Abstract***
Passing an electric current through water
Hydrogen:-Atomic Number: - 1.
Chemical Symbol: - H.
Atomic Weight: - 1.00794 u.
Hydrogen is the lightest and most
abundant chemical element, constituting
roughly 75 % of the Universe's elemental
mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly
composed of hydrogen in its plasma state.
Naturally occurring elemental hydrogen is
relatively rare on Earth.
INTRODUCTION: -When the universe was
young there was hydrogen. Within the young
stars hydrogen atoms joined to form helium,
carbon, and oxygen. As the stars aged and died
heavier elements formed - such as gold, lead,
and uranium. The Sun, and the Earth are made
up of this stardust. The process continues. Today
over 90 percent of the detectable matter in the
universe is hydrogen but only 0.2% of the earth's
atmosphere.
In 1776 the
British chemist Henry Cavendish discovered
hydrogen by dissolving metals in dilute
acids. When burned, it produced water. In
1783 the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier
named hydrogen from the Greek words
meaning "water producer."
Hydrogen on Earth is chemically
combined with other elements. The most
common hydrogen-containing substance is
water. There are other sources of
hydrogen. It is found in combination with
carbon in hydrocarbons. It requires energy
to separate hydrogen from the carbon in
hydrocarbons or from the oxygen in water.
Electrolysis of water-
also produces hydrogen. This separates the
hydrogen from the oxygen in the water
molecule in a process called electrolysis.
Steam reforming of methane- Oxygen
combines with the carbon in the methane to
liberate the hydrogen atoms.
Both of these
processes require energy to separate the
hydrogen. This is why hydrogen is not only
a fuel but a way of storing energy. When
burned, the combustion of hydrogen and
oxygen creates heat, returning some of the
energy used to make it available. Heat is
released and water is formed. Each water
molecule has two atoms of hydrogen and
one oxygen - H2O.
Some advantages of hydrogen over other
fuels are:
i. Hydrogen can be made endlessly
from water by use of a water
electrolyzer.
ii. There are widely varying methods of
production.
iii. Combustion produces low levels of
pollutants in the form of nitrous
oxide, but these can be virtually
eliminated by various combustion
control methods.
iv. Hydrogen has the highest energy per
unit weight -- three times that of
gasoline.
v. Hydrogen can be transported safely
in pipelines.
vi. Hydrogen is nontoxic.
vii. Hydrogen dissipates rapidly in air.
This reduces explosion hazards.
Some disadvantages of hydrogen are:
i. When mixed with air, hydrogen has
a wide range of flammability. This
means that it will burn in lower
concentrations.
ii. It's harder to store than liquid and
other gaseous fuels.
iii. Hydrogen liquefies at a very low
temperature, -253C (-423F|.Small
amount of energy on a volume basis;
about one-third that of gasoline.
iv. High flame velocity and low ignition
energy give hydrogen an advantage
in engine performance but present
special safety problems.
Now the
Question Arises How to use this versatile
Hydrogen as a fuel, In this Paper
Submission I would like to discuss some
Methods and their consequences of
Manufacturing an Hydrogen as well as
Energy through this.
Introduction About Hydrogen :-
Hydrogen is the chemical
element with atomic number 1. It is
represented by the symbol H. With
an atomic weight of 1.00794 u, hydrogen is
the lightest and most abundant chemical
element, constituting roughly 75 % of the
Universe's elemental mass. Stars in the main
sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen
in its plasma state. Naturally occurring
elemental hydrogen is relatively rare
on Earth.
The most common isotope of hydrogen
is protium (name rarely used, symbol H)
with a single proton and no neutrons.
In ionic compounds it can take a negative
charge (an anion known as ahydride and
written as H−), or as a positively-
charged species H+. The latter cation is
written as though composed of a bare
proton, but in reality, hydrogen cations
in ionic compounds always occur as more
complex species. Hydrogen forms
compounds with most elements and is
present in water and most organic
compounds. It plays a particularly important
role in acid-base chemistry with many
reactions exchanging protons between
soluble molecules. As the simplest atom
known, the hydrogen atom has been of
theoretical use. For example, as the only
neutral atom with an analytic solution to
the Schrödinger equation, the study of the
energetics and bonding of the hydrogen
atom played a key role in the development
of quantum mechanics.
Hydrogen gas (now known to be H2) was
first artificially produced in the early 16th
century, via the mixing of metals with strong
acids. In 1766–81, Henry Cavendish was the
first to recognize that hydrogen gas was a
discrete substance, and that it produces
water when burned, a property which later
gave it its name, which in Greek means
"water-former". At standard temperature and
pressure, hydrogen is
a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless,
highly combustible diatomic gas with
the molecular formula H2.
Industrial production is mainly from the
steam reforming of natural gas, and less
often from more energy-intensive hydrogen
production methods like the electrolysis of
water. Most hydrogen is employed near its
production site, with the two largest uses
being fossil fuel processing
(e.g.,hydrocracking)
and ammonia production, mostly for the
fertilizer market.
Hydrogen is a concern in metallurgy as it
can embrittle many metals, complicating the
design of pipelines and storage tanks.
Hydrogen gas (dihydrogen) is highly
flammable and will burn in air at a very
wide range of concentrations between 4%
and 75% by volume. The enthalpy of
combustion for hydrogen is −286 kJ/mol:
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H 2O(l) + 572 kJ
(286 kJ/mol)
Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures
with air in the concentration range 4-74%
(volume per cent of hydrogen in air) and
with chlorine in the range 5-95%. The
mixtures spontaneously detonate by spark,
heat or sunlight. The hydrogen autoignition
temperature, the temperature of spontaneous
ignition in air, is 500 °C (932 °F). Pure
hydrogen-oxygen flames
emit ultraviolet light and are nearly invisible
to the naked eye, as illustrated by the faint
plume of the Space Shuttle main
engine compared to the highly visible plume
of a Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster.
The detection of a burning hydrogen leak
may require a flame detector; such leaks can
be very dangerous. The destruction of the
Hindenburg airship was an infamous
example of hydrogen combustion; the cause
is debated, but the visible flames were the
result of combustible materials in the ship's
skin. Because hydrogen is buoyant in air,
hydrogen flames tend to ascend rapidly and
cause less damage than hydrocarbon fires.
Two-thirds of the Hindenburg passengers
survived the fire, and many deaths were
instead the result of falls or burning diesel
fuel.
H2 reacts with every oxidizing element.
Hydrogen can react spontaneously and
violently at room temperature
with chlorine and fluorine to form the
corresponding hydrogen halides, hydrogen
chloride and hydrogen fluoride, which are
also potentially dangerous acids.
hydrogen is a sustainable carbon-free gas. It
can release heat when burned with air or
oxygen, or
produce electricity when combined
electrochemically with oxygen in a fuel cell.
