LAN Design of REB Training Academy Building

Prepared by
Md. Helalur Rahman Bhuiyan
Roll No.-35
Post-graduate Diploma in Computer Science (PGDCS)
Session - 2008
Description
Chapter-One
1.1 Title of study
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Importance of the study
1.4 Objective of the study
1.5 Location Of The Project
1.6 Methodology:
Chapter-Two
2.1 Definition of Network
2.2 Computer Network
2.2.1 Goal of Computer Network
2.3 Network Resources
2.4 Network Media
2.5 Network Protocol
2.6 Basic type of network on the basis of the area covered
2.6.1 Lan/Man/Wan/Internet
2.6.2 Local Area Network
2.6.3 Metropolitan Area Network
2.6.4 Wide Area Network
2.7 Network Structure
2.8 Roles of Computers in a Network
2.8.1 Peer-to-Peer Networking:
2.8.2 Server-based Networks
2.8.3 Combination networks
2.9 Network Protocols
2.9.1 NWLink Protocol:
2.9.2 NetBEUI Protocol:
2.9.3 TCP/IP Protocol:
Chapter-Three
3.0 Network Topology
3.1 Bus Topology
3.1.1 Advantages of a Bus Topology
3.1.2 Disadvantages of a Bus Topology
3.2 Star Topology
3.2.1 Advantages of a Star Topology
3.2.2 Disadvantages of a Star Topology
3.3 Ring Topology
3.4 Mesh Topology
3.5 Star-Bus Topology
3.6 Choosing Network Topology
Chapter-four
4.0 Communication Media
4.1 Guided Transmission Media
4.1.1 Open Wire
4.1.2 Twisted Pair
4.1.3 Coaxial Cable
 4.1.4 Optical Fiber
4.2 Media versus Bandwidth
4.3 Transmission Media – Unguided
4.4 RF Propagation
4.4.1 Ground Wave Propagation
4.4.2 Ionospheric Propagation
4.4.3 Line of Sight Propagation
4.5 Microwave
4.6 Satellite
Chapter-Five
5.1 OSI Model
5.2 Type of OSI Layers
5.3 Description of OSI Layers
5.3.1 Layer 7: Application Layer
5.3.2 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
5.3.3 Layer 5: Session Layer
5.3.4 Layer 4: Transport Laye
5.35 Layer 3: Network Layer
5.3.6 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
5.3.7 Layer 1: Physical Layer
5.4 TCP/IP Model or Internet Protocol Suite
5.5 The TCP/IP layers
5.5.1 Application layer
5.5.2 Transport layer
5.6 TCP Protocol
5.7 TCP Overview
5.8 UDP
5.8.1 Differences between TCP and UDP
5.8.2 TCP and UDP Port Numbers
5.9 Internet Layer
Chapter-Six
6.0 Internet Protocol
6.1 IP Addressing
6.1.1 Address Classes
6.1.2 IP Address Bit Patterns
6.2 Network Address and Broadcast Address
6.3 Private IP
6.4 Subnetting
6.5 Subnet Masking
6.6 Default subnet masks
6.7 More Restrictive Subnet Masks
Chapter-Seven
Role of LAN
7.1 Servers
7.2 Clients
7.3 Media
7.4 Protocols
Chapter-Eight
Network Software
Chapter-Nine
9.0 LAN Components
9.1 Network Interface Card
9.2 Network Card
9.2.1 Network Card installation
9.2.2 RJ-45 connector with RJ-45 port
9.3 Modem
9.4 Repeaters
9.5 Hub
9.6 Gateway
9.7 Bridge
 9.7.1 Bridges Segmenting Network
9.8 Switch
9.9 Router

PREFACE

Computers are one of the wonders of the present century and have already
entered in out daily life as an integral part. The efficiency and effectiveness
of both hardware and software is no increasing trend day by day. Proper utiliza
tion, operation, maintenance and management of computer- based system are the cr
ying need of the present day for which we need well trend manpower in this secto
r. Bangladesh Institute of Management (BIM) introduce post-graduate Diploma cour
se in computer science since 1994.
This term paper is mandatory to fulfill the partial requirements for the course.
My aim is to prepare this term paper on computer network in such way, that it c
an help me to fulfill my knowledge about networking. From my greatest interest a
bout computer network I have studied a lot and I have collect a lot of informati
on and practical experience. All these things put together helped me to prepare
this term paper. In this report I have shown the different aspects of local area
network (LAN) with some fruitful application that it provides in my organizatio
n. “Rural Electrification Board.”

DECLARATION

I declare that this term paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requireme
nts for Post- Graduate Diploma in Computer Science of session 2008 of the Bangla
desh Institute of Management, Dhaka, is the result of my own research work and w
ritten in my own language. That part of this term paper consists of materials, c
opied or plagiarized from published or unpublished work of other writers and tha
t all materials borrowed or reproduced from other published or unpublished sourc
es have either been put under quotation or Daly acknowledged with full reference
 in appropriate places. I understand that the diploma conferred on me may be can
celed/ withdrawn if subsequently it is discovered that this tern paper is not my
criminal and that it contains materials copied/ plagiarized or borrowed without
proper acknowledgement.

Name of Participant : Md. Ha

lalur Rahman Bhuian
Roll
: 35
Course :
PGDCS.
Signature :
---------------------------------
Name of guide/ Supervisor : Mr. S. M. Ariful Islam
Signature of Guide/Supervisor : -----------------------
----------

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Bangladesh Institute of Management is well known organization in Bangladesh. I a

m appreciative that I am going to complete PGD from this institute. I would lik
e to express my acknowledgement to the management of Bangladesh Institute of Man
agement (BIM), Dhaka, specially to Mr. S.M. Ariful Islam, Management Counselor,
BIM who guide me for preparing this paper, I would also like to thanks to Mr. Tr
anquil Islam for his understandable teaching in our post graduate diploma cour
se in BIM. I like taking this opportunity with great pleasure. I also want to e
xpress my honorable teachers and course co-coordinator’s as well.
I express my profound gratitude to Mr. Salahuddin Ahmed, Senior System Analyst,
Bangladesh Consultant Limited who helps to accomplishing the networking design s
uccessfully.
I would like to thank Mr.S.M. Zafar Sadeque , Executive Engineer, REB Training A
cademy Building Construction Project for helping me to completion of the degree
successfully.
I have collected the information from web pages such as www.google.com, www.Tele
communication.com, www.wikipedia Edraw (Networking software).
(MD. Helalur Rahman Bhuiyan )
Roll No : 35
PGDCS 2008.

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Title of study :

“ LAN Design of REB Training Academy Building ”
1.2 Introduction :

Information and communication are two of the most important strategic issues for
the success of every enterprise .Computer networks provide communication possib
ilities faster than other facilities. Because of these optimal information and c
ommunication possibilities, computer networks may increase the organizational le
arning rate,
The study of topic “LAN Design of REB Training Academy Building” is undertaken a
s a mandatory requirement of fulfillment for the Post Graduate Diploma in Comput
er Science by Bangladesh Institute of management ( BIM).The basic function perfo
rmed by a network is to facilitate a communication path by which a user can gain
access to an ever- growing range of information resources and services, Today’s
life styles and work styles are being transformed by information technologies a
nd perhaps nowhere are the changes more evident than in the new generation of to
ols for communication.
1.3 Importance of the study:
The man objective of the construction of REB Training Academy Building is to
arrange for international standard management/technical training for the employ
ees of REB and PBSs in order to build them as an efficient working force through
extending their knowledge and working proficiency on Rural Electrification Prog
ram.
A fast growing organization like REB which need for such a training academy
is particularity felt when the demand for skilled and specialized manpower and m
anaging services is on the rise with the expansion of overall program activities
it is therefore to the interest of the overall program efficiency and its smoot
h implementation the proposed project involving REB Training academy facilities
viewed as an essential one bringing benefits that would outweigh associated cost
s.
In this age of Information and Communication Technology no modern Organization c
annot function properly without computer support, To communicate with each other
in an office or to any where in the world the computer and network system plays
a vital role. To minimize the tedious manual job, computerization is very impor
tant for a organization and to reduce the cost of resource and reduce redundant
work and to increase the network efficiency and accuracy by sharing the data and
resource, implementing an effective network system is very vital. The study wil
l increase our knowledge about networking and how a network helps a modern busin
ess organization to increase the accuracy and support the efficiency of work of
the employee.

