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ACTIVIDAD

VOLCNICA
Y PUEBLOS
PRECOLOMBINOS
EN EL ECUADOR

Actividad volcnica y
pueblos precolombinos
en el Ecuador
Patricia Mothes
Coordinadora

Ediciones
Abya - Yala
1998

ACTIVIDAD VOLCANICA Y PUEBLOS PRECOLOMBINOS


EN EL ECUADOR
Patricia Mothes (Coordinadora), Minard Hall, Gregory Knapp, Marcelo Villalba, Alexandra Alvarado, John Isaacson, James Zeidler, Stephen Athens y Fabin
Villalba.
Edicin:

Ediciones ABYA-YALA
12 de Octubre 14-30 y Wilson
Casilla: 17-12-719
Telfono: 562 633 - 506 247
Fax: (593-2) 506 255
E-mail: editorial@abyayala.org.
enlace@abyayala.org
admin-info@abyayala.org
Quito-Ecuador

Autoedicin:

Abya- Yala Editing


Quito - Ecuador

Impresin:

Docutech
Quito Ecuador

ISBN:

9978-04-440-x

Impreso en Quito-Ecuador, 1998

INDICE
Agradecimiento. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Presentacin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1./ La actividad volcnica del holoceno
en el Ecuador y Colombia Austral:
Impedimento al desarrollo de las civilizaciones pasadas
Minard L. Hall y Patricia A. Mothes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2./ Accidental History: Volcanic Activity
and the End of the Formative in Northwestern Ecuador.
John S. Isaacson and James A. Zeidler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3./ La arqueologa del Valle de Quito en clave volcnica.
Marcelo Villalba y Alexandra Alvarado. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4./ Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash: A Valuable Stratigraphic
Marker Unit for the Integration Period.
Patricia A. Mothes and Minard L. Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5./ Quilotoa Ash and Human Settlements
in the Equatorial Andes.
Gregory Knapp and Patricia A. Mothes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6./ Volcanism and Archaeology in the
Northern Highlands of Ecuador.
J. Stephen Athens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7./ Aprovechamiento de campos anegables para la agricultura
en la poca prehispnicaEl Caso Cayambe.
Fabin Villalba Sevilla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

AGRADECIMIENTO

Se merece mencionar especialmente la magnfica ayuda de la


Editora Abya-Yala y su personal, y las facilidades que me prestaron para
el nacimiento de esta coleccin.
Adems, deseo destacar la labor editorial realizada por mi
esposo y colega, Minard Hall, y tambin Gregory Knapp.
Finalmente, sin el buen afn de colaboracin de todos los
autores, cuyos trabajos estn presentados dentro, no sera posible la
realizacin de este libro.

PRESENTACION

La actividad volcnica de la Sierra Ecuatoriana durante el Holoceno ha dejado sus huellas importantes sobre la superficie en forma
de depsitos de cenizas y pmez, flujos incandescentes y rocosos en
fin, transformando la morfologa preexistenteen menor o mayor
grado. En el Valle Interandino y reas aledaas, las zonas de mayor impacto de este volcanismo explosivo se extienden desde Riobamba al sur
hasta la frontera con Colombia al norte.
Se considera que en la Sierra hay aproximadamente 30 volcanes
potencialmente activos. Solo desde 1534 nueve volcanes han generado
erupciones. Si hablamos de los ltimos 5000 aos, la suma asciende a
15 volcanes, los mismos que han arrojado cantidades apreciables de
material rocoso e incandescente.
En base a dataciones de artefactos de obsidiana, se presume que
el hombre tiene presencia en la Sierra del Ecuador por lo menos en los
ltimos diez mil aos. Entonces es lgico pensar que el volcanismo
Holocnico de alguna manera quizs tuvo una influencia en la ubicacin de asentamientos, en el movimiento/desplazamiento de poblaciones y en las formas de organizarse para la subsistencia.
An es difcil comprobar cualquiera de estas hiptesis, la colaboracin entre volcanlogos, arquelogos y gegrafos, nos proporciona
valiosa datos sobre observaciones y experiencias que nos permite tener
un conocimiento ms claro de la relacin entre volcanes y seres humanos en tiempos remotos.
El intento de esta coleccin de artculos es el de presentar nuevos conocimientos sobre el entorno del volcanismo y los pueblos precolombinos en el Ecuador.
Es cierto que todava no ha sido descubierta bajo cenizas volcnicas en el Valle Interandino una ciudad legendaria como Pompeya,
grandiosa por su arquitectura y arte. Sin embargo, la evidencia descrita en esta coleccin nos lleva a concluir que exista una influencia del
volcanismo que actu como un catlisis provocando migraciones de
poblaciones hacia zonas de refugio, nuevos mtodos en la agricultura,

10 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes

cambios en el poder social y el abandono temporal o permanente de


tierras y rutas de intercambio.
La tarea siguiente sera la de definir los detalles de esta influencia.
Las presentaciones incluidas pertenecen a la zona norte-noroccidente del pas, particularmente las reas que sufrieron a la mayor influencia volcnica. Se inicia con una descripcin del volcanismo Holocnico seguido por descripciones de casos especficos donde las cenizas
han dejado sus huellas en el rcord arqueolgico.
Deseo expresar mi reconocimiento a los autores de los diferentes
artculos y por el entusiasmo en participar en el SimposioActividad
Volcnica y Pueblos Precolombinos que fue parte del 49 Congreso Internacional de Americanistas en Quito, Julio de 1997.

Patricia A. Mothes, Coordinadora


Instituto Geofsico
Escuela Politcnica Nacional
Quito-Ecuador
Agosto de 1998.

LA ACTIVIDAD VOLCANICA
DEL HOLOCENO EN EL ECUADOR Y
COLOMBIA AUSTRAL
Impedimento al desarrollo
de las civilizaciones pasadas
Minard L. Hall y Patricia A. Mothes
Instituto Geofsico
Escuela Politcnica Nacional
Quito, Ecuador

ABSTRACT
During the last 13,000 years at least 15 volcanoes in Ecuador and
southern Colombia have experienced small to cataclysmic eruptions.
Because these volcanoes are found bordering both the east and west
sides of the Interandean Valley, their eruptions must have directly
affected the early inhabitants of the valley, as they do today. In the
Cordillera Occidental the important eruptions have been associated
with Azufral, Cuicocha, Pululahua, Guagua Pichincha, Ninahuilca, and
Quilotoa volcanoes. To the east in the Cordillera Real the principal
events are associated with El Soche, Imbabura, Cayambe, Cotopaxi,
and Tungurahua volcanoes. The different types of volcanic phenomena that have severely affected the Interandean Valley are discussed.
Based upon this survey, certain time intervals in the Holocene
experienced more volcanic activity of intermediate intensity or suffered a very large devastating event. These time intervals of greater
impact were: 9000-12,000, 8200-8600, 5700-5800, 4500, 3400-4050,
2900-3000, 2300, and 800-1000 yBP. This, in turn, suggests that there
were relative quiet intervals whose duration depended upon its location, which then might have played a role in societal stabilty or relocation. From this analysis, it would seem that the Quito basin, the

12 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes

Cayambe and Ibarra plains, and the San Pablo lake basin were both the
more favorable agricultural sites as well as safer living areas. The environmental and climatic conditions that probably prevailed in the
Interandean Valley during the Holocene are additional factors that
might have influenced the early populations.
While it seems likely that most arrivals would have preferred and
sought to live along the valley bottoms, here it is shown that these same
areas always had the greatest probability of being directly affected by
one or more volcanic phenomena. Furthermore most of these volcanic
events have left vast areas of the valley bottoms covered in volcanic
products (pyroclastic flow, ash fall, and debris flow deposits) which in
general impeded use of the terrain for hundreds, if not thousands of
years. An example was the Chillos Valley lahar, dated at 4500 yBP, that
covered most of the Chillos, Tumbaco, and Latacunga valleys with a 2
m thick deposit; while Valdivian ceramics are found underneath the
unit, apparently the area covered by the deposit was never reoccupied.
Also, large areas of the Latacunga Valley are underlain by the gigantic
Chalupas pyroclastic flow, whose deposits are totally unfavorable for
agriculture and certainly must have influenced village siting in that valley.
Consequently it is clear that volcanic eruptive activity during
Ecuadors Formative period (5500-1700 yBP) was unquestionably an
important factor confronting incipient cultures in the Interandean
Valle.
INTRODUCCION
La idea de un hiato en el progresivo desarrollo de las culturas
pre-colombinas causado posiblemente por el volcanismo (Lathrap et
al. 1984), ha provocado mucho inters y discusin en la comunidad
cientfica. Desde entonces, mientras que los arquelogos han venido investigando tal posibilidad, los volcanlogos han adelantado los estudios sobre la historia volcnica del arco volcnico del Ecuador y Colombia. Hoy en da se reconocen unos 30 centros eruptivos que han experimentado actividad durante el Holoceno o al fin del Pleistoceno, los
mismos que han depositado sus productos eruptivos fundamentalmente en la Sierra, y a veces en el Oriente o en la Costa. La Fig. 1 muestra la ubicacin de estos volcanes.

Actividad Volcnica del Holoceno en Ecuador y Colombia 13

El Callejn Interandino era el eje central de las culturas pre-colombinas en la Sierra, dado que corresponde a la regin ms favorable
para la agricultura, la cacera, la comunicacin y el intercambio, tanto
del rumbo norte-sur como del este-oeste. Por otro lado, el Valle Interandino fue tambin el foco de depositacin de los productos volcnicos lanzados por los volcanes que se encuentran distribuidos a lo largo
de las Cordilleras Occidental y Real. As, durante el desarrollo de las antiguas culturas en la Sierra, no queda duda que ellas sufrieron repetidamente los impactos de las erupciones (Knapp y Ryder, 1983; Isaacson, 1987; Villalba, 1988).
El propsito del presente trabajo es indicar los eventos eruptivos
ms importantes que sucedieron en los ltimos 13.000 aos en los Andes entre Ecuador septentrional y Colombia austral, basado en los numerosos estudios llevados a cabo durante las ltimas dcadas. Dado
que nos interesan los eventos que realmente pudieron haber impactado gravemente a estas culturas, se destacan aqu las erupciones de mayor magnitud que han sido fechadas por el mtodo de radiocarbn o
que su edad ha sido estimada por interpolacin. Vale mencionar que
las dataciones de radiocarbn presentadas aqu no han sido calibradas,
sino representan las edades determinadas directamente por el laboratorio.

14 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

Cerro Negro
de Mayasquer
Chiles
Chalpatn
Potrerillos
Chiltazn
Soche
Igun
Azufral
Mangus
Pilavo
Yanaurcu
Huanguillaro
Pulumbura
Cotacachi
Cuicocha
Imbabura
Cubilche
Cusn
Cushnirumi
MojandaFuya Fuya
Cayambe
Reventador
Pululagua
Casitagua
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55

Pambamarca
Puntas
Chacana
R.Pichincha
G. Pichincha
Ilal
Pan de Azcar
Atacazo
Pasochoa
Antisana
Sumaco
Sincholagua
Corazn
Rumiahui
Santa Cruz
Iliniza
Cotopaxi
Chalupas
Quilindaa
Quilotoa
Chinibano
Putzalagua
Sagoatoa
Carihuairazo
Pualica
Huisla
Chimborazo
Tungurahua
Igualata
Altar
Sangay

.
Figura 1. Distribucin de los centros volcnicos en los Andes
ecuatorianos, y su relacin con el Valle Interandino.

Actividad Volcnica del Holoceno en Ecuador y Colombia 15

Se reconocen tres fenmenos volcnicos que han afectado sobre


todo al Callejn Interandino en muchas ocasiones. En primer lugar, los
flujos piroclsticos que, dado sus altas temperaturas y velocidades, seguramente acabaron con toda clase de vida animal y vegetal que fue topada. Cubrieron cientos a miles de kilmetros cuadrados con depsitos de ceniza, piedra pmez y fragmentos de rocas de hasta decenas de
metros de espesor. Segundo, existe los lahares o flujos de lodo o escombros que son eventos violentos que con mucha frecuencia afectaron al
Valle Interandino tanto en tiempos pre-colombinos como en tiempos
histricos. Tpicamente han dejado depsitos de hasta 5 a 10 m de espesor. Estos depsitos son rocosos, muy consolidados e intiles para la
agricultura. Vale destacar que tanto los lahares como los flujos piroclsticos son flujos mviles que corren por los fondos de los valles y que
viajan decenas de kilmetros valle abajo. As, ellos representan mucho
peligro para aquellas culturas que estuvieron acostumbradas a ocupar
tranquilamente las riberas de los ros en el Callejn, siendo justamente estas las tierras ms favorables para establecer asentamientos y realizar la agricultura. El otro fenmeno importante es el transporte por los
vientos y la posterior depositacin de ceniza y lapilli volcnico, que ha
dejado mantos de ceniza que cubren cientos a miles de kilmetros cuadrados y alcanzan hasta varios metros de espesor.
Vale enfatizar que los depsitos dejados por los 3 fenmenos
forman comunmente una superficie estril, porosa y pobre en nutrientes (caso de cadas y flujos piroclsticos) o rocosa, muy compactada y
difcil cultivar (caso de lahares). As, se cree que habra sido necesario
abandonar la zona durante mucho tiempo (siglos a milenios), una vez
sucedido uno de estos fenmenos.
A continuacin se presentan en forma breve los eventos volcnicos ms trascendentales en la Sierra, desde el sur de Colombia hasta el
nivel de Riobamba.
EVENTOS VOLCANICOS HOLOCENICOS MAS DEVASTADORES
1. Volcn Galeras Estudios llevados a cabo por Calvache
(1995) y Calvache et al. (1997) listan varios episodios eruptivos los
cuales habran afectado las cercanias de Pasto. Segn estos autores existe evidencia de actividad que termin alrededor de los 12.850 aAP y

16 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes

afect el flanco NE del edificio. Luego, a los 4500 aAP aproximadamente sucedi un colapso y avalancha que aparentemente fueron restringidos al lado occidental del cono. Entre 4500 aAP y las erupciones histricas, se sucedieron 6 perodos distintos de erupciones que cubrieron el
rea con ceniza; sin embargo los efectos de estos eventos fueron muy
localizados y no tuvieron un impacto regional.
2. Volcn Azufral de Tquerres Fontaine (1994) reporta que
este volcn experiment una serie de erupciones que generaron al menos 3 flujos piroclsticos en el perodo entre 4050 y 3500 aAP. En general estos flujos son potentes, fluyeron al SE y al E, cubriendo mas de 400
km2 del Valle Interandino (Fig. 2).
3. Volcn Cerro Negro de Mayasquer Estudios en marcha han
confirmado que el flujo piroclstico que ocupa el valle al oeste de la caldera de este volcn tiene una edad de 3400 aAP aproximadamente
(Calvache, 1998, com. pers.). Sin embargo, parece que esta erupcin no
tuvo mayor impacto en el Callejn Interandino, pus all no se observa
evidencia de este flujo ni de su supuesta cada de ceniza (Fig. 2).
4. Volcn El Soche Su erupcin fechada en 8600 aAP (Beate,
1994) dej una enorme cobertura de lapilli de pmez que se extiende
desde el norte de Ipiales hasta San Gabriel al sur. Cerca al volcn se observan espesores de ms de 6 m, mientras en el Callejn Interandino espesores de 0.5 a 1.5 m son comunes (Figs. 2 y 3).
5. Volcn Imbabura Este centro de emisin sufri una erupcin de gran escala que empez con el colapso de su flanco nor-noreste lo cual dej depsitos rocosos que se extienden por decenas de kilmetros al norte. El evento fue acompaado por numerosos flujos piroclsticos que formaron un abanico al pie NE del cono. Existen pocas
dataciones para estos eventos, pero parece que tendran edades de
13.000 a 14.000 aAP (Hall y Beate, 1991; von Hillebrandt et al. 1991)
(Fig. 4).
6. Volcn Cuicocha La ltima erupcin del Cuicocha est bien documentada. Consisti en dos grandes flujos piroclsticos que al salir de la
caldera (la presente laguna de Cuicocha) viajaron pendiente abajo, cubriendo los sectores de Quiroga y Cotacachi con una potente capa (520 m) de ceniza y pmez y se extendieron al SE hasta Otavalo. Seguramente llegaron hasta los sectores de Atuntaqui e Imantg. Los dos flujos estn fechados en 2900 y 3100 aAP (von Hillebrandt, 1989; von
Hillebrandt y Hall, 1988) (Figs. 4 y 5).

Actividad Volcnica del Holoceno en Ecuador y Colombia 17

5).

Figura 2. Grandes eventos volcnicos del Holoceno y sus depsitos en


la zona del lmite colombo-ecuatoriano.

18 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes


.

Figura 3. Gran cada de lapilli de pmez del volcn El Soche, acaecida


a los 8600 aAP, como observada cerca del pueblo de El Playn de San
Francisco (vase Fig. 2).