When solar-hydrogen is made or burned,
there is no carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide
“greenhouse gas,” or hydrocarbon pollutants
produced.
What Contaminants May Be Present in
H2?
1. Solid Particulate Contaminants in H2
Gas
It is possible to find entrained particles of
dirt and rust in a hydrogen electrolyzer’s
product stream. Some electrolyzers have
steel or iron alloy containers, valves, and
piping. This metal may produce low levels
of rust particles over time. Electrolyzers
frequently use high surface area electrode
materials such as nickel that may lose small
particles into the electrolyte. Sometimes,
particles of either plastic or sealant will
enter the electrolyte system. This happens
due to poor housekeeping during
manufacturing or repair. These particulates
can be removed from your hydrogen gas
stream with an appropriate scrubber or filter.
2. Liquid Contaminants in H2 Gas
Electrolyte is the normal liquid contaminant
in an alkaline electrolysis system. In this
case, it is water plus potassium hydroxide
(KOH). A small amount of KOH and water
escapes from the electrolyzer with the flow
of hydrogen. An aerosol of fine electrolyte
droplets is produced as bubbles of hydrogen
gas rise to the surface of the liquid
electrolyte and then pop. The same thing
happens on the oxygen side of the
electrolyzer. In our Hydrogen Wind
electrolyzer, there is another source of
KOH/water aerosol hydrogen
contamination: electrolyte-wetted float
valves that control the discharge of gas from
the unit. Any other liquid contaminant in the
hydrogen gas would be unexpected. A
coalescing filter can remove solids and
liquid KOH/water aerosol
droplets.
3. Gaseous Contaminants in H2 Gas
Under certain conditions, we find gaseous
contaminants such as oxygen, nitrogen,
argon, and water vapor in our hydrogen gas.
Oxygen, nitrogen, and argon are present in
normal air. When all three of these gases are
present in the normal proportions, an air leak
into the electrolyzer or its piping has
occurred. However, this is rare. Usually, this
is seen only at startup of the electrolyzer
when purging or evacuation is imperfect. It
also can happen when there are significant
leaks in either the cells or in the
interconnecting piping. Once the
electrolyzer is operating above atmospheric
pressure, no outside air will leak inside.
However, some hazardous electrolyte may
leak out if there are any poor seals. See
HP39 for safety information on handling
alkaline electrolyte, as KOH is very
corrosive to skin and eyes. Nitrogen and
argon are not a safety concern, as they are
inert gases. Oxygen is the contaminant of
primary concern.
Water vapor is always present in a
KOH/water electrolyzer. The gas vapor
space of each cell is saturated with water
above the electrolyte. The concentration of
water saturation is governed by the
temperature and pressure in that
environment. The
objective in a purifier system is to remove
excess water vapor. This prevents
condensation from occurring downstream,
with subsequent flooding of other
components. The presence of some water
vapor in hydrogen that has been purified for
storage in pressure tanks is not harmful—as
long as a compressor is not used. The
presence of water vapor in stored hydrogen
gas slightly reduces its flammable limits in
oxygen or air. Our electrolyzer produces gas
under pressure, between 0.1 and 4 bar (1 to
58 psig), depending on storage tank
pressure.
Some advantages of hydrogen over other
fuels are:
1. Hydrogen can be made endlessly
from water by use of a water
electrolyzer.
2. There are widely varying methods of
production.
3. Combustion produces low levels of
pollutants in the form of nitrous
oxide, but these can be virtually
eliminated by various combustion
control methods.
4. Hydrogen has the highest energy per
unit weight -- three times that of
gasoline.
5. Hydrogen can be transported safely
in pipelines.
6. Hydrogen is nontoxic.
7. Hydrogen dissipates rapidly in air.
This reduces explosion hazards.
Some disadvantages of hydrogen are:
1. When mixed with air, hydrogen has
a wide range of flammability. This
means that it will burn in lower
concentrations.
2. It's harder to store than liquid and
other gaseous fuels.
3. Hydrogen liquefies at a very low
temperature, -253C (-423F|.
4. Small amount of energy on a volume
basis; about one-third that of
gasoline.
5. High flame velocity and low ignition
energy give hydrogen an advantage
in engine performance but present
special safety problems.
Despite the opportunities and challenges of
using, hydrogen, there is little doubt that it is
our future fuel. Should we start to use it
now, or wait for the oil to run out?
Hydrogen is a clean fuel and an efficient
energy carrier. Hydrogen is found in water,
organic compounds and hydrocarbons such
as petrol, natural gas, methanol and propane.
Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless,
flammable gaseous substance. Hydrogen is
high in energy content as it contains120.07
Kilo Joules/gram, which is the highest for
any known fuel. However, its energy content
compared to volume is rather low. This
poses challenges with regard to its storage
for civilian applications, when compared to
storage of liquid fossil fuels. When burnt
hydrogen produces water as a
Byproduct and is therefore, environment
Friendly as the greenhouse gases emission
is curbed. Produced from hydrocarbons such
as natural gas, naphtha, methanol etc. and
also renewable energy sources, such as the
gasification or pyrolysis of biomass,
Organic material which can be used to
generate a fuel / gas that can be reformed
into hydrogen.
(ii) Electrolysis of water to produce
hydrogen by passing an electrical current
through it by conventional grid power or
through renewable energy sources like solar,
wind etc.
(iii) The photo electrochemical (PEC)
process produces hydrogen in one step,
splitting water by illuminating a water
immersed semiconductor, with sunlight.
(iv) Biological systems gradually use the
natural photosynthetic activity of bacteria,
green algae and fermentative characteristics
of bacteria for production of hydrogen.
Hydrogen production
Hydrogen is most often produced in labs as
a by-product of other reactions, generally
with metals (such as zinc) and acids.
Hydrogen gas for commercial use is usually
produced by steam reforming of natural
Gas at high temperatures (700 - 1100
degrees Celsius), where it reacts with
methane
To give carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas
(syngas). Other means of production are
Partial oxidation of hydrocarbons and coal
reaction.
Hydrogen gas can also be formed through
the electrolysis of water, where a low
Voltage current is passed through water.
With the electrical current, water is split into
Hydrogen and oxygen. Oxygen bubbles are
formed on the anode while hydrogen
Bubbles are formed at the cathode.
Some labs are in research and testing phases
for using solar energy and water to
Produce hydrogen, as well as many heat
instead of electricity production methods on
Trial.
In 2007 it was discovered that a pellet made
of an alloy of aluminium and gallium,
Added to water, could be used to generate
hydrogen and alumina, allowing hydrogen to
be made on site instead of transported.
There is demonstration hydrogen from wind
project at Mawson (Australian
Antarctic Division) using wind power to
drive an electrolyser and an air compressor
To store hydrogen for use in vehicles, to
charge fuel cells for electronic devices, for
Cooking fuel and also for heating.
Hydrogen gas is a product of some types of
anaerobic metabolism and is produced by
several microorganisms.
ELECTROLYSIS OF SALT WATER
Idea: Water is comprised of two elements –
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). Distilled o A basic understanding of how a battery
water is pure and free of salts; thus it is a works.
very poor conductor of electricity. By o Atoms are made of a positive nucleus
adding ordinary table salt (NaCl) to distilled surrounded by negative electrons.
water, it becomes an electrolyte solution, o An atom’s electron configuration,
able to conduct electricity. particularly the outermost electrons,
Key Concepts determines how the atom can
o Ionic compounds such as salt water, interact with other atoms.
conduct electricity when they dissolve in o All matter is made up of atoms.
water. o Atoms of any element are alike, but
o Ionic compounds consist of two or more different from atoms of other elements.
ions that are held together by electrical
attraction. One of the ions has a positive
charge (called a "cation") and the other has a
negative charge ("anion").
o Molecular compounds, such as water, are
made of individual molecules that are bound
together by
shared electrons (i.e., covalent bonds).
Essential Questions
o What happens to salt when it is dissolved
in water?
o What are electrolytes?
o How can we determine the volume of
dissolved ions in a water sample?
o How are atoms held together in an
element?
Knowledge and Skills
o Conduct an experiment to see that water
Basic concept of photoelectrochemical
can be split into its constituent ions through
hydrogen production from water
the process of
splitting.
electrolysis.
o Prepare and experiment with a 10% salt
Background:
solution to better understand the process of
In chemistry, electrolysis is a method of
ion exchange.
separating bonded elements and compounds
o Discuss and research the "softness" and
by passing an electric current through them.
"hardness" of water.
An ionic compound, in this case salt, is
o Use the periodic table to identify elements
dissolved with an appropriate solvent, such
and learn their characteristics.
as water, so that its ions are available in the
Prior Knowledge
liquid. An electrical current is applied
o Define the difference between ionic and
between a pair of inert electrodes immersed
molecular compounds.
in the liquid. The negatively charged
o Salt consists of sodium (Na) and chloride
electrode is called the cathode, and the
(Cl).
positively charged one the anode. Each
o Water is a tiny V-shaped molecule with
electrode attracts ions which are of the
the molecular formula H2O.
opposite
charge. Therefore, positively charged ions
(called cations) move towards the cathode,
while negatively charged ions (termed
anions) move toward the anode. The energy
required to separate the ions, and cause them
to gather at the respective electrodes, is
provided by an electrical power supply. At
the probes, electrons are absorbed or
released by the ions, forming a collection of
the desired element or compound.
One important use of electrolysis is to
produce hydrogen. The reaction that occurs
is
2H2O(aq) → 2H2(g) + O2(g).
This has been suggested as a way of shifting
society towards using hydrogen as an energy
carrier for powering electric motors and
internal combustion engines. Electrolysis of
water can be achieved in a simple hands-on
project, where electricity from a battery is
passed through a cup of water (in practice a
saltwater solution or other electrolyte will
need to be used otherwise no result will be
observed). Electrolysis of an aqueous
solution of table salt (NaCl, or sodium
chloride) produces aqueous sodium
hydroxide and chlorine, although usually
only in minute amounts.
NaCl(aq) can be reliably electrolysed to
produce hydrogen. Hydrogen gas will be
seen to bubble up at the cathode, and
chlorine gas will bubble at the anode.
Faraday's law of electrolysis states that:
▪ The mass of a substance produced at an
electrode during electrolysis is proportional
to the number of moles of electrons (the
quantity of electricity) transferred at that
electrode
▪ The number of Faradays of electric charge
required to discharge one mole of substance
at an electrode is equal to the number of
"excess" elementary charges on that ion
These two statements are often considered
as separate laws: Faraday's 1st and 2nd laws
of electrolysis.
Materials: Periodic Table, table salt, distilled
water, measuring apparatus, 9-Volt
battery, two electrodes (e.g., copper strips or
two #2 pencils each sharpened at both ends),
electrical wire, glass beakers or ceramic
saucers, electrical tape (optional)
Activity
o Group 1 (or I) Elements – Have one
electron in their outer shell. Each element in
this group has a tendency to lose a single
electron to form a singly charged positive
ion. Other than Hydrogen, the other
elements in this group are known as "Alkali
Metals": Lithium, Sodium, Potassium,
Rubidium, Cesium, and Francium.
Hydrogen is not metallic and thus, on some
Periodic Tables, is shown apart from the
Group 1 elements altogether.
o Group 16 (or VIA) Elements – Have six
electrons in their outer shell. Each element
in this group has a tendency to gain two
electrons to form a doubly charged negative
ion. Elements in this group include Oxygen,
Sulphur, Selenium, Tellurium, and
Polonium. These are known as
"Chalcogens" or the "Oxygen family." Their
compounds are often called "ore formers."
o This exercise should help us understand
why the chemical formula for water is H2O.
However, they should also understand that
hydrogen and oxygen occur in various ionic
forms:
o Hydrogen can be a cation (i.e., positively
charged as H+) or, less commonly, an anion
(i.e., negatively charged H- known as a
"hydride").
o Oxygen can be a doubly charged anion
called an "oxide" (i.e., O2-). In addition,
oxygen is often paired with a single
hydrogen ion to form a "hydroxide" anion
(i.e., OH-).
o Water is an example of a "molecular
compound." Atoms in a molecular
compound are bound together by shared
electrons (i.e., covalent bonds). Water can
be split into its constituent elements by
passing an electrical current between the
positive and negative poles of a battery that
is immersed in water. This process is called
"electrolysis"; however, rather than splitting
water into pure hydrogen and pure oxygen,
water molecules naturally split into H+ and
OH- ions.
o If you do not conduct the preparatory
experiment "The Nature of Salt," review
with students the ionic bonds involved in the
formation of NaCl. Guided by the Periodic
Table, ask them to determine the ionic
charge of sodium (Na+) and chlorine (Cl-)
in solution.
o We will prepare a percent composition by
mass, specifically a 10% salt solution. Write
the following sentence on the board:
"Percent composition by mass is the mass of
the solute divided by the mass of the
solution (i.e., mass of the solute plus mass of
the solvent), multiplied by 100."
o What is the solute? (Table salt or sodium
chloride)
o What is the solvent? (Distilled water)
o Within a group discussion, come up with
the equation used to calculate the mass of
salt needed to be added to water to make a
10% salt solution:
( _____ grams of NaCl _____ grams of
NaCl + _____ grams of water ) X 100 =
10% NaCl solution (One correct ratio is
10 grams of NaCl and 90 grams of water)
o Connect the electrodes to the + and -
terminals of a 9-volt battery. Place the other
ends of the electrodes in the 10% salt
solution. See diagram below. Gas bubbles
will appear on the immersed electrodes.
o What to expect:
• As the electricity from the battery passes
through and between the electrodes, the
water splits into hydrogen and chlorine gas,
which collect as very tiny bubbles around
the electrode tips.
• Hydrogen collects around the cathode and
chlorine gas collects around the anode.
• How can you get chlorine from H2O?
Sometimes in experiments, a secondary
reaction takes place. This is what happens in
this experiment.
• Oxygen is not given off in this experiment.
That's because the oxygen atoms from the
water combine in the liquid with the salt to
form hydroxyl ions. Salt's chemical formula
is NaCl - sodium chloride. The chlorine gas
is from the chloride in the salt. The oxygen
in the hydroxyl ions stay in the solution. So
what is released in this reaction is not
oxygen but is chlorine gas that collects
around the electrode tip.
• In real electrolysis systems, a different
solution is used and higher levels of
electricity help to split the water molecules
into hydrogen and oxygen without this
secondary reaction.
o OPTIONAL: If you have an ampmeter
that can be set to the microamp scale, you
can begin with pure distilled water and
gradually add salt to the liquid. As you add
more salt to the solution, movement of the
needle will indicate increased current flow.
The conductivity of a solution is
proportional to the concentration of ions in
the solution.
o "Which ions will move towards the
cathode?" (Cations, positively charged ions
Such as Na+ and H+, will move towards the
negatively charged cathode.)
"Which ions will move towards the anode?"
(Anions, negatively charged ions such as Cl-
and OH-, will move towards the positively
charged anode.) Have the students draw a
diagram of the experiment set-up (i.e.,
similar to figure in the "Background"
section). On their diagram, indicate which
ions are located near the cathode and the
anode.
o As a group, discuss the composition of the
gases that appear at the cathode and the
anode. If needed, write the following ionic
equations for the electrolysis of NaCl
solution on the board:
2Cl- => Cl2 + 2e-
2H2O + 2e- => H2 + 2OHo
The upper equation shows the oxidation
(i.e., loss of electrons from an atom) at the
anode and release of chlorine gas (i.e., Cl2).
NOTE: Cl- is easier to oxidize than water,
thus the product formed at the cathode is
chlorine gas.
o The lower equation shows the reduction
(i.e., gain of electrons by an atom) at the
cathode and release of hydrogen gas (i.e.,
H2).
NOTE: Water is easier to reduce than Na+
ions, thus the product formed at the cathode
is hydrogen gas.

Hydrogen from Biomass
Hydrogen can be produced from
lignocellulosic biomass by combining
gasification or pyrolysis, with steam
reforming and the water-gas shift reaction
(CO + H2O => CO2 + H2). The technology
to achieve this has been tested in systems
equivalent to 10 kg of biomass per hour.
Gasification technology has been tested at
scales as large as approximately 15,000 kg
of biomass per hour. Biomass typically
contains only about 6% (by weight)
hydrogen. That leads many people to argue
that it doesn’t make sense to use biomass to
produce hydrogen. However, the carbon in
biomass is used as the
chemical template for removing oxygen
from water in the steam reforming process.
By producing some hydrogen from steam in
the reforming and water gas-shift reactors,
approximately 50% more hydrogen can be
produced than by using only the hydrogen in
the biomass. If biomass is approximated as
having the empirical formula of CH1.4O0.6,
the full conversion of biomass to hydrogen
can be represented as:
CH1.4O0.6 +1.4H 2O ®CO2 + 2.1H2
If all of the hydrogen were to come from the
biomass, only 1.4 moles of hydrogen would
be produced per “mole” of biomass.
Because the carbon in the biomass is used to
remove some hydrogen from water in
reforming/shift, however, up to 2.1 moles of
hydrogen per “mole” of biomass are
possible. Hydrogen can also be produced
from manure using anaerobic digestion
followed by reforming and shift. Biomass-
derived sugars, which could be the waste
products from food processing facilities
(e.g., plants making beet sugar, corn syrup,
cheese, cereals or baked goods) or the
products of enzymatic breakdown of
cellulose, can be converted to hydrogen via
fermentation or anaerobic digestion
followed by reforming. Finally, low-
temperature conversion of glucose to
hydrogen is also being researched, but is not
currently applicable to whole -biomass
(lignocellulosic) streams. To calculate the

Comparative greenhouse-based experiment of
growth and productivity comparing a natural
versus a genemutated algae culture. The gene-
mutated culture has a higher cell density and a
lower cell mass. [Source: NREL]
amount of hydrogen that could be produced
from lignocellulosic biomass in Minnesota,
a hydrogen yield of 0.725 kg/kg bone dry
biomass (65.8 kg H2/ton bone dry biomass)
was assumed (Spath
and Mann, 2003). This corresponds to a
50% energy conversion efficiency and an
assumption that the biomass has a heating
value of 8,500 Btu/lb HHV, dry basis.
The amount of gasoline used in Minnesota
in 2000 was approximately 2.5 billion
gallons. On a lower heating value basis, the
energy content of a gallon of gasoline is
approximately equal to the energy content of
a kilogram of hydrogen. From these
parameters, the amount of gasoline that
could be displaced by biomass-derived
hydrogen was calculated using the following
equation:
Where:
D = percentage of gasoline displaced,
gallons/year
H2 = amount of hydrogen used in
transportation applications, kg/year
h = ratio of the efficiency of hydrogen use to
gasoline use
G = amount of gasoline used in MN in 2000
Based on data from the GREET program
(http://www.transportation.anl.gov/software/
GREET/index.html)
At Argonne National Laboratory, the
amount of CO2 emitted from gasoline-
burning automobiles is equal to 9,100 grams
per gallon of gasoline consumed. Since no
CO2 is produced by using hydrogen in an
internal combustion engine or fuel cell, the
direct vehicle CO2 emissions savings are
equal to 9,100 grams per gallon of gasoline
conserved. Previous life cycle assessments
by the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory have shown that the total amount
of greenhouse gases (CO2, methane, and
N2O) that are produced by converting
biomass to hydrogen depend on the type of
biomass and the fate of the biomass if it
were to have been disposed of rather than
used for energy. If the biomass is grown as
an energy crop, specifically for the purpose
of energy production, the CO2 emitted from
the hydrogen facility is balanced by the CO2
consumed by the biomass during its growth
cycle. However, the process cannot be
considered to be a zero-net emitter because
of the fossil fuels used to grow and transport
the biomass. Mann and Spath (1997)
showed that the net greenhouse gas
emissions are approximately 5% of the total
carbon in the biomass. However, if
the biomass is a residue that would have
been sent to a landfill (e.g., urban wood
waste), the net greenhouse gas emissions
from the system are negative due to the
avoidance of methane emissions during
normal decomposition. Operations using
biomass recovered from forest thinning
would have a nearly zero net emissions
profile because of the oxidation of nearly all
of the carbon on the forest floor, less the
carbon that may be stored underground.
Emissions avoided by using agricultural
residues would depend on how the residue
was normally disposed of. Because of the
wide variance in avoided greenhouse gas
emissions profiles, it was assumed that the
production of hydrogen from lignocellulosic
biomass in MN would result in very little to
zero greenhouse gas emissions.
Table shows the amount of hydrogen that
could be produced from the average of the
resources identified in the three sources of
literature cited in Table 1, assuming that the
efficiency of the hydrogen vehicle is equal
to the efficiency of today’s fleet of gasoline
vehicles.

Photolytic Methods
Solar energy can be used to convert water to
hydrogen and oxygen directly; electricity
need not be first generated with a
photovoltaic cell. This conversion can be
accomplished by using either
photoelectrochemical or photobiological
methods. A particular type of
photoelectrochemical cell can directly
dissociate water into hydrogen and water
using specialized semiconductor materials at
one or both electrodes (Lewis 2001).
Different electrode materials work at
different wavelengths of light. Research to
identify water-stable semiconductor
materials that have the highest efficiency in
the solar spectrum is ongoing.
Photobiological methods rely on the
production of hydrogen by certain types of
algae and bacteria (Melis and Happe 2004;
Akkerman et al. 2002). Analogous to plants
that produce oxygen from water as a by-
product of their metabolism, these
microorganisms produce hydrogen.
Although this process is presently too slow
to harness for use with offshore solar energy
collection, researchers are investigating
ways to enable this process to become an
important piece in sustainable hydrogen
production with low environmental impact.
In recent years, there has been an increase in
the research of renewable energy as the
limitations of traditional forms of energy,
especially fossil fuels, have become
apparent. Developing a new renewable
energy resource that does not pollute will
solve these problems. Hydrogen is among
the most promising replacements for fossil
fuels. Additionally, hydrogen can be readily
produced from a variety of sources.
Nevertheless, finding a method to produce
hydrogen cheaply and efficiently from a
renewable source is the first step in
developing a safe and non-polluting energy
resource. From the viewpoint of conversion
of solar energy into chemical fuel, direct
production of hydrogen from photocatalytic
splitting of water over various kinds of
oxide semiconductors has gained much
attention aiming to search a sustainable
source of hydrogen energy supply. Recently,
photocatalytic H2 evolution using organic
compounds such as simple Molecule of
alkyl alcohol, organic pollutants, and even
biomass as sacrificial reagent has also been
extensively concentrated. However, in the
absence of sacrificial reagent, the efficiency
of photocatalytic H2 evolution is very low
and semiconductor photocatalyst can
deactivate after long termirradiation. Among
oxide photocatalysts, titaniumdioxide
(TiO2) has been intensively used in
photocatalysis and environmental pollutant
cleanup applications. However, electron–
hole recombination is generally in direct
competition with the trapping process. The
rate of the trapping and subsequent
photocatalytic reaction on TiO2 surface can
be enhanced by retarding the electron–hole
recombination. The principal method of
slowing the electron–hole recombination is
thought to be through the loading of metal
cocatalysts onto the surface of the TiO2. It is
considered that the metal cocatalyst
dispersed on the TiO2 expedites the
transportation of electrons produced by the
photoexcitation to the outer system, i.e.
photocatalytic reaction. Although precious
metal cocatalyst, especially platinum (Pt),
shows outstanding performance for
photocatalytic H2 evolution, it is fairly
costly. Therefore, another important base
metal cocatalyst, i.e. nickel (Ni), is proposed
to be more emphasized because of its much
relative cost-effectiveness. Many research
groups reported the substantial efficiency for
the utilization of this co catalyst supported
on a variety of oxide semiconductors as H2
revolution sites from photo catalytic water
splitting, however the systemcom posed of
NiO-loaded TiO2 photo catalyst has become
scarcely studied since the report of Kudo et
al. So far, several approaches for synthesis
of supports and heterogeneous
catalysts/photo catalysts have been
examined. The conventional wetness
impregnation is one of the widely used
methods for loading of metal cocatalysts on
various kinds of supports, including
NiO/TiO2 in the earlier mentioned literature.
In this conventional method, the support in
either commercial or synthesized form is
first required. The support is then
impregnated with a necessary amount of
metal precursor solution. This conventional
synthesis can be considered as two-step
method. However, in the past decade, sol–
gel process has attracted increasing
consideration on their preparation. The
loading of cocatalyst on supports using sol–
gel process is also a potential mode to
effectively incorporate a desired metal. Up
to now, catalysts and photocatalysts
prepared by sol–gel process demonstrated
relatively high activity for many reaction
systems. Furthermore, in combination with
surfactant template, sol–gel process allows
the formation of oxides with controlled
porosity. Recently, our previous reports
revealed that mesoporous TiO2 prepared via
a combined sol–gel process with surfactant-
assisted templating method of laurylamine
hydrochloride (LAHC)/tetraisopropyl
orthotitanate (TIPT) modified with
acetylacetone (ACA) system exhibited
satisfactorily high photocatalytic activity for
H2 evolution . For improvement of
photocatalytic efficiency, the single-step
loading of NiO cocatalyst into TiO2 support
using this combined system is a promising
candidate for obtaining effective
mesoporous NiO/TiO2 photocatalyst.
Herein, this contribution first reported the
application of sol–gel process combined
with surfactant-assisted template to
synthesize single-step sol–gel derived
mesoporous NiO/TiO2 towards
photocatalytic H2 evolution. The
experiments on using NiO/TiO2 prepared by
incipient wetness impregnation method were
also comparatively investigated.
 Industrial preparation Method most
comprises auto thermal catalytic
reforming and non-catalytic partial
oxidation of Hydrocarbons
During partial oxidation a
hydrocarbon feedstock is combusted
together with air, oxygen-enriched
air in a burner mounted at the top of
a reaction vessel. Oxygen is thereby
supplied in amounts, which are less
than the amount required for
completed combustion and
Hydrogen and Carbon Monoxide are
produced in an effluent gas mainly
by flame ignition reaction

CnHm + n/2 O2  n CO + m/2H2

………………………….(1)
CnHm + nO2  nCO2 + m/2H2O
………………………(2)
Both Reactions are strongly
exothermic for all hydrocarbons.
Partial
oxidation is typically employed in
the gasification of heavy oils, where
the temperature in the gas raises
Process of Reactor for the Production of during the combustion to 1000-1500o
hydrogen and Carbon Monoxide Rich C, which is high enough to give a
Gases:- sufficient 10w content if unconverted
1. Field of invention:- The present hydrocarbons in the combustion
invention is directed to the effluent gas, lighter feedstock
preparation of hydrogen and Carbon ranging from natural gas to naphtha
mono oxide rich gas. In particular, fractions with a boiling point up to
the invention relates to process and 200o C are conventionally treated by
reactor for the preparation of such autothermal catalytic reforming of
gases by autothermal catalytic the feedstock.
reforming of hydrocarbon feedstock. During this process, only a part
2. Designation of related article of the hydrocarbon feedstock is
Hydrogen and carbon monoxide oxidized with an oxygen-containing
rich Gases are mainly used as atmosphere by the above flame
synthesis gas in the production of reaction (1,2). Residual
Ammonia and Methanol or other hydrocarbons in the gas stream from
organic compounds the combustion are then catalytic
The gases find further employment steam reformed by the endothermic
during steel production and as full of reaction:
town gas
 CnHm + nH2O  CO+
(m/2 +n)H2
Necessary heat for the endothermic
steam reforming reaction is, thereby
provided by exothermic flame
reactions (1 , 2 ).
Somewhat lower combustion
temperature are used during
autothermal catalytic reforming,
which is operated at typical
temperature of about 900-1400oC.
Steam is added to the feed in order to
moderate the flame temperature and
increase hydrocarbon conversion in
the burner effluent gas.
Similar to the partial
oxidation process hydrocarbon feed
mixed with steam is burnt with an
oxygen containing atmosphere at the
top of a reaction Residual
hydrocarbons in the combusted gas
are then steam reformed in the
presence of a catalyst arranged as
fixed bed in a lower portion of the
reactor heat for the endothermic
steam reforming reactions is supplied
by the hot effluent gas from the
combustion zone in the upper reactor
portion and above the catalyst bed.
As the combustion gas contacts the
catalyst the temperature in the gas
cools to 900-1100oC by the steam
reforming reactions in the catalyst
bed.
In the operating the above
process, Suitable hydrocarbons feed
if necessary after preheating in
introduced into a burner mounted at
the top pf a reactor and burnt with
oxygen containing atmosphere in
order to protect the reactor shell
against the against the high
temperature arising during the
exothermic oxidation reactions
industrial reactor are provided with a
temperature resistant and insulating
refractory lining on the inner wall of
the reactor shell.
The lining Materials must
be able to withstand high
temperature exposure and be suited
to resistance erosion by hot gases. At
present, refractory materials most
commonly used in industrial reactor
of the above types contain more than
90% alumina.
A general problem in the
preparation of Synthesis gas by the
above process is formation of soot in
the combustion zone at critical
process conditions, such as low
steam/carbon ratios in the feedstock
to the processes.
A further problem is related
to start up of the burner for the
partial oxidation of the feedstock,
which requires preheating of the
feedstock and the reactor to high
temperatures.
NOTE:- Hydrogen peroxide is a
viable, alternative energy storage
medium, competing with hydrogen
gas, biogas, biodiesel and alcohol.
H2O2 is an energy-dense fuel that
burns as cleanly as H2, but
requires no oxidizer as it is
included inside the fuel. Actually,
it does not burn, it decomposes,
with a release of tremendous
energy, close to the energy per
mole of H2. It is like water, so it
does not need a pressure vessel to
contain it. Over about 80% H2O2
(where H2O is the impurity), it is
explosive and extreme mechanical
shock or heat can set it off. It is
"burned" in jets and other devices
by catalytic decomposition. You
can get 3500 psi steam out of it!
 Helicopters have flown with rotors
containing H2O2 jets on their
blade tips - no tail rotors are
needed and no central engine.
Very cheap and simple propulsion
is possible with peroxide.
Thermochemical Hydrogen Production
The objective was to develop
thermochemical processes for
decomposition of water with high thermal
efficiency. These processes may also include
a low-temperature electrochemical step that
consumes less energy than ambient-
temperature water electrolysis. Studies were
directed towards reaction kinetics,
thermodynamics, reactant separation,
material stability, bench-scale and pilot
studies of complete or single process steps,
flow-sheeting and cost analyses. The
coupling of the processes to specific heat
sources was also considered. This included
primarily nuclear energy and high-
temperature solar energy
1. Sulphur / Iodine Process:-
Many technological challenges of
the 3-step thermochemical sulphur/iodine
(SI) process originally proposed by General
Atomic in the late 1970s7 have been
advanced during the IEA-HIA program,
most importantly process parameters,
ceramic construction materials and bench-
scale cycle operation. As a result, the SI-
process has become the prime
thermochemical hydrogen production option
studied under the auspices of the IEA-HIA.
The prime study partners included Germany,
Japan, Canada and Italy. The reaction steps
of the SI thermochemical hydrogen
production process are shown in Table-3.3.
The Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute
has chosen this process for potential
coupling with their high-temperature, gas-
cooled, nuclear test reactor. They have
conducted an extensive series of successful
bench-scale and process studies as well as
making significant progress with material
developments. Complete bench-scale
operation of the SI-process was achieved
during the early 1990s. Computer
simulations of the cyclic operation, on the
basis of the experimental data, were
constructed in order to optimise the process
flow sheet. In collaboration with the German
company CESIWID, the Japanese work was
accompanied by studies at the Research
Institute for Reactor Materials (KFA) in
Jülich, Germany on materials for sulphuric
acid (H2SO4) decomposition to be used in
technical operation of the SI process.
Corrosion tests of new silicon carbide
(SiSiC) reactor tubes were performed in
boiling H2SO4, with and without the
addition of iodine. The performance of the
same tube material was tested at 1000°C
during the H2SO4 decomposition reaction
step. Results showed a protective oxidation
of the SiSiC surface combined with
excellent corrosion resistance.The result was
especially confirmed by a successful two-
months SO3 decomposition test running
over 3000 thermal cycles between 500°C
and 950°C. The Technical University (TU)
of Aachen studied and designed the process
details for the decomposition step of
hydrogen iodide (HI) in H2O / HI / I2
solution under high pressure and
temperature, resulting in
successful HI separation experiments in
batch column reactors. Thermodynamic
analyses and
engineering evaluations (design optimisation
and performance modelling) have been
performed on the
H2SO4 decomposition step. Thermo-
economic evaluations (process modeling and
optimisation, flowsheet development as
well as cost analyses) of the H2SO4
decomposition step have been conducted at
the Ecole Polytechnique Montreal, Canada,
and in collaboration with GA San Diego, TU
Aachen and JRC Ispra, Italy. Cost analyses
for the use of high-temperature nuclear heat
revealed that 70% – 85% of the total cost of
the H2SO4 decomposition is due to the cost
of hightemperature nuclear heat. This
process step alone was estimated to add
approximately US$ 6-12 / GJ of hydrogen to
the SI-process hydrogen production cost.
Bromine / Calcium / Iron Process
The 4-step thermochemical hydrogen
production cycle based on bromine / calcium
/ iron redox reactions (UT3-process) has
been proposed and coinvestigated by a
number of Japanese institutions, conducting
the following successful key research
efforts8:
• Bench-scale studies (University of Tokyo);
• Corrosion resistive metals development
(Tokyo Institute of Technology / Tohoku
University);
• High temperature membrane separation of
gases (Yokohama National University); and
• Liquid-vapour equilibrium for the HBr /
Br2 /H2O system (Nihon University).
Metal / Metal-Oxide Redox Systems
Equilibrium conditions of metal / metal-
oxide redox systems in hydrogen production
processes and
metal halide processes were examined at the
University of Uke, Sweden. Iron oxides with
other metal oxides (cobalt, nickel,
manganese) in solid solution phases were
studied in order to find reasonable reaction
conditions at temperatures below 1250°C.
The metal / metal-oxide systems were
evaluated thermodynamically by computer
programs.

CONVERSION OF HYDROGEN:-
Hydrogen conversion processes can be
highly energy efficient and environmental
impacts can be relatively negligible.
Hydrogen is utilised in various energy
conversion applications, but predominantly
for direct combustion (oxidation) in heat
engines, and for ionisation (electron
liberation) in fuel cells. In all
cases, energy is derived as useful work and
heat. The IEA-HIA has played a crucial role
in the development of conversion
technologies based on hydrogen, and
continues a long-term commitment to
guide their expansion into energy markets.
The Challenge
Economics remains the most significant
barrier to the successful utilisation of
hydrogen energy. Rapid development of
hydrogen technology is anticipated once the
consumer cost of hydrogen falls to a level
that is competitive with other fuels.
Advances in hydrogen technology must
therefore focus on high Conversion
efficiency across a range of conditions. The
practical performance of conversion systems
must be tested under severe conditions and
worst-case scenarios, and satisfy a number
of safety
and integrity criteria. There is significant
progress being made with materials that
have important roles to play in advancing
hydrogen systems. Advances in the
properties of nano-materials for instance,
and
developments in interface engineering,
integrating advanced materials into smart
components, holds
great promise for rapid improvements in
hydrogen technology performance.
Ultimately, volume-manufacture, global
marketing and customer acceptance will
dictate the level of progress of hydrogen
conversion systems and related
technologies.
Conversion Processes
Hydrogen Combustion
Hydrogen is the lightest of all gases and
burns cleanly in the presence of an oxidant
to form steam
or, if under high enough pressure, water.
2 H2 (gas) + O2 (gas)  2 H20 (gas or
liquid)
When conducted under controlled
conditions, water is the only product in this
conversion process. In a theoretical sense,
this phenomena represents the basis of an
ideal closed energy system as the water used
to produce hydrogen by electrolysis would
be recovered, having negligible impact on
the environment. As for the combustion of
any gaseous fuel, harmful particle emissions
are avoided. However, as studies conducted
at the German Aerospace Research Facility
(DFVLR) demonstrated, when air, as
opposed to pure oxygen, is used as the
oxidant in the hydrogen combustion process,
nitrogen is converted to oxides of nitrogen
(NOx). The oxidation of nitrogen, as for all
combustion processes, is particularly
significant at high temperatures exceeding
1500°C. Since the measured combustion
temperature of hydrogen in air is 2318°C at
optimum stoichiometric oxygen/hydrogen
ratio (29%-volume hydrogen in air),
concerted efforts were made to minimise
NOx emissions. Success was reported when
increasing the air-to-fuel ratio of the engine
operation to a lean burn. However only the
platinum-based catalytic "cold" combustion
of hydrogen was identified as resulting in
NOx-free combustion in air.
Fuel Cells
Fuel cell development has been monitored
by the IEA-HIA over the years, with
information exchange conducted through the
IEA Fuel Cell Implementing Agreement33.
The disadvantage of NOx emissions from
direct hydrogen combustion technologies
does not apply to the electrochemical
conversion of hydrogen in fuel cells, where
the only by-products are water and heat.
Similarly, the Carnot efficiency34
limitations imposed by the second law of
thermodynamics35 to power cycles in
thermo-mechanical energy conversion, do
not apply to fuel cells. With fuel cells, the
hydrogen and oxygen do not react in a rapid
combustion process. As indicated in Figure,
the hydrogen and oxygen react in
electrochemical stages on two separate
electrodes (positive cathode and negative
anode) connected via a conducting
electrolyte (eg. salt water or proton
conducting membrane) and an electron
conductor (eg. copper wire). The electrodes
play a catalytic role in facilitating the
ionising reactions. The rates of the two
electrode reactions are limited by the
diffusion of chemical species through the
electrode materials as well as the electrolyte,
and by chemical reaction kinetics. The
hydrogen source does not necessarily have
to be pure hydrogen, but rather a source of
hydrogen ions. Therefore, other fuels such
as methanol and natural gas can be used to
fuel the process. This results in the regular
set of emissions as for direct combustion of
these fuels. The electrical energy produced
in a fuel cell approaches the maximum work
of the chemical reaction, which can be up to
about 80%. The electrochemical conversion
efficiency is mainly limited by internal
losses including:
• Inhibiting effects due to absorption of
molecules on the surface of electrodes;
• Uneven concentration of the electrolyte
when current is flowing;
• Changes in the conductivity of the
electrolyte near the electrode surfaces;
• Ohmic heating due to the resistance of the
electrolyte.
Depending on the fuel and oxidant
employed, output voltages per cell are
typically between 0.5 and 1.5 V, with
interconnected fuel cell stacks being built
for a direct current (DC) density of up to
400 A/m2.
Hydrogen Liquefaction
Magnetocaloric refrigeration and hydrogen
liquefaction were studied at the German
DFVLR during the early 1980s.
Refrigeration processes using ferromagnetic
materials achieved superior efficiencies to
conventional refrigeration systems. Carnot
efficiencies of 60% – 70% were predicted
by numerical simulation. This was seen as
an important technological advancement in
hydrogen liquefaction for its time. Linde,
DFVLR, Messer-Griesheim, Daimler-Benz
and BMW (all from Germany) reported
numerous engine design improvements, and
developed refueling technology and storage
tanks for vehicle applications of liquid
hydrogen. During the early 1980s and with
the assumption that hydrogen-powered
aircraft might be needed for cleaner air
traffic, a Swiss-based Task-7 study group
investigated the feasibility of supplying 30
"jumbojet" passenger aircraft with liquid
hydrogen for daily intercontinental air traffic
to California and Saudi Arabia. The study
identified the need for some significant new
infrastructure, capable of supporting a daily
consumption of some 600 tons of liquid
hydrogen produced via electrolysis. This
was to be generated by an 1800 MWe hydro
power station that consumed 1400 m3 of
pure water per hour.
Applications
Many interesting hydrogen applications
were reported during the 1980s. Some are
presented here to illustrate the diversity of
applications investigated. Reported on the
application of liquid hydrogen as jet fuel and
for power generation. While MBB and
Dornier (both from Germany) have
conducted elaborate design studies for the
conversion of Airbus and small-jet
passenger aircraft during the early 1980s,
the Russians went on to set a benchmark
with the demonstration of a hydrogen-
powered, 164- passenger aircraft Tupolev-
155 in 1988 In the USA, Pratt & Whitney
developed and commissioned the first
hydrogen-powered, Brayton cycle gas
turbine in 1988. This project involved the
operation of a 50-MWe power plant using
hydrogen-rich (~80%) off-gas from an oil
refinery in the city of Philadelphia
Hydrogen Vehicles
Developments in hydrogen powered
vehicles were monitored and fostered by
Task-7 during the 1980s. Foremost were
internal combustion engine developments at
The Centre for Hydrogen and
Electrochemical Studies (CHES), University
of Toronto, Canada (hydrogen-powered
diesel engines), at the Mechanical
Engineering Laboratory in Ibaraki, Japan
(direct-injected spark engines), and with
adetailed long-term program at BMW
(external cryogenic mixture formation and
water injection). Figure BMW’s leading
hydrogen-powered internal combustion
engine technology during the 1980s. The
CHES reviewed and assessed the
developments in H2-fueled engines. A
literature search was carried out covering the
year 1990/91 and a report published
assessing the prospects for utilisation of
hydrogenfuelled vehicles. As a major
finding, it was concluded that spark ignition
engines were a poor choice for hydrogen-
only combustion as the sub-optimal
behaviour could be reduced but not
eliminated. CHES also identified no suitable
application for such engines.Both the
theoretical and experimental approach was
adopted in the broad investigation of the
deflagration and detonation behaviour of
hydrogen/air mixtures at the DFVLR.
Experimental records of the pressure
histories of a combustion process, flame
velocities and detonation induction distances
were used as the input for numerical
calculations to predict the behaviour of a
given gas mixture.
Hydrogen Supplemented Fuels
Many researchers investigated direct
injection systems in the development of
hydrogen supplemented hydrocarbon fuels
with moderate success. The gradual addition
of hydrogen to conventional fuels was
confirmed to offer a continuum of
improvements in engine emissions, without
the large technical or economic risks
associated with a transition to a "hydrogen-
only" infrastructure. The rate of increase in
hydrogen content may be determined by the
perceived urgency of air pollution and
resource problems relative to costs, and
according to the practical experience gained
in the transition. Other novel engine designs
included use of liquid hydrogen as the fuel,
and nitrogen as a working fluid.
Investigations of ignition assisted hydrogen
injection systems continue today. Hydrogen
Consultants Inc., USA, investigated the
merits of introducing bridging fuels such as
hythane, a mixture of hydrogen and natural
gas (principally methane). Emissions tests
were performed indicating that a small
amount of hydrogen added to natural gas
results in very low emissions. A comparison
of emission tests of the hythane fuel (5%
hydrogen, 95% natural gas) with California
Air
 thermochemical energy storage using a 10
Gas-Steam Turbine Combination kWhth heat store unit for the generation of
The Japanese Agency of Industrial Science process steam. High temperature heat
and Technology operated a closed-cycle generated by the chemical reaction between
hydrogen engine using hydrogen-oxygen pressurised hydrogen and catalytically
stoichiometric combustion in inert gas flow. doped magnesium was used to produce
They reported no emissions and low noise. superheated steam (40 bar @ 400oC) in a
In this system, the combustion heat was coil type evaporator immersed in the metal
converted to mechanical power by a turbine. hydride bed. The system stored 0.25
The combustion gases were collected by a kW/total system weight (kg) with a
condenser, with the condensed water (the
combustion product) only exhausted from
the closed gas line, and the residual of the
inert gas returned to the compressor. Thus
this system could be regarded as a kind of
intermediate cycle device, between the open
gas turbine cycle and the closed Rankine
cycle of a steam turbine. When using mono-
atomic gases as an inert gas, thermal
efficiency was reported to be higher than in
conventional cycles under low-pressure
ratio. The influence of condenser outlet
temperature on the engine performance was
larger, as the saturated water vapour
pressure in recirculating gases depends on
the temperature. Efforts were made to
increase the output power under constant,
low hydrogen concentration conditions in all
gases, as well as increased hydrogen
concentration under constant recirculating
gas pressure.
Process Steam Generator
The DFVLR also developed a unique high-
efficiency steam generator that was capable
of providing highgrade steam for a 40-MWe
power station. This ultra-compact steam maximum of 4 kW power output.
generator was only 2m long and some 0.4m
wide. Its controls allowed regulation of the
steam temperatures between 3300°C
(uncooled, immediately after the hydrogen /
oxygen flame) and down to 200°C (using
water injection), achievable within seconds
from a cold-start. Figure illustrates
DFVLR’s steam generator. The Max-Planck
Institute in Germany reported on a novel
MgH2/Mg system for reversible
 storage components for a given system.
Hence, the viability of integrated systems is
strongly correlated with advances in key
Integrated Systems “The Whole is components of enabling technologies. In the
Greater than the Sum of the Parts”:- case of renewable energy sources,
improvements in conversion efficiency and
costs of technologies, such as photolytic,
The potential of hydrogen as an energy biomass-based, and wind–electrolysis
carrier is best illustrated by the diversity of processes36, are of paramount importance to
existing and proposed integrated hydrogen commercialisation of hydrogen energy
systems. These systems include units to systems.
generate, store and convert hydrogen at the
point of use, and will play an important role
in a transition to sustainable, distributed
energy systems. The operation of integrated
hydrogen systems could deliver significant
efficiency gains and reduced emissions
when compared to conventional energy
systems.The generalised schematic at Figure
illustrates the diverse nature of integrated
hydrogen energy systems.

The Challenge
The acceptance of hydrogen technologies
into the market place is highly dependent on
the combined and projected costs of
hydrogen production, distribution and
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iii. www.sciencedirect.com
iv. www.chemicool.com/elements/h
ydrogen.html
v. www.smartplanet.com
vi. www.eshow.com
vii. www.wisegeek.com
viii. www.hydrogencarsnow.com
ix. www.scribd.com