Chapter

2
Essential Chemistry
for Biology
PowerPoint Lectures created by Edward J. Zalisko for
Campbell Essential Biology, Sixth Edition, and
Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology, Fifth Edition
Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey, Kelly A. Hogan, and Jane B. Reece

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Biology and Society: Radiation and Health

Radioactivity, the emission of high-energy particles,
can
penetrate living tissues and

kill cells by damaging DNA.

Radiation can also be medically beneficial, helping

to treat cancer.

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Biology and Society: Radiation and Health

Controlled medical radiation therapy exposes only
a small part of the body to a precise dosage of
radiation.
This provides a large and deadly dose to
cancerous cells but mostly spares surrounding
healthy tissues.

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The Process of Science: Can Radioactive

Tracers Identify Brain Diseases?
Cells use radioactive isotopes the same way they
use nonradioactive isotopes of the same element.
Once the cell takes up a radioactive isotope, the
location and concentration of the isotope can be
detected because of the radiation it emits.
This makes radioactive isotopes useful as tracers
for monitoring living organisms.

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The Process of Science: Can Radioactive

Tracers Identify Brain Diseases?
A medical diagnostic tool called a PET scan works
by detecting small amounts of radiation emitted by
radioactive materials that were purposefully
introduced into the body.

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Figure 2.5

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The Process of Science: Can Radioactive

Tracers Identify Brain Diseases?
In 2012, researchers from a U.S. pharmaceutical
company announced the results of a study that
used PET scans to investigate Alzheimers
disease.
The observation that the brains of people with
Alzheimers are often filled with clumps of a protein
called amyloid led the researchers to question
whether these clumps could be detected by a PET
scan.

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The Process of Science: Can Radioactive

Tracers Identify Brain Diseases?
The researchers formed the hypothesis that a
molecule called florbetapir, which contains the
radioactive isotope fluorine-18, could be detected
by PET scans after it binds to amyloid deposits in
living patients.

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The Process of Science: Can Radioactive

Tracers Identify Brain Diseases?
The researchers prediction was that using
florbetapir during PET scans could help with
diagnosis and thereby improve disease
management.

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The Process of Science: Can Radioactive

Tracers Identify Brain Diseases?
Their experiment involved using the radioactive
isotope and PET scans to test 229 patients who
had been diagnosed with mental decline.

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The Process of Science: Can Radioactive

Tracers Identify Brain Diseases?
The results indicated that 113 patients showed
amyloid deposits in their PET scans. As a result,
doctors changed the diagnosis in 55% of the
patients and
the PET scan data led to changes in treatment
(such as different drugs) in 87% of cases.

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3-12

Some Basic Chemistry

Take any biological system apart, and you
eventually end up at the chemical level.
Chemical reactions are always occurring in the
human body.

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Matter: Elements and Compounds

Matter is anything that occupies space and has
mass.
Matter is found on Earth in three physical states:
1. solid,
2. liquid, and
3. gas.

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Matter: Elements and Compounds

Mass is a measure of the amount of material in an
object.
An element is a substance that cannot be broken
down into other substances by chemical reactions.
All matter is composed of chemical elements.

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Matter: Elements and Compounds

There are 92 naturally occurring elements.
Examples are
carbon,

oxygen, and
gold.

Each element has a symbol derived from its

English, Latin, or German name.

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Figure 2.1-1

Atomic number
(number of protons)
Element symbol
H
Li Be

Atomic mass
(mass of average
atom of that element)

C
12.01

Na Mg

He
C

AI Si P

F Ne

S CI Ar

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te

I Xe

Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
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Figure 2.2

Carbon (C): 18.5%

Oxygen (O):
65.0%
Calcium (Ca): 1.5%
Phosphorus (P): 1.0%
Potassium (K): 0.4%
Sulfur (S): 0.3%
Sodium (Na): 0.2%
Chlorine (Cl): 0.2%
Hydrogen (H):
9.5%

Nitrogen (N):
3.3%

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Magnesium (Mg): 0.1%

Trace elements: less than 0.01%
Boron (B)
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Fluorine (F)
Iodine (I)
Iron (Fe)

Manganese (Mn)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Selenium (Se)
Silicon (Si)
Tin (Sn)
Vanadium (V)
Zinc (Zn)

Matter: Elements and Compounds

Of the naturally occurring elements, 25 are
essential to people.
Four of these elements make up about 96% of the
weight of the body. These four elements are
1. oxygen (O),
2. carbon (C),

3. hydrogen (H), and

4. nitrogen (N).

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Matter: Elements and Compounds

Much of the remaining 4% is accounted for by 7
elements. These include the following.
1. Calcium, important for building strong bones and
teeth, is found abundantly in dairy products,
sardines, and green, leafy vegetables.
2. Phosphorus, a component of DNA, can be
obtained by eating eggs, beans, and nuts.

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Matter: Elements and Compounds

Trace elements are
required in only very small amounts and
essential for life.

An iodine deficiency causes goiter.

Fluorine
is added to dental products and drinking water and
helps to maintain healthy bones and teeth.

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Atoms
Each element consists of one kind of atom.
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that still
retains the properties of an element.

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Figure 2.4

2 + Protons
Nucleus
Neutrons

2
Nucleus

2 Electrons

+
+

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Electron cloud
containing two
electrons

The Structure of Atoms

Atoms are composed of subatomic particles.
A proton is positively charged.
An electron is negatively charged.

A neutron is electrically neutral.

When an atom has an equal number of protons

and electrons,
its net electrical charge is zero and
the atom is neutral.

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The Structure of Atoms

Most atoms have protons and neutrons packed
tightly into the nucleus.
The nucleus is the atoms central core.

Electrons move around the nucleus.

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The Structure of Atoms

All atoms of a particular element have the same
unique number of protons.
This number is the elements atomic number.

Thus, an atom of helium, with 2 protons, has an

atomic number of 2, and no other element has 2
protons.

An atoms mass number is the sum of the number

of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.

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The Structure of Atoms

An atoms atomic mass
is close to its mass number, the sum of its protons
and neutrons,

but may differ slightly because it represents an

average of all the naturally occurring forms of that
element.

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Isotopes

Table 2.1

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Isotopes
Isotopes are alternate mass forms of an element.
Isotopes
have the same number of protons and electrons but
differ in their number of neutrons.

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Isotopes
A radioactive isotope is one in which the nucleus
decays spontaneously.
Radiation from decaying isotopes can
damage cellular molecules and
pose serious health risks.

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Chemical Bonding and Molecules

Only electrons are directly involved in chemical
reactions.
The number of electrons in an atom determines the
chemical properties of that atom.
Chemical reactions enable atoms to transfer or
share electrons.
These interactions usually result in atoms staying
close together, held by attractions called chemical
bonds.

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Ionic Bonds
When an atom loses or gains electrons, it becomes
electrically charged.
Ions are atoms or molecules that are electrically
charged as a result of gaining or losing electrons.
Ionic bonds are formed between oppositely
charged ions.
Compounds, such as table salt, that are held
together by ionic bonds, are called ionic
compounds.

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Figure 2.6-s2

Na

Cl

Na+

Cl

Na
Sodium atom

Cl
Chlorine atom

Na+
Sodium ion

Cl
Chloride ion

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

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Covalent Bonds
A covalent bond forms when two atoms share one
or more pairs of electrons.
Covalent bonds
are the strongest of the various bonds and
hold atoms together in a molecule.

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Figure 2.7

Electron
configuration

Structural
formula

O
Double
bond

C
H

Space-filling
model

Single
bond

Name (molecular formula) : Formaldehyde (CH2O)

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Ball-and-stick
model

Hydrogen Bonds
A molecule of water (H2O) consists of two hydrogen
atoms joined to one oxygen atom by single
covalent bonds, but the electrons are not shared
equally between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms.
This causes water to be a polar molecule, one
with an uneven distribution of charge.

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Hydrogen Bonds
The polarity of water results in weak electrical
attractions between neighboring water molecules.
These weak attractions are called hydrogen
bonds.

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Figure 2.8

( )

Hydrogen bond
(+)
H

(+)

( )
( )
(+)

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Slightly positive
charge
Slightly negative
(+)
charge
( )

Chemical Reactions
Cells constantly rearrange molecules by
breaking existing chemical bonds and
forming new ones.

Such changes in the chemical composition of

matter are called chemical reactions.

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Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions include
reactants, the starting materials, and
products, the end materials.

Chemical reactions
can rearrange matter
but cannot create or destroy matter.

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Water and Life

Life on Earth began in water and evolved there for
3 billion years before spreading onto land.
Modern life is still tied to water.

Your cells are composed of 7095% water.

The abundance of water is a major reason that

Earth is habitable.

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Structure/Function: Water
The polarity of water molecules and the hydrogen
bonding that results explain most of waters lifesupporting properties.
We will explore four of those properties:
1. the cohesive nature of water,
2. the ability of water to moderate temperature,

3. the biological significance of ice floating, and

4. the versatility of water as a solvent.

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The Cohesion of Water

Water molecules stick together as a result of
hydrogen bonding.
This tendency of molecules of the same kind to stick
together is called cohesion and is much stronger
for water than for most other liquids.
Trees depend on cohesion to help transport water
from their roots to their leaves.

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Figure 2.10

Evaporation from the leaves

Colorized
SEM

Microscopic waterconducting tubes

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Cohesion due to
hydrogen bonds
between water
molecules

The Cohesion of Water

Surface tension is a measure of how difficult it is to
stretch or break the surface of a liquid.
Hydrogen bonds give water unusually high surface
tension and make water behave as though it were
coated with an invisible film.

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Figure 2.11

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How Water Moderates Temperature

Because of hydrogen bonding, water has a
stronger resistance to temperature change than
most other substances.
When water is heated, the heat energy
first disrupts hydrogen bonds and
then makes water molecules jostle around faster.

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How Water Moderates Temperature

Because heat is first used to break hydrogen bonds
rather than raise the temperature, water absorbs
and stores a large amount of heat while warming
up only a few degrees.
Conversely, when water cools, hydrogen bonds
form, a process that releases heat.

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How Water Moderates Temperature

Water can moderate temperatures.
Earths giant water supply enables temperatures on
the planet to stay within limits that permit life by
storing a huge amount of heat from the sun during
warm periods and
giving off heat that warms the air during cold periods.

Evaporative cooling occurs when a substance

evaporates and the surface of the liquid remaining
behind cools down.

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The Biological Significance of Ice Floating

When water molecules get cold enough, they move
apart, forming ice.
A chunk of ice floats because it is less dense than
the liquid water in which it is floating.

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The Biological Significance of Ice Floating

When a deep body of water cools and a layer of ice
forms on top, the floating ice acts as an insulating
blanket over the liquid water, allowing life to
persist under the frozen surface.
If ice did not float, ponds, lakes, and even the
oceans would freeze solid.

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Water as the Solvent of Life

A solution is a liquid consisting of a homogeneous
mixture of two or more substances.
The dissolving agent is the solvent.

The dissolved substance is the solute.

When water is the solvent, the result is an

aqueous solution.

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Water as the Solvent of Life

Water can dissolve an enormous variety of solutes
necessary for life, providing a medium for chemical
reactions.
When water dissolves salt ions, each ion becomes
surrounded by oppositely charged regions of water
molecules.

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Figure 2.14

Sodium ion
in solution

Chloride ion
in solution
Cl

Na+

Cl

Salt crystal

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Na+

Acids, Bases, and pH

A chemical compound that releases H+ to a
solution is an acid.
A compound that accepts H+ and removes them
from solution is a base.
To describe the acidity of a solution, chemists use
the pH scale, a measure of the hydrogen ion (H+)
concentration in a solution.
The scale ranges from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most
basic)
Each pH unit represents a tenfold change in the
concentration of H+.
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Figure 2.15

14

Basic
solution

Lower H+ concentration

Oven cleaner
OH
OH OH
OH H+
OH
OH H+

Neutral
solution

H+ H+
+
OH H H+

H+ +OH
H

Acidic
solution
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[H+] = [OH]

12
Household ammonia
11
Milk of magnesia
10
9
Seawater
Human blood
7 Pure water
6 Urine

Greater H+ concentration

H+
OH
+
H
+
OH H

Household bleach

OH H+
OH

13

Black coffee
4 Tomato juice
3 Grapefruit juice, soft drink
2 Lemon juice, stomach acid
1

Battery acid

0 pH scale

Figure 2.15-1

OH
OH OH
OH H+
OH
OH H+

Basic
solution

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+
OH H

OH

H+
+

H
OH

H+
+
H

OH
H+

OH
+
H +
H

Neutral
solution

Acidic
solution

OH

H+

H+

Acids, Bases, and pH

Buffers are substances that minimize changes in
pH. Buffers
accept H+ when they are in excess and

donate H+ when they are depleted.

When CO2 dissolves in seawater, it reacts with

water to form an acid, which
lowers ocean pH and
can greatly change marine environments.

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Evolution Connection: Radioactivity as an

Evolutionary Clock
The natural process of radioactive decay can be
used to obtain important data about the
evolutionary history of life on Earth.
Fossils are reliable chronological records of life
because we can determine their ages through
radiometric dating, which is based on the decay of
radioactive isotopes.

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Figure 2.17-1

Carbon-14

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Carbon-14 radioactivity (as % of

living organisms C-14 to C-12 ratio)

Figure 2.17-2

100

75

50

25

0
0

5.7 11.4 17.1 22.8 28.5 34.2 39.9 45.6 51.3

Time (thousands of years)

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Carbon-14 radioactivity (as % of

living organisms C-14 to C-12 ratio)

Figure 2.17-3

100

75

50

25

0
0

5.7 11.4 17.1 22.8 28.5 34.2 39.9 45.6 51.3

Time (thousands of years)

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Evolution Connection: Radioactivity as an

Evolutionary Clock
Carbon-14
is present in trace amounts in the environment and
is a radioactive isotope with a half-life of 5,730
years.

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Evolution Connection: Radioactivity as an

Evolutionary Clock
A living organism assimilates the different isotopes
of an element in proportions that reflect their
relative abundances in the environment.
A fossils age can be estimated by measuring the
ratio of the two isotopes to learn how many half-life
reductions have occurred since it died.

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Evolution Connection: Radioactivity as an

Evolutionary Clock
Using such techniques, scientists can
estimate the ages of fossils from around the world
and

place them in an ordered sequence called the fossil

record.

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