1.4 Objective of the study:

1. To observe the physical layout of the network system and the hardware re
quired by their system.
2. To observe workgroup of LAN
3. To observe the software and data management.
4. To observe the mailing system.
5. To observe how the officials are communicating with network system.
6. To use Printer, scanner, data, files and required Software easily when r
equired.
7. To establish the better performance of the Organization.
1.5 Location Of The Project:
The location of the REB Training Academy Building , Nikunja-2,Khilkhet, Dhaka-1
229, Dhaka.
1.6 Methodology:
a) Pre-work study

The recently constructed REB Training Academy Building is completed on my direct

supervision. I collect networking drawing, estimated cost, material specifi
cation, cable test result, Edraw (Networking software) and user list of my orga
nization.
b) Field Study

I personally engaged the LAN design of REB Training Academy Building .Whole the
work done by my supervision & participation.
b) Review of literatures
Extensive study on standard books, Journals, manuals on data communication and
Network and document of existing computer system.
c) Collection of data
i) Primary source:
Personal Observation
Personnel Involvement.
Existing Computer system REB H.Q. Building
Discussion with other user of my organization.
 ii) Secondary source:
Internal & external source of document
Internet search
Design of the network:
As analysis of the data an abstract paper based solution is prescribed on the ba
sis of the information gathered.

CHAPTER-2
NETWORK

2.1 Definition of Network

Network is an interconnected system of things or people. A wide variety of syste
ms of interconnected components are called networks.
2.2 Computer Network
Computer Network is two or more computers connected so that they can communicate
with each other and share information, software, peripheral devices. Computer N
etwork is a group of computers connected by using various media is capable of sh
aring, managing and providing resources
• In summary, all networks must have the following:
Something to share (data/resource)
A physical pathway (transmission medium)
Rules of communication (protocols)
2.2.1 GOALS OF COMPUTER NETWORKING
• Resource Sharing : Sharing resources is another area in which a network
exceeds stand-alone computers. Most schools cannot afford enough laser printers,
fax machines, modems, scanners, and CD-ROM players for each computer. However,
if these or similar peripherals are added to a network, they can be shared by ma
ny users.
• Speed : Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferrin
g files. Without a network, files are shared by copying them to floppy disks, th
en carrying or sending the disks from one computer to another. This method of tr
ansferring files (referred to as sneaker-net) is very time-consuming.
• Saving Money : Network supporting versions of many popular software prog
rams are available at considerable savings when compared to buying individually
licensed copies. Besides monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows
for easier upgrading of the program. The changes have to be done only once, on
the file server, instead of on all the individual workstations.
• Security : Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy in
hibit," so that you do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also
, passwords can be established for specific directories to restrict access to au
thorized users.
• Centralized Software Management : One of the greatest benefits of instal
ling a network at a school is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on
one computer (the file server). This eliminates that need to spend time and ene
rgy installing updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout th
e building.
• Electronic Mail : The presence of a network provides the hardware necess
ary to install an e-mail system. E-mail aids in personal and professional commun
ication for all school personnel, and it facilitates the dissemination of genera
l information to the entire school staff. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable st
udents to communicate with Instructors and peers at their own school. If the LAN
is connected to the Internet, students can communicate with others throughout t
he world.
• Flexible Access : School networks allow students to access their files f
rom computers throughout the school. Students can begin an assignment in their c
lassroom, save part of it on a public access area of the network, and then go to
the media center after school to finish their work. Students can also work coop
eratively through the network.
• Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice) a
llows many users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example, edu
cators located at various schools within a county could simultaneously contribut
e their ideas about new curriculum standards to the same document and spreadshee
ts.
2.3 Network Resources (which is to be shared):
Printers
Scanners
 Hard disks
Floppy disks
CD-ROMs
Plotters
Other devices
2.4 Network Media (which is used as communication path):
Twisted Pair Cable
UTP Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber Optical Cable
Hub, Switch, Router
Wireless Media
2.5 Network Protocol (Rules for Network):
Protocol is formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern how
devices on a network exchange information.
TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
UDP(User Datagram Protocol)
NWLink
NetBEUI
PPP(Point to Point Protocol)
IPX(Internetwork Packet Exchange)
2.6 Basic type of network on the basis of the area covered:
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)

2.6.1 PAN/ LAN/ MAN/ WAN/ INTERNET

Inter processor distance processor located

in same Example
1 m Square meter Personnel area network
10 m Room Local area network
100 m Building
1 km Campus
10 km City Metropolitan area network
100 km Country Wide area network
1000 km Continent
10,000 km Planet The internet
2.6.2 Local Area Network
A computer network that spans a relatively small area is termed as LAN. Most LAN
s are confined to a single building or group of buildings. Most LANs connect wor
kstations and personal computers. Each node (individual computer) in a LAN has
its own CPU with which it executes programs, but it also is able to access data
and devices anywhere on the LAN. This means that many users can share expensive
devices, such as laser printers, as well as data. Users can also use the LAN to
communicate with each other, by sending e-mail or engaging in chat sessions.
LANs are capable of transmitting data at very fast rates, much faster than data
can be transmitted over a telephone line; but the distances are limited, and the
re is also a limit on the number of computers that can be attached to a single L
AN.
Example :LAN
Maximum distance between networks limited by:
The strength of the signal
The network system’s built-in time limit for sending and receiving the m
essages via the connecting media

2.6.3 Metropolitan Area Network

It is a network that spans a metropolitan area. Generally, a MAN spans a larger
geographic area than a LAN, but a smaller geographic area than a WAN.
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is designed to extend over an entire city. It
may be a single network such as a cable television network, or it may be a means
of connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so that resources may be s
hared LAN-to-LAN as well as device-to-device. A company can use a MAN to connect
the LANs in all of its offices throughout a city. For example, a bank with mult
iple branches may utilize a MAN.
Figure(5) - MAN

2.6.4 Wide Area Network

A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographi
c area and that often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers,
such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower th
ree layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer,
and the network layer. A Wide Area Network that uses phone lines, microwaves, sa
tellites, or a combination of communication channels to connect several location
s. It covers:
o Cities
o States
o Countries
o Establishes communication via:
o Phone lines
o Microwaves
o Satellites, or
o a combination of communication channels to connect several locations.
2.7 NETWORK STRUCTURE
Computer Network is a collection of computers, printers, routers, swi
tches, and other devices that are able to communicate with each other over some
transmission medium. In other words a network consists of two or more computers
that are linked in order to share resources (such as printers and CD-ROMs), exch
ange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a network may b
e linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared l
ight beams.
In summary, all networks must have the following:
Something to share (data)
A physical pathway (transmission media)
Rules of communication (Protocol)
The goal of computer networking is to provide services and to reduce equipment c
osts. Networks enable computers to share their resource by offering services to
other computers. Some of the primary reasons for networking PCs are as follows:
Share files
Share printers and other devices
Enable common administration and security.
Supporting network applications such as electric mail and database service.
To have a network you typically have four things (besides the computers themselv
es):
Network interface card (NIC) - cards that plugs into the back (or side)
of your computers and lets them send and receive messages from other computers.
Cable - the medium to connect all of the computers together.
Communication Device - hardware to perform traffic control.
Protocol - a set of communication rules to make sure that everyone speak
s the same language.
2.8 Roles of Computers in a Network (contd.)
On the basis of the roles, networks are divided into three categories:
Peer-to-Peer networks
Server-based networks
Combination networks
2.8.1 Peer-to-Peer Networking:
In a Peer-to-Peer network environment, resources are distributed throughout the
network on computer systems that may act as both service requesters and service
providers. In a Peer-to-Peer network, the user of each PC is responsible for the
administration and sharing of resource for his PC, which is known as distribute
d or workgroup administration.
A peer-to-peer network sometimes is called a workgroup. Peer-to-peer networks ar
e ideal for small organizations (fewer than ten users) where security is not of
concern. Peer-to-peer networks also provide a decentralized alternative for situ
ation in which server administration would be too large or complex a task.
Because a peer-to-peer network does not attempt to centralize security, and beca
use peer-to-peer networks are generally much smaller and simpler than server-bas
ed networks, the software required to operate a peer-to-peer network can be much
simpler. Several desktop operating systems, including the Microsoft operating s
ystems Windows Workgroup, Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows NT workstation, com
e with built-in peer-to-peer networking functionality.
Advantages of a peer-to-peer network:
- Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server.
- Setup - An operating system (such as Windows 98) already in place may on
ly need to be reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations.
Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network:
- Decentralized - No central repository for files and applications.
- Security - Does not provide the security available on a client/server
2.8.2 Server-based Networks
Are organized into domains in a Windows NT environment that provide:
Security
Administration
Provide services to various clients
Ensure security of files and directories

