC converter
Figure 9.2 Triangular pulse generator
Figure 9.3 Complete circuit diagram
Figure 9.4 Final output
List of tables
Table 2.1 :Design constraints
Table 2.2: practical constraints
Table 10.1 output result
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
DC-AC inverters are electronic devices used to produce mains
voltage. AC power from low voltage DC energy mains voltage. AC power from low voltage DC
energy(from a battery or solar panel). This makes them very suitable for when you need to use
AC power tools or appliances but the usual AC mains power is not available. Examples include
operating appliances in caravans and mobile homes, and also running audio, video and
computing equipment in remote areas.
Most inverters do their job by performing two main functions:
first they convert the incoming DC into AC, and then they step up the resulting AC to mains
voltage level using a transformer. And the goal of the designer is to have the inverter perform
these functions as efficiently as possible .so that as much as possible of the energy drawn from
the battery or solar panel is converted into mains voltage AC, and as little as possible is wasted
as heat.
By switching the two MOSFETs on alternately, the current is made
to flow first in one half of the primary and then in the other, producing an alternating magnetic
flux in the transformers core. As a result a corresponding AC voltage is induced in the
transformers secondary winding, and as the secondary has about 10 times the number of turns in
the primary, the induced AC voltage is much higher: around 170V peak to peak.
Note that because the switching MOSFETs are simply being
turned on and off, this type of inverter does not produce AC of the same pure sinewave. type as
the AC power mains. The output waveform is essentially alternating rectangular pulses. However
the width of the pulses and the spacing between them is chosen so that the ratio between the
RMS value of the output waveform and its peak-to-peak value is actually quite similar to that of
a pure sine wave. The resulting wave form is usually called a .modified sine wave., and as the
RMS voltage is close to 230V many AC tools and appliances are able to operate from such a
waveform without problems.
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
There are several factors involving power that can be easily overlooked by the average person.
These issues deal primarily with efficiency but are not limited to it. First, the amount of power
consumed by the load must be looked at. Different devices call for different power wattages.
Because of this fact, our inverter would not be able to power larger devices that require a lot of
power. This does not affect the efficiency of our device; it is just one of its limitations. Next, the
sensitivity of the load being driven should be considered. This means the output signal of the
inverter must provide a cleaner signal without distortion for more sensitive devices. The amount
of undesired harmonics present in our output signal would need to be limited.
NAME
Voltage
Power
Efficiency
Output
Total Harmonic
Distortion
DESCRIPTION
We will convert 12 (V DC) to 12(V AC).
We will provide 300 (W) indefinitely. We will provide 600 (W) during a
power surge.
The inverter will operate at no less than 90 %.
This inverter will produce a pure sine wave output
The amount of undesirable harmonics present in our output will be less
than 5%.
a functional device. The basic economics of a project like this has to do with the price of parts.
The price of parts dictates the price of the inverter. The most costly part will be the
microprocessor. By minimizing the parts cost, the price of the inverter should be comparable to
other sine wave inverters on the market.
For practical use,an adapter which will be used to
connect the inverter to the 12 VDC system of an automobile. Appropriate gauge wire will
connect the cigarette lighter adapter to the inverter. A blade style fuse will protect the inverter
form over-current conditions. The output will be provided using a single output receptacle to
deliver the 12VAC. For mobility sake the whole inverter will be no larger than 8 long, 4.75
wide, and 2.5 high.
TYPE
NAME
ECONOMIC
COST
DESCRIPTION
CHAPTER 3
APPROACH
This section explains the theory that must be
considered along with the approach that has allowed for the successful implementation of the
power inverter. It is worth mentioning that power inverter design requires knowledge of various
areas in electrical and computer engineering including circuit analysis, power electronics,
microprocessors, electromagnetic, signals and systems, and feedback controls. A general
knowledge of these areas is critical in order to fully understand the physical behavior of each
circuit component, as well as the interaction with other components. This section begins with a
general overview of the technology considered in this project and then elaborates on the key
design issues pertaining to both the hardware and software.
efficiency, size, and cost. This project has been broken down into one major circuit topology.
The circuit topology DC/AC inverter.
