21st Century Dam Design

Advances and Adaptations

31st Annual USSD Conference

San Diego, California, April 11-15, 2011

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On the Cover
Artist's rendition of San Vicente Dam after completion of the dam raise project to increase local storage and provide
a more flexible conveyance system for use during emergencies such as earthquakes that could curtail the regions
imported water supplies. The existing 220-foot-high dam, owned by the City of San Diego, will be raised by 117
feet to increase reservoir storage capacity by 152,000 acre-feet. The project will be the tallest dam raise in the
United States and tallest roller compacted concrete dam raise in the world.

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resources;
Enhancing practices to meet current and future challenges on dams; and
Representing the United States as an active member of the International Commission on
Large Dams (ICOLD).

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LARGE-EDDY SIMULATION OF FLOW OVER A LOW-HEAD DAM

Piroz Zamankhan1
ABSTRACT
Flow over a low-head dam is quite complex. A dangerous roller may develop on the
down-stream of the dam which makes it difficult to dislodge floating objects. This paper
presents the results of a simulation using the large-eddy simulation technique (LES) and
the level-set approach to predict the flow over a low-head dam. Qualitative and
quantitative comparisons with experimental results provide insights in the capabilities of
LES and the level-set approach to predict complex two-phase flows including flow over a
low-head dam or a sharp-crested weir. In addition, suggestions are made on how to
diminish the hazards associated with rollers.
INTRODUCTION
Rivers can be dangerous because of structures they flow over, around and through
(Wyrick et al., 2009). Low-head dams, also known as drowning machines (Leutheusse and
Birk 1991), are particularly dangerous river features that boaters and swimmers need to
avoid. They exist in many rivers, often built to divert water for open-channel irrigation and
power plant cooling water purposes with water depth not exceeding 7.5 m (Vischer and
Hager 1998). A number of mill dams were constructed in the 19th century to harness the
small amount of hydraulic head needed to run water wheels. Figure 1 (a) shows a typical
low head dam.
As depicted schematically in Fig. 1 (b), water flowing over a low-head dam forms a
backwash. An object that floats down the river and over the dam will be washed down to
a point called the boil. The stream of water splits at the boil, either continuing its motion
downstream or going back toward the dam. The circulation pattern illustrated in Fig. 1 (b)
can trap objects and humans and keep them submerged.
Some low-head dams are built to aerate the water to enhance its quality. In this case,
water pouring over the dam will be highly aerated, reducing buoyancy. Figure 1 (c)
depicts a boat that got too close to a dam from downstream so that the reverse current
caught it and carried it to the trough, where the boat with its passengers was submerged
and remained submerged within a few meters of the dam. In a situation like this, the
passengers can become entangled in underwater debris and not be able to free
themselves. The seriousness of the hazard depends on the height of the dam, the
horizontal distance the water falls, the shape of the river bed, the velocity of the river and
the volume of water passing over the dam.

Faculty of Industrial, Mechanical Engineering and Computer Sciences , University of Iceland Hjardarhagi
2-6, IS- 107 Reykjavik, Iceland, piroz@hi.is

Large-Eddy Simulation

355

Figure 1. (a) An image of a typical low-head dam. (b) Circulation pattern for a
low-head dam. (c) A time sequence of photographs of a trapped boat
with its passengers. The arrows point to the trapped boat. Untrained
rescuers should never approach the roller in a boat.
A model experiment involving flow over a low-head dam is presented as a movie in
Munson, Young, and Okiishi (2002). The movie clearly shows that on the downstream
side of the dam, a backwash was created which trapped items that moved over the dam.
Dams do not need to have a deep drop to create a dangerous roller. The roller current is
governed mainly by the volume of water and flow current.
In the present effort the main objective was to use advanced numerical techniques to
make appropriate changes to the downstream geometry of low-head dams to eliminate the
named hazard. To achieve the objective a large-eddy simulation technique (LES) (Pope
2002) and a level-set approach (Osher and Fedkiw 2003) was combined to predict
incompressible, two-phase flows. This approach makes it possible to accurately compute
flows with large density and viscosity variations. To resolve an interfacial motion in a
multi-phase flow simulation, an auxiliary function is required. The level-set method can