Windows NT Server is optimized for file, print, and application services. Window
s NT Workstation is optimized for desktop performance, either as a network clien
t or as a peer.
Advantage of Server-based Networks
Offer the following advantages:
Strong central security
Centralized file storage that:
Þ Provides easy backup of critical data
Þ Allows users to work with the same set of data
Reduced overall costs
Easy management of multiple users
Users are freed from managing resources
Disadvantage of Server-based Networks
Have the following disadvantages:
Expensive dedicated server
Expensive network operating system software and
Need for a dedicated network administrator
2.9 Network Protocols
A way for two elements on a network (server, hosts, workstations etc.) to commun
icate in a standard way.A set of rules and procedures governing communication be
tween entities connected by the network.Three most common protocols are:
NWLink
NetBEUI
TCP/IP
2.9.1 NWLink Protocol:
Used in Windows networks
This protocol was developed by Microsoft to enable interconnectivity bet
ween Microsoft and Novell NetWare (IPX/SPX ) networks.
NWLink is routable, that means it can be transferred from a local networ
k to a remote one through a router.
NWLink configures its own routing tables ,which makes it nice for small
networks,
However, it is not practical for large WANs like the Internet and cannot
directly to the Internet.
2.9.2 NetBEUI Protocol:
NetBEUI, also known as the NetBIOS Extended User Interface
It is a non-routable network transport suit for use in small networks co
nsisting of a single LAN with 50 or fewer computers.
In the Microsoft networking world, NetBEUI was the primary protocol for
Windows 3.11 (Windows for Workgroup).
It is easy to work with, and may still be used where little network conf
iguration is required and where you do not need to route to other network or com
municate with Internet.
NetBEUI is easy to use because it is self-configuring. There is nothing
to do except install it.
It cannot be used in a WAN environment.
2.9.3 TCP/IP Protocol:
A protocol for communication between computers, used as a standard for t
ransmitting data over networks and as the basis for standard Internet protocols.
TCP is one of the main protocols in TCP/IP networks. Whereas the IP prot
ocol deals only with packets, TCP enables two hosts to establish a connection an
d exchange streams of data. TCP guarantees delivery of data and also guarantees
that packets will be delivered in the same order in which they were sent.
CHAPTER-3
NETWORK TOPOLOGY

3.0 Network Topology

The physical topology refers to how the computers in a network are actually conn
ected and arranged. The overall appearance includes the types of cables that are
used to connect the network, as well as how the computers are physically config
ured to communicate with other computers in the network.
There are basically three types of physical topology:
Bus
Star
Ring
3.1. Bus Topology
All computers are connected to a central cable, called the bus or backbone. A bu
s topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end. All no
des (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cab
le. Ethernet and LocalTalk networks use a bus topology. Bus networks are relativ
ely inexpensive and easy to install for small networks.

3.1.1 Advantages of a Bus Topology

- Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a bus.
- Requires less cable length than a star topology.
3.1.2 Disadvantages of a Bus Topology
- Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
- Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
- Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
- Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

3.2 Star Topology

All devices are connected to a central device called a hub or switch. Star netwo
rks are relatively easy to install and manage, but bottlenecks (slow data transm
issions) can occur because all data must pass through the hub. Data on a star ne
twork passes through the hub or concentrator before continuing to its destinatio
n. The hub or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It
also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with tw
isted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic
cable.

3.2.1 Advantages of a Star Topology

- Easy to install and wire.
- No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
- Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
3.2.2 Disadvantages of a Star Topology
- Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
- If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
- More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the con
centrators.
The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or LocalTalk. T
oken Ring uses a similar topology, called the star-wired ring.
3.3 Ring Topology
All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop, so that
each computer is connected directly to two other computers, one on either side o
f it. Ring topologies are relatively expensive and difficult to install, but the
y offer high data transmissions and can span large distances.
Ring topologies are ideally suited for token –passing access methods. The token
passes around the ring, and only the node that holds the token can transmit data
.

3.4 Mesh Topology

Mesh networking is a way to route data, voice and instructions between nodes. It
allows for continuous connections and reconfiguration around blocked paths by "
hopping" from node to node until a connection can be established.
Mesh networks are self-healing: the network can still operate even when a node b
reaks down or a connection goes bad. As a result, a very reliable network is for
med. This concept is applicable to wireless networks, wired networks, and softwa
re interaction.
A mesh network is a networking technique which allows inexpensive peer network n
odes to supply back haul services to other nodes in the same network. It effecti
vely extends a network by sharing access to higher cost network infrastructure.

3.5 Star-Bus Topology

A star-bus network is a combination of a star network and a bus network. A hub (
or concentrator) is used to connect the nodes to the network. It is a combinatio
n of the linear bus and star topologies and operates over one main communication
line.
3.6 Choosing Network Topology
In first setup a network, it needs to choose the type of hardware, Software and
network operating system to be used, and the physical and logical topologies. Th
ese choices are interdependent upon each other and togather make up the network
configuration. One can make these choices by weighing togather such factors as :
• Cost : What is the most efficient system the business can afford.
• Speed : How fast does the system need to do.
• Environment : Are their environmental factors (for example: the present
of electrical fields) that will influence the kind of hardware require.
• Size : How big will the network be ? Will require a dedicate file server
of servers.
• Connectivity : Will other users (for example : field officers and stuffs
are using laptop machines) need acess the network from various remote of the co
untry.
CHAPTER-4
COMMUNICATION MEDIA