DC INPUT
FOSC =
1
2xRxC
In our test circuit, the R resistor is 22K and the C capacitor is 100nF. The oscillation
frequency would be:
FOSC =
1
2 x 22x10 x 100x10-9
3
And that would make 227,27Hz approximately. In real life, the frequency measured was
about 218Hz. This is a rather small (tiny) difference between the theoretical and the practical
value, considering that the resistors have 5% accuracy and so does the capacitor as well.
If you watch the output signal in a oscilloscope, then you will notice that the triangle
waveform is above of the zero voltage. The offset is caused by DC voltage. In order to eliminate
this voltage shift, you should add a capacitor in series to the circuit. The value of the capacitor
should be chosen accordint tot he oscillation frequency of the circuit. For low frequencies, 1-100
Hz, a 4.7uF to 10uF would work just fine. Above you should consider using smaller capacitors.
A wrong capacitor selection would cause signal distortion and sometimes will add significant
resistance to the output. The following circuit demonstrates the previous circuit with a series
capacitor.
As you can see, the waveform right after the capacitor is slightly above the zero voltage,
where the waveform before the capacitor is several voltages above, due to the DC voltage shift.
Now the output is easier to be used.
CONTROL FREQUENCY
PWM OUTPUT
will reject any frequency above the cutoff frequency. The cutoff frequency can be set by the
following formula:
Fcutoff 2
= 1/2LC
Figure 3.8 shows the switching harmonics that resulted from an 18 kHz switching frequency. It
should be noted that the harmonics are located at the switching frequency and multiples of the
switching frequency. The switching frequency was intentionally set at 18 kHz so it would be
rather distant from the 60 Hz fundamental frequency. This would allow for a high cutoff
frequency, which by equation ??, allows for small LC components. The large distance between
the unwanted harmonics and the fundamental frequency is also beneficial because it allows for a
large margin of error in the filter values.
Figure 3.8
An L-C low-pass filter was chosen for the power inverter. This topology, as shown in Figure 13,
is simple to build, contains few components, and can handle high currents.
CHAPTER 4
EVALUATION
4.1 TEST SPECIFICATION:
The test specifications explain the methods used to show
that design constraints have been met. The power inverter is composed of many components that
require testing separately and as a complete system. Testing each component individually helps
to locate unique problems that are specific to each component. Complete system testing will
ensure that each hardware and software component is fully functional at a mutual level.
4.1.1 SIMULATION:
PSIM is a vital circuit simulation environment that allows rapid testing
of parameters such as voltage, current, power, frequency, and total harmonic distortion. PSIM
only generates theoretical circuit output values which would only be observed under ideal
conditions. Therefore, PSIM will only be used as a guide for the comparison of hand calculated
measurements or laboratory experimentations.
The PSIM circuit simulation environment will be used to verify the
design of the DC-DC converter and the DC-AC inverter. Both circuits and corresponding subcircuits will be simulated in a similar manner, with the proper parts selected from existing PSIM
libraries. Most of the analog parts that comprise the power inverter are standard parts and will
pose no problems in simulation; however, the integrated circuits for both the DC-DC converter
and the DC-AC inverter will be simulated with the use of ideal sources that will be modified to
duplicate each controllers desired output waveform.
The DC-DC circuit contains a half-bridge converter and a transformer
that were simulated in PSIM to compare simulated results with experimental results. For correct
operation of the DC-DC converter, two complementary square wave pulses must constantly
pulse the two MOSFET transistors of the half-bridge circuit. Specifically, these two square-wave
pulses were created by selecting vpulse from the PSIM library.
Simulated in PSIM and was used to verify the experimental results.
Four N-channel MOSFET transistors were used to construct the full-bridge inverter. To obtain
the necessary sinusoidal PWM signal to switch the four MOSFETs, two comparators with part
number uA741 were used. Both comparators were set up to compare a 60 Hz sine wave with an
18 kHz saw tooth wave. The PWM output of the comparators was used to switch the transistors
to chop the 170 VDC link voltage supplied by the DCDC converter to an 18 kHz PWM
waveform. An LC low-pass filter was added to the full-bridge inverter to filter frequencies
higher than the 60 Hz fundamental frequency. The complete DC-AC inverter simulation yielded
a voltage of 120 VAC, a frequency of 60 Hz, and a total harmonic distortion of less
than 5%.
4.1.2 HARDWARE:
All individual hardware design is tested using an oscilloscope and a digital multi-meter. The key
components of the overall power inverter are a PWM control circuit, a half-bridge inverter, a
transformer, a sinusoidal PWM controller, a full-bridge inverter, and a low-pass filter. Each
component was tested for the desired voltages, currents, efficiencies, and frequencies. The
following sub-sections demonstrate the tests that were performed on the power inverter
hardware.
DC/AC INVERTER:
Figure 4.3 shows the PSIM schematic that was used to simulate the output of the DC/AC
inverter. The expected output of the DC/AC inverter is a 12 VAC RMS, 50 Hz sine wave.
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY
5.1 SUMMARY:
Mobility and versatility have become a must for the fast-paced society today.
People can no longer afford to be tied down to a fixed power source location when using their
equipments. Overcoming the obstacle of fixed power has led to the invention of DC/AC power
inverters. While the position of power inverter in the market is relatively well established, there
are several features that can be improved upon. A comparison analysis of the different power
inverter has been compiled. Aside from the differences in power wattage, cost per wattage,
efficiency and harmonic contend, power inverters can be categorized into three groups: square
wave, modified sine wave, and pure sine wave. A cost analysis of the different types of inverter
shows that sine wave power inverter, though has the best power quality performance, has a big
spike in cost per unit power. Another feature which can be improved is the efficiency of the
inverter. The standard sine wave in the market has an average efficiency of 85-90%. Power
dissipated due to efficiency flaws will be dissipated as heat and the 10-15% power lost in the will
shorten operational life span of inverters. The quality of the output power could also be
improved. It is imperative that the output signal be as clean as possible. Distortion in the output
signal leads to a less efficient output and in the case of a square wave, which has a lot of
unwanted harmonics, it will damage some sensitive equipment.
In designing any type of power supply, it is important to examine the intended market and place
the product in a particular niche market. Our market niche will be to design a 300watts power
inverter that will provide optimum pure sine wave performance with minimal cost. In meeting
the design requirements, there are several technical challenges that must be overcome. Our
single, most difficult constraint will be to produce power at a lower power per unit cost than
exists in the market. Our efficiency will be greater than 90 percent. This insures that, with a
maximum load, less than 10% of power will be dissipated as heat. The total harmonic distortion
will be less than 5 percent. With a total harmonic distortion this low and a pure sine wave output,
we will be able to power even the most sensitive loads.
The fundamental step in approaching the challenges was to
examine the methods used by existing companies for building power inverters. In examining
their methods, many areas were open for potential improvement. These areas include the DC/DC
step up converter, the DC/AC inverter, and the feedback control system. The DC/DC step up
converter in our design will use a high frequency transformer, enabling us to reduce the size of
the converter considerably. The use of a high frequency transformer will also enable us to meet
our efficiency constraint. A high switching frequency will improve the efficiency of the inverter.
In theory, a 100 percent efficient converter could be created. However, due to the limitations of
actual device material, our efficiency will be between 90 and 100 percent. The DC/AC inverter
circuit will use a microprocessor to digitally pulse the transistors. This will allow us to produce a
pure sine wave output. This feature will also allow us to enter other markets more easily. For
instance, in Europe the fundamental frequency is 50 Hz. The frequency can be changed from 60
Hz to 50 Hz by simply editing the source code. The feedback control system will be used to
regulate the output voltage of the DC/DC converter. This is necessary since the current will vary
will the load. The feedback control system will be accomplished using by sampling the output
with an integrated circuit.
Most of the design constraints set for the inverter were met. However, the one important
constraint which the power inverter didnt meet was the 300W continuous power, which was
probably because of the transformer and the traces on the PCB. The inverter produces a clean
sine wave with 7% of harmonic distortion and has efficiency greater than 90%. Overall, it is a
well designed project and a lot has been accomplished over the two semesters. This design if
well marketed, will offer the power inverter market a premium product at a lower cost than
before. Future work could be done to further improve efficiency, total harmonic distortion, and
size. With these additional improvements, the standard could be raised for future DC/AC power
supplies.
CHAPTER 6
PROBLEMS
Power inverters, regardless of size, are typically constructed of
a DC-DC converter and a DC-AC inverter. These are the two major circuit components that
work together to convert the input voltage from a vehicle battery into a desirable AC output
waveform. In the INDIA, the standard AC output waveform consists of a voltage of 230 VAC
and a frequency of 50 HZ. Due to this standard, Electronic mobility has always been an issue
when it comes to our mobile environment. Therefore, a mobile means of providing AC voltage is
needed. The majority of portable electronic devices are more easily powered using 230 VAC.
When these devices need to be used in a remote or mobile setting there is a problem. Most
people have access to 12 VDC generated by the standard power supply system of a mobile
vehicle, such as an automobile, ATV, or agriculture equipment. A power inverter of DC to AC
type will be needed to convert 12 VDC to 230 VAC with acceptable power output.
Power inverters were first invented using a square wave as
the output form. This led to many different problems involving the functionality of devices that
were being powered because they were designed to work with a sine wave instead of a square
wave. There were some changes made to the hardware to eliminate the harsh corners from the
square wave to transform it to a modified sine wave. It was mainly marketers who coined the
term modified sine wave which in all reality is nothing more than a modified square wave.
Power inverters that used a modified sine wave did not eliminate the problems associated
with square wave inverters. They did however, minimize these problems. Although most people
without a background in electronics do not know the difference, a modified square wave can
have detrimental effects on electrical loads. First of all, abnormal heat will be produced, causing
a reduction in product reliability, efficiency, and useful life. Another disadvantage of a modified
sine wave is that its choppy waveform can confuse the operation of some digital timing devices.
This can cause a device to perform undesirable or abnormal functions. Also, nearly 5 % of
household electronics will not even work with a modified sine wave. The advantages of a true
sine wave inverter are usually reflected in the final market price.
Power inverters are usually described as having either a
high or low switching frequency. Switching frequency refers to the rate at which the input DC
voltage is oscillated to create an AC output. Low frequency inverters oscillate a DC voltage at 50
Hz. Then they step that voltage up to the desired amplitude using a bulky and a heavy
transformer. High frequency inverters, on the other hand, use a small and lightweight
transformer. A high frequency inverter will produce many harmonics near the range of the
switching frequency. However, most of the harmonics are relatively higher in order than the 50
Hz fundamental frequency. These harmonics can be isolated using a small low-pass filter. In
turn, isolation of harmonics will result in less buzzing in audio equipment and less interference in
other electronic equipment such as radios and televisions.
When you think mobility, a unit thats the size of a laptop
doesnt seem awfully large. But consider the trend in electronics these days, a laptop seems
gigantic as compared to some of the microscopic devices and apertures that are being massed
produced. Therefore a trend in electronics, as is has been in the past decades, is miniaturization.
Size and bulk determines mobility. And for a unit as useful as a power inverter, smallness should
be one of the top priorities in designing this unit. In order to create a more compact unit, it
requires the use of as many devices of negligible size as possible. These devices, or integrated
circuits, must also be able to accomplish as many feats as possible within there small stature.
Multiple functions in these integrated circuits are a property that should be examined first.
The increase in demand for mobile AC power sources has led
to an increase in market supply. However, these inverters that use the modified sine wave
technology tend to produce a lot of heat do to power loss. Their efficiency is also less than
proficient. The price of an inverter like this is considerably less than one with a pure sine wave
output, but it is also reflected in their operational efficiency. The design that we will implement
will solve the problem associated with modified sine wave inverters by using a microprocessor
to obtain a more efficient and smooth means of switching the inverters transistors. This will
reflect, in the overall design, a greater efficiency, less power loss to heat, the ability to power
even the most sensitive digital devices, minimize the size of the final product, and make it a
more versatile product in the global economy.
CHAPTER 7
SOFTWARE USED
7.1 POWER SIM:
PSIM is a vital circuit simulation environment that allows rapid testing
of parameters such as voltage, current, power, frequency, and total harmonic distortion. PSIM
only generates theoretical circuit output values which would only be observed under ideal
conditions. Therefore, PSIM will only be used as a guide for the comparison of hand calculated
measurements or laboratory experimentations.
The PSIM circuit simulation environment will be used to verify the
design of the DC-DC converter and the DC-AC inverter. Both circuits and corresponding subcircuits will be simulated in a similar manner, with the proper parts selected from existing PSIM
libraries. Most of the analog parts that comprise the power inverter are standard parts and will
pose no problems in simulation; however, the integrated circuits for both the DC-DC converter
and the DC-AC inverter will be simulated with the use of ideal sources that will be modified to
duplicate each controllers desired output waveform.
The DC-DC circuit contains a half-bridge converter and a transformer
that were simulated in PSIM to compare simulated results with experimental results. For correct
operation of the DC-DC converter, two complementary square wave pulses must constantly
pulse the two MOSFET transistors of the half-bridge circuit. Specifically, these two square-wave
pulses were created by selecting vpulse from the PSIM library.
simulated in PSIM and was used to verify the experimental results. Four
N-channel MOSFET transistors were used to construct the full-bridge inverter. To obtain the
necessary sinusoidal PWM signal to switch the four MOSFETs, two comparators with part
number uA741 were used. Both comparators were set up to compare a 50 Hz sine wave with an
18 kHz saw tooth wave. The PWM output of the comparators was used to switch the transistors
to chop the 15 VDC link voltage supplied by the DC-DC converter to an 18 kHz PWM
waveform. An LC low-pass filter was added to the full-bridge inverter to filter frequencies
higher than the 50 Hz fundamental frequency. The complete DC-AC inverter simulation yielded
a voltage of 120 VAC, a frequency of 50 Hz, and a total harmonic distortion of less
than 5%.
CHAPTER 8
IC DETAILS
8.1DESCRIPTION OF IC:
8.1.1 LM741:
An operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier
with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output.[1] An op-amp produces an output
voltage that is typically hundreds of thousands times larger than the voltage difference between
its input terminals.
Operational amplifiers had their origins in analog computers where they were used in many
linear, non-linear and frequency-dependent circuits. Characteristics of a circuit using an op-amp
are set by external components with little dependence on temperature changes or manufacturing
variations in the op-amp itself, which makes op-amps popular building blocks for circuit design.
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of
consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in
moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with
special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities.[citation needed] Opamps may be packaged as components, or used as elements of more complex integrated circuits.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include the
fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with two outputs), the instrumentation
amplifier (usually built from three op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the
instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to common-mode voltages that would destroy an
ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from one or more op-amps and
a resistive feedback network).
8.2 Operation
The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a V+ input and a V input, and ideally the op-amp
amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two, which is called the differential input
voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp is given by the equation:
where V+ is the voltage at the non-inverting terminal, V is the voltage at the inverting terminal
and AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier (the term "open-loop" refers to the absence of a
feedback loop from the output to the input).
The magnitude of AOL is typically very large10,000 or more for integrated circuit op-amps
and therefore even a quite small difference between V+ and V drives the amplifier output nearly
to the supply voltage. This is called saturation of the amplifier. The magnitude of AOL is not well
controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is impractical to use an operational amplifier
as a stand-alone differential amplifier. Without negative feedback, and perhaps with positive
feedback for regeneration, an op-amp acts as a comparator. If the inverting input is held at
ground (0 V) directly or by a resistor, and the input voltage Vin applied to the non-inverting input
is positive, the output will be maximum positive; if Vin is negative, the output will be maximum
negative. Since there is no feedback from the output to either input, this is an open loop circuit
acting as a comparator. The circuit's gain is just the AOL< of the op-amp.
If predictable operation is desired, negative feedback is used, by applying a portion of the output
voltage to the inverting input. The closed loop feedback greatly reduces the gain of the amplifier.
If negative feedback is used, the circuit's overall gain and other parameters become determined
more by the feedback network than by the op-amp itself. If the feedback network is made of
components with relatively constant, stable values, the unpredictability and inconstancy of the
op-amp's parameters do not seriously affect the circuit's performance. Typically the op-amp's
very large gain is controlled by negative feedback, which largely determines the magnitude of its
output ("closed-loop") voltage gain in amplifier applications, or the transfer function required (in
analog computers). High input impedance at the input terminals and low output impedance at the
output terminal(s) are important typical characteristics.
For example, in a non-inverting amplifier (see the figure on the right) adding a negative feedback
via the voltage divider Rf,Rg reduces the gain. Equilibrium will be established when Vout is just
sufficient to reach around and "pull" the inverting input to the same voltage as Vin. The voltage
gain of the entire circuit is determined by 1 + Rf/Rg. As a simple example, if Vin = 1V and Rf =
Rg, Vout will be 2V, the amount required to keep V at 1V. Because of the feedback provided by
Rf,Rg this is a closed loop circuit. Its overall gain Vout / Vin is called the closed-loop gain ACL.
Because the feedback is negative, in this case ACL is less than the AOL of the op-amp.
Another way of looking at it is to make two relatively valid assumptions: One, that when an opamp is being operated in linear mode, the difference in voltage between the non-inverting (+) pin
and the inverting (-) pin is so small as to be considered negligible.[3] The second assumption is
that the input impedance at both + and - pins is extremely high (at least several megohms with
modern op-amps). Thus, when the circuit to the right is operated as a non-inverting linear
amplifier, Vin will appear at the + and - pins and create a current i through Rg equal to Vin/Rg.
Since Kirchoff's current law states that the same current must leave a node as enter it, and since
the impedance into the - pin is near infinity, we can assume the overwhelming majority of the
same current i travels through Rf, creating an output voltage equal to Vin + i*Rf. By combining
terms, we can easily determine the gain of this particular type of circuit.
An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties, and they are considered
to hold for all input voltages:
Infinite open-loop gain (when doing theoretical analysis, a limit may be taken as open
loop gain AOL goes to infinity).
Infinite voltage range available at the output (
) (in practice the voltages available
from the output are limited by the supply voltages
and
). The power supply
sources are called rails.
Infinite bandwidth (i.e., the frequency magnitude response is considered to be flat
everywhere with zero phase shift).
Infinite input impedance (so, in the diagram,
, and zero current flows from
to ).
Zero input current (i.e., there is assumed to be no leakage or bias current into the
device).
Zero input offset voltage (i.e., when the input terminals are shorted so that
,
the output is a virtual ground or
).
Infinite slew rate (i.e., the rate of change of the output voltage is unbounded) and
power bandwidth (full output voltage and current available at all frequencies).
Zero output impedance (i.e.,
, so that output voltage does not vary with
output current).
Zero noise.
Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
Infinite Power supply rejection ratio for both power supply rails.
8.4 DC imperfections
Real operational amplifiers suffer from several non-ideal effects:
amplifiers are used in a typical high-gain negative feedback application, these protection
circuits will be inactive. The input bias and leakage currents described below are a more
important design parameter for typical operational amplifier applications.
because of imperfections in the differential amplifier that constitutes the input stage of
the vast majority of these devices. Input offset voltage creates two problems: First, due to
the amplifier's high voltage gain, it virtually assures that the amplifier output will go into
saturation if it is operated without negative feedback, even when the input terminals are
wired together. Second, in a closed loop, negative feedback configuration, the input offset
voltage is amplified along with the signal and this may pose a problem if high precision
DC amplification is required or if the input signal is very small.
8.4.10 Drift
Real op-amp parameters are subject to slow change over time and with changes in
temperature, input conditions, etc.
8.4.11 Noise
Amplifiers generate random voltage at the output even when there is no signal applied.
This can be due to thermal noise and flicker noise of the devices. For applications with
high gain or high bandwidth, noise becomes a very important consideration.
8.5 AC imperfections
The op-amp gain calculated at DC does not apply at higher frequencies. Thus, for high-speed
operation, more sophisticated considerations must be used in an op-amp circuit design.
Stability. Associated with the bandwidth limitation is a phase difference between the
input signal and the amplifier output that can lead to oscillation in some feedback
circuits. For example, a sinusoidal output signal meant to interfere destructively with an
input signal of the same frequency will interfere constructively if delayed by 180
degrees. In these cases, the feedback circuit can be stabilized by means of
frequency compensation, which increases the gain or phase margin of the openloop circuit. The circuit designer can implement this compensation externally
with a separate circuit component. Alternatively, the compensation can be
implemented within the operational amplifier with the addition of a dominant
pole that sufficiently attenuates the high-frequency gain of the operational
amplifier. The location of this pole may be fixed internally by the manufacturer
or configured by the circuit designer using methods specific to the op-amp. In
general, dominant-pole frequency compensation reduces the bandwidth of the
op-amp even further. When the desired closed-loop gain is high, op-amp
frequency compensation is often not needed because the requisite open-loop
gain is sufficiently low; consequently, applications with high closed-loop gain can
make use of op-amps with higher bandwidths.
Noise, Distortion, and Other Effects. Reduced bandwidth also results in
lower amounts of feedback at higher frequencies, producing higher distortion,
noise, and output impedance and also reduced output phase linearity as the
frequency increases.
Typical low-cost, general-purpose op-amps exhibit a GBWP of a few megahertz.
Specialty and high-speed op-amps exist that can achieve a GBWP of hundreds of
megahertz. For very high-frequency circuits, a current-feedback operational amplifier is
often used.
In the case of an op-amp using a bipolar power supply, a voltage gain that produces an
output that is more positive or more negative than that maximum or minimum; or
In the case of an op-amp using a single supply voltage, either a voltage gain that
produces an output that is more positive than that maximum, or a signal so close to
ground that the amplifier's gain is not sufficient to raise it above the lower threshold
8.5.4 Slewing
The amplifier's output voltage reaches its maximum rate of change. Measured as the
slew rate, it is usually specified in volts per microsecond. When slewing occurs, further
increases in the input signal have no effect on the rate of change of the output. Slewing
is usually caused by internal capacitances in the amplifier, especially those used to
implement its frequency compensation.
amp thus protecting the op-amp and associated circuitry from damage. Modern designs
are electronically more rugged than earlier implementations and some can sustain direct
short circuits on their outputs without damage.
8.7 LM339:
In electronics, a comparator is a device that compares two voltages or currents
and switches its output to indicate which is larger. They are commonly used in devices such as
Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).
Specific rail-to-rail comparators with p-n-p input transistors, like the LM139 family, allow input
potential to drop 0.3 Volts below the negative supply rail, but do not allow it to rise above the
positive rail. Specific ultra-fast comparators, like the LMH7322, allow input signal to swing
below the negative rail and above the positive rail, although by a narrow margin of only 0.2V.
Differential input voltage (the voltage between two inputs) of a modern rail-to-rail comparator is
usually limited only by the full swing of power supply.
INPUT
->+
+>-
OUTPUT
Grounded
Floating
With a pull-up resistor and a 0 to +5V power supply, the output takes on the voltages 0 or +5 and
can interface with TTL logic:
when
else
CHAPTER 9
HARDWARE
9.1 CIRCUIT OF DC-AC CONVERTER
CHAPTER 10
RESULT
10.1 OUTPUT:
SERIAL NUMBER
1
2
3
INPUT
12
15
20
Table 10.1 output result
OUTPUT
12
17
23
CHAPTER 11
APPENDIX
11.1DATA SHEET OF COMPONENTS USED:
11.1.1 DIODE (IN4007):
In electronics, a diode is a type of two-terminal electronic
component with nonlinear resistance and conductance (i.e., a nonlinear currentvoltage
characteristic), distinguishing it from components such as two-terminal linear resistors which
obey Ohm's law. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of
semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals.[A vacuum tube diode (now rarely
used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and
a cathode.
11.1.2 FEATURES:
Diffused Junction
Case: DO-41
Rating 94V-0
MIL-STD-202
Ordering Information:
Voltage Drop
11.1.3 SPECIFICATIONS:
=50V
=50V
DC Blocking Voltage(Vr)
=40V
=35V
=30 A
50 A
5.0
11.2 MOSFET:
The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET)
is a transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic signals.
11.2.1 FEATURES:
11.2.2 SPECIFICATIONS:
Drain-to-Source Voltage
=30V
Gate-to-Source Voltage
=20V
=56A
=39A
=20A
=0.33W/c
=-55 to 75c
Min
0
Typ
2
5
-
max
5
5
Vcc-1.5
0.8
2.5
50
-
200
300
1.3
16
130
0.1
400
-
CHAPTER 12
REFERENCES
1. M.H Rashid, Power electronics circuits devices and appliances,
prentice hall of India, 2nd Edition,1998
2. Bimal k.Bose, Modern Power Electronics and AC drives, Prentice
Hall PTR
3. Muhammad H.Rashid, Power electronics handbook, Academic press
4. M.Morris Mano, Digital logic and computer Design, Prentice Hall of
India
5. www.datasheetarchive.com
6. www.intersil.com
7. www.national.com
8. www.engineersgarage.com
9. www.texasinstruments.com
10. www.eupec.com
11. www.infineon.com