7. Volcn Cayambe Estudios recin llevados a cabo sobre este


complejo (Samaniego, 1996; Monzier et al. 1996) han mostrado claramente que este centro ha tenido numerosas erupciones durante los ltimos 3000 a 4000 aos. Las planicies de San Pablo y Cayambe han sido afectadas por cadas de ceniza y lapillis. Sin embargo, dado que las
capas de ceniza son en general de pocos centmetros de espesor y sus
distribuciones estn limitadas, se duda que estas erupciones tuvieron
mayor impacto sobre los habitantes de la zona. Adems, se conoce que
tanto los flujos piroclsticos como lahares jvenes descendieron con
frecuencia el lado norte del cono y se dirigieron al este a zonas no pobladas. Los depsitos lahricos encontrados en las cercanas de Cayambe parecen tener edades Pleistocnicas. As, parece que este valle permaneci como un refugio tranquilo para sus habitantes, salvo la capa
de cenizas procedentes del oeste que tap los camellones (Vase Mothes y Hall, este volumen).

Actividad Volcnica del Holoceno en Ecuador y Colombia 19

8. Volcn Pululahua Este volcn ha experimentado tres perodos eruptivos de importancia durante el perodo de inters. En cada
uno de estos perodos se generaron potentes flujos tanto piroclsticos
como de bloques y ceniza que cubrieron las planicies desde San Antonio de Pichincha hasta Pomasqui, mientras que otros se fueron al oeste hasta el ro Guayllabamba seguiendo el valle que drena la caldera
(Hall y von Hillebrandt, 1988). Estas erupciones fueron tambin acompaadas por lahares cuyos depsitos se encuentran intercalados entre
los flujos. Igualmente importantes son las cadas de ceniza que se dispersaron principalmente al oeste, donde tuvieron una influencia negativa tanto en la zona de Tulipe, asociadas a la cultura Cotocollao (Isaacson, 1987) como en otras de la costa (Vase Isaacson y Zeidler, este volumen). Los tres eventos estn fechados en 11.900-10.800 aAP, en el intervalo de 10.800 a 6.750 aAP y en los 2.300 aAP (Hall y Beate, 1991;
Mothes y Hall, 1991b) (Figs. 6 y 7).

Figura 4. Grandes eventos volcnicos del Holoceno y sus depsitos en


la Provincia de Imbabura.

20 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes

Figura 5. Depsito del flujo piroclstico del volcn Cuicocha que sucedi a los 3000 aAP. Observado en la carretera entre Quiroga y la laguna
Cuicocha (vase Fig. 4).

La capa de ceniza cada hacia los 2300 aAP se ve en Cotocollao,


en donde enterr la cultura del mismo nombre (Villalba, 1988), as como en la cuenca de Quito donde alcanz unos 10 cm de espesor. Sin
embargo, lo ms impresionante es el enorme paquete de arenas volcnicas de esta misma erupcin, las cuales fueron lavadas rpidamente de
los flancos del Pichincha y depositadas en dicha cuenca, llenndola con
una capa de hasta 1.5 m de espesor (Alvarado, 1996). Seguramente esto destruy la agricultura y vida lacustre que hubieran sido desarrolladas en la cuenca. Adems, estos productos eruptivos se ven a lo largo de
las orillas del ro Guayllabamba, por ejemplo en el rea de Golindrinas.
En el sector de San Mateo y Motil, cerca a Esmeraldas, cubren un nivel
que contiene cermica, carbn y piedras inusuales, los cuales quizs representan un antiguo campamento.

Actividad Volcnica del Holoceno en Ecuador y Colombia 21

9. Volcn Guagua Pichincha La actividad de este gran volcn


ha sido bien documentada por Geotrmica Italiana SRI (1989) y consiste en una larga serie de erupciones cuya tasa de recurrencia se calcula en unos 500 aos aproximadamente. Segn este informe, las erupciones principales del Pichincha durante el Holoceno sucedieron a los
11.750 aAP, 8150 aAP, 1400 aAP, 980 aAP, 1582-1566 d.c. y 1660 d.c.
Aunque ningn fenmeno violento de estas erupciones ha llegado a la
cuenca de Quito, s es cierto que en varias ocasiones las cadas de piroclastos han cubierto dicha cuenca con decenas de centmetros de lapilli (Vase Villalba y Alvarado, este volumen). Capas de lapilli y ceniza
del Guagua Pichincha se extienden al este hasta Tumbaco y Pifo, sin
embargo en general las cadas pasadas se fueron al oeste (Hall y Mothes, 1994) (Fig. 6).
Adems existe la posibilidad que aluviones, bien frecuentes en
tiempos modernos, hubieran provocado problemas para las culturas
pasadas; sin embargo sus depsitos son poco comunes en la secuencia
estratigrfica del centro de la cuenca de Quito. No obstante, es impresionante las tasas rpidas de sedimentacin, especialmente en cuanto a
gravas y arenas, las cuales han llegado continuamente a la cuenca. El resultado ha sido el entierro de la cuenca por varios metros de material
detrtico en cada milenio (Alvarado, 1996), tapando as toda la evidencia de las culturas ms tempranas. Por ejemplo, hay ms de 16 m de
material que sobreyace un nivel datado en 6100 aAP, al norte del Parque La Carolina. Consciente de este peligro constante, las culturas que
poblaron la cuenca probablemente establecieron sus asentamientos
por el lado oriental de la cuenca (El Batn).

22 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes

Figura 6. Grandes eventos volcnicos del Holoceno y sus


depsitos en las cercanas de Quito.

Figura 7. Depsitos de los flujos piroclsticos del volcn Pululahua que


sucedieron a los 2300 aAP, observados en la carretera que une San Antonio de Pichincha y Pullero (vase Fig. 6).

Actividad Volcnica del Holoceno en Ecuador y Colombia 23

Vale mencionar tambin que se reconocen en la estratigrafa de


esta cuenca cadas de cenizas finas que se atribuyen al Volcn Quilotoa
(erupcin de 810 aAP) y al Cotopaxi (erupcin de 5800 aAP). Significativamente, las del Quilotoa y las de la ltima erupcin del Pululahua,
asi como otras del Guagua Pichincha, llenaron diferente niveles de camellones, seguramente afectando el desarrollo de la regin (Knapp,
1988; Alvarado, 1996).
Toda esta actividad, tanto de erupciones como de aluviones y la
sedimentacin rpida, tuvo el efecto de terminar totalmente (caso de
San Antonio de Pichincha) o parcialmente (cuenca de Quito) con las
paleo-lagunas ricas en flora y fauna entre 6100 y 6600 aAP. Las lagunas
seguramente fueron ambientes favorable para el desarrollo de las culturas pasadas, proporcionando orillas frtiles para el sembrio y la cacera. Turbas orgnicas, remanentes de las lagunas, estn cubiertas por
depsitos potentes de cadas de lapilli en San Antonio de Pichincha y
en la cuenca de Quito (cada F del Cotopaxi); estas turbas estn fechadas en 6100 aAP (Alvarado, 1996).
10. Volcn Ninahuilca (Atacazo) Este volcn ubicado al lmite
suroeste de la ciudad de Quito ha tenido al menos 4 ciclos eruptivos
durante el perodo de inters (Maruri, 1993; Almeida, 1996). Todos
ellos se caracterizaron por grandes flujos piroclsticos que en varias
ocasiones llegaron hasta Tandapi y Alluriqun (cerca a Sto. Domingo de
los Colorados), al bajar por los ros Pilatn y Toachi (Hall y Maruri,
1992). Al descender los flancos orientales del volcn llegaron hasta
Tambillo y Amaguaa en el Valle Interandino (Fig. 8). Por ser depsitos de muchos metros de espesor, seguramente impidieron la comunicacin normal entre la Sierra y la Costa al bloquear el valle de los ros
Pilatn y Toachi. Adems, estas erupciones dejaron capas importantes
de cadas de lapilli y ceniza (5-10 cm de espesor) sobre las cuencas de
Quito Sur y de Machachi. No obstante, la mayora de los piroclastos se
fueron al oeste, llevados por los vientos dominantes. Lastimosamente
an no se conoce bien su alcance ni su impacto. Sin embargo se identific la ceniza de la ltima erupcin en secciones cerca a La Man
(Hall y Mothes, 1992b). La ltima erupcin ha sido fechada por radiocarbn en 237070 y 2350-2400 aAP (Barberi et al. 1988; Isaacson,
1987). En cambio han sido estimadas por extrapolacin las edades de
los tres eventos anteriores basadas en el espesor del suelo desarrollado,
asumiendo una tasa constante de formacin. As, Hall y Mothes (1994)

24 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes

asignaron las edades tentativas de 5500, 8500 y 11500 aAP para esta serie de erupciones, que han sido confirmadas por Almeida (1996) en
4770, 5440, 8210 y 11.940 aAP, respectivamente.
11. Volcn Cotopaxi Este gran volcn cuenta con una larga
historia de actividad eruptiva. Dado que las erupciones son del carcter andestico, el impacto ha sido restringido principalmente a los alrededores del cono, siendo la excepcin los lahares que siempre han viajado grandes distancias por las cauces de los ros. No obstante, el volcn ha experimentado tambin erupciones de composicin rioltica, las
cuales tuvieron un impacto mucho ms severo sobre la regin (Hall y
Mothes, 1995). Por ejemplo, durante el intervalo de 10.000 a 6000 aAP,
una serie de erupciones fuertes depositaron muchas capas de lapilli y
ceniza de pomz que alcanzan hasta 3 a 6 metros de espesor en los valles de Latacunga y Machachi (Fig. 11); su impacto debi haber sido desastroso para la flora y fauna. Dada la extensin y espesor de esta cobertura seguramente pas un perodo largo, tal vez varios milenios, durante el cual no fue posible habitar estos valles. Luego fue la erupcin
fechada en 5800 aAP cuyos flujos piroclsticos descendieron por el ro
Pita hasta el sector de Selva Alegre y hacia los tributarios del ro Cutuchi al oeste hasta la zona de Mulal y Tanicuch (Figs. 8 y 10). Adems
fueron acompaados por cadas de lapilli y ceniza que cubrieron los valles de Latacunga, Machachi y la cuenca de Quito; esta ltima con una
capa de 1.2 m de espesor de ceniza fina. Este fue otro evento con consecuencias graves para toda la regin.
No obstante, fue el gran lahar del Valle de los Chillos, el fenmeno que seguramente desanim cualquier inters por reocupar los valles
de los Chillos y Tumbaco. Este evento fue generado por un colapso del
flanco del Cotopaxi y flujos piroclsticos que fundieron gran parte del
casquete glacial del cono hace 4500 aAP (Mothes et al. 1998; Hall y
Mothes, 1992a, 1995). El lahar dej un depsito de 2 m de espesor sobre un suelo que contiene cermica de la cultura Valdivia (P. Norton,
1992, com. pers.)(Fig. 9). Dicho flujo descendi tanto por el cauce del
ro Pita como por el ro San Pedro, dejando una franja mplia de lodo
que abarc hasta 12 km de ancho, extendindose al oeste hasta Conocoto y casi hasta Pintag por el este (Fig. 8). Tambin su recorrido fue
largo, pus su depsito se ve claramente en la zona de Viche y Esmeraldas, lo que implica que mientras no se consolidaron estos extensos depsitos de lodo, estuvo impedida la comunicacin tanto en sentido N-

Actividad Volcnica del Holoceno en Ecuador y Colombia 25

S como E-W. Tambin el mismo lahar baj por el ro Cutuchi, dejando


una franja de lodo que se extendi desde Mulal hasta Tanicuch, y
aguas abajo hasta la zona de Patate (Fig. 10).

Figura 8. Grandes eventos volcnicos del Holoceno y


sus depsitos en el valle del ro San Pedro.

26 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes

Figura 9. Depsito tpico del gran lahar del Valle de los Chillos, el cual
sucedi a los 4500 aAP y cubri todo el fondo del valle. Foto tomada
cerca de San Rafael (vase Fig. 8).

Es interesante destacar que nunca ms hasta la llegada de los Espaoles fue ocupada o utilizada intensamente esta cobertura de lahar,
especialmente en los valles de los Chillos y de Tumbaco, lo que sugiere
que los pueblos indgenas ya reconocieron la poca utilidad del material
para cultivos, o quizs el peligro permanente del volcn. Estudios arqueolgicos en la zona de Ilumbis y Cumbay (Buys et al. 1994) corroboraron esta hiptesis al no encontrar mayores evidencias de asentimientos humanos sobre los depsitos lahricos, sino solamente en las
reas adyacentes a este depsito.
Vale mencionar adems que el valle de Latacunga siempre cont
con una potente cobertura de pmez y ceniza, medida en decenas de
metros de espesor, la cual fue dejada por actividad del Volcn Chalupas
cientos de miles de aos antes. Dicho depsito llen el valle desde Saquisil y Latacunga hasta Ambato, dejando una planicie porosa de po-

Actividad Volcnica del Holoceno en Ecuador y Colombia 27

ca utilidad para la agricultura. Poco a poco los ros se abrieron paso en


esta cobertura. Sin embargo hasta hoy el ro y sus orillas ocupan solamente una franja estrecha entre las colinas de esta cobertura piroclstica. Las culturas pasadas que hubieran ocupado dichas orillas, habran
corrido mucho riesgo por los numerosos lahares y crecidas que seguramente las afectaron frecuentemente (Fig. 10).
Antes de terminar con la historia del Cotopaxi, cabe indicar que
durante los ltimos 4000 aos ha habido una serie continua de erupciones que han lanzado al aire repetidamente lapilli y ceniza hacia el
noroeste, oeste y el suroeste del volcn y que poco a poco han formado un manto de 10-20 m de espesor de materiales porosos y estriles.
Desde entonces, el valle superior de Latacunga no ha sido idneo para
la agricultura, lo que probablemente ha inducido a los residentes para
abandonar el valle y quizs obstruy tambin la comunicacin nortesur en el Callejn.
12. Volcn Quilotoa Este volcn, ubicado unos 45 km al oeste
del Callejn Interandino, tuvo una sola erupcin durante el perodo
pre-colombino (Hall y Mothes, 1992b). Esta erupcin, bien datada en
los 810 aAP, empez con una cada de ceniza de gran extensin y flujos
piroclsticos que afectaron a los alrededores, especialmente las zonas
de Zumbagua y Chugchiln. Los flujos llenaron por completo la cuenca superior del ro Toachi, dejando un paisaje rido, estril e inhospitalario, aspecto que ha permanecido hasta el presente. La distribucin
de la cada de ceniza, objeto de otro artculo en este volumen (Vase
Mothes y Hall), es tan amplia que sirve muy bien como una de las mejores capas guas en la Sierra, siendo depositada en muchos campos de
camellones existentes al instante de la erupcin (Vase Knapp y Mothes, este volumen). Aunque su espesor es comunmente de 10 cm o menos, al llenar los huachos de los camellones, aparentemente se provoc
el abandono de los mismos. Ejemplos de este acontecimiento se ven en
la zona de Sigchos (Hall y Mothes, 1992b), Chillogallo (Knapp y Ryder,
1983), Quito (Villalba y Alvarado, este volumen) y Cayambe (Mothes
y Hall, este volumen).
13. Volcn Tungurahua Este volcn ha sido muy activo durante el Holoceno, pero especialmente durante los ltimos 3000 aos
(INECEL, 1989). En este perodo han sucedido grandes erupciones, tales como la enorme avalancha en el flanco NW hace 3000 aos y los
flujos potentes de lava que llenaron el cauce del rio Pastaza por un tra-

28 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes

mo de 20 km hace 1200 aos (Hall et al. en prep.). Estos eventos, ms


las erupciones normales que se han repetido tpicamente una vez por
siglo, han dejado muchas capas de cadas de escoria y pmez al W y SW
del volcn; sin embargo su distribucin ha sido muy localizada.
En cuanto al impacto sobre los pobladores de la regin, los eventos grandes perjudicaron sin duda alguna los intentos de habitar los valles de los rios Patate, Chambo y Pastaza en las cercanas del volcn, y
probablemente interrumpieron la comunicacin entre la Sierra y el
Oriente por el rio Pastaza, la va ms clara y accesible entre las dos regiones. Quizs, debido a la actividad del Tungurahua, los antepasados
buscaron y desarrollaron otras vas de comunicacin, tal como la ruta
Riobamba-Aloa-Huamboya-Palora y Macas.

Figura 10. Grandes eventos volcnicos del Holoceno y


sus depsitos en la zona de Latacunga.