4.0 Communication Media

There are 2 basic categories of Transmission Media:
Guided and
Unguided.
4.1 Guided Transmission Media
Guided Transmission Media uses a "cabling" system that guides the data signals a
long a specific path. The data signals are bound by the "cabling" system. Guided
Media is also known as Bound Media. Cabling is meant in a generic sense in the
previous sentences and is not meant to be interpreted as copper wire cabling onl
y.
Unguided Transmission Media consists of a means for the data signals to travel b
ut nothing to guide them along a specific path. The data signals are not bound t
o a cabling media and as such are often called Unbound Media.
Guided Media
There 4 basic types of Guided Media:
a. Open Wire
b. Twisted Pair
c. Coaxial Cable
d. Optical Fibre
4.1.1 Open Wire
Open Wire is traditionally used to describe the electrical wire strung along pow
er poles. There is a single wire strung between poles. No shielding or protectio
n from noise interference is used. We are going to extend the traditional defini
tion of Open Wire to include any data signal path without shielding or protectio
n from noise interference. This can include multiconductor cables or single wire
s. This media is susceptible to a large degree of noise and interference and con
sequently not acceptable for data transmission except for short distances under
20 ft
.
4.1.2 Twisted Pair
The wires in Twisted Pair cabling are twisted together in pairs. Each pair would
consist of a wire used for the +ve data signal and a wire used for the -ve data
signal. Any noise that appears on 1 wire of the pair would occur on the other w
ire. Because the wires are opposite polarities, they are 180 degrees out of phas
e (180 degrees - phasor definition of opposite polarity). When the noise appears
on both wires, it cancels or nulls itself out at the receiving end. Twisted Pai
r cables are most effectively used in systems that use a balanced line method of
 transmission: polar line coding (Manchester Encoding) as opposed to unipolar li
ne coding (TTL logic).
Unshielded Twisted Pair
The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined specifically by the
number of turns per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot reduces the no
ise interference. To further improve noise rejection, a foil or wire braid shiel
d is woven around the twisted pairs. This "shield" can be woven around individua
l pairs or around a multi-pair conductor (several pairs).
Shielded Twisted Pair
Cables with a shield are called Shielded Twisted Pair and commonly abbreviated S
TP. Cables without a shield are called Unshielded Twisted Pair or UTP. Twisting
the wires together results in characteristic impedance for the cable. Typical im
pedance for UTP is 100 ohm for Ethernet 10BaseT cable.
UTP or Unshielded Twisted Pair cable is used on Ethernet 10BaseT and can also be
used with Token Ring. It uses the RJ line of connectors (RJ45, RJ11, etc..)
STP or Shielded Twisted Pair is used with the traditional Token Ring cabling or
ICS - IBM Cabling System. It requires a custom connector. IBM STP (Shielded Twis
ted Pair) has a characteristic impedance of 150 ohms.
4.1.3 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cable consists of 2 conductors. The inner conductor is held inside an in
sulator with the other conductor woven around it providing a shield. An insulati
ng protective coating called a jacket covers the outer conductor.
Coax Cable
The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside electrical signals. T
he distance between the outer conductor (shield) and inner conductor plus the ty
pe of material used for insulating the inner conductor determine the cable prope
rties or impedance. Typical impedances for coaxial cables are 75 ohms for Cable
TV, 50 ohms for Ethernet Thinnet and Thicknet. The excellent control of the impe
dance characteristics of the cable allow higher data rates to be transferred tha
n Twisted Pair cable.
4.1.4 Optical Fiber
Optical Fiber consists of thin glass fibers that can carry information at freque
ncies in the visible light spectrum and beyond. The typical optical fiber consis
ts of a very narrow strand of glass called the Core. Around the Core is a concen
tric layer of glass called the Cladding. A typical Core diameter is 62.5 microns
(1 micron = 10-6 meters). Typically Cladding has a diameter of 125 microns. Coa
ting the cladding is a protective coating consisting of plastic, it is called th
e Jacket.

An important characteristic of Fiber Optics is Refraction. Refraction is the cha

racteristic of a material to either pass or reflect light. When light passes thr
ough a medium, it "bends" as it passes from one medium to the other. An example
of this is when we look into a pond of water.
If the angle of incidence is small, the light rays are reflected and do not pass
into the water. If the angle of incident is great, light passes through the med
ia but is bent or refracted.
Optical Fibers work on the principle that the core refracts the light and the cl
adding reflects the light. The core refracts the light and guides the light alon
g its path. The cladding reflects any light back into the core and stops light f
rom escaping through it - it bounds the media!
Optical Transmission Modes
There are 3 primary types of transmission modes using optical fiber. They are
a. Step Index
b. Grade Index
c. Single Mode
Step Index has a large core the light rays tend to bounce around, reflecting off
the cladding, inside the core. This causes some rays to take a longer or shorte
d path through the core. Some take the direct path with hardly any reflections w
hile others bounce back and forth taking a longer path. The result is that the l
ight rays arrive at the receiver at different times. The signal becomes longer t
han the original signal. LED light sources are used. Typical Core: 62.5 microns.

Step Index Mode

Grade Index has a gradual change in the Core s Refractive Index. This causes the
light rays to be gradually bent back into the core path. This is represented by
a curved reflective path in the attached drawing. The result is a better receiv
e signal than Step Index. LED light sources are used. Typical Core: 62.5 microns
.
Grade Index Mode
Note: Both Step Index and Graded Index allow more than one light source to be us
ed (different colors simultaneously!). Multiple channels of data can be run simu
ltaneously!
Single Mode has separate distinct Refractive Indexes for the cladding and core.
The light ray passes through the core with relatively few reflections off the cl
adding. Single Mode is used for a single source of light (one color) operation.
It requires a laser and the core is very small: 9 microns.
Single Mode
Comparison of Optical Fibres
The Wavelength of the light sources is measured in nanometers or 1 billionth of
a meter. We don t use frequency to talk about speed any more, we use wavelengths
instead.
Indoor cable specifications:
- LED (Light Emitting Diode) Light Source
- 3.5 dB/Km Attenuation (loses 3.5 dB of signal per kilometre)
- 850 nM - wavelength of light source
- Typically 62.5/125 (core dia/cladding dia)
- Multimode - can run many light sources.
Outdoor Cable specifications:
- Laser Light Source
- 1 dB/Km Attenuation (loses 1 dB of signal per kilometre)
- 1170 nM - wavelength of light source
- Monomode (Single Mode)
Advantages of Optical Fiber:
- Noise immunity: RFI and EMI immune (RFI - Radio Frequency Interference,
EMI -ElectroMagnetic Interference)
- Security: cannot tap into cable.
- Large Capacity due to BW (bandwidth)
- No corrosion
- Longer distances than copper wire
- Smaller and lighter than copper wire
- Faster transmission rate
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber:
- Physical vibration will show up as signal noise!
- Limited physical arc of cable. Bend it too much & it will break!
- Difficult to splice
The cost of optical fiber is a trade-off between capacity and cost. At higher tr
ansmission capacity, it is cheaper than copper. At lower transmission capacity,
it is more expensive.
4.2 Media versus Bandwidth
The following table compares the usable bandwidth between the different Guided T
ransmission Media
Cable Type Bandwidth
Open Cable 0 - 5 MHz
Twisted Pair 0 - 100 MHz
Coaxial Cable 0 - 600 MHz
Optical Fibre 0 - 1 GHz
4.3 Transmission Media – Unguided
Unguided Transmission Media is data signals that flow through the air. They are
not guided or bound to a channel to follow. They are classified by the type of w
ave propagation.
4.4. RF Propagation
There are 3 types of RF (Radio Frequency) Propagation:
- Ground Wave,
- Ionosphere and
- Line of Sight (LOS) Propagation.
4.4.1 Ground Wave Propagation
Ground Wave Propagation follows the curvature of the Earth. Ground Waves have ca
rrier frequencies up to 2 MHz. AM radio is an example of Ground Wave Propagation
.
4.4.2 Ionospheric Propagation
Ionospheric Propagation bounces off of the Earths Ionospheric Layer in the upper
atmosphere. It is sometimes called Double Hop Propagation. It operates in the f
requency range of 30 - 85 MHz. Because it depends on the Earth s ionosphere, it
changes with weather and time of day. The signal bounces off of the ionosphere a
nd back to earth. Ham radios operate in this range.
4.4.3 Line of Sight Propagation

Line of Sight Propagation transmits exactly in the line of sight. The receive st
ation must be in the view of the transmit station. It is sometimes called Space
Waves or Tropospheric Propagation. It is limited by the curvature of the Earth f
or ground based stations (100 km: horizon to horizon). Reflected waves can cause
problems. Examples of Line of Sight Propagation are: FM Radio, Microwave and Sa
tellite.
4.5 Radio Frequencies
The frequency spectrum operates from 0 Hz (DC) to Gamma Rays (1019 Hz).
Name Frequency (Hertz) Examples
Gamma Rays 10^19 +
X-Rays 10^17
Ultra-Violet Light 7.5 x 10^15
Visible Light 4.3 x 10^14
Infrared Light 3 x 10^11
EHF - Extremely High Frequencies 30 GHz (Giga = 10^9) Radar
SHF - Super High Frequencies 3 GHz Satellite & Microwaves
UHF - Ultra High Frequencies 300 MHz (Mega = 10^6) UHF TV (Ch. 14-83)
VHF - Very High Frequencies 30 MHz FM & TV (Ch2 - 13)
HF - High Frequencies 3 MHz2 Short Wave Radio
MF - Medium Frequencies 300 kHz (kilo = 10^3) AM Radio
LF - Low Frequencies 30 kHz Navigation
VLF - Very Low Frequencies 3 kHz Submarine Communications
VF - Voice Frequencies 300 Hz Audio
ELF - Extremely Low Frequencies 30 Hz Power Transmission
Radio Frequencies are in the range of 300 kHz to 10 GHz. We are seeing an emergi
ng technology called wireless LANs. Some use radio frequencies to connect the wo
rkstations together, some use infrared technology.

4.5 Microwave
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The Transmit station must
be in visible contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distanc
e between stations depending on the local geography. Typically the line of sight
due to the Earth s curvature is only 50 km to the horizon! Repeater stations mu
st be placed so the data signal can hop, skip and jump across the country.
Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows the
m to carry large quantities of data due to the large bandwidth.
Advantages:
- They require no right of way acquisition between towers.
- They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operatin
g frequencies.
- Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies small area.
- High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antenna.
Disadvantages:
- Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.
- Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.
- Diffracted (split) around solid objects
- Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from rec
eiver.
4.6 Satellite
Satellites are transponders that are set in a geostationary orbit directly over
the equator. A transponder is a unit that receives on one frequency and retransm
its on another. The geostationary orbit is 36,000 km from the Earth s surface. A
t this point, the gravitational pull of the Earth and the centrifugal force of E
arths rotation are balanced and cancel each other out. Centrifugal force is the
rotational force placed on the satellite that wants to fling it out to space.

The uplink is the transmitter of data to the satellite. The downlink is the rece
iver of data. Uplinks and downlinks are also called Earth stations due to be loc
ated on the Earth. The footprint is the "shadow" that the satellite can transmit
to. The shadow being the area that can receive the satellite s transmitted sign
al.
CHAPTER-5
NETWOKING MODEL
5.1 OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model (OSI Model or OSI Reference Mod
el for short) is a layered, abstract description for communications and computer
network protocol design, developed as part of the Open Systems Interconnection
initiative. It is also called the OSI seven layer model.
Prior to OSI, networking was completely vendor-developed and proprietary, with p
rotocol standards such as SNA, appletalk, netware and DECnet. OSI was an industr
y effort, attempting to get everyone to agree to common network standards to pro
vide multi-vendor interoperability. It was common for large networks to support
multiple network protocol suites, with many devices unable to talk to other devi
ces because of a lack of common protocols between them.
The OSI reference model (which actually predates the OSI protocol work, dating t
o 1977) was the most important advance in the teaching and learning of network c
oncepts. It promoted the idea of a common model of protocol layers, defining int
eroperability between network devices and software.
The OSI model divides the functions of a protocol into a series of layers. Each
layer has the property that it only uses the functions of the layer below, and o
nly exports functionality to the layer above. A system that implements protocol
behavior consisting of a series of these layers is known as a protocol stack o
r stack . Protocol stacks can be implemented either in hardware or software, or
a mixture of both. Typically, only the lower layers are implemented in hardware
, with the higher layers being implemented in software.
5.2 Type of OSI Layers
The OSI is a 7 layers hierarchical model
Layer 7: Presentation Layer
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
Layer 5: Presentation Layer
Layer 4: Presentation Layer
Layer 3: Presentation Layer
Layer 2: Presentation Layer
Layer 1: Presentation Layer
5.3 Description of OSI Layers
The OSI is a 7 layers hierarchical model. A brief description is given below
5.3.1 Layer 7: Application Layer
The Application layer is closest to the end user. It provides a means for the us
er to access information on the network through an application. This layer is th
e main interface for the user(s) to interact with the application and therefore
the network. Some examples of application layer protocols include Telnet, File T
ransfer Protocol (FTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
5.3.2 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer transforms data to provide a standard interface for the A
pplication layer. It handles syntax and semantics of information exchanged betwe
en two systems. MIME encoding, data compression, data encryption and similar man
ipulation of the presentation is done at this layer to present the data as a ser
vice or protocol developer sees fit. Examples: converting an EBCDIC-coded text f
ile to an ASCII-coded file, or serializing objects and other data structures int
o and out of XML.
5.3.3 Layer 5: Session Layer
The Session layer controls the dialogues (sessions) between computers. It establ
ishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote appli
cation. It provides for either duplex or half-duplex operation and establishes c
heckpointing, adjournment (To suspend proceedings to another time or place), ter
mination, and restart procedures.
5.3.4 Layer 4: Transport Layer
The Transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, thu
s relieving the upper layers from any concern while providing reliable and cost-
effective data transfer. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given
link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control . Som
e protocols are state and connection oriented. This means that the transport lay
er can keep track of the packets and retransmit those that fail. The best known
example of a layer 4 protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). It is
the layer that converts messages into TCP, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Stream
Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP), etc. packets.
5.3.5 Layer 3: Network Layer
The Network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring v
ariable length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more net
works while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport layer.
The Network layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform se
gmentation/desegmentation, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this l
ayer - sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet poss
ible. This is a logical addressing scheme – values are chosen by the network eng
ineer. The addressing scheme is hierarchical. The best known example of a layer
3 protocol is the Internet Protocol (IP).
5.3.6 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
The Data Link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer dat
a between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may oc
cur in the Physical layer. The addressing scheme is physical which means that th
e addresses (MAC address) are hard-coded into the network cards at the time of m
anufacture. The addressing scheme is flat. The best known example of this is Eth
ernet. Other examples of data link protocols are HDLC and ADCCP for point-to-p
oint or packet-switched networks and Aloha for local area networks. On IEEE 802
local area networks, and some non-IEEE 802 networks such as FDDI, this layer may
be split into a Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (
LLC) layer.
This is the layer at which the bridges and switches operate. Connectivity is pro
vided only among locally attached network nodes. However, there s a reasonable a
rgument to be made that these really belong at "layer 2.5" rather than strictly
at layer 2.
5.3.7 Layer 1: Physical Layer
The Physical layer defines all the electrical and physical specifications for de
vices. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, and cable specifications. Hub
s, repeaters, network adapters and Host Bus Adapters (HBAs used in Storage Area
Networks) are physical-layer devices. The major functions and services performed
by the physical layer are:
- establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium
.
- participation in the process whereby the communication resources are eff
ectively shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flo
w control.
- modulation, or conversion between the representation of digital data in
user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications c
hannel. These are signals operating over the physical cabling—copper and fiber o
ptic, for example—or over a radio link.
Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer. Various physical-layer Ethernet stand
ards are also in this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the data-
link layer. The same applies to other local-area networks, such as Token ring, F
DDI, and IEEE 802.11 (Wireless).
5.4 TCP/IP Model or Internet Protocol Suite
The Internet protocol suite is the set of communications protocols that implemen
t the protocol stack on which the Internet and most commercial networks run. It
is sometimes called the TCP/IP protocol suite, after the two most important prot
ocols in it: the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (
IP), which were also the first two defined.
The Internet protocol suite — like many protocol suites — can be viewed as a set
of layers, each layer solves a set of problems involving the transmission of da
ta, and provides a well-defined service to the upper layer protocols based on us
ing services from some lower layers. Upper layers are logically closer to the us
er and deal with more abstract data, relying on lower layer protocols to transla
te data into forms that can eventually be physically transmitted.
The OSI model describes a fixed, seven layer stack for networking protocols. Com
parisons between the OSI model and TCP/IP can give further insight into the sign
ificance of the components of the IP suite, but can also cause confusion, as TCP
/IP consists of only 4 layers.
Figure: Comparison between TCP/IP Model and OSI Model

5.5 The TCP/IP layers

The following is a description of each layer in the TCP/IP Model.
5.5.1 Application layer
The application layer is the layer that most of the common network-aware program
s work in order to communicate across a network. Communication that occurs in th
is layer are application specific and data is passed from the program, in the fo
rmat used internally by this application, and is encapsulated into a transport l
ayer protocol.
The actual data sent over the network is passed into the application layer where
it is encapsulated into the application layer protocol. From there, the data is
passed down into the lower layer protocol in the transport layer.
The two most common lower layer protocols are TCP and UDP. Both of which require
a port in order to use their service and most well-used applications have speci
fic ports assigned to them (HTTP has port 80; FTP has port 21; etc.) for servers
while clients use ephemeral ports.
Routers and switches do not utilize this layer.
Protocols and Applications
Port Protocol Discription
23 Telnet Terminal Emulation (Telephone network)
21 FTP ws file transfers between computers (File Transfer Protocol)
69 TFTP Have to know what you want and where it is on the server, no dir
ectory browsing, no user authentication (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
2049 NFS Allows remote file systems to be mounted as local (Network File
System)
25 SMTP Used to send mail between mail servers (Simple Mail Transfer Pro
tocol)
515 LPD Used for print sharing of network printers with TCP/IP (Line Pri
nter Daemon)
161 SNMP Collect and manipulates network information (Simple Network Mana
gement Protocol)
53 DNS Resolves FQDN to IP addresses (Domain Name Service)
67 BootP Used by diskless workstations to receive boot file and other inf
ormation via TFTP
DHCP Assigns IP addresses to hosts from a pool. Can send IP address,
Subnet mask, Domain Name, Default Gateway, DNS IP, WINS info. (Dynamic Host Conf
iguration Protocol)
5.5.2 Transport layer
The transport layer s responsibilities include end-to-end message transfer capab
ilities independent of the underlying network, along with error control, fragmen
tation and flow control. End to end message transmission or connecting applicati
ons at the transport layer can be categorized as either:
1. connection-oriented e.g. TCP
2. connectionless e.g UDP

5.6 TCP Protocol:

The TCP is one of the main protocols in TCP/IP networks. TCP enables two hosts t
o establish a connection called virtual circuit between a destination and a sour
ce and exchange streams of data. It is connection-oriented service. TCP is respo
nsibile for end-to-end message transfer capabilities independent of the underlyi
ng network. The TCP works in layer 4 (Transport layer) of OSI Reference Model. T
CP is the most usable protocol in the current communication system due to some e
xcellent facilities. Out of numerous reliability issues to provide a reliable by
te stream the followings are noticeable-
- TCP guarantees delivery of data and also guarantees that packets will be deliv
ered in the same order in which they were sent;
- It provides error control for reliable data transmission;
- Duplicate data is discarded
- When any packet is lost/discarded then it enables the source to resend the pac
ket;
- If the destination computer is lower speed or memory than sender then buffer o
verflow may occur. The TCP have the mechanism of flow controlling;
5.7 TCP Overview
Before data is sent, the transmitting host contacts the receiving host to set up
a connection known as a virtual circuit. This makes TCP connection-oriented. Du
ring the handshake the two hosts agree upon the amount of information to be sent
before an acknowledgment is needed (Windowing). TCP takes the large blocks of d
ata from the upper layers and breaks them up into segments that it numbers and s
equences. TCP will the pass the segments to the network layer, which will route
them through the Internetwork. The receiving TCP can put the segments back into
order. After packets are sent, TCP waits for an acknowledgment from the receivin
g end of the virtual circuit. If no acknowledgment is received then the sending
host will retransmit the segment.

TCP Header Information

Source Port Number (16 bits)
(Number of calling port) Destination Port Number (16 bits)
(Number of called port)
Sequence Number (32 bits) (Number to ensure proper sequence of data.)
Acknowledgment Number (32-bits) (Identifies next segment expected)
Header Length(4 bits)
(Number of 32 bit words in header) Reserved
6 bits
(Always 0) Code bits (6 bits)
(Identifies type of segment, setup/termination of session) Window size(16 b
its)
(Number of octets the device is willing to accept)
TCP Checksum (16 bits)
(Used to ensure data integrity) Urgent Pointer (16 bits)
(Indicates end of urgent data)
Options (0 or 32 bits)
(Identifies maximum segment size)
Data ……………
……………………
………………………

5.8 UDP:
UDP transports information that doesn t require reliable delivery; therefore it
can have less overhead than TCP as no sequencing or acknowledgments are used. N
FS and SNMP use UDP for their sessions; the applications have their own methods
to ensure reliability. UDP receives blocks of information from the upper layers,
which it breaks into segments. It gives each segment a number, sends it, and th
en forgets about it. No acknowledgments, no virtual circuits, connectionless pro
tocol.

UDP Header Format

Source Port Number
16 bits
(Number of calling port) Destination Port Number
16 bits
(Number of called port)
UDP Length (16 bits)
(Length of UDP in bytes) UDP Checksum (16 bits)
(Used to ensure data integrity)
Data……………
………………………
………………………..
5.8.1 Differences between TCP and UDP
TCP UDP
Sequenced Unsequenced
Reliable -sequence numbers, acknowledgments, and 3-way handshake Unreliab
le -best effort only
Connection Oriented Connectionless
Virtual Circuits Low Overhead
Checksum for Error Checking Checksum for Error Checking
Uses buffer management to avoid overflow, uses sliding window to maximize bandwi
dth efficiency No flow control
Assigns datagram size dynamically for efficiency Every datagram segment i
s the same size
5.8.2 TCP and UDP Port Numbers
TCP and UDP use port numbers to communicate with the upper layers. Port numbers
keep track of different sessions across the network. The source port will be abo
ve 1024 (unprivileged). 1023 and below (privileged) are known as well known port
s and are assigned to common protocols. TCP and upper layer don t use hardware (
MAC) and logical (IP) addresses to see the host s address; instead they use port
numbers.
Both TCP and UDP are used to carry a number of higher-level applications. The ap
plications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP po
rt. By convention certain well known ports are associated with specific applicat
ions.

5.9 Internet Layer

With the advent of the concept of internetworking, additional functionality was
added to this layer, namely getting data from the source network to the destinat
ion network. This generally involves routing the packet across a network of netw
orks, known as an internetwork or (lower-case) internet.
In the Internet protocol suite, IP performs the basic task of getting packets of
data from source to destination. IP can carry data for a number of different up
per layer protocols; these protocols are each identified by a unique protocol nu
mber: ICMP and IGMP are protocols 1 and 2, respectively.
Some of the protocols carried by IP, such as ICMP (used to transmit diagnostic i
nformation about IP transmission) and IGMP (used to manage multicast data) are l
ayered on top of IP but perform internetwork layer functions, illustrating an in
compatibility between the Internet and the IP stack and OSI model. All routing p
rotocols, such as BGP, OSPF, and RIP are also really part of the network layer,
although they might seem to belong higher in the stack.
Protocols at the Internet Layer are:
IP (Internet Protocol)
The Internet Protocol (IP) is a network-layer (Layer 3) protocol that contains a
ddressing information and some control information that enables packets to be ro
uted. IP has two primary responsibilities: providing connectionless, best-effort
delivery of datagrams through an internetwork; and providing fragmentation and
reassembly of datagrams to support data links with different maximum-transmissio
n unit (MTU) sizes.

CHAPTER-6
INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP)
6.0 Internet Protocol
IP (Internet Protocol) is an identifier for a computer or device on a TCP/IP net
work. Networks using the TCP/IP protocol route messages based on the IP address
of the destination. The format of an IP address is a 32-bit numeric address writ
ten as four numbers separated by periods. Each number can be zero to 255. For ex
ample, 1.160.10.240 could be an IP address.
6.1 IP Addressing
When IP was first standardized in September 1981, the specification required tha
t each system attached to an IP-based internet be assigned a unique, 32-bit Inte
rnet address value. Some systems, such as routers which have interfaces to more
than one network, must be assigned a unique IP address for each network interfac
e.
The first part of an Internet address identifies the network on which the host r
esides, while the second part identifies the particular host on the given networ
k. This created the two-level addressing hierarchy which is illustrated in Figur
e 1 and IP address format in figure 2.

Figure: Two-Level Internet

Address Structure

Figure:
IP Address Format

6.1.1 Address Classes

Internet addresses from the following three classes.
1. There are 5 classes of IP address –
a. Class A: The first octet value ranges from 1 to 126;
b. Class B: The first octet value ranges from 128 to 191;
c. Class C: The first octet value ranges from 192 to 223;
d. Class D: The first octet value ranges from 223 to 239. It is used for mu
lticasting and not for use in host addressing;
e. Class E: The first octet value ranges from 240 to 255. This group of IP
is kept reserved and not available to use in host addressing;
2. The Class A, B and C address are available for host addressing with some
exceptions
a. The 127 of first octet is not available for host addressing.
6.1.2 IP Address Bit Patterns

6.2 Network Address and Broadcast Address

1. Network address :
a. Used to identify the network
b. Denoted by values in the network part and all 0’s in the host part
2. Broadcast address :
a. Used to address all the hosts in a single network
b. Denoted by values in network part followed by all 1’s in the host portio
n
3. Examples:
a. IP address: 192.168.20.3
i. Class : C
ii. Network Address: 192.168.20.0
iii. Broadcast Address: 192.168.20.255
b. IP address: 185.23.5.1
i. Class : B
ii. Network Address: 185.23.0.0
iii. Broadcast Address: 185.23.255.255
6.3 Private IP
There are three IP network addresses reserved for private networks. The addresse
s are 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16. They can be used by anyone
setting up internal IP networks, such as a lab or home LAN behind a NAT or proxy
server or a router. It is always safe to use these because routers on the Inter
net will never forward packets coming from these addresses.

6.4 Subnetting
Subnetting an IP Network can be done for a variety of reasons, including organiz
ation, use of different physical media (such as Ethernet, FDDI, WAN, etc.), pres
ervation of address space, and security. The most common reason is to control ne
twork traffic. In an Ethernet network, all nodes on a segment see all the packet
s transmitted by all the other nodes on that segment. Performance can be adverse
ly affected under heavy traffic loads, due to collisions and the resulting retra
nsmissions. A router is used to connect IP networks to minimize the amount of tr
affic each segment must receive.
6.5 Subnet Masking
Applying a subnet mask to an IP address allows you to identify the network and n
ode parts of the address. The network bits are represented by the 1s in the mask
, and the node bits are represented by the 0s. Performing a bitwise logical AND
operation between the IP address and the subnet mask results in the Network Addr
ess or Number.
For example, using our test IP address and the default Class B subnet mask, we g
et:
Binary form Decimal form Description
10001100.10110011.11110000.11001000 140.179.240.200 Class B IP Address
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 255.255.000.000 Default Class B Subnet M
ask
10001100.10110011.00000000.00000000 140.179.000.000 Network Address
6.6 Default subnet masks:
• Class A - 255.0.0.0 - 1111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
• Class B - 255.255.0.0 - 111111.11111111.00000000.000000
00
• Class C - 255.255.255.0 - 1111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
6.7 More Restrictive Subnet Masks
Additional bits can be added to the default subnet mask for a given Class to fur
ther subnet, or break down, a network. When a bitwise logical AND operation is p
erformed between the subnet mask and IP address, the result defines the Subnet A
ddress (also called the Network Address or Network Number). There are some restr
ictions on the subnet address. Node addresses of all "0"s and all "1"s are reser
ved for specifying the local network (when a host does not know its network addr
ess) and all hosts on the network (broadcast address), respectively. This also a
pplies to subnets. A subnet address cannot be all "0"s or all "1"s. This also im
plies that a 1 bit subnet mask is not allowed. This restriction is required beca
use older standards enforced this restriction. Recent standards that allow use o
f these subnets have superceded these standards, but many "legacy" devices do no
t support the newer standards. If you are operating in a controlled environment,
such as a lab, you can safely use these restricted subnets.
To calculate the number of subnets or nodes, use the formula (2n-2) where n = nu
mber of bits in either field, and 2n represents 2 raised to the nth power. Multi
plying the number of subnets by the number of nodes available per subnet gives y
ou the total number of nodes available for your class and subnet mask. Also, not
e that although subnet masks with non-contiguous mask bits are allowed, they are
not recommended.
Example:
10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000 140.179.220.200 IP Address
11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000 255.255.224.000 Subnet Mask
------------------------------------------------------
10001100.10110011.11000000.00000000 140.179.192.000 Subnet Address
10001100.10110011.11011111.11111111 140.179.223.255 Broadcast Address

CHAPTER-7
ROLE OF LAN

A network is simple enough, consisting of just four essential components:

• Server
• Client
• Media
• Protocols
7.1 SERVERS
A computer that delivers information and software to other computers
linked by a network. A process that runs on a host that relays information to a
client upon the client sending it a request. A host computer on a network that h
olds information (eg, Web sites) and responds to requests for information from i
t (eg, links to another Web page). The term server is also used to refer to the
software that makes the act of serving information possible. Servers come in man
y forms: application servers, web servers, database servers, and so forth.
7.2 CLIENTS
A client is a computer that uses the resources that are shared by ser
vers. To, become a client, a client, a computer must load a component that knows
how to communicate through the network. Some general-purpose clients let comput
ers access file and printer sharing services. A computer can be a client for man
y type of services all at once.
7.3 MEDIA
Servers and clients need to communicate in order to exchange data. Th
is communication takes place through a medium.
7.4 PROTOCOLS
Network Protocol is an agreed-upon format for transmitting data between two devi
ces. A network protocol is a collection of rules and procedures governing commun
ication among the computers on a network. In a sense, a protocol is a language y
our computer uses when speaking to other computers. If two computers don’t use t
he same protocols, they cannot communicate. The protocol determines the followin
g:
- The type of error checking to be used
- Data compression method, if any
- How the sending device will indicate that it has finished sending a message
- How the receiving device will indicate that it has received a message
There are varieties of standard protocols from which programmers can choose. Eac
h has particular advantages and disadvantages; for example, some are simpler tha
n others, some are more reliable, and some are faster.
From a user s point of view, the only interesting aspect about protocols is that
your computer or device must support the right ones if you want to communicate
with other computers. The protocol can be implemented either in hardware or in s
oftware.

CHAPTER-8
NETWORK SOFTWARE
Operating System software is the most important program that runs on a computer.
Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other progr
ams. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the k
eyboard or mouse, sending output to the display screen or printer, keeping track
of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such a
s disk drives and printers. The operating system controls the hardware in the co
mputer and peripherals, manages memory and files, and multi-tasking functions, a
nd is the interface between applications programs and the computer.
A Network Operating System (NOS) does everything a stand-alone operating system
does, and more, in a much more complex environment. Some network operating syste
m works on top of DOS. Others such as NetWare are independent operating system i
n their own right. In addition to user lower level computing tasks a network ope
rating system is responsible for all of the following:
• Directing data throughout the network.
• Allowing and preventing excess to data based security requirements
• Managing the flow off data between verities of different (and sometimes
otherwise incompatible) workstations.
• Managing requests for printer services.
• Managing communication and message between network users.
• Managing connections between the network and remote sites.
In addition, the network operating system must its services as transparent as po
ssible to each user. When a user must access NOS services, the network should pr
esent as intuitive as interface as possible, transiting complex digital task int
o simple instructions using words and pictures that are readily understandable t
o non technical human beings. Depending on what it is doing at any given moment,
NOS can function as a digital cop, international ambassador and file clerk and
others people. There are several different network operating systems available.

CHAPTER-9
LAN COMPONENTS

9.0 LAN Components

Network Interface Cards (NIC)
Network devices
Hub
Repeater
Bridges
Switch
Router
Networking media
Computers
Peripheral devices
 9.2Network Card

PCI(Peripheral Componet Interconnect Wireless NIC)

PCMCIA = Personal Computer Memory Card International Association

9.2.2 RJ-45 connector with RJ-45 port

Figure: Connecting RJ-45 Connector with RJ-45 Port

9.3 Modem:
A modem, or modulator-demodulator, is a device that provides the compute
r with connectivity to a telephone line.
A modem converts data from a digital signal to an analog signal that is
compatible with a standard phone line.