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

effectively represent an arbitrarily complex interface. Hence, it is well suited for the
computation of flows with surface tension and rapidly changing topology.
The model was tested by resolving the flow over a low-head dam. The results were
compared with available experimental results in order to verify the validity of the model.
The validated model and the model detailed in Zamankhan (2009) were then combined to
simulate situations in which dangerous circulatory flow patterns had been eliminated.
The outline of this paper is as follows. In section II, the experimental apparatus is briefly
described and some experimental results are presented. The mathematical model is
presented in section III. Then it is applied to the specific example of low-head dams.
Section IV presents qualitative as well as quantitative comparisons between simulation
results and experimental results to verify the validity of the model. Section V describes
the design by which the circulatory pattern of a low-head dam is eliminated. Concluding
remarks are presented in Section VI. The present attempt may point to more effective and
less expensive ways to modify low-head dams.
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS, PROCEDURE AND RESULTS
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling is being used widely in the hydro
industry. Large eddy simulation (LES) is a mathematical model for turbulence used in
CFD. Simulating hydraulic behavior using a numerical model is a tried-and-true method
for determining how a river will interact with its environment, namely, a low-head dam.
Numerical modeling can provide adequate information when other methods are not
applicable.
In many cases, CFD modeling is faster and cheaper than physical modeling. Then the
question arises: Why is a physical model ever necessary, and what can be gained from
studying it? The answer is: Some physical phenomena, particularly when complex
geometries are involved, still cannot be accurately predicted using CFD. In these cases,
physical models are more than competitive in schedule and cost.
For an open channel model, the relevant dimensionless parameters are the Reynolds and
the Froude number. Hydraulic similitude requires matching the aforementioned
dimensionless numbers in both scaled model and prototype that play significant roles in
the physical processes being examined. In the present case, matching both the Reynolds
and the Froude number in model and prototype would require scaling of not only physical
dimensions, but scaling of fluid properties, namely, viscosity, and fluid density.
Unfortunately, this can almost never be achieved in the real world due to the fact that
fluids with suitably scaled properties almost never exist. In this work water is both the
model and prototype fluid for economic reasons. Hence the low head dam is designed to
adhere to Froude number scaling. Consequently, a 1:15 Froude scale physical model of a
low head-dam was built. The model illustrated in Fig. 2 has all the characteristics of the
prototype reproduced to scale and satisfies design restrictions. Scale model studies of low
head dams are a cost-effective way of investigating performance of proposed system
modifications.

Large-Eddy Simulation

357

One primary function of modeling is to relax the aforementioned restriction. In this

regard, CFD models (through which both the Reynolds and the Froude number in model
and prototype can easily be matched) do enjoy an advantage over physical models.
However, CFD models need to be calibrated to either prototype or physical model
measurements.
Figure 2 (a) is a photo showing a profile view of a typical flow over a low-head dam with
a plunging nappe. Water surface elevations were measured using an instrumentation
platform which could be moved to the desired stream-wise locations. Still and video
photography were performed for profile views. The length of the model is approximately
180 cm and its height and width are 65 and 50 cm, respectively. The full description of
the physical model is beyond the scope of this work and will be taken up elsewhere.

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Figure 2. (a) 1:15 Froude scale model of a low-head dam. (b) Dye injection is used to
track the flow profile inside the physical model.
Dye injection is the most common flow visualization technique because of ease of
handling. A mixture of vegetable food coloring and water was injected from ports on the
model inlet. The dye acts as a tracer as shown in Fig. 2 (b), enabling visualization of the
flow in the danger zone downstream of the dam.
The real low-head dam on the river has a 1.5 m drop and a typical flow rate of 1.50
.
The model flow rate was made correspond to this, with the result 0.39