Actividad Volcnica del Holoceno en Ecuador y Colombia 29

Figura 11. La potente serie de cadas de pmez de erupciones pasadas


del Cotopaxi, las cuales sucedieron en el intervalo de 8000 a 6000 aAP.
Foto tomada cerca de Lasso. (vase Fig. 10)

DISCUSION
Vale la pena resumir la historia de las erupciones principales que
han afectado gravemente al Callejn Interandino, as como discutir las
condiciones ambientales del Holoceno, con el propsito de evaluar el
Valle Interandino como sitio favorable para los asentamientos humanos.
Perodos de actividad volcnica y de reposo
En la Tabla 1 se presenta la secuencia cronolgica de las erupciones ms importantes, discutidas anteriormente. En dicha tabla, se puede apreciar que hay varios agrupamientos de eventos, siendo los ms
notables en los perodos comprendidos entre 12.000-9000 aAP, 86008200 aAP, 5800-5700 aAP, 4500 aAP, 4050-3400 aAP, 3000-2900 aAP,

30 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes

2300 aAP y 1000-800 aAP. En cada perodo hay un gran evento devastador o una serie de eventos cuyos impactos conjuntos fueron severos.
En muchos de estos casos, no fue el evento mismo que haba provocado el abandono de la zona, sino ms bien su impacto secundario, tal como la cobertura amplia de pmez y ceniza, que pudo dejar inhospitalario el Valle Interandino durante cientos o miles de aos. Entre dichos
perodos, existieron intervalos de tranquilidad relativa que duraron entre 1000 y 2800 aos, perodos suficientemente largos para probablemente permitir la reocupacin de las zonas. Es notable que rein un
largo perodo sin actividad volcnica en la zona de Imbabura entre
8000 y 4000 aAP, que vio la introduccin del maiz (S. Athens, 1997,
com. pers.). Este perodo termin bruscamente con las erupciones del
Azufral y Cuicocha. As, los perodos de notable actividad volcnica podan haber resultado, tericamente, en hasta 8 hiatus en el desarrollo
progresivo de las culturas indgenas, establecidas en el Valle Interandino o en las estribaciones de las dos cordilleras.
El paisaje del valle interandino al arribo de los
primeros habitantes
Vale destacar el ambiente o las condiciones en el Callejn Interandino que probablemente reinaban cuando llegaron los primeros habitantes, al fin del Pleistoceno.
En primer lugar, grandes casquetes glaciales cubrieron partes de
la Cordillera Real hasta los 13,000 aAP (Clapperton, 1993), y nuevamente en forma limitada entre los 11.000 y 10.000 aAP (Clapperton et
al. 1997). En cambio, los glaciares en los volcanes de la Cordillera Occidental desaparecieron hace 13.000 aos, y luego no fueron importantes. Durante los tiempos glaciales se cree que el clima en el Callejn fue
caracterizado por temperaturas algo ms frias y vientos ms constantes, lo que result en condiciones ms secas y ridas que las actuales.
Adems, se cree que la cangahua, o sea la toba volcnica endurecida que
hoy en da cubre el Valle (Hall y Mothes, 1997), constitua la superficie
de la Sierra al fin del Pleistoceno, como resultado de las entonces condiciones secas y frias dominantes, las mismas que probablemente favorecieron una cobertura de pajonal.

Actividad Volcnica del Holoceno en Ecuador y Colombia 31

TABLA 1: IMPORTANTES ERUPCIONES HOLOCENICAS


Perodo
Arqueolgico

Aos AP

*****
Integracin

-470

*****
Desarrollo
Regional

-1150

*****

-2250

Edad aAP
290
400,700 & 900
810
980

Evento
Volcnico
G. Pich.(GPHL1)
Cayambe
Quilotoa I
G. Pich. (GPHL-2)

1400
<1500

G. Pich.(GPHL-3
10-20 cm de ceniza sobre
cermica- V. de Chota

2260
2305
2350

Cotopaxi (Peas Blancas)


Pululahua (PUL1)
Ninahuilca (N6)

2990
3000
3100
3400
3470-4050

Cuicocha (Fase B)
Collapso del Tungurahua
Cuicocha (Fase C)
Cerro Negro
Azufral de Tqueres

4500
4770

Cotopaxi (CCS)
Ninahuilca (N5)

5440
5700

Ninahuilca (N4)
1 metro de ceniza
en L. San Pablo.
Cotopaxi (F)

Formativo
-3000

-4000

-5000

5800
*****

-5950

PaleoIndio

-7000

600010.000
(est)

Cotopaxi (Sub-F)

8150
8210
8600

G. Pich. (GPHL-4)
Ninahuilca (N3)
El Soche

Ultima Glaciacin
-Cord. Real

Younger Dryas Glac.

-8000

-9000
-10000
>11000

Pululahua (PU3)
11350 (promedio)
Ninahuilca
11500 (est)
G.Pich.(GPHL5)
11750
Galeras
12850
>13200 La glaciacin en ambas cordilleras ha borrado la tefroestratigrafa ms
antigua.
*Esta lista no est completa, pues no incluye erupciones de poco impacto.

32 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes

Durante los ltimos 10.000 aos el progresivo calentamiento del


clima increment la humedad del ambiente, permitiendo el retorno de
la vegetacin, y poco a poco la formacin de suelos orgnicos. As, el
fondo del Callejn Interandino se convirti paulatinamente en la zona
ms idnea para la habitacin, los cultivos y la cacera, dado que all se
encontraron el agua, las tierras ms planas, y los suelos ms desarrollados. Mientras tanto, las laderas del Callejn continuaban siendo menos
hospitalarias.
Vale mencionar como caso especial el paisaje poco acogedor del
valle de Latacunga y Salcedo durante el Holoceno, pues la enorme
erupcin de Chalupas (Beate, 1985), ocurrida mucho antes, lo dej cubierto con un manto espeso de pmez y ceniza que hasta el presente no
es bueno para los cultivos. Por ello, los primeros habitantes no pudieron colonizar esta zona, salvo las riberas de los ros.
En conclusin, es lgico pensar que los antepasados indgenas
vivieron en los fondos de los valles del Callejon, siendo estos los lugares ms apropiados y favorables. Sin embargo, los mismos fondos constituyen, hoy como antes, las zonas que mayormente corren el riesgo de
desastres volcnicos.
Reduccin de terrenos idneos para los cultivos
Como se vio anteriormente, las condiciones para habitar, cazar y
hacer cultivos en el Callejn Interandino a principios del Holoceno
eran limitadas. Ahora, vamos a ver que el Holoceno fue un perodo que
experiment mucha actividad volcnica que continuamente pudo tener un impacto negativo sobre los habitantes. Las reas pobladas, concentradas a lo largo de las orillas de los ros, fueron expuestas a los numerosos eventos eruptivos ya discutidos. Sin duda alguna, dichos eventos habran destruido de vez en cuando las poblaciones o provocado su
migracin con las consecuencias de reorganizacin social. Aunque tales acontecimientos son suficientemente graves y tristes en si mismos,
per an es que dichos eventos habran dejado en general los terrenos
ms favorables para la agricultura, cubiertos con materiales volcnicos,
hacindolos inhospitalarios por siglos, si no por milenios.
Por ejemplo, flujos piroclsticos dacticos o riolticos dejan depsitos potentes de pmez y ceniza, material poroso que no guarda el
agua y no tiene mayor valor en nutrientes; por esto, dichos depsitos

Actividad Volcnica del Holoceno en Ecuador y Colombia 33

dejan una superficie que es rida y poco til. Es notable, por ejemplo,
que los terrenos ubicados sobre el depsito del flujo de Cuicocha an
son de uso marginal, despus de 3000 aos! Se ve tambin que los terrenos formados por el flujo de pmez de Chalupas en el valle de Latacunga, tampoco son muy tiles, an despus de cientos de miles de
aos. As, los valles que fueron cubiertos por flujos piroclsticos durante el Holoceno llegaron a ser intiles y estriles, siendo restringuidos
an ms los mejores terrenos disponibles para la agricultura.
Por otro lado los lahares en general estn confinados a los cauces de los ros. No obstante, cuando son de tamaos medianos o grandes, tienden a esparcirse mpliamente sobre las riberas, enterrando as
los terrenos ricos para los cultivos con una capa de 0.5 a 2 m de espesor y repleta con bloques y cantos de piedra. Muchos de sus depsitos
no llevan material fino (matriz), sino que contienen un alto porcentaje (hasta 70%) de fragmentos rocosos de distintos tamaos. Rpidamente se vuelven consolidados y compactos, formando un pavimiento
de piedras que es casi imposible trabajar. Hoy en da dichos terrenos
quedan abandonados y no usados. Este problema ha sido importante
durante mucho tiempo en los valles de Latacunga y de los ros Pita y
San Pedro, debido a la actividad continua del volcn Cotopaxi.
El enorme lahar del Valle de los Chillos fue un caso especial, dado su gigantesco volumen y extensin que efectivamente cubri todas
las tierras buenas de los valles de los Chillos y de Latacunga (Mothes et
al. 1998). Igual a la cangahua, este depsito lahrico, rico en material fino, es sumamente endurecido y compacto. Por lo tanto es casi imposible utilizarlo, lo que explica el porqu estas zonas fueron abandonadas
hace 4500 aos y aparentemente no re-ocupadas por las culturas indgenas subsecuentes.
Tambin es importante destacar el problema causado por las capas de cadas de piroclastos, debido a su mplia distribucin regional
(medida en cientos y miles de kilmetros cuadrados), su capacidad para cubrir toda superficie con un espesor uniforme de lapilli y ceniza
tanto sobre las colinas como en las depresiones, y su composicin (lapilli de pmez y escoria) que no favorece la formacin rpida de suelos en climas secos. No obstante, la mayora de estos depsitos tienen
menos de 10 cm de espesor, y por lo tanto se cree que no representaron un impacto severo. Cadas ms potentes han sido generadas en
erupciones del Cotopaxi, El Soche, Guagua Pichincha, Pululahua y Ni-

34 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes

nahuilca. En el caso del Cotopaxi las erupciones frecuentes han dejado


un paquete decimtrico de numerosas capas de piroclastos silcicos
(Fig. 11). En tales casos el producto final fue un depsito potente, poroso, pobre en nutrientes, y ocasionalmente venenoso debido a la presencia de flor. As, en pocos casos fue favorable para la agricultura.
Igual a las otras clases de depsitos, se estima que su transformacin a
tierras tiles requerira cientos, o miles de aos, dependiendo del rgimen de precipitaciones. Un ejemplo claro es el suelo poroso y orgnico de unos 25-30 cm de espesor que se ha formado sobre los depsitos
del flujo piroclstico y de la cada de pmez de la erupcin de Quilotoa
hace 810 aAP. Adems, dependera de que no estaran cubiertos nuevamente por otros productos volcnicos. No obstante, vale indicar que
cuando la capa est compuesta de ceniza fina, significa una mejor
oportunidad de ser utilizada ms rpidamente como suelo.
Vale mencionar tambin que la efectividad de la descomposicin
de las cenizas y lapillis volcnicos para formar suelos (caso no vlido
para los lahares rocosos), est favorecida por el tamao fino de las cenizas, las condiciones hmedas, as como los cidos hmicos proporcionados por las plantas. Sin embargo, existen regiones importantes del
Valle Interandino que experimentan micro-climas que son anormalmente ridos y secos, como por ejemplo las cuencas de Otavalo-Cotacachi, Guayllabamba-San Antonio de Pichincha, la cuenca superior del
valle de Latacunga, as como la del ro Chota. En estas regiones las condiciones ridas impiden la formacin de suelos, y por lo tanto los terrenos cubiertos por ceniza han permanecido intiles por perodos excepcionalmente largos. El caso de los depsitos de lahares ricos en piedras
es an peor, pues la tasa de descomposicin de las piedras densas es casi nula.
CONCLUSIONES
Se ha presentado aqu tanto los perodos de tiempo como las
reas que ms frecuentemente fueron afectadas por grandes eventos
volcnicos. Estos eventos, a ms de destruir todo a su paso, dejaron tierras inhospitalarias y poco tiles, las cuales probablemente permanecieron as durante cientos o miles de aos. De esta manera las regiones
ms favorables para los asentamientos de las culturas anteriores fueron
aquellas que no sufrieron impactos severos ni repetidos por parte de la

Actividad Volcnica del Holoceno en Ecuador y Colombia 35

actividad volcnica o aquellas que frecuentemente recibieron sedimentacin de ros y riochuelos que trajeron material fino y variable en
composicin, lo que produjo, por un lado el entierro de los productos
volcnicos no deseables y por otro provey de material ms aceptable
para el cultivo. Las regiones ms favorables incluyeron las cuencas de
Quito, Cayambe, Ibarra, Laguna de San Pablo, entre otras. Es interesante destacar que son justamente estas regiones donde se ven no solamente los camellones, sino series de camellones sobrepuestos, indicando una ocupacin a largo plazo. La presencia de camellones habra significado una densidad poblacional importante, quizs hasta mil personas por kilmetro cuadrado (Vase Knapp y Mothes, este volumen).
En conclusin, no fue tanto el evento eruptivo que habra resultado en el abandono de la zona y en un hiato correspondiente en el desarrollo de las culturas. Ms bien, el problema habra sido que las erupciones ms grandes dejaron depsitos espesos y de distribucin amplia
sobre los fondos de los valles, enterrando las tierras ms idneas para
la agricultura, lo que indujo el abandono del rea. Por estas razones la
poblacin habra migrado a sectores ms hospitalarios, tal como las
provincias de Chimborazo y Tungurahua o ms all, a Caar y Azuay,
o posiblemente a la Costa o al Oriente. Se espera que los arquelogos
puedan generar escenarios de posibles migraciones y colonizaciones,
tomando en cuenta la historia volcnica aqu presentada.

36 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes

AGRADECIMIENTO
Se agradece la colaboracin permanente del Roberto Santacruz
del Instituto Geofsico, quin nos ayud mucho en la elaboracin de los
grficos, as como la informacin proporcionada por Patricia Corts de
INGEOMINAS. As mismo los autores agradecen la colaboracin continua de Lcdo. Marcelo Villalba y Ing. Pablo Samaniego.

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Mothes, P. (ed) El Paisaje Volcnico de la Sierra Ecuatoriana. Estudios de Geografa, Vol. 4, Quito, p. 5-18.

38 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes


Hall M. y von Hillebrandt C.
1988
Mapa de los Peligros Volcnicos Potenciales Asociados con el Volcn Pululagua, Provincia de Pichincha. Escala 1:50,000. Proyecto
EPN-UNDRO, Instituto Geofsico, EPN, Quito.
Hall M. y Maruri R.
Mapa de los Peligros Volcnicos Potenciales Asociados con el Vol1992
cn Ninahuilca. Escala 1:50,000. Proyecto EPN-UNDRO, Instituto Geofsico, EPN, Quito.
Hall M. y Mothes P.
1992a
El carcter bimodal de la historia eruptiva del volcn Cotopaxi.
Resmenes: Segundas Jornadas en Cincias de la Tierra. EPN,
Quito, p 27-28.
1992b
Quilotoa Volcano-Ecuador. Eruption History and Possible Effects
of Future Eruptions to the Hacienda San Juan, La Man, Cotopaxi Province. Informe Indito. 30 p.
1994
Tefroestratigrafa Holocnica de los Volcanes Principales del Valle Interandino, Ecuador. en Marocco, R. (ed) El Contexto Geolgico del Espacio Fsico Ecuatoriano. Estudios de Geografa, Vol.
6, p. 47-67, Quito.
Bimodal nature of the eruptive history of Cotopaxi Volcano,
1995
Ecuador. Abstracts: IUGG XXI General Assembly, Boulder, Colorado, p. A452
El Origen y Edad de la Cangahua Superior, Valle de Tumbaco,
1997
Ecuador. en Zebrowski, C., Quantin, P. y Trujillo, G. (Eds) Memorias: Suelos Volcnicos Endurecidos. III Simposio Internacional (ORSTOMQuito. Dic. 1996) p. 19-28.
Hall, M., Robin, C., Beate, B., Mothes, P. y Monzier, M.
En prep., Tungurahua Volcano, Ecuador: structure, eruptive history, and hazards. (Jour. Volcan. Geotherm. Research)
von Hillebrandt C.
1989
Estudio Geovolcanolgico del Complejo Volcnico Cuicocha-Cotacachi y sus Aplicaciones, Provincia de Imbabura. Tesis de Magister, EPN, Quito.

Actividad Volcnica del Holoceno en Ecuador y Colombia 39

von Hillebrandt C. y Hall M.


Mapa de los Peligros Volcnicos Potenciales Asociados con el Vol1988
cn Cuicocha, Provincia de Imbabura. Esc. 1:50.000, Instituto
Geofsico, EPN, Quito.
von Hillebrandt C., Beate B. y Hall M.
1991
Mapa de Los Peligros Volcnicos Potenciales Asociados con el Volcn Imbabura, Provincia de Imbabura. Esc. 1:50.000, Instituto
Geofsico, EPN, Quito.
INECEL
1989

Isaacson J.
1987

Knapp G.
1988

Informe Final de Volcanologa- Proyecto Hidroelctrico San Francisco, Quito.

Volcanic Activity and Human Occupation of The Northern Andes:


the application of tephrostratigraphic techniques to the problem of
human settlement in the Western Montana during the Ecuadorian Formative. Tesis Doct., Univ. of Illinois.

Ecologa Cultural Prehispnica del Ecuador. Banco Central del


Ecuador, Quito. 206 p.

Knapp G. y Ryder R.
1983
Aspects of the Origin, Morphology and Function of Raised
Fields in the Quito Altiplano, Ecuador. en JP Darch (ed.) Drained Field Agriculture in Central and South America. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, International Series. Vol. 189, p.
201-220.
Lathrap D., Isaacson J. y McEwan C.
1984
On the Trail of the Finest Metallurgy of the Ancient New World:
How old is the Classic Quimbaya Style? Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, Nov., p. 10-19.
Maruri R.
1993

Estudio Volcanolgico del Volcn Ninahuilca, Provincia de Pichincha. Tesis Indita, Facultad de Geologa, EPN, Quito, 126 p.

40 Minard Hall / Patricia Mothes


Monzier M., Samaniego P. y Robin C.
1996
Le Volcn Cayambe (Equateur): Son activit au cours des 5000
dernieres annees et les menaces qui en resultent. Bull. Inst. Fr.
Etudes Andines. Vol. 25 (3) p. 389-397.
Mothes P. y Hall M.
Mapa de Los Peligros Volcnicos Asociados con el Volcn Quilotoa,
1991a
Provincia de Cotopaxi. Esc. 1:50.000, Instituto Geofsico, EPN,
Quito.
Mothes P. y Hall M.
1991b
Eventos Volcnicos de Gran Magnitud. en Mothes P. (ed) El Paisaje Volcnico de la Sierra Ecuatoriana -Estudios de Geografa,
Vol. 4, Quito.
Mothes P. y Hall M.
Historia Eruptiva del Volcn Quilotoa. Resmenes: Segundas
1992
Jornadas en Cincias de la Tierra. EPN, Qerra. EPN, Quito. p.5253.
Mothes P. y Hall M.
Quilotoa Caldera, Ecuador: A Young Eruptive Center in the
1997
Western Cordillera. Abstracts IAVCEI General Assembly, Puerto
Vallarta, Mexico, p. 49.
Mothes P., Hall M. y Janda R.
1998
The Enormous Chillos Valley Lahar: an ash-flow-generated debris flow from Cotopaxi Volcano, Ecuador. Bull. of Volcan. Vol.
59, p. 233-244.
Samaniego P.
1996
Estudio Volcanolgico y Petrolgico de la Historia Reciente del Volcn Cayambe. Tesis Indita. Facultad de Geologa, EPN, Quito.
143 p.
Villalba M.
1988

Cotocollao: una aldea formativa del valle de Quito. Miscelnea


Antropolgica Ecuatoriana, Serie Monogrfica 2, Quito, 571 p.

ACCIDENTAL HISTORY:
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY AND THE END
OF THE FORMATIVE IN
NORTHWESTERN ECUADOR1
John S. Isaacson and James A. Zeidler
Cultural Resources Research Center
U.S. Army Construction Engineering Laboratories
Champaign, Illinois
and Department of Anthropology
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

INTRODUCTION
Much of what we study in archaeology is the result of what is
conceptualized as orderly process, but what in reality is shaped to a
large degree by the vagaries of chance. It is the relationship between
these two forces of history, chance and orderly process, that produce
unique, local or regional histories that the authors consider the compelling story to be told by archeological research. It is not an all or
nothing game, however, for each level of inquiry contributes to the
other and eventually leads to an understanding of macroregional
trends in evolving social process, and how these trends are in turn
played out in individual locations shaped by local conditions. Such
trends are what paleontologist Stephen J. Gould (1990:290) has called
the multifarious possibilities of historical contingency. Historical
contingency is nowhere more evident than in the volcanic zone of the
northern Andes where a long and complex record of eruptive events
has been documented (Barberi et al. 1988, Hall 1977, Hall and Beate
1991, Hall and Mothes 1994, Hall and Wood 1985). Here prehistoric
societies have been disrupted by repeated natural disasters that have
drastically changed local conditions and confronted communities with

42 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

new sets of challenges. How local groups have met these challenges has
depended in large part on the timing of the events. Since volcanic eruptions are largely unpredictable, these disasters have imbued the history
of northwestern Ecuador with an accidental quality, underscoring the
contingent nature of history in this region.
In the emerging picture of the history of northwestern Ecuador,
we argue that both social contingency (e.g., Formative Period population expansion from southern to northern coastal river valleys), and
environmental contingency (e.g., the volcanic-tectonic instability of
northwestern Ecuador) had a significant impact on the evolution of
western Formative cultures.
Based on recent compositional analyses of tephras derived from
stratigraphic contexts at numerous archaeological sites throughout the
western Ecuadorian lowlands, we suggest that vast areas of the central
lowlands were subjected to extensive volcanic airfalls from at least three
different eruptions originating in the northern highlands, and that
such catastrophic events would have affected to varying degrees the
peoples occupying their path. More specifically, we argue that significant portions of the area lying between about 0o 30 North latitude and
1o 30 South latitude and extending from the Cordillera Occidental in
the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west (Figure 1) were blanketed by
one or more of these volcanic ash falls in prehistory.

Accidental History

Volcanic Impact Zone

Figure 1. Map of Ecuador showing probable extent of the


volcanic impact zone in the western montaa lowlands.

43

44 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

While the primary negative effects of these eruptions would


have followed a clinal gradient with increasing distance from the source
eruption (from east to west), there is also a north-south gradient along
which these tephras have been documented. The area north of our proposed volcanic impact zone is limited to Esmeraldas Province, while to
the south it is comprised of southern Guayas, southern Los Rios, and
El Oro Provinces. The affected zone is comprised of northern, central,
and part of southern Manab Province, the montaa and highland
zone of western Pichincha Province, and the northern portions of
Guayas and Los Rios Provinces. Although our evidence is still somewhat limited in spatial extent, we argue that the Late Formative Period
occupations within this impact zone were significantly affected by the
massive eruption of the Pululahua Volcano, but to varying degrees
depending on their location with respect to the source of the eruptions.
Furthermore, watersheds lying north and south of the impact zone
may have been indirectly affected as potential refuge areas for migrations emanating out of the impact zone immediately following this catastrophe. We feel that these considerations provide plausible explanations for substantial hiatus periods in the cultural sequences located
within the impact zone.
As we shall see below, samples of these tephra deposits have been
recovered from a number of archaeological deposits throughout the
northern highlands, western montaa, and coastal lowlands, permitting chemical characterization of at least three different volcanic eruptions and their correlation over extensive areas of the western Ecuadorian landscape. One of these eruptive events, the massive Pululahua
eruption occurring at the end of the Formative Period, will be highlighted in this study, as it is the one event for which a source volcano
has been conclusively identified (Geotermica Italiana-INEMIN 1989;
Papale and Rosi 1993) and several archaeological samples conclusively
correlated.
Pululahua Volcano
Volcano Pululahua is located at the equator, 15 km north of
Quito, directly west of San Antonio de Pichincha. It is one of the
recently active volcanoes contained in the outer flank of the western
Andean range known as the Cordillera Occidental, having experienced

Accidental History

45

numerous eruptions in the Quaternary (Geotermica Italiana-INEMIN


1989, Hall 1977, Hall and Mothes 1994, Papale and Rosi 1993). The
volcano is presently noted for its large caldera, breached on its western
edge (Figure 2). This large caldera contains a prominent lava dome in
the center and, on the level ground surrounding the dome, agricultural fields and settlements. Papale and Rosi (1993) and Hall and Mothes
(1994) have recently described the volcano and reconstructed its eruptive history. The most recent eruption took place at approximately 500
B.C. (see below ) and is directly relevant to the present study

Figure 2. Present-day caldera of Pululahua Volcano. Note human


settlement at bottom of caldera. (Photography by Marie J. Sutliff)

Dating the Pululahua Eruption


A radiocarbon assay of 2305 + 65 RYBP (SI -2128) has been
obtained by Hall (1977) from carbonized wood in the base surge
deposits corresponding to the more recent Pululahua eruption. Since
then, a second date of 2650 + 150 RYBP (GP88-135) has been obtained
for the eruption by a team of Italian and Ecuadorian volcanologists

46 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

(Geotermica Italiana-INEMIN 1989). Their sample was derived from a


peat deposit immediately underlying a layer of plinian airfall. We argue
that the date provided by Hall constitutes the more appropriate date of
the eruption.
To derive a true calendar age for the radiocarbon assay we have
utilized the probabilistic calibration method employed by the OxCal
software program, version 2.01 (Ramsey 1995). Applying this method,
then, SI-2128 gives a time range spanning from 752 to 182 cal B.C.
(midpoint = 467 cal B.C.), based on the three probability intervals of
the 95.4% confidence level and represents the best approximation of
the true calendar age of the Pululahua eruption (Figure 3). While this
570 year time range is not especially helpful for precisely locating the
eruptive event in calendrical time, it is the best approximation available
in the absence of additional radiocarbon determinations that directly
date the primary pyroclastic deposition.

.
Figure 3. OXCAL computer plot of calibration results for sample SI2128, carbonized wood extracted from base surge deposits on the east
flank of the Pululahua caldera (Hall 1977).

Accidental History

47

DEFINING A WESTERN ECUADORIAN VOLCANIC IMPACT


ZONE
The definition of this volcanic impact zone stems from our
intensive field research in two areas of western Ecuador which have traditionally received less archaeological attention: the western montaa
of Pichincha Province (e.g., the Tulipe Valley) and the coastal valleys of
northern Manab Province (e.g., the Jama Valley). In both of these
localities the Formative Period cultural sequences were interrupted by
major volcanic eruptions resulting in significant stratigraphic breaks
or hiatus periods between major cultural occupations during which
the resident populations were forced to migrate elsewhere. The same is
true for the Formative Period occupation of Cotocollao in the Quito
Basin, which lies at approximately the same latitude. In contrast, in the
lowland areas to the north and south of our proposed volcanic impact
zone, where most archaeological research has traditionally been concentrated, the cultural sequences can be generally characterized as continuous trajectories in which gradual stylistic changes in pottery and
other material items mark the transitions between major cultural
occupations and no significant hiatus periods have been identified
(although the Santa Elena Peninsula may be an exception in this regard
due to the periodic effects of drought throughout the prehistoric
sequence [Paulsen 1976]).
Volcanism and Regional Abandonment
Our narrative of discontinuous cultural trajectories and volcanic impacts in the Formative Period begins in the highlands in an
archaeological context from the Quito Basin, at the proximal end of the
eruptive events. From there, we treat three archaeological contexts in
western Ecuador which lie at progressively greater distances from the
source eruptions to highlight the attenuating effects of distance on the
relative ecosystemic devastation caused by pyroclastic airfalls.
Highland Pichincha: Quito Valley (The Cotocollao Site)
The information about the excavations and the material collected at the site of Cotocollao comes from the work of Porras (1982), who
first discovered the site and performed test excavations there, and

48 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

reports from the extensive excavations conducted by Museo Arqueolgico del Banco Central under the direction of Emil Peterson and
Marcelo Villalba (Peterson 1977; Villalba 1988).
The Cotocollao basin extends northwest of Quito and was once
a marshland environment surrounding a number of shallow lakes. The
Cotocollao site has a middle to late Formative Period occupation dating from approximately 2000 to 500 B.C. (Villalba 1988). This component was mantled by the Pululahua eruption which forced the sites
abandonment (Villalba 1988; Geotermica Italiana-INEMIN 1989;
Papale and Rosi 1993). The physical stratigraphy of the site is complex
(Figure 4), reflecting its long occupation. Three major divisions can be
defined in the stratigraphic sequence. The uppermost series of strata
are comprised of volcanic ash, lapilli, and bombs that represent the
remnant tephra deposits from the Pululahua eruption at ca. 467 B.C.
Below the pyroclastic debris is a thick paleosol that contains the Formative Period component. The upper portions of this paleosol yielded
a radiocarbon assay of 2410 + 140 RYBP (GX-4764). Calibration of this
value yields an age range of 819 to 168 cal B.C. (midpoint = 494 cal
B.C.). Below this cultural stratum is a 35cm thick layer of tephra which
is culturally sterile. It is discontinuous across the site, but where it is
preserved it covers a 5cm thick paleosol which contains archaeological
features. This paleosol, which clearly pre-dates the Cotocollao phase
and may date to the Early Formative Period, is at the base of the occupation and rests on culturally sterile cangahua. Unfortunately no pyroclastic material was collected from this stratum and little information
exists about it. However, a tephra mantle of comparable age in the Jama
Valley will be discussed below.

Accidental History

49

Section of the Profile from the 1976


excavations at the Cotocollao Site

Figure 4. Physical stratigraphy at the Cotocollao site,


Pichincha Province

Western Pichincha: Tulipe Valley (The Nueva Era Site) and Mindo Valley
(the Nambillo site)
The Nueva Era site is located 35 km west northwest of Quito
above the modern town of Tulipe. Tulipe is located 0o 5 15 North latitude, 78o 40 57 West longitude, at an elevation of 1500m. The Nueva
Era site was excavated to 3.4m below the surface. Two prehistoric occupations were identified: the Integration Period Tulipe Phase (stratum
C), and the deeply buried middle/late Formative Period Nueva Era
Phase (stratum B1), which is contemporaneous with Cotocollao (Figure 5). Overlying the Tulipe Phase occupation is a 13cm thick airfall
deposit of the A.D. 1660 eruption of Guagua Pichincha (Isaacson 1987,
1990). Between the two occupations lie a 230 cm thick series of volcanic deposits representing three episodes of intense volcanic activity
which occurred within a relatively short period of time. The three
pyroclastic units can be interpreted as three stages of a single volcanic

50 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

eruption cycle. Below the tephra is a 24 cm thick, dark brown paleosol


which contains the Middle to Late Formative Period materials and
structure floors representing the Nueva Era Phase occupation. Below
this paleosol are a series of culturally sterile silts and clays that continue to bedrock.
The Nueva Era Phase ceramics and the radiocarbon dates place
the occupation between about 1500 and 400 B.C. A radiocarbon assay
from a hearth context in the Nueva Era Phase component yielded a
value of 2620 + 70 RYBP (ISGS-1175). The calibrated age range for this
value is 915 to 520 cal B.C. (midpoint = 718 cal B.C ). This paleosol
layer sets a maximum age for the erupted material above it in the stratigraphic column and supports the correlation of this material with the
eruption of Pululahua at 2305 + 65 RYBP. Thereafter the valley was
abandoned for over 1000 years until its reoccupation by the Late Integration Period Tulipe Phase.
This eruptive sequence is also represented at the archaeological
site of Nambillo, located approximately 18.5 km to the south of Tulipe.
Here Lippi (1988: Table 1) has documented a deep stratigraphic
sequence with three distinct layers of pyroclastic deposits. His Paleosol
3 (buried anthropic epipedon) is partially contemporaneous with the
Nueva Era phase of Tulipe and the Cotocollao phase of the Quito
Basin. Five radiocarbon assays from this context range from 2315 + 260
to 5325 + 110 RYBP. The youngest of these values (GX-12472: 2315 +
260 RYBP) yields a calibrated range of 992 cal B.C. to 242 cal A.D.
(midpoint = 375 cal B.C.), based on the two probability intervals of the
95.4% confidence level. Note that this estimated time range extends
over four centuries later than our estimated date for the Pululahua
eruption, but this is most likely due to the very high sigma value
assigned to this radiocarbon determination, which makes its calibrated
age range even more variable. Paleosol 3 is capped by a ca. 70cm-thick
series of pyroclastic deposits identified by Italian volcanologists as the
Pululahua eruption (Geotermica Italiana-INEMIN 1989:Fig. 10.1).

Accidental History

51

Section of East Profile of the Nueva Era Site,


Tulipe, Ecuador

Figure 5. Physical stratigraphy at the Nueva Era site, Pichincha


Province

Northern Manab: Jama Valley (San Isidro and Related Sites)


The Jama River Valley is a1612 sq km drainage located in northern Manab Province. It is a coastal valley flowing westward into the
Pacific Ocean from headwaters originating in a series of low hills some
75 km inland. Three volcanic ash layers have been identified and sampled throughout the valley in archaeological contexts representing a
long cultural sequence spanning more than 3500 years (Zeidler 1994a,

52 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

1994b; Zeidler and Sutliff 1994; Zeidler et al. 1998). Tephra I (Figure
6) occurs at the end of the Terminal Valdivia (Early Formative Period)
occupation approximately 5 meters below surface, and is comprised of
primary and secondary air fall deposits. Tephra II caps the Chorrera
component (Late Formative Period) at about 2.3 meters below surface
and is represented by a single layer (Deposit 21) of reworked tephra.
Tephra III caps the Jama-Coaque I component of the valley and is comprised of two deposits of reworked tephra (Deposits 5 and 5c) at about
1.0 to 1.3 meters below surface. It provides a clear stratigraphic break
between two phases of the long Jama-Coaque ceramic tradition which
is the hallmark culture of northern Manab during the Regional Developmental and Integration Periods.
Tephra I seems to have blanketed the valley towards the end of
the short-lived Valdivia 8 (Piquigua Phase) occupation (Jadan 1986;
Zeidler 1992, 1994a), when population densities were relatively low.
Shortly after the tephra fall the region was abandoned and was not
repopulated for some 475-560 years when the Chorrera peoples
(Tabuchila Phase) appear in the valley (Zeidler et al. 1998.).
In the case of the post-Chorrera ash deposit (Tephra II), the
stratigraphic contiguity between terminal Chorrera deposits and
Tephra II is especially clear, Chorrera paleosols immediately underlie
tephra deposits pertaining to the Pululahua eruption (Engwall 1995;
Zeidler 1994a; Zeidler et al. 1998).
As was the case at Cotocollao and Nueva Era, the Late Formative
Chorrera occupation in the Jama Valley was apparently devastated by
the Pululahua eruption, although probably not as severely due to its
much greater distance (ca. 200 km) from the source eruption. A very
definite stratigraphic break exists in the archaeological record and it
corresponds precisely with a demonstrable break in ceramic style and
technology. Based on calibrated radiocarbon dates bracketing the
Tephra II airfall, the subsequent hiatus period lasted about 250 years or
so, at which point early Jama-Coaque peoples settled the valley and
began a long and fairly stable tradition of complex chiefdoms.

Accidental History

53

Figure 6. Physical stratigraphy at the San Isidro Site, Manab Province

Southern Manab Province: Buena Vista Valley (The Agua Blanca Site)
Archaeological research by McEwan (1992, 1995) in the Buena
Vista valley has primarily focused on a synchronic study of Manteo
settlement and political organization so little information exists on the
archaeological contexts of the sampled tephras. Detailed descriptions
have been made of the physical stratigraphy in the Buena Vista Valley
(Mosquera 1989; see also McEwan 1995) but are not presented here.
The Buena Vista valley represents the southern boundary of the tephra
fall-out zone. Here Isaacson and McEwan sampled five tephras exposed
in a quebrada formed after the 1982-83 El Nio event (McEwan 1995:
Fig. 3.7). The lowest of these tephras (Tephra I) mantles a Chorrera
paleosol and marks the end of the Chorrera presence in the valley.. The
volume of post-Chorrera tephra deposited in this part of the fall-out
zone is less than that found farther north and east and we can infer
from this that the impacts were not as severe for this eruptive event.
The remaining four tephras represent as yet unidentified eruptions
that extend well into the Integration Period. These may represent

54 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

recently documented eruptions of the Volcanos Quilotoa and Cotopaxi


(M. Rosi, professional communication, 9 February 1998; see also
Mothes and Hall, this volume).

COMPOSITIONAL
TEPHRAS

ANALYSIS

OF

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

Tephra Samples
Through a cooperative effort with archaeological colleagues
working in various regions of Ecuador, we have assembled a large collection of archaeological tephras of which 34 have been chemically analyzed by Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS) microprobe
(Figure 7). These include three from the northern highlands (Cotocollao, La Chimba, Lago San Pablo), four from the western montana
(Nueva Era), and twenty-seven from the coastal lowlands. The latter
include nineteen samples from the Jama Valley, five from Agua Blanca,
and one each from Coaque, Isla de La Plata, and Colimes. The 19 Jama
Valley tephra samples represent a total of 11 different archaeological
sites located in the lower, middle, and upper valley (Figure 8). Four
source volcanoes were also sampled, including Pululahua, Cuicocha,
Guagua Pichincha, and Quilotoa (Figure 7).

Accidental History

55

Figure 7. Distribution map of four volcanic source


samples and archaeological tephra deposits discussed in this analysis.

56 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

\
Figure 8. Distribution map of sampled tephra deposits in the Jama Valley.

EDS Microprobe Analysis


The compositional analysis of the glass fraction of archaeological tephras from coastal and highland Ecuador was carried out through
Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS) microprobe analysis in
the Scanning Electron Microscopy Laboratory of the Illinois State Geological Survey (ISGS) in Champaign, Illinois. The general approach
and analytical procedures employed in this study follow those previously established by Smith and Westgate (1969) and Westgate and Gorton (1981).

Accidental History

57

Results
Each elemental analysis was screened for internal variability
using the standard deviation and the coefficient of variation. Aluminum, silica, calcium, potassium, and sodium exhibited the lowest
levels of variability and were used for the provenance study. Ten replicate runs on each sample were averaged to produce a characteristic
value for each element in a sample. These values were then graphically
displayed and subjected to multivariate statistical analysis. Here we discuss only the 18 samples pertaining to the Formative Period, Tephras I
and II, as determined by ceramic associations, and their possible relationship to the four source samples. Table 1 shows the averaged values
derived for the elemental composition of the 18 archaeological samples
and the four source samples. Thirteen of the archaeological samples
were thought to correspond to the Late Formative Tephra II, while five
samples, all from the Jama Valley, were thought to correspond to the
Early Formative Tephra I.
The first graph (Figure 9) is a bivariate ratio scattergram of
Al203/SiO2 versus K2O/CaO for samples from Tephras I and II and the
four source volcanoes (Wilkenson et al. 1992a). The corresponding
50% confidence ellipses are also plotted. Bivariate ratios were used here
as a means of minimizing instrument error while maintaining the relationship between elemental concentrations. The graph clearly shows a
tight cluster of samples from the post-Chorrera tephra and its separation from the cluster of samples from the post-Valdivia tephra. Within
the post-Chorrera tephra cluster are the two source volcanoes, Pululahua and Cuicocha. The tight correlation of the Pululahua eruption
with the post-Formative tephra at Cotocollao (Geotermica ItalianaINEMIN 1989; Papale and Rosi 1993) identifies Pululahua as the
source volcano for this eruption. The other two source samples,
Guagua Pichincha and Quilotoa, both fall within the broad cluster of
Tephra I samples. No correlation can be made in this case, however,
since the eruptive histories of these two source volcanoes do not correspond with the stratigraphic positioning and estimated age of the
Tephra I deposits.

Table 1. Averaged values for major chemical elements of18 Formative Period
tephra samples and four source samples discussed in this analysis

58 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

Accidental History

59

Figure 9. Bivariate ratio plot of Tephras I and II (Al2O3/SiO2 and


K2O/SiO2). Circles = Tephra II samples; Diamonds = Tephra I samples;
Triangles = source samples.

The second graph (Figure 10) is a ternary diagram showing the


relationship between K2O, CaO, and NaO2 for the four source volcanoes and Tephras I and II (Wilkenson et al. 1992a). Again, the postChorrera tephra samples produce a tight grouping that is clearly separated from the more variable Tephra I samples, and the four source
samples segregate in the same pattern as before.

60 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

Figure 10. Ternary diagram of tephras I and II (K2O, CaO, and Na2O).
Circles = Tephra II samples; Diamonds = Tephra I samples; Triangles =
source samples.

Finally, a cluster analysis (Figure 11) was run on four elements


(the bivariate ratios Al2O3/SiO2 and K2O/CaO) using the hierarchical
agglomerative method, Euclidean distance measure, and a single linkage clustering algorithm (Wilkenson et al. 1992b; see also Aldenderfer
and Blashfield 1984; Baxter 1994). The results again display a tight clustering of samples from the post-Chorrera tephra, while the post-Valdivia tephra samples are distinct yet internally more variable. A second
cluster analysis (Figure 12) was run on only three elements (K2O, CaO,
and NaO2), confirming the earlier clustering while using a slightly different data set.

Accidental History

Figure 11. Cluster analysis of Tephras I and II


(Al2O3/SiO2 and K2O/SiO2).

61

62 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

Figure 12. Cluster analysis of Tephras I and II (K2O, CaO, and Na2O).

From these three analytical techniques, a consistent pattern


emerges. Pululahua Volcano is chemically correlated with the post-Formative tephra samples from five archaeological sites: Cotocollao,
Nueva Era, Mocoral, Tamayo, and Agua Blanca (Figure 13). These
interregional correlations are consistent with independent archaeological and radiometric evidence, thus establishing the Pululahua airfall as
a time-stratigraphic horizon. For the post-Valdivia tephra samples, the
Jama Valley sites of San Isidro and Capa Perro correlate internally and
there is promising evidence that these coastal valley deposits will correlate with the basal tephra at Cotocollao in the Quito Basin. If that is

Accidental History

63

the case, then Guagua Pichincha may prove to be the likelier source
volcano due to its close proximity to Cotocollao. Establishment of this
eruption as a pan-regional time-stratigraphic horizon awaits further
study, since our comparative collection of tephras from potential
source volcanoes is still rather limited.

Figure 13. Distribution map of correlated Pululahua tephra samples


showing probable footprint of Pululahua tephra mantle.

64 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

MAGNITUDE OF THE PULULAHUA ERUPTION


Recently Papale and Rosi (1993) have published estimates on the
magnitude of the Pululahua eruption using a number of statistical
models with the caveat that the measurement of the distal end of the
deposit is reconstructed mainly by analogy with the general trend, and
it is possible that its real pattern would indicate a greater dispersal
(1993:528). Given this qualification, the volume of the eruption is estimated at 5-6 km3 with an estimated column height of between 28 and
33 km. These estimates place the magnitude of the Pululahua eruption
in the 99th percentile of the 4,815 eruptions listed in the register of volcanic events over the past 10,000 years (Simkin et al. 1981). For a modern comparison, the devastating 1991 plinian eruption of Pinatubo
Volcano in the Philippines produced 2-4 km3 of tephra (Anonymous
1994) , or about one half the volume estimated for the Pululahua eruption. The magnitude of such an eruption is certainly consistent with
the westward dispersal of tephras documented by our study.
DISCUSSION
The foregoing examination of Formative Period volcanism has
implications both for methodological aspects of cultural chronologybuilding and for substantive interpretations of prehistoric settlement
dynamics in western Ecuador. In the former case, the stratigraphic
importance of volcanic ash layers as time-horizon markers cannot be
overstated. Where stratigraphic and/or chemical correlations can be
made on these airfall deposits across a regional landscape, they provide
the archaeologist with a powerful tool for constructing regional cultural chronologies and for making macro-regional comparisons (Zeidler
et al. 1998). Given the chronometric uncertainties of the radiocarbon
dating method and the variability inherent in probabilistic calibration,
the presence of event-specific ash layers in a stratigraphic column is not
trivial. These sediments represent an almost instantaneous depositional event when viewed on an archaeological time scale, and in that sense
they are much more precise than radiocarbon dating as a means of
punctuating a cultural sequence and making broad interregional correlations between multiple sequences.

Accidental History

65

The potential role of volcanism in substantive interpretations of


western Ecuadorian prehistory also has far-reaching implications and
highlights the interplay of social process and historical contingency. It
is interesting to contrast the impacts of the Pululahua eruption across
the western foothills and lowlands in terms of the clinal gradients mentioned in the introduction. In the Jama Valley, floodplain agriculture
was particularly vulnerable to the erosion of tephra off the slopes and
uplands. The fine powdery tephra quickly made its way to the floodplain terraces and caused social and economic collapse. We suggest that
it was only after considerable hillslope swiddening developed that
Jama-Coaque communities could survive these eruptive events. In the
Western Pichincha foothills, however, swiddening was the predominant agricultural practice, but it did not afford any protection against
the effects of the eruption. Since the tephra in this region was so thick
and resistant to erosion, farmable soils were permanently buried.
Therefore in each area along the clinal gradient of the tephra blanket,
different contingencies and social processes prevail. It is this aspect of
the study of these events that is so informative. What is adaptive in one
area under one set of conditions, fails in another, and it is only through
the detailed regional study of these events that such a history of human
settlement can be reconstructed.
CONCLUSION
In terms of general comparisons of the continuous sequences in
the south with the discontinuous sequence in northern Manab, two
observations can be made regarding uneven cultural development.
First, the Tabuchila Phase of the Jama Valley is the most complex manifestation of Chorrera culture thus far investigated in Ecuador. Evidence of this complexity includes ceremonial mound construction,
complex settlement hierarchies, maize-dependent agriculture involving both intensive floodplain farming and some upland swiddening,
elaborate ceramic production, and high status burial, all of which
point to the early emergence of a localized stratified chiefdom. In the
one southern valley where systematic survey data permit comparisons,
the Valdivia Valley, the Late Formative Period does not exhibit the same
constellation of traits (Schwarz and Raymond 1996). One of the consequences of the Pululahua eruption appears to be the termination of

66 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

a Late Formative cultural florescence in northern Manab. Occupation


of the Jama Valley begins in Valdivia 8 times as agricultural communities from the Guayas coast and Guayas Basin colonized the naturally
irrigated floodplains of the major tropical rivers to the north.
Thus, it is ironic that this northward colonization and cultural
florescence in the wetter regions of northern Manab brought these
Formative peoples into an area of extreme environmental instability
which ultimately led to their demise.
Secondly, it is not surprising that the emergence of Manteo culture as a multi-regional Integration Period polity would appear first in
the south where continuous cultural sequences developed without
interruption. If the long-term stability of centralized polity formation
is essential for the development and expansion of complex political
organization and multi-regional interaction, then that stability would
have been periodically truncated in northern and central Manab by
massive volcanic disasters which probably fostered outward migration
and very slow ecosystemic recovery and resettlement.
These volcanic events and the variable cultural responses to
them, as played out over large areas of western Ecuador, have dramatic
implications for highland/lowland interaction, north/south population
movements, long-distance trade, political organization, and alliance
formation. Until the spatial distribution and correlation of these events
is better defined, an accurate synthesis of Formative settlement dynamics and social evolution will remain illusive.

Accidental History

67

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The tephrostratigraphic analysis and correlation study presented in this paper was supported by supplemental funding from the
National Science Foundation for Grant #BNS-9108548 (Jama Valley
Prehistory Project) and was awarded jointly to Zeidler and Isaacson.
We gratefully acknowledge the collaboration of the various colleagues working in Ecuador who graciously provided us with the
tephra samples necessary to make this a macro-regional analysis. These
include J. Stephen Athens, Minard Hall, Judith Kreid, Earl Lubensky,
Colin McEwan, Andrew Mudd, and J. Scott Raymond. We thank Mr.
Donald Lowry of the Illinois State Geological Survey (Champaign, IL)
for his advice and continued collaboration in the SEM-EDS microprobe analysis of Ecuadorian tephras. We owe a special debt of gratitude to Marie J. Zeidler for her diligence in preparing Figures 1, 6, 7, 8,
and 13 and for providing the photograph in Figure 2. Finally, we thank
Patricia Mothes and Minard Hall for inviting us to participate in their
symposium Actividad Volcnica y Pueblos Precolombinos for the
49th International Congress of Americanists and for encouraging us to
prepare this study for publication in the symposium proceedings.

NOTES
1

This article is an abridged version of a longer study entitled Settlement


Process and Historical Contingency in the Ecuadorian Formative by J. Zeidler
and J. Isaacson that was presented at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference on the
Ecuadorian Formative in October, 1995. The published version of that study
will appear in the conference proceedings edited by Richard Burger and J. Scott
Raymond. We thank the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and Research Library
and the Director of Pre-Columbian Studies, Dr. Jeffrey Quilter, for granting
permission to publish this abridged version.

68 John Isaacson / James Zeidler

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LA ARQUEOLOGA DEL VALLE


DE QUITO EN CLAVE VOLCNICA
Marcelo Villalba
(Pontificia Universidad Catlica del Ecuador)
Alexandra Alvarado
(Instituto Geofsico, Escuela Politcnica Nacional, Quito)

2. ANTECEDENTES
La investigacin arqueolgica realizada en el marco del Proyecto Cotocollao (Villalba, 1988), recuper valiosa informacin sobre uno
de los sitios agroalfareros ms antiguos de la Sierra Norte ecuatoriana
(1). Esta circunstancia permiti reconocer la riqueza cultural e importancia socioeconmica que debi tener la meseta de Quito en el proceso de adaptacin regional andino equinoccial, desde pocas muy tempranas. Posteriormente se emprendi un trabajo de prospeccin arqueolgica ms amplio que cubri Quito y sus alrededores, desde el ro
San Pedro hasta las laderas del Pichincha, y desde Guaman hasta Caldern, Tanlahua y ro Guayllabamba, para conocer la problemtica
temporal y contenido cultural de los perodos de Desarrollo Regional e
Integracin en esta zona. Parte de estos resultados se discuten en esta
oportunidad.
Por su lado, gelogos de la Escuela Politcnica Nacional vienen
realizando investigaciones sobre depsitos volcnicos en la Sierra Centro y Norte del Ecuador (Hall, 1977 ; Hall y Beate, 1991 ; Hall y Mothes, 1992, 1994 ; Hall, Mothes y Janda, 1992 ; Hillebrandt, 1989 ; Maruri, 1993 ) y anlisis sobre riesgos ssmicos, especialmente en la zona
de Quito (Prez, et al., 1994 ; Yepes, et al., 1994). Dichos estudios aportan interesantes datos sobre la evolucin morfolgica y geolgica de estas zonas. Conocer este escenario natural y sus procesos de cambio y
transformacin, tanto en el largo alcance, pero sobre todo en el corto
perodo que abarca la presencia de los primeros hombres en Amrica y
en el Ecuador prehispnico en particular, permiten entender las ade-

74 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

cuaciones adaptativas y culturales ancestrales que se dieron en nuestro


territorio.
El estudio de la actividad volcnica y el anlisis de la antigedad
de las capas de ceniza constituyen excelentes marcadores cronolgicos
que permiten distinguir sucesiones histricas, y sobre todo, correlacionar la contemporaneidad cultural sobre extensas zonas geogrficas,
gracias a los marcadores guas en que se transforman las cadas de ceniza. Tal es el caso, por ejemplo, de los estudios en la cuenca norte de
Quito (Iaquito) que pusieron en evidencia la presencia de una secuencia estratigrfica de camellones (raised fields) cubiertos por cenizas volcnicas (Alvarado, 1996), que arrojaron interesantes datos sobre
este rasgo cultural que tan slo se conoca por fotografas areas en la
parte sur de la ciudad (Knapp y Ryder, 1985 ; Knapp, 1988). Estos hallazgos permitirn correlacionar evidencias similares reportadas para
otras zonas con camellones en la Sierra Norte ecuatoriana.
2. PROBLEMTICA Y OBJETIVOS
Las condiciones morfolgicas de la meseta de Quito han cambiado en el ltimo milln de aos. Conocer tales modificaciones, tomado
en cuenta los agentes modeladores del paisaje como son los eventos
tectnicos y las erupciones volcnicas, a ms de los factores ambientales a los que posteriormente se enfrentaron los primeros grupos humanos que habitaron la planicie de Quito, es una tarea indispensable para
evaluar las respuestas adaptativas de los sucesivos modos de vida que se
gestaron hasta la llegada de los espaoles en el siglo XVI.
Precisamente, la indagacin de los procesos geolgicos, climticos, ecolgicos y la manera cmo influenciaron en la conducta humana se convierte en el objetivo principal de este trabajo.
3. EL ESCENARIO
Varios factores han modelado el carcter histrico de la relacin
hombre-naturaleza en lo que hoy constituye la zona de Quito: a) los
eventos tectnicos y volcnicos; b) la presencia de una red de quebradas y dos formaciones lagunares; c) los factores climticos; y, d) la posicin estratgica de la meseta de Quito en las rutas de intercambio a
travs de las bocas o pasos de montaa. Discutiremos estos factores.

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

75

a). Los eventos tectnicos. La meseta de Quito se localiza en una


de las zonas de mayor riesgo ssmico y volcnico del pas. La recurrencia de estos fenmenos han alterado peridicamente la morfologa circundante con la evidente readaptacin a las nuevas relaciones con la
naturaleza de los grupos humanos que habitaron en distintas pocas a
lo largo de los ltimos 15 mil aos. A pesar de los riesgos inherentes de
vivir junto a las faldas del volcn Pichincha, desde el perodo Formativo, se asentaron grupos humanos que enfrentaron el reto de forjar su
historia, bajo la permanente amenaza del fuego, las cenizas, aluviones
y los fuertes sismos.
En efecto, estudios geolgicos realizados en la cuenca de Quito,
muestran que sta se form a consecuencia de la accin de una falla
tectnica, denominada Quito-Ilumbis o Quito como se la denominar en este trabajo (Soulas et al., 1991; Ego,1992; Alvarado, 1996), la
misma que se extiende desde Tambillo al sur, hasta San Antonio de Pichincha al norte (Figura # 1 ).

76 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

Figura 1. Fallamiento activo de la zona de Quito (Segn Egez, 1995)


LEYENDA: 1 Falla ro Monjas ; 2 Falla San Miguel del Comn ; 3 Falla
Bellavista ; 4 Falla Cara-pungo ; 5 Flexura de la quebrada Horinaza ;
6 Falla 6 de Diciembre.

Esta falla ha sido la modeladora del paisaje en la zona y se estima que su actividad empez aproximadamente hace poco mas de 1 milln de aos (Ego, 1992). Est falla provoc el levantamiento de la planicie de Quito sobre el Valle Interandino, en alrededor de 400 m. Los
rasgos morfolgicos ms importantes son el conjunto de colinas que limitan el lado oriental de la ciudad, que en realidad constituyen pliegues-flexuras, cuya mayor inclinacin es hacia el oriente (Ego, 1992).
La accin de esta falla, as como de otras fuentes ssmicas ubicadas a lo
largo del Valle Interandino, han afectado en repetidas ocasiones la zona de Quito con eventos ssmicos de diferente intensidad y seguramente fueron percibidos por los primeros habitantes de la zona. Como

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

77

ejemplo de la recurrencia de los sismos en el rea de Quito, se muestra


el registro histrico que cubre el lapso comprendido entre la llegada de
los espaoles y nuestros dias (Figura # 2)
FECHA
1541
1587
1627
1645
1660
1662
1698
1736
1751
1755
1757
1759
1764
1787
1797
1859
1868
1870
1906
1914
1923
1938
1942
1987
1990

INTENSIDADES (MKS)

ZONA EPICENTRAL (1)

IX
IX
V
IX
V-VII
VII & IV
X
VIII
VIII
IX
V

XI
VIII
X
IX
VIII
VIII
IX
IX
IX
VII

EN QUITO (2)
VI - VIII ?
VIII
VI - VII
VI - VII
VI - VII
VI - VII
VI - VII
VI
VI - VII
VIII - IX
VI - VII
VI
VI
VI
VII - VIII
IX
IX
VI
VI
VI
VII
V - VI
VI
VI - VII
V

Figura 2. Sismicidad histrica de Quito.


Las intensidades corresponden a la escala MKS y la intensidad subrayada es la ms aceptada. [(1) CERESIS, 1985; (2) Del Pino y H. Yepes, 1990;
Yepes H. com. pers.]

78 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

En todo caso, datos de sismicidad ms antiguos que cubren un


perodo desde hace aproximadamente 6590 aos fue posible obtener
gracias a las deformaciones producidas en los sedimentos luego del paso de una onda ssmica. Se han determinado 20 eventos, de los cuales
10 fueron correlacionados en toda la cuenca de Quito (Figura # 3).

Figura 3. Localizacin de los niveles de deformacin ms importantes determinados en la Cuenca norte de Quito.
El evento I es el ms importante y ocurri alrededor de los siglos X y XI.
Hay que notar la presencia de las capas guas de origen volcnico. Las capas guas 1 y 4 posiblemente estn asociadas al volcn Guagua Pichincha. La capa gua 3 probablemente pertenece al volcn Quilotoa. La capa
gua 2 posiblemente corresponde al volcn Cayambe. La capa 5 seguramente pertenece al volcn Pululahua y la capa gua 6 est asociada al volcn Cotopaxi (Alvarado, 1996)
* Fuente : Ziolkowski, : et al., 1994.

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

79

De estos cabe resaltar un evento que ocurri aproximadamente


entre los siglos X y XI que tiene una intensidad relativa de diez grados
(Ver evento I de la Figura # 3 ). Hay que indicar que en este registro se
representa la suma de aquellos sismos con magnitudes superiores a 5
grados en la escala de Richter que ocurrieron en toda la zona, ya que
son los nicos capaces de producir la deformacin observada (Alvarado, 1996).
Otro factor modelador del paisaje, a ms de los eventos ssmicos,
ha sido el volcanismo que ha cubierto el Valle Interandino con potentes depsitos provenientes de diferentes centros volcncos cuaternarios
(Figura # 4 ).

Figura 4. Distribucin general de las principales cenizas volcnicas -Valle interandino- Ecuador. (Reproducido de Hall, M. y P. Mothes, 1994 :62)

80 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

La actividad volcnica Cuaternaria se desarroll especialmente al


norte de los 2 30 S., lo que representa una caracterstica importante del
volcanismo en los Andes Ecuatorianos. Cabe mencionar que cubriendo la secuencia del cuaternario se encuentra un depsito de origen volcnico que es representativo de este perodo (la Formacin Cangahua),
y que se caracteriza por su grado de consolidacin, contenido de minerales, distribucin y alteracin. Las edades determinadas hasta el momento la ubican en el Pleistoceno (Clapperton y Vera, 1986). Sobre este material se ha depositado una sucesin de cadas de cenizas y pmez
y se han formado tambin secuencias de suelos.
En la regin de Quito, especialmente los volcanes Pichincha y
Pululagua han influido notablemente en la poblacin debido a su cercana; sin embargo, los volcanes Cotopaxi, Quilotoa y posiblemente
Cayambe tuvieron su grado de incidencia en ciertos perodos, tal como
se observa en la estratigrafa encontrada en la ciudad de Quito (Figura
# 3) (Alvarado, 1996).
b). Quebradas y lagunas. Se refieren a la presencia de una serie de
quebradas que impusieron un relieve bastante irregular y dos lagunas
ubicadas en las llanuras de Iaquito y Turubamba que, en conjunto, determinaron el patrn de asentamiento ancestral. En efecto, especialmente la vertiente oriental del volcn Pichincha constituy un sistema
de drenaje que se encauzaba a travs de 68 quebradas que antiguamente alimentaban las lagunas, mientras otras quebradas desaguaban los
excesos hacia el valle de los Chillos y Pomasqui (Noni et al., 1986 ; Peltre, 1989). En las laderas, y junto a estas quebradas y lagunas se asentaron sucesivamente grupos humanos a lo largo de los distintos periodos
de desarrollo cultural. La laguna de Iaquito se desec y recarg en varias ocasiones, como consecuencia de las erupciones volcnicas y aluviones de gran potencia, hasta que en los primeros aos de la Colonia,
aparentemente desapareci por completo. En todo caso, es oportuno
aclarar que las lagunas eran de poca profundidad, razn por la cual, en
pocas de pocas lluvias se desecaban en algunos sectores o permaneca
como pequeos pantanos.
c). Los factores climticos. La altitud, la temperatura y el rgimen
de lluvias responden a condicionantes locales muy favorables para la
captacin y produccin de recursos alimenticios. En la zona de Quito
existieron varios nichos ecolgico que permitieron la explotacin de
recursos abundantes y variados gracias a su clima suave, temperaturas

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

81

constantes, lluvias moderadas y suelos frtiles. El rea de Cotocollao,


por ejemplo, fue una de la ms aptas en todo el valle de Quito para los
primeros asentamientos y prcticas agrcolas ya que las tierras no fueron ni secas ni hmedas, pues se dio un movimiento balanceado del
agua, es decir, se evapora la misma cantidad de agua que cae en forma
de lluvia, razn por la cual los suelos son automticamente frtiles durante todo el ao (Villalba, 1988). Esta caracterstica fue una constante a travs de los tiempos, salvo los perodos de actividad volcnica que
limitaron pero no impidieron las prcticas agrcolas. Vista en su conjunto, la zona de Quito presenta un rgimen templado hmedo con 75
% de humedad relativa en promedio, con una temperatura media de
13 centgrados pero con una fluctuacin de 8 a 21 C diariamente
(Fernandez de Castro, 1990 :11). Igualmente, Las mayores precipitaciones (superiores a 1.400 mm.) se localizan alrededor de los edificios
volcnicos (Pichincha, Atacazo, Pasochoa) y en el Valle de los Chillos ;
los niveles pluviomtricos descienden hacia el norte de la macroregin,
baando el valle de Tumbaco con precipitaciones menores a 1.000
mm. Las precipitaciones ms bajas, menores a 600 mm., se encuentran
en la depresin del Guayllabamba y en el valle de San Antonio de Pichincha (Idem.). En todo caso, a pesar de que se identifica como una
llanura, la meseta de Quito presenta desniveles altitudinales que repercuten en el aumento del rgimen de lluvias como sucede en el sector
sur de la ciudad, en donde se presentan los niveles pluviomtricos ms
altos que van decreciendo con un gradiente aproximado de 21
mm./km. Cierto es que la presencia del volcn Pichincha desva los
vientos provenientes del Pacfico, pero no impide que las nubes se precipiten en la meseta de Quito, especialmente por la boca de montaa
que constituye Lloa, creando un paisaje de nubosidad extrema, especialmente en las tardes. Vista en perspectiva altitudinal, desde el ro San
Pedro hasta las faldas del Pichincha, el rea de influencia de Quito se
presenta como una sucesin de pisos que reproduce a pequea escala
el concepto de microverticalidad, lo que significa una variedad de nichos ecolgicos, y por ende, una diversificacin de productos.
d). A los factores anteriores se debe aadir la condicin estratgica del altiplano de Quito, en el sentido que siempre constituy un
punto obligado para el trnsito e intercambio de productos con la Costa, a travs de los pasos de montaa de Calacal, Cotocollao y Lloa, y
con la Regin Amaznica, a travs de la depresin del Gauman, situa-

82 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

cin que marc el signo adecuado para entender la dinmica cultural


entre estas regiones.
4. LA EVIDENCIA ARQUEOLGICA
En el contexto del proyecto arqueolgico Valle de Quito, auspiciado por el Museo del Banco Central, se emprendi una investigacin
para detectar evidencias culturales que permitieran conocer el proceso
de ocupacin ancestral de la zona de Quito y sus inmediaciones. El rea
prospectada constituy la hondonada que sirve de asiento a la ciudad
de Quito y laderas aledaas que miran al valle de los Chillos. Los lmites son: por el lado occidental, la cota de altura que llega hasta los 3.200
m., sobre las faldas del Pichincha; al oriente, las laderas que llegan hasta los ros San Pedro y Guayllabamba; por el sur hasta la poblacin de
Guaman (Estacin Experimental de Santa Catalina, quebrada Cusaco); y por el norte, la hacienda Tanlagua hasta su empate con el abra del
ro Guayllabamba.
A pesar de la dificultades obvias de prospectar en zonas urbanas,
se pudo identificar evidencias que involucran 261 sitios arqueolgicos
que contenan restos culturales asignables a los siguientes perodos:
PALEOINDIO:
PALEOINDIO-FORMATIVO:
PALEOINDIO-INTEGRACION:
PALEOIN-FORM-DES REG-INT:
FORMATIVO:
FORMATIVO-DES. REG.:
FORMATIVO-DES REG-INTEG:
FORMATIVO-INTEGRACION:
FORMATIVO-INTEGRACIN-INCA:
DESARROLLO REGIONAL:
DESARROLLO REG-INTEGRACIN:
INTEGRACIN:
INTEGRACIN-INCA
INCA:
PETROGLIFO (?)

3
1
3
1
43
7
2
37
3
6
3
135
6
11
1

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

83

Del listado anterior se desprende que existen muchos sitios multicomponentes (2), lo que hace suponer que en la meseta de Quito y
zonas aledaas, algunos sectores fueron ms atractivos que otros para
una ocupacin permanente, o que fueron reocupados posteriormente
por alguna razn estratgica. Si asumimos que la evidencia cultural
identificada en cada sitio fue producto de actividades sociales llevadas
a cabo en su respectivo perodo histrico, la distribucin de sitios, por
perodos cronolgicos es la siguientes:
PALEOINDIO:
FORMATIVO:
DESARROLLO REGIONAL:
INTEGRACION:
INCA:

8
94
19
188
20

En todo caso es oportuno destacar que las asociaciones entre los


sitios no son necesariamente secuenciales, sino espaciales o fortuitas y
sin ninguna relacin de continuidad o desarrollo cultural aparente.
En este listado no se han incluido la evidencia de importantes
obras de ingeniera agrcola prehispnica, como son las terrazas agrcolas que an son visibles, o lo fueron hasta hace pocos aos, sobre las laderas del Pichincha, especialmente en la zona de Chillogallo-Turubamba (Figura # 5), La Magdalena (Porras, 1982 :36) y posiblemente al
norte, a la altura del barrio Las Casas, segn antiguas fotografas de
Quito de principios de siglo.

84 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

Figura 5. Terrazas localizadas en las laderas de Chillogallo y


Turubamba

Tampoco se han contabilizado la serie de evidencias relacionadas


con camellones o campos elevados (raised fields) localizados en los
lechos desecados de las antiguas lagunas de Turubamba, estudiados por
Knapp y Ryder (1985) Gregory Knapp (1988), o por el estudio geolgico de las profundas excavaciones abiertas para cimientos en la construccin de grandes edificios al norte de Quito, especialmente a lo largo de la explanada de Iaquito (Alvarado, 1996), que demostraron una
sucesin estratigrfica de camellones, es decir una serie de camellones
superpuestos que se discutirn en su oportunidad.
Por tanto, con la informacin rescatada hasta el momento es posible reconstruir el siguiente cuadro tentativo de ocupacin histricocultural de la meseta de Quito.
PALEOINDIO. Aparentemente durante este perodo no existi
una ocupacin continua en la meseta que hoy constituye la ciudad de
Quito, ya que solamente se identificaron ocho sitios asignables a este
perodo. En realidad, se encontraron puntas de proyectil de obsidiana
y basalto en forma aislada, y pocas concentraciones de lscas y arte-

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

85

factos trabajados en obsidiana y basalto, de clara filiacin paleoindia.


Esta circunstancia sealan una presencia espordica de cazadores-recolectores ya que, hasta los 10.000 aos antes del presente, la planicie
de Quito se encontraba cubierta totalmente de pramo, haba sequa
y las temperaturas eran de 3 a 4 grados centgrados inferiores a las actuales, lo cual haca precaria la vida en el sector ( Figura # 6 ).

Figura 6. Evolucin Climatolgica de la Regin Norandina


(Colombia-Ecuador)

86 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

Con toda seguridad fue visitada por grupos de cazadores que debieron acudir a los mrgenes de las antiguas lagunas de Turubamba e
Iaquito, para eventuales partidas de caza, o en su defecto, pudieron seguir pacientemente a los animales heridos que ascendieron desde los
valles aledaos para recuperarse. Lo cierto es que la evidencia de reduce a pocas puntas de proyectil, eficaces para estos casos.
Existen algunas hiptesis para la formacin de las lagunas en la
zona de Quito. En primer lugar la actividad tectnica de la falla de Quito hizo que el bloque donde se ubica la ciudad fuera levantado y se formara una depresin o una cuenca sedimentaria en la que se iban acumulando los sedimentos acarreados por las distintas quebradas, especialmente aquellas ubicadas hacia el occidente, produciendo represamientos debido al taponamiento de los drenajes hacia el Valle de los
Chillos lo que llegara a formar extensas lagunas. Por otro lado, la actividad volcnica asociada con el volcn Ruccu Pichincha pudo haber
aportado abundante material que igualmente formaba represamientos
importantes. A partir de que este volcn termin su ciclo eruptivo, la
cantidad de material volcnico debi ser menor, pero en todo caso,
otros volcanes pudieron aportar con abundante material que debi represar los drenajes de la cuenca. Por ltimo, un factor que pudo haber
influenciado en la formacin de las lagunas es el clima. Como sabemos,
durante el Cuaternario, el clima ha variado continuamente, incluyendo
perodos glaciares que formaron casquetes de hielo ubicados en las partes altas de las cordilleras, factor que influa en la cantidad de agua que
descenda a los valles, provocando la formacin de depsitos lagunares.
En efecto, una de las tefras del volcn Guagua Pichincha, datada hacia
9800 a.C. ...se habra depositado poco tiempo despus que se retir el
hielo, cuando estuvo recin implantndose la primera vegetacin
(Geotermica Italiana - INEMIN, 1989 : p. 26).
Del estudio estratigrfico llevado a cabo en el norte de la ciudad
se determin una sucesin de varias pocas para la formacin de lagunas. La ms antigua, posiblemente se form aproximadamente hacia
los 9800 a.C. ; una segunda hacia los 6000 aos AP (Alvarado, 1996) ;
la tercera y ltima es la que se conoci a la llegada de los espaoles. Es
oportuno recalcar que los dos ltimos episodios lacustres se caracterizaron por ser cuerpos de agua de poca profundidad y que fueron perturbados por la actividad volcnica o por aluviones Uno de los puntos
de mayor aporte con aluviones fue la quebrada Ingapirca o Rumipam-

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

87

ba, ya que forma un extenso cono aluvial que desciende hacia la zona
de Quito y es claramente identificable en las fotografias areas, as como en las estratigrafas de los pozos para agua potable abiertos al norte de la ciudad. Este cono aluvial est formado por una sucesin de aluviones y sedimentos de riachuelos que descendian por la quebrada ;
actualmente el cono est casi colmatado, pero an mantiene un pequeo riachuelo, que en poca de lluvias aumenta su nivel (Alvarado,
1996).
Durante este perodo cabe destacar un evento volcnico importante registrado en la estratigrafa de la cuenca de Quito, que est asociado a una capa de ceniza volcnica de alrededor de 1.5 m, que cubri
toda la zona, aproximadamente hace 6000 aos AP. producto, tal vez,
de una erupcin del volcn Cotopaxi (Alvarado, 1996). La cantidad de
ceniza depositada posiblemente provoc muchos cambios en el ecosistema en general, y por ende en la conducta adaptativa de los primeros
habitantes por la escasez de alimento y por la contaminacin de las
fuentes de agua.
En la prospeccin arqueolgica se tena expectativas por localizar verdaderos asentamientos paleoindios en las laderas que descienden al valle de Los Chillos y a lo largo de los ros San Pedro y Guayllabamba, pero la erosin y sobre todo una de las erupciones del Cotopaxi (2500 aos a.C.) que produjo uno de los lahares ms grandes que se
ha documentado y que arras o sepult bajo escombros toda evidencia
de este perodo y del Formativo, hasta la cota de los 2.400 m. (Mothes,
Hall and Janda, 1998), impidieron documentar tales evidencias.
Como ejemplo se puede citar la informacin proporcionada por
Carlos Manuel Larrea, sobre el hallazgo de dos piezas de madera en
proceso de petrificacin, talladas en forma de cabezas de animales (Figura # 7 ), localizadas a 80 metros de profundidad, cuando se construa
... el grandioso tnel de ocho kilmetros y medio de longitud y tres y
medio metros de dimetro, que conducir el caudal necesario para accionar la central hidroelctrica de Cumbay, en las cercanas de la quebrada de El Cairo, zona de Ilumbis... La formacin geolgica del terreno es, en su mayor parte, cangagua ... En las cercanas del lugar en que
se encontraron los objetos arqueolgicos, hay tambin conglomerados
o brechas de cantos rodados, posiblemente lechos de antiguos torrentes ... Fueron encontrados los objetos arqueolgicos in situ o habran
sido arrastrados hasta el lugar del hallazgo por corrientes de agua cega-

88 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

das por el aglomerado de las tobas volcnicas superiores ? (Larrea,


1971 :83).
Lo interesante de estas evidencias es que las maderas fueron datadas con una antigedad de 13.2003.200 (Idem., p.84).

Figura 7. Piezas de madera en proceso de petrificacin.


Posiblemente representan a un perro y una llama
(Larrea, 1971 :82-83)

FORMATIVO. El Formativo en el altiplano de Quito es reconocido a partir de las excavaciones arqueolgicas en Cotocollao (Villalba,
1988). En efecto, se puso al descubierto una de las manifestaciones culturales ms importantes para la historia de los primeros asentamientos
permanentes en esta zona, cuya antigedad y vigencia cultural por ms
de mil aos consecutivos, ( 1500 a 500 a.C.), nos est indicando un pro-

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

89

ceso de adaptacin y logros sociales, econmicos y tecnolgicos muy


importantes para la Sierra Norte ecuatoriana.
La presencia de 94 sitios asociados exclusivamente a esta tradicin cultural constituye una evidencia ms de su importancia en la
evaluacin de la arqueologa local y regional. En efecto, se hallan distribuidos a lo largo de la meseta de Quito siguiendo un patrn de asentamiento disperso alrededor de las antiguas lagunas de Iaquito y Turubamba, adems que se ubicaron junto a las principales quebradas
para aprovechar la presencia de agua permanente durante todo el ao.
De igual manera, varios sitios se distribuyen en las laderas que miran
al valle de los Chillos y en los pasos secundarios que comunican con la
meseta de Quito.
No es posible establecer una subdivisin cronolgica interna de
los sitios formativos, pero es fcil advertir que muchos de ellos representan una larga secuencia de ocupacin, en el sentido que el mismo
sitio fue ocupado a travs de varios perodos, lo que demuestra la importancia estratgica general de estos sitios. Por ejemplo, dos sitios se
destacan por su extensin, profundidad y posicin estratgica: Cotocollao y Mena II. Se ubican junto a los pasos de montaa ms importantes para acceder a la llanura occidental y sirven de referencia para aglutinar a los sitios que se ubican al norte y al sur de la explanada de Quito.
En todo caso, se puede concluir que estamos en presencia del
inicio de un modelo de ocupacin del espacio que se caracteriza por ser
extensivo e intensivo, en relacin a la amplia distribucin de grupos familiares en la zona de estudio y por el prolongado, continuo y pausado proceso de distribucin espacial. Para la arqueologa local significa
rastrear los primeros antecedentes de ocupacin permanente (1500
a.C.) que estara representada por una poblacin inicial aproximada de
700 a 1000 habitantes, que debi incrementarse hasta alcanzar , posiblemente los 2.000 3000 habitantes al momento de la erupcin del
volcn Pululagua.
Desde la perspectiva del sitio Cotocollao habamos llegado a la
conclusin que esta manifestacin cultural tuvo su final hacia el 500
a.C. por efecto de una erupcin volcnica que cubri literalmente el
paisaje quiteo con una capa de ceniza volcnica, circunstancia que habra obligado a emigrar a la poblacin entera con destino incierto, ya
que, en trminos estratigrficos, no era evidente una reocupacin de

90 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

la zona por gente de la misma tradicin cultural. Ahora sabemos que el


volcn responsable de tal destruccin fue el Pululagua (Figura # 8 ), pero que los efectos de su erupcin fueron ms importantes en la parte
norte de la meseta de Quito, aunque esta cada de ceniza ... ha sido reconocida en cortes hasta Cayambe al NE, al O hasta Tulipe y al S hasta
San Juan entre Guagua Pichincha y Atacazo (Hall y Mothes, 1994 :53)
(Isaacson and Zeidler, este volumen)

.
Figura 8. Excavaciones arqueolgicas en Cotocollao. Se aprecia una
capa delgada de pmez granuloza que cubre el asentamiento formativo.

Esta circunstancia plantea nuevas hiptesis para entender la conducta adoptada por los cotocollaeos luego de la erupcin, y que en la
perspectiva de la presente prospeccin puede plantearse de la siguiente
manera: simplemente se reubicaron en las zonas no afectadas por la
cada de ceniza y, en tal caso, el gran nmero de sitios localizados al sur
de Quito, sea una consecuencia de aquello.
Tampoco podemos descartar una migracin total o parcial con
destino incierto y que en lugares no muy alejados o definitivamente
distantes continuaron su proceso de desarrollo cultural hasta transformar paulatinamente los indicadores culturales que hemos identificado

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

91

como Cultura Cotocollao. Tal sera el caso de las evidencias formativas


tardas, con claras influencias de rasgos culturales tipo Cotocollao que
se advierte en algunos sitios cercanos como La Chimba (Athens, 1978,
1995; Goff, 1980); Los Soles, San Antonio de Ibarra (Byron Camino:
Coleccin en poder del INPC; Villalba: coleccin de excavaciones, Museo del Banco Central); Tababuela (Berenguer y Echeverra, 1988, 1995
[1984]); Socapaba (Athens, 1980). Los indicios de cermica tipo Cotocollao localizados en Cotopaxi (Rodrguez et al., m.s.), Tungurahua
(Patricio Moncayo, comunicacin personal -coleccin procedente de la
ciudad de Baos) y Cebadas, Chimborazo (Arrellano, 1992), son posibles evidencias de una migracin a larga distancia.
Nuevamente, debemos llamar la atencin sobre la incidencia del
gran lahar que produjo la erupcin del Cotopaxi en 2500 aos a.C., y
que, en la zona de nuestro estudio, es decir la margen izquierda del ro
San Pedro, sus efectos se hicieron sentir sobre el cause del ro, hasta la
cota aproximada de 2400 m. (Hall, M. y Christa von Hillebrandt,
1988). Los sitios formativos en esta zona son detectables, precisamente, a partir de esta altura.
DESARROLLO REGIONAL. Durante el perodo de Desarrollo
Regional local (500 a.C. - 700/800 d.C.) la poblacin disminuy drsticamente. aparentemente por efectos de las erupciones volcnicas del
Cotopaxi, Antisana, Ninahuilca, Pululagua, Pichincha, Cayambe y Cuicocha que pudieron afectar tambin, de variadas maneras, en la Sierra
Norte en general. Con seguridad, despus de la erupcin del Pululahua,
poca gente se qued en las laderas que descienden a la explanada de
Cumbay, y en aquellas que miran al Ilal, en donde la ceniza se escurri pendiente abajo. Igual cosa debi ocurrir en la misma hondonada
de Quito, obligando a la gente a dejar las tierras planas y ubicarse en sitios ms altos cuando las lluvias limpiaron las laderas. Precisamente los
pocos sitios que pertenecen a este perodo (19) los hemos detectado en
las colinas sobre los 2900 m., alrededor de Quito, y junto a las laderas
y quebradas que descienden hacia el Valle de Tumbaco.
Tambin vale la pena destacar la serie de eventos ssmicos ocurridos durante este perodo, especialmente aquellos que alcanzaron intensidades en la escala de Mercali de 8, 9 y 9+ (Alvarado, 1996, Fig. 30),
cuyo origen se desconoce, pero que debieron ser bastante sentidos en

92 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

la meseta de Quito y zonas perifricas, circunstancia que pudo influir,


tal vez, para buscar nuevos rumbos.
Creemos que el desconocimiento casi total y ausencia relativa de
sitios asignables al perodo de Desarrollo Regional en la meseta de Quito se deben a estas circunstancias, hecho que no invalida la hiptesis de
la continua ocupacin y vigencia cultural del rea quitea, a pesar de
las erupciones volcnicas que dejaron su huella en la topografa local.
Algunos sitios asociados al perodo de Desarrollo Regional -en los cuales es posible advertir una eventual secuencia hacia el perodo de Integracin- nos permitirn conocer, en la etapa de excavaciones, los indicadores cronolgicos de este posible desarrollo secuencial en la meseta
de Quito. De todas maneras, debemos advertir la posibilidad que el sistema de construccin de camellones en damero puede tener un antecedente muy temprano en el valle de Quito, como lo demostraremos ms
adelante.
En todo caso, los asentamientos propio de este perodo ( Desarrollo Regional ) presentan rasgos de culturas costeas como La Tolita
y Jama Coaque, lo que demuestra un patrn de contactos permanentes, especialmente para el intercambio de la obsidiana, que pudo ser
una de las causas para reproducir los lazos de intercambio a corta y larga distancia.
INTEGRACIN. A pesar de la grandeza con que se describi al
Quito legendario o Reino de Quito, las evidencias arqueolgicas no
confirman este nivel de organizacin macroespacial o unidad cohesionada y homogeneizaste. No obstante, se advierten formas de gobierno
y organizacin social ms localizadas, relativamente independientes,
pero que habran mantenido relaciones de tipo econmico, de parentesco y , acaso, de orden blico. Esta unidades han sido identificadas como Cacicazgos, Sociedades Complejas, Seoros Andinos o Seoros
tnicos (Salomon, 1980 ; Meggers, 1966 ; Larrain, 1980; Oberem,
1981).
Para nuestra zona de estudio que incluye el sitio epnimo que
dio el nombre a tal supuesto reino, las fuentes documentales no sealan las caractersticas locales, ni las causas, razones o circunstancias que
condujeron a identificarlo regionalmente con tal nivel de organizacin
y complejidad; tanto ms que en su propio emplazamiento original, es
decir, en la meseta de Quito, tampoco se conocan indicios claros para

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

93

esbozar un nivel de organizacin que tuviera importancia y peso local


o regional.
Gracias a los trabajos de prospeccin que hemos desarrollado, y
a las excavaciones arqueolgicas en sitios como La Florida (Doyn,
1988) y La Comarca-Santa Luca (INPC), podemos vislumbrar algunos
rasgos concretos para proponer varias hiptesis de trabajo que debern
ser confirmadas con futuras investigaciones.
En efecto, los 188 sitios reconocidos para este perodo (700/800
- 1480 d.C.) hacen suponer una ocupacin masiva de la meseta de Quito, aumentando considerablemente la poblacin. Algunos sitios se caracterizan por la extensin y el volumen de material acumulado, lo que
refuerza la idea de asentamientos importantes ubicados equidistantemente y rodeados de asentamientos de menor jerarqua, a juzgar por el
menor volumen de la evidencia cultural observada y recuperada.
Importante obras de ingeniera, como la construccin de terrazas agrcolas sobre las laderas del Pichincha y la presencia de un sistema de camellones o campos elevados en los lechos desecados de las antiguas lagunas de Turubamba e Iaquito, son indicativas de la intensificacin de la agricultura para sostener una poblacin cada vez ms numerosa. Este nivel tecnolgico se habra logrado gracias a una organizacin polticamente centralizada y jerarquizada, regida posiblemente
por Caciques o Seores principales que detentaban el poder. La presencia de estas masivas obras de ingeniera sirven de fundamento para caracterizar estas formas de vida que lograron reproducir un nivel de vida socio-econmico muy complejo, y para hacer frente a los abatares
de la naturaleza, especialmente las erupciones volcnicas.
LOS CAMELLONES
Esta tcnica de cultivo ha sido reportada en varios sitios del pas.
As, por ejemplo, en los alrededores de Cayambe (Ryder, 1970) ; en los
valles cercanos a Otavalo o junto a la laguna de San Pablo (Athens,
1980; Knapp 1981; Gondard y Lpez, 1983) ; en el sector de Chillogallo al sur de Quito (Knapp y Ryder, 1985; Knapp, 1988) y en la provincia del Guayas (Parsons y Shlemon. 1982 ; Stemper, 1993), para citar
los ms importantes.
Los camellones cumplian varias funciones, como optimizar los
suelos ubicados en zonas pantanosas o distribuir mejor el agua en po-

94 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

cas de sequa; as, el sedimento acumulado en el canal, rico en materia


orgnica, se usaba como materia prima en el propio camelln. En las
planicies andinas cumplian una funcin primordial que era evitar las
heladas, ya que el agua presente en los canales se calentaba durante el
da y en la noche irradiaba el calor acumulado, logrando que la temperatura alrededor del camelln subiera hasta 1C, que es suficiente para
evitar este fenmeno (Knapp y Ryder, 1985; Knapp, 1988).
En general la forma de los camellones es de dos clases : uno en
forma de tablero de ajedrez, que es el ms comn, y otro en forma semicircular ; este ltimo grupo tena como funcin adicional almacenar agua tal como se ilustra en la zona de Cayambe (Knapp, 1988).
En la zona norte de Quito se diferenciaron algunos niveles de camellones, es decir, gracias al estudio de los profundos cortes realizados
para la construccin de grandes edificios se pudo detectar una secuencia estratigrfica de camellones, circunstancia que denota una continuidad histrica de esta tcnica de cultivos, e incluso, una reconstruccin inmediata despus de su destruccin por efectos de las erupciones
volcnicas y de las cadas de ceniza. En efecto, los ms importantes se
hallan cubiertos de ceniza fina, lo que facilit su localizacin en forma
de una onda sinusoidal, muy regular (Figura # 9)

.
Figura 9. Ejemplo de camellones en la ciudad de Quito.
Excavacin calle Rusia.

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

95

Por lo tanto, se han diferenciado los camellones de acuerdo a su


ubicacin estratigrfica, aunque su denominacin no sigue un orden
secuencial estricto, ya que la identificacin y correlacin de los camellones se hizo en distintos perodos de tiempo, conforme se localizaba
y analizaba ms y ms cortes para cimientos. As, el primer grupo, que
se los identific con la letra A, se encuentran a una profundidad entre
2,5 y 3 metros y se hallan cubiertos por la capa gua 5 (Figura # 3 ). Estos camellones tienen una longitud de onda promedio (cresta - cresta)
de 270 cm. ; el ancho promedio del lomo del camelln es de 80 cm y
su altura, con respecto a la base del canal, es de 24 cm. El ancho promedio del canal es de 170 cm. (Figura # 10)

.
Figura 10. Camellones del grupo A. Se aprecia al fondo de la fotografa. Excavacin Calle Alpallana.

El rea que ocupan estos camellones est comprendida entre el


sector de las avenidas Almagro, Repblica y la calle Alpallana (Alvarado, 1996).
Bajo este nivel de camellones se descubrieron otros canales que
podran corrresponder a camellones y se lo denomin como B. Tienen

96 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

un ancho de 300 cm, una altura de 25 cm y el ancho del canal es de 70


cm. Este grupo est relleno por sedimentos lacustres y no son fcilmente identificables debido a que no existe contraste de color como los del
grupo A. Adems, estos camellones se localizaron nicamente en la calle Alpallana (Alvarado, 1996).
Al tercer grupo de camellones se lo denomin C, y se caracterizan por la amplia distribucin espacial ya que ocupan aproximadamente 300 ha. (Figura # 11).

Figura 11. Distribucin de los camellones del grupo C.

Se pueden subdividir en dos tipos segn su forma: El tipo C1 se


caracteriza porque muestra una onda suave con el borde de los montculos redondeados; la profundidad promedio del canal es de 16 cm ; su
ancho es de 190 cm y el lomo del camelln tiene un ancho de 245 cm
(Vase figura # 9). Algunas veces estos camellones muestran el canal
ms inclinado de un lado.
En el tipo C2 se observa que el canal es mucho ms profundo y
los bordes del montculo son agudos. Las dimensiones promedio para

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

97

stos son: profundidad del canal 56 cm, ancho del canal 60 cm y ancho
del montculo 243 cm. (Figura # 12 ).

Figura 12. Camellones tipo C2. Calle Finlandia.

En algunos casos estos dos tipos de camellones se encuentran intercalados, pero no muestran una regularidad como la que se observ
en los camellones del grupo A (Alvarado, 1996).
Lastimosamente en ninguno de los grupos analizados se encontraron restos de cermica, ni evidencias de otros materiales culturales.
Tampoco se pudo determinar el tipo de organizacin espacial, pero es
muy probable que tuvieron una forma de tablero de ajedrez, que es el
ms comn (Alvarado, 1996).
Bajo el camelln tipo C es posible distinguir, en algunos sitios,
estructuras que indicaran la presencia de camellones, y que en ocaciones erosionan la capa gua 4, tal como se ve en la figura 10. A este grupo de camellones se los identific como D (Alvarado, 1996).
Las edades para los grupos de camellones fueron estimadas de la
siguiente manera : para el grupo A se cuenta con un ensayo de laboratorio de C14 que dio un estimado de 2305 65 A.P. (SI-2128) (Hall,

98 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

1977) y que est asociado con la erupcin del Pululahua, es decir, a un


flujo piroclstico gris claro ... (Hall, M. y P. Mothes, 1994 :52). La calibracin de esta muestra arroj un fechamiento que cubre el rango
comprendido entre los aos 526 y 180 antes de Cristo (Ziolkowski, M.
et al., 1994 : 171), lo que significa que la erupcin pudo ocurrir durante este lapso de tiempo ; no obstante, para una mejor visualizacin optaremos por la media de estas fechas y que corresponde a cal 353 a.C.
Por lo tanto, los camellones de tipo A estaban en funcionamieto, al menos hasta dicha fecha, y posiblemente fueron construidos con muchos
aos de antelacin ; tanto ms que los comellones de tipo B, por su posicin estratigrfica, anteceden notoriamente, lamentando no disponer
de fechamientos para una datacin precisa. En todo caso, esta informacin abre un panorama insospechado para abordar el proceso de transicin entre los periodos Formativo y Desarrollo Regional en la meseta
de Quito. La interrogante fundamental es, por tanto, quines fueron
los constructores de estos sistemas monumentales para la intensificacin de la prctica agrcola ?. Acaso los cotocollaeos, en la fase ms
tarda, a partir de los 800 a. C. (Villalba, 1988 : 245), iniciaron la construccin de camellones en los valles interandinos, gracias al conocimiento ancestral y contacto permanente con grupos formativos de la
Costa ?. No se descarta esta posibilidad, si nos remitimos a los campos
elevados tan antiguos, asociados a la cultura Chorrera, como los reportados para el sitio Pen del Ro (Dominguez, 1990 :18), y que constituyen una evidencia de esta prctica ancestral. Posteriormente, en el
sector de Colimes los campos elevados funcionaron, al menos desde
400-200 a.C. (Stemper, 1993 : 16), al igual que en La Tolita (Ciudad de
la Laguna) con la presencia de camellones circulares (Fransisco Valdz.
Comunicacin personal).
La edad para los camellones de los grupos C y D, es difcil de determinar debido a que no se puede calcular una tasa de sedimentacin
adecuada ya que las dataciones no fueron realizadas en la misma seccin estratigrfica y los valores de sedimentacin son muy variables entre las excavaciones que tienen dataciones. Adicionalmente una de las
dataciones tiene intervalos de calibracin altos, por lo tanto lo nico
que se puede decir es que estos camellones tiene una edad menor a 420
aos DC.
La desocupacin de las zonas de camellones, en especial los de
los grupos A y C se debi a las erupciones volcnicas que cubrieron los

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

99

campos de cultivo con ceniza (Alvarado, 1996). Sin embargo en el grupo C se nota que luego de que se deposit la ceniza, se intent reconstruir los camellones pero nuevamente fueron cubiertos por un nuevo
pulso eruptivo lo que hizo que sean abandonados definitivamente. En
la figura 13 se muestran los camellones cubiertos por ambos pulsos
eruptivos.

Figura 13. Camellones tipo C2. Edificio Ministerio de Educacin, junto


al Ministerio de Agricultura. Se aprecia la manera cmo se reconstruyeron los camellones luego de la primera cada de ceniza.

El grupo C de camellones puede tener relacin con los encontrados en el Sur de Quito (Knapp y Ryder, 1985), ya que ambos grupos estn cubiertos de una ceniza que tienen caractersticas mineralgicas similares. De acuerdo con inspeccines de la capa de ceniza in situ, se
atribuya la ceniza en el grupo C a una erupcin importante del volcn
Quilotoa (P. Mothes, pers. comm, 1997) (Alvarado, 1996). Sin embargo se hace necesario realizar un estudio ms detallado para comprobar
esta hiptesis.
Es interesante, adems, tratar de explicar la forma que tienen los
camellones y en especial la profundidad que tienen los canales. Eviden-

100 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

temente aquellos camellones que muestran bordes agudos y canales


profundos son los que fueron hechos casi en la misma poca de la erupcin, ya que ese tipo de bordes son fcilmente erosionables. Se comprueba esto tambin con los camellones reconstrudos que se ven en la
figura # 13. Por ello se sugiere que la profundidad original a la que se
construan los camellones es de 60 cm, en promedio. Por otra parte los
camellones del tipo C1 seran ms antiguos y por lo tanto tienen una
forma ms redondeada y sinusoidal (Alvarado, 1996).
La disposicin de los camellones en el grupo A, sugiere que el canal ms profundo correspondera a la acequia principal y el resto de camellones seran destinados al cultivo en general.
Este nuevo hallazgo de campos elevados en la planicie de Quito
muestra que el sector fue poblado durante sucesivos perodos, solamente interumpidos por sismos (evidenciadas dadas por la paleosismicidad) y por erupciones volcnicas.
El hecho de no encontrar restos de viviendas o cermica sugiere
que la poblacin habitaba en las elevaciones que rodean la cuenca, ya
que la planicie debi ser ms bien hmeda y pantanosa.
LOS SEORIOS O CACICAZGOS
Evidencias complementarias a las construcciones monumentales
ya discutidas (terrazas y camellones) para entender el nivel jerrquico,
poltico y religioso durante el perodo de Integracin, son las tumbas
de los Seores Principales de Quito (Doyn, 1988), que se caracterizan por la profundidad a que fueron depositados los cadveres (hasta
16 metros), presencia de abundantes y ricas ofrendas, e incluso sirvientes y familiares sacrificados en su honor para acompaarles en la otra
vida, de acuerdo con sus creencias.
A pesar de estas generalizaciones provisionales y de las evidencias reportadas, no es posible afirmar si tales indicadores representan
los esfuerzos o las costumbres de uno o varios cacicazgos, y menos an,
las caractersticas o modalidades de funcionamiento e interaccin poltica entre ellos. Solamente podemos aventurar una serie de hiptesis
que servirn de base para futuros trabajos de investigacin.
a.- Se trata de un gran Seoro tnico local (cuya evidencia arqueolgica se asociara inicialmente a la manifestacin cultural tipo

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

101

Chaupicruz o Chilibulo) que aglutin a varias llactacunas distribuidas a lo largo de la meseta de Quito?. Si este es el caso, qu relacin
guard con otros Seoros de la Sierra Norte (cermica y rasgos culturales no Chaupicruz)? Controlaron efectivamente los pasos de montaa hacia la llanura occidental y con ello el trfico de productos y el intercambio a corta y larga distancia? Es este factor estratgico, polticamente controlado, lo que les dio importancia y peso especfico a nivel
regional?
b.- Estamos en presencia de varios Seoros Etnicos o llactacunas de menor tamao que cohabitaron en forma independiente en la
explanada de Quito, pero que mantuvieron el suficiente nivel de jerarqua, con acuerdos de variada ndole, para respetar la unidad poltica
individual? Cmo se vincularon con otros grupos tnicos? Quin
control los pasos de montaa y las obras de ingeniera agrcola masivas?
c.- Se transform paulatinamente la meseta de Quito en una especie de isla multitnica o zona de frontera, en donde se asentaron
colonias o representantes de grupos tnicos venidos de distintas direcciones para intercambiar productos de diversas ecologas? La posicin estratgica de la meseta de Quito con sus pasos de montaa hacia
la llanura occidental fue el atractivo para establecer residencias permanentes, ya que no hubo un poder centralizado que las controlara?
Quin y desde cundo controlaron las obras agrcolas monumentales
y la produccin excedentaria?
Udo Oberem define un Seoro de la siguiente manera: Cada
seoro estaba integrado por varias aldeas de una misma habla. Gobernaba cada aldea el jefe del grupo de parentesco ms importante y como el jefe del estado figuraba el que gobernaba la aldea ms grande.
Los jefes de los diferentes rangos constituan la capa social de los nobles a la cual pertenecan por herencia. Subordinada a ellos estaba la
gente comn que formaba la mayora de la poblacin. Nobles y gente comn estaban enlazados por un sistema gradual de redistribucin
de bienes y del control de la mano de obra. Haba especialistas tales como comerciantes y artesanos.... Entre un seor y los dems existan relaciones de diferente ndole, tales como de tipo econmico y de parentesco pero tambin de orden blico (Udo Oberem, 1981:48).
Frank Salomon plantea que los cacicazgos o curacazgos que
existieron en la meseta de Quito, a la llegada de los Incas ....fueron pe-

102 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

queos en escala, pero a la vez altamente centralizados y estratificados;


..... que su economa resolva el problema vertical de una manera cualitativamente diferente de aquella vista en las formaciones archipilago, al desarrollar un nutrido intercambio como vnculo sobre las distancias medias y largas; ..... que el podero de los curacas o cacique
descansaba en gran medida en la habilidad para garantizar tales vnculos y fomentarlos a travs del uso de especialistas polticamente autorizados para el intercambio... (Salomon, 1980:34).
Concretamente, Frank Salomon, utilizando la terminologa quichua Llajtao su plural LlajtaKuna, destaca varias unidades comunales emplazadas en las diferentes subdivisiones regionales de la Hoya del
Guayllabamba. Reconoce y define estas unidades por los rasgos comunes a todas ellas, es decir: La llajta es un grupo de personas que comparten derechos hereditarios sobre ciertos factores de produccin (tierras, el trabajo de ciertos individuos, herramientas especficas e infraestructuras), y que reconocen como autoridad poltica a un miembro
privilegiado del propio grupo. Tal autoridad es denominada seor tnico para distinguirlo de gobernantes quienes no fueron reconocidos
como miembros del grupo (Salomon, 1980:87)
De todas maneras, las hiptesis anteriormente planteadas deben
ser contrastadas con las afirmaciones de estos autores, ya que sus opiniones se refieren tan solo al perodo inmediato a la llegada de los Incas.
INCA. Segn la evidencia recuperada en la prospeccin arqueolgica se pudo reconocer 20 sitios asignables a este momento histrico.
En algunos casos estn identificados por la presencia de escaza cermica inca imperial o inca local y en otros, por obras de carcter defensivo
como ciertos pucares de menor o mayor importancia. En todo caso,
estos sitios son indicativos de asentamientos espordicos y dispersos
que estuvieron compartiendo con la poblacin local. El centro histrico de Quito no fue prospectado, pero las fuentes etnohistricas y algunas evidencias materiales espordicas indican que los incas escogieron
asentarse entre las antiguas quebradas de Jerusaln (actual 24 de Mayo)
y la de Manosalvas, a manera de estrategia defensiva. La importancia de
la ocupacin Inca en la meseta de Quito, excede el mbito del presente
trabajo.
En todo caso, se ha pretendido llamar la atencin sobre las incidencias de eventos volcnicos y riesgos ssmicos sobre la conducta hu-

Arqueologa del Valle de Quito

103

mana a travs de diez mil aos de historia local. Las investigaciones arqueolgicas y geolgicas vislumbran una serie de interrogantes, pero al
mismo tiempo aportan un cmulo de evidencias concretas que permiten prever las futuras relaciones hombre-naturaleza en el mbito de la
planicie de Quito y sus inmediaciones.

NOTAS
1.

El proyecto Cotocollao fue auspiciado por el Museo del Banco Central, y permiti descubrir el sitio agroalfarero ms antiguo de la Sierra norte, cuya antigedad de 1500 aos antes de Cristo, muestra la manifestacin cultural ms
temprana de adaptacin sedentaria entre las provincias de Chimborazo y Carchi, e ilustra las conexiones con la Costa ecuatoriana, ya que la cultura de Cotocollao, as denominada por haber sido encontrada por primera vez en dicha
localidad, muestra una clara derivacin de culturas formativas que se desarrollaron en la zona litoral como Valdivia en su fase tarda ( apr. 1600 a.C.), Machalilla y Chorrera.

2.

Por sitio multicomponente se entiende un emplazamiento fsico en donde se


han localizado evidencias culturales correspondientes a varios perodos de
ocupacin ; es decir que en dicha rea se asentaron sucesivamente varios grupos humanos, en distintas pocas. En algunos casos las evidencias arqueolgicas se hallan mezcladas.

104 Marcelo Villalba / Alexandra Alvarado

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Cotocollao: Una Aldea Formativa del Valle de Quito. Miscelnea
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QUILOTOAS 800 y BP ASH:


A valuable stratigraphic marker unit for
the integration period
Patricia A. Mothes and Minard L. Hall
Instituto Geofsico
Escuela Politcnica Nacional
Casilla 2759, Quito- Ecuador

ABSTRACT
About 800 years ago, Quilotoa Volcano in Ecuadors Western
Cordillera generated an enormous eruption which left an ash layer 10
cm thick over an area of >37,000 km2 of the InterAndean Valley and
the flanks of the Eastern and Western Cordilleras, an area that lies
between latitudes 0 20 N and 14 S and between longitudes 80 and
7740 W . Ash thicknesses range from 75 cm near the source to 1 cm
at distal sites. Possessing distinctive mineral and chemical traits, this
young ash has been identified at numerous archaeological sites related
to the Integration Period (800-1500 A.D.) and is often associated with
raised fields (camellones) and furrowed lands, including sites at
Otavalo, Zuleta, Cayambe, Quito and Sigchos. Given its widespread
distribution and excellent time control, the ash is an exceptional stratigraphic marker for archaeological sites over a broad area of the
InterAndean Valley.
INTRODUCTION
In the Ecuadorian Sierra an abundance of Holocene volcanic
ashes are found. Generally these ashes are concentrated around active
volcanoes and thus are not useful as regional time markers due to
their limited distribution or the absence of unique characteristics that
serve to identify the particular ash at distal sites. For example, the

112 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall

majority of eruptions of Cotopaxi Volcano have produced ash and


pumice falls whose distributions are limited and not normally
observed farther than 20 km to the SW-W-NW of the volcano. But
thanks to very explosive eruptions of several Ecuadorian volcanoes
during the last 10,000 years, there exist identifiable volcanic ash layers
which have covered thousands of km2 with fine-grained ash, generally
off-white to light beige in color (Hall y Mothes, 1994).
Investigators in archaeology, geography and geology began to
note in the 1970s the existence of a layer of fine, white ash on the flanks
of