9.4 Repeaters
Strengthens signal to send over long distances
Can regenerate and retime network signals at the bit level

Repeaters

9.5 Hub:
Is a device that centralizes network traffic through a single connection
point.
Multi-port repeaters with 4 to 24 ports (typical repeater usually has 2
ports)
Data on one port is electrically repeated on all other ports
Converts the network to Star topology
9.6 Gateway
o Connection by which a local area network may be linked to other local ar
ea networks or to larger networks.
o The way through which computer connects to other LAN or Internet

9.7 Bridge
o A device that connects two local-area networks (LANs), or two segments o
f the same LAN that use the same protocol, such as Ethernet or Token-Ring.
o A device that connects multiple network segments
o Traffic from one network is forwarded through it to another network.

9.7.1 Bridges Segmenting Network

9.8 Switch
o Switch: a device that allocates traffic from one network segment to cert
ain lines (intended destination(s)) which connect the segment to another network
segment.
o Unlike a hub a switch splits the network traffic and sends it to differe
nt destinations rather than to all systems on the network.
o It is often used to replace network hubs. A switch is also often referre
d to as an intelligent hub.

9.9 Router
A device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connecte
d to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP’s net
work. Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks con
nect. Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for f
orwarding the packets, and they use protocols such as ICMP to communicate with e
ach other and configure the best route between any two hosts.
Very little filtering of data is done through routers.
CHAPTER-10

The proposed Network for REB Training Academy Building

10.1. Objective REB Training Academy Building
The main objective of the construction of REB Training Academy Building is to ar
range for international standard management/technical training for the employees
of REB and PBSs in order to build them as an efficient working force through ex
tending their knowledge and working proficiency on Rural Electrification Program
.
10.2 LAN requirements and overviews.
LAN Function
The network design is expected to properly function for a minimum of 15 years.
Bandwidth
The minimum requirement for initial implementation of the design will be 12 Mbps
to any host computer/server in the network
Routed protocol
TCP/IP is used as the networking protocol that will be acceptable by any service
s in the LAN. Access to the internet or any other external network connection wi
ll be provided through the WAN link
LAN segmentation and technology
Eight virtual LAN segments are implemented in this network design. One VLAN will
be dedicated for future extension and the other for the Organization section. E
thernet technology and extended star physical topology are used in this design
Cable specifications
The cabling infrastructure shall comply with the EIA/ TIA standards. The LAN inf
rastructure will be based on Ethernet which will allow for migration to faster s
peeds (more bandwidth) to the individual computers and server without revamping
the physical wiring scheme to accommodate future expansion.
Horizontal Cabling
The horizontal cabling is the cabling between the patch panel in the main server
and the work area boxes. Each work area box as indicated on the drawing shall
be cabled (two cables to every work area box, unless there are special cases).
The quality of the cable is CAT-5E (5+) UTP with four twisted pairs. The brand
and type of the cable must be clearly printed on the cable. All four pairs must
be terminated on both sides. The cables should be laid with an over length of
at least 50cm at both sides. At the work area side the over length can be reali
zed in the main conduit. At the patch panel side it can be realized in or under
the cabinet/rack.
The lying of the cables and assembling to the work area boxes and patch panels s
hall be of high (CAT-5E)
The maximum length of a horizontal cable is 90 meters. Transition points are no
t allowed.

24 port Switch
There have 08 Nos of stackable 24 (10/100) port Cisco 3750 having bandwidth 32 G
bps operating in the range of 50 to 60 Hz frequency.
Server
The server will serve as the central point to which all LAN cabling will be term
inated and will serve as the Point of Presence (POP) for the WAN connection.
All major components for the network, such as, network servers, routers, will be
placed in the server room on floor mounted racks and eight no LAN switches plac
es at every floor where necessary. In addition there will be lockable enclosure
to secure the network equipment. This server room is equipped with a cabinet. A
high quality 220V power strip with at least 8 outlets should be mounted inside
the cabinets with proper grounding. The cabinet (the metal frame) should also be
properly grounded according to the regulations.
The main conduits (Trunk Channel)
All the cables should be installed inside conduits and pipes. They are made up o
f plastic conducts. The conduits are of three different sizes as described below
:
The minimum dimension/capacity of the conduits is:
Type A: big enough for at least 8 cables of 5-mm diameter (min25*25mm)
Type B: big enough for at least 20 cables of 5-mm diameter (min40*40mm)
Type C: big enough for at least 60 cables of 5-mm diameter (min40*60mm)
Coding and Documentation
In principle every element of the cabling system shall be marked with a code in
such a way that it can be clearly identified. At least all TOs, patch panels and
outlets of the patch panels should be labeled. The label at both ends of the ho
rizontal link should be the same.
Approved Manufactures for the Cabling System
All horizontal cables, patch cords, patch panels and TOs shall be of the same li
ne of one manufacturer.
Approved manufactures/lines are:
• BICC Brand-Rex Millennium CAT-5 PLUS UTP
• Siemon System 5E RJ-45 UTP
• NEXANS LANMARK 5 UTP
• R&M Free-net Classic System CAT-5E UTP
• Tyco Electronics Net-connect Momentum Enhanced CAT-5 RJ-45 UTP
Testing of the Horizontal Cabling
The testing procedure has to comply with the procedure described in TSB-67. The
testers have to be calibrated according to the recommendations made by the suppl
ier of the testing equipment. (Test result are enclosed)
The following parameters have to be tested:
• Pin continuity (wire-map)
• Pair length
• DC Loop resistance per pair
• Insertion loss (Attenuation) per pair
• Next and Power sum Next for every pair combination
• The ACR (ratio NEXT/ insertion loss) for every pair combination
• Return Loss (impedance match, retransmitted signal)

Floor area & Rooms

REB Training Academy Building is eight storied building there have 98,100 Sq ft
floor area with 10 class room, 04 Labs, 02 faculty study room , 02 computer tr
aining center, 01 internet & Cyber cafe room,01 duplex system central Library,
01 Auditorium and others space used for offices and common uses. Server room are
situated at eighth floor, From the Server room network services will be distrib
uted within the rooms via decorative molding / trunk-channel design

Security
REB Training Academy Building LAN shall connect to the REB Head Quarter network
 and use the firewall protection and rules set on the REB Head Quarter Backbone
network. Besides, all workstations under the Organization-network will be denied
access to the staff network. Exception to this will be made on an individual
basis. This will require the utilization of Access Control List (ACL) on the rou
ter.
All work stations will have full access to the internet.
All ACLs will be set at the Training Directorate -router and exceptions to the A
CLs will be reviewed prior to implementation.

10.3 Floor Plan

10.4 Workgroup:
A workgroup is a Microsoft network model that groups computers together for orga
nizational purpose. The computers that make up a workgroup appear together when
we browse the My Network Place in windows XP. In addition, each Windows XP, wind
ows 2000, and Windows NT computer in the workgroup maintains its own user accoun
t database. this means that if a user wants to log on at any computer within th
e workgroup, we must create the user’s account on each computer in the workgroup
.
10.5 Workgroup with IP address of REB Training Academy Building network

Floor No of Switch Workgroup Name

No of PC
IP Range
2nd Floor

01
Library 11 192.168.10.01-192.168.10.11
3rd Floor
07 192.168.10.12-192.168.10.18
4th Floor
01 Faculty 15 192.168.10.19-192.168.10.33
5th Floor 01 Instructor 24 192.168.10.34-192.168.10.57
6th Floor 01 Admin 17 192.168.10.58-192.168.10.74

7th Floor
01
Director Technical 23 192.168.10.59-192.168.10.81
01 23 192.168.10.82-192.168.10.105

8th Floor

01
Cyber cafe
16 192.168.10.106-192.168.10.121
01 20 Future extension
Default Netmask:255.255.255.0
10.6 Network Printer
Windows 2000, windows XP, & Windows NT support two types of network printer: a s
hared printer on a workstation or serve, and a printer with a network card that’
s connected directly to the network. We access a printer with a network card thr
ough its IP address; A Printer with a network card is also called a network–atta
ched printer.
10.7 Single line Network diagram for REB ing