The following section describes the governing equations including the level-set method.
GOVERNING EQUATIONS
In the open-channel shown in Fig. 2 water flows with a free surface. The air above the
flow is at rest and at standard atmospheric pressure. Open-channel flow is possibly one of
the most complicated fields in fluid mechanics (Osman Akan 2006). The fluid flow is
primarily controlled by the gravity force and boundary friction. Airwater interactions
occur at the free surface through which there are continuous exchanges of both mass and
momentum between water and atmosphere.
Some low-head dams are built for water quality purposes. Their flows are
characterized by significant free-surface aeration which may be caused by a
combination of wave instabilities and turbulence fluctuations acting on the airwater free
surface. In the process called white water (Chanson, 2004), air bubbles may be
entrained when the turbulent kinetic energy is large enough to overcome both surface
tension and gravity effects.
The interface between air and water in free-surface aeration may be resolved using the
level set approach developed by Osher and Fedkiw (2003). This technique provides an
excellent resolution when the ratio of liquid to gas densities is large.
The flow in the channel in Fig. 2 is turbulent. The shear Reynolds number is defined as
. Here,
is the shear velocity,
is the average surface roughness and
is
the kinematic viscosity of water. Typical roughness height of the material used in the
physical model is 0.010.02 mm. The shear Reynolds number is in the range
. Thus the channel operates in the transition region between smooth
turbulence and fully rough turbulence (Chanson, 2004). Large eddy simulation of the
channel flow in the transition region is considered to be a promising approach (Bates,
Lane and Ferguson, 2005). Hence, in the current attempt the aim is to combine the best
features of the level set methods with those of the LES in order to achieve more accurate
simulations of the flow over a low-head dam.

Large-Eddy Simulation

359

The filtered continuity and momentum equations for an isothermal, 3D incompressible

flow of air-water mixture separated by an interface may be given as

(1)

(2)
The viscous stress tensor in (2) is defined as

(3)
In (1) and (2),
is the i-component of the filtered velocity field, denotes the filtered
pressure field,
is the subgrid scale (SGS) stress tensor, g is the gravitational
acceleration, and
is a volumetric source term, such as the interfacial force resulting
from the surface tension. Here, the unresolved part of
is neglected.
The SGS stresses are modeled using a model composed of a scale-similar part and an
eddy viscosity part introduced by Smagorinsky (1963). That is

,
(4)
where
is the resolved strain rate tensor. The coefficient C is evaluated dynamically
following Germano et al. (1991).
The fluid properties such as density and viscosity are discontinuous across the interface.
However, the velocity across the interface is continuous. The interface is defined as
the zero level set of a smooth function
which is a signed distance function. The level
set function is defined as

(5)
The position of the interface can be tracked by solving a transport equation given as

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

(6)
The physical properties of the fluid (such as density and viscosity) in each phase are
given by the following expressions

(7)
(8)
where the subscripts a and w represent air and water, respectively. Here,
smooth Heaviside function defined as (Sussman et al. 1999):

is the

(9)
where is the interface thickness. The interface will have a uniform thickness as long as
is maintained as a distance function. To keep
as a signed distance function in the
evolutionary process the level set function must be re-initialized on the regular time. The
re-initialization equation for the level set function may be given as (Sussman et al. 1994)

(10)
where

is the pseudo time, the smooth sign function

.

is defined as

The interfacial force resulting from the surface tension,

al. 1992)

, can be given as (Brackbill et

,
(11)

where
is the curvature defined as
of surface tension.

Large-Eddy Simulation

, and

is the coefficient

361

The numerical solutions for the turbulent flow of an incompressible air-water mixture
flowing over a low-head dam will be presented in the following section.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present approach involves using the CFD model detailed in the preceding section
to validate the model with results from a physical model,
to develop and compare alternatives, and
to verify of the proposed changes in the geometry using the physical
model.
To do these, an incompressible flow of an air-water mixture over a low head dam was
simulated using a model whose sketch is shown in Fig. 3 (a). The model is identical to
the physical model described in Section II. The problem can be simplified by
implementing periodic boundary conditions in the z-direction. Figure 3 (b) illustrates a
front view of the system with selected nomenclature.
The system was initially filled up with water to the level free surface at
The physical properties of air and water are given in Table 1.

Properties

Table 1. The material properties

Values
Symbols
Air
water

fictitious fluid

Density
Dynamic viscosity
Surface tension
Figures 4 (a) and (b) illustrate inverted black-white photographs showing a profile view
of a flow over a low-head dam with a plunging nappe in the physical model. These
photographs were taken at
intervals. The visualization of fluid flow is based on
the advection and decay of dyes which are popular in flow visualization because they are
easy to handle.
The dye must be thick enough to minimize diffusion in the working substance. In this
study, Sudan III was used which possesses the same density as the water. This dye is
preferable in rotational flows as it does not diffuse rapidly. The experimental results
illustrated in Figs. 4 (a) and (b) are compared with the results of the simulation in order to
verify the validity of the model. To do this, numerical simulations were performed in the
computational setup shown in Fig. 3. The free surface was flat before the simulations
were started.

362

21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

The dye is injected into steady motion in the x direction with a uniform inlet
at
. The water from
to
, is dead
profile
storage that does not affect the dynamics of the dam significantly. The inlet boundary
is set to
. Furthermore, it is assumed that the top
conditions at
surface of the model is open to the atmosphere, namely
boundary condition is set to
the walls of the model.

. The outlet

. The no-slip boundary condition is applied on

Figure 3. (a) Perspective view of the sketch of computational setup. (b) Longitudinal
schematic of computational setup. Here,
and

Large-Eddy Simulation

. Dimensions are in centimeters.

363

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

Figure 4. (a) and (b) Two still frames separated by an interval of

approximately
from the movie of the physical model. The frames show profile
views of the model. Here, 24 frames were taken for one second of movie. Sudan III dye
was used for flow visualization. The original color of the dye was dark-red color which
appears light in the inverted black and white images. (c) Computed instantaneous dye
concentration contours. Water was used as the working fluid. (d) Computed
instantaneous dye concentration contours. A fictitious fluid whose properties are given in
Table 1 was used as the working fluid. (e) Magnified lower part of (d). (f) Computed
instantaneous velocity field upstream of the dam face.

The finite volume method (Patankar, 1980) was used to discretize the equations (1-4) on
a non-uniform staggered Cartesian grid. The flow in the system is unsteady. Hence, a
semi-implicit time-advancement scheme is used to integrate the momentum equations
with the second order Crank-Nicolson scheme for the diagonal viscous terms and the
second order Adams-Bashforth scheme for the convective terms. The level set and its
reinitialization equation are solved using the third-order Runge-Kutta scheme for time
advancement and the fifth-order Hamilton-Jacobi scheme for spatial discretization. The
simulations are executed on a graphics processing unit (GPU) (Zamankhan, 2011).
Figure 4 (c) depicts two computed contours of the dye concentrations each separated
by
using an air-water mixture whose properties are given in Table 1.
Qualitative as well as quantitative comparisons with the measurements in the physical
model at the same locations indicate that the CFD model accurately simulates velocity

Large-Eddy Simulation

365

distribution. Agreement between the results was considered sufficient to justify use of the
CFD model for alternative development.
Froude scale models do not accurately simulate the tractive forces because they do not
simulate viscous forces. The Reynolds number offset ratio of a Froude scale model is
, where
is the geometric scale ratio, which is
. This means that the
CFD model in Fig. 3 would have the same Reynolds number as the prototype if the
viscosity of the working fluid would be
. It is instructive to use the
aforementioned fictitious fluid (whose properties are given in Table 1) to match both the
Reynolds and the Froude number in CFD model and prototype. Figure 4 (d) shows
computed instantaneous dye concentrations at the same locations as those depicted in
Figs. 4 (a) and (b). The discrepancy between the dye concentration distribution in the
physical and the computed results depicted in Fig. 4 (d) highlights the disadvantages of
using dyes in visualizing vortical structures in transitional flows in physical models. In
these cases, particle image velocimetry (PIV) which is an optical method of flow
visualization would be advantageous (Zamankhan 2010).
Figure 4 (e) shows the magnified lower part of Fig. 4 (d). Visual inspections reveal the
occurrence of interfacial instability of Kelvin-Helmholtz type when the dye injects
through the inlet into the water at rest in the channel. As can be seen from Fig. 4 (e), the
interface separating the dye and dead storage becomes wavy and because of this
deformation of the interface the dye moves slightly faster than before in some regions and
it moves slightly slower in other regions. Fig. 4 (f) illustrates computed instantaneous
fluid velocity vectors illustrated in the channel. Note that the pressure rises when the dye
velocity deceases and falls where the dye velocity increases. The pressure gradients are in
the directions producing amplification of the disturbances as clearly can be seen from
Fig. 4 (e). LES calculation displays quite nicely the vortical structures in the system.
The flow visualization technique provided by the CFD modeling discussed above can be
used to aid in an improved understanding of the flow dynamics in the danger zone shown
in Fig. 2 (b). The physical model was used to simulate flow angle, and the recirculation
pattern in the danger zone.
Figure 5 (a) illustrates a faster, shallow upstream flow changes to a slower and deeper
downstream flow. The nappe is submerged by tailwater and a standing wave can be
observed located at
from the face of the dam. The solid line aa in Fig. 5 (a)
represents the angle of the diverted flow approaching the step like obstacle at the bottom
of channel.
The flow angle and the location of the standing wave computed using the CFD model
were compared with those measured in the physical model. Comparisons were made
using aforementioned flow visualization technique.

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

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367

Figure 5. (a) A still frame from the movie of the physical model which shows dye
concentration in the spillway. The solid line represents the direction of diverted flow. The
dashed line represents the level of water upstream of the dam. Water was used as working
fluid. (b) Computed instantaneous dye concentration in the spillway. The dashed line
aa is the same as the solid line aa in (a). (c) Dye concentration in the danger zone of
the physical model. Note that the circulation pattern cannot be clearly visualized due to
represents the horizontal distance of the standing
rapid dispersion of the dye. Here,
wave from the dam face and is the vertical distance between the boil and the water
level upstream of the dam. (d) Computed instantaneous dye concentration in the danger
zone. The agreement between (c) and (d) is quite impressive. (e) Computed instantaneous
velocity field in the danger zone. (f) The circulation patterns of flow in the danger zone.
Note that there exists a pair of counter rotating vortices of different strengths in the
danger zone. Here, water was used as the working fluid.

Figure 5 (b) illustrates computed instantaneous dye concentrations at the same locations
as those depicted in Fig. 5 (a). Figure 5 (c) shows the stream of water in the physical
model splits at the boil. The circulation pattern cannot be clearly visualized due to rapid
dispersion of the dye in the recirculating flow in the danger zone. Figure 5 (d) illustrates
the CFD model predictions. Agreement between the results was considered quite

368

21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

impressive. The CFD model also provided the ability to visualize the velocity vectors in
the danger zone as shown in Fig. 5 (e). Figure 5 (f) visualize the circulation patterns of
flow for a typical low head dam. A careful inspection of Fig. 5 (f) reveals that there
exists a pair of counter rotating vortices of different strengths in the danger zone. These
vortices could be responsible for the high dispersion of dye as illustrated in Fig. 5 (c).
In this section the validated CFD model for the low head dam and the model detailed in
Zamankhan (2009) for water-sand mixtures were combined to develop a generalized
model for determining how to change the downstream geometry of low-head dams to
eliminate the vortices in the danger zone.
In brief, Zamankhan (2009) used large-eddy simulation technique for dense particle-fluid
flows in order to predict the current-induced scour for both the mono- and bidispersed
systems below a horizontal submarine pipeline exposed to unidirectional flow. The
simulations were four-way coupled, which implies that both solid-liquid and solid-solid
interactions are taken into account. Particles are assumed to behave as viscoelastic solids
during interactions with their neighboring particles, and their motion are predicted by a
Lagrangian method. The interparticle normal and tangential contact forces between
particles are calculated using a generalized Hertzian model. The other forces on a particle
that are taken into account include gravitational, pressure gradient force accounting for
the acceleration of the displaced liquid, the drag force resulting from velocity difference
with the surrounding liquid, and the Magnus and Saffman lift forces.
To simulate situations in which dangerous circulatory flow patterns can be eliminated, a
set-up including a vertical hopper was used as illustrated in Fig. 6 (a). This figure and
Fig. 6 (b) show schematics of the CFD model and selected nomenclature. The xy plane
cross section of the hopper is a trapezoid. The lengths of two bases are
and
,
respectively, and the altitude of trapezoid is . The width of the hopper is
. The
hopper was initially filled with a ternary mixture of spherical particles of same
. The diameter and volume fraction of the smallest particle size
density
in the mixture was
, and
. The diameter of particles 2 and 3
(largest particles) was
, and
, respectively. The total solid
and the solid volume fraction of the largest
volume fraction in the hopper was
particles was
. Flow of sand particles was created due to gravitational force
, as illustrated in Fig. 6 (c).
their free fall was controlled by a gate whose opening is
Figure 6 (d) depicts a snapshot of granular mixture out of the hopper.
It is known that the tractive stress on a solid particle fluctuates because of turbulence. In
addition, the drag force and turbulence are a function of the Reynolds number. CFD
models involving transport of noncohesive granular materials must simulate tractive
stress. Indeed, the tractive stress causes the drag force required to overcome the gravity
forces holding the sand particles in a system as shown in Fig. 6 (e). As stated earlier,
Froude scale models do not simulate the tractive forces and sediment transport
accurately. To deal with this problem, the fictitious fluid whose physical properties are
given in Table 1 was used as the working fluid in the simulations.

Large-Eddy Simulation

369

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

Figure 6. (a) and (b) Schematics of the CFD model and selected nomenclature. (c)
Schematic of the hopper. (d) A snapshot of solid particles flowing out of the hopper. (e)
Perspective view of flowing solid particles in the spillway. (f) Front view of (e). (g) An
instantaneous configuration of particles. (f) and (g) are each separated by
. (h)
Computed velocity vectors around the hopper. Inset: Magnified version of (h) in order to
better visualize the flow around the gate. (i) The average total solid volume fraction at
the sampling port in (h). (j) Computed instantaneous dye concentration contours after
modifications. Note that the vortices shown in Fig. 5 (f) were eliminated.

Large-Eddy Simulation

371

In the present simulations, the steady motion in the x direction with a uniform inlet
profile
at
was used. Figure 6 (f) shows a front view of
moveable granular materials. Figure 6 (g) illustrate computed instantaneous configuration
of particles. This configuration and that shown in Fig. 6 (f) are each separated
by
. Large-scale simulations of the sediment transport at interactive rates, which
provides insights into these systems with extensive associated complexities, is feasible
using multiple GPUs. The CFD model also provided the ability to visualize the velocity
vectors around the hopper as shown in Fig. 6 (h). This information may be useful in
controlling transport capacity. Figure 6 (i) depicts the average total solid volume fraction
at the sampling port shown in Fig. 6 (h).
Figure 6 (j) illustrates computed instantaneous configuration of particles after
.
.
The hopper has been removed and the inlet velocity has been increased to
As can be seen from Fig. 6 (j) the hazards associated with rollers in the danger zone have
been partially diminished. The present approach may offer suggestions for new ways for
eliminating dangerous circulatory flow patterns in a low head dams. The verification of
the proposed changes in the geometry using the physical model will be taken up
elsewhere. Note that the particle sizes have to be adjusted in the Froude scale model
illustrated in Fig. 2 for a Reynolds number that is much lower.
CONCLUSIONS
Relying on data from the CFD and physical models, some changes are proposed in the
geometry of the danger zone of a low head dam to eliminate its dangerous circulatory
flow patterns. It is shown that large-scale simulations of the aforementioned system at
interactive rates using multiple GPUs can provide insights into the system not to be
obtained in any other way. The verification of the proposed changes in the geometry
using the physical model will be carried out in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful to Hrafn Arnrsson and Gsli Steinn Ptursson for their careful
review of this manuscript and suggestions for many revisions.
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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations

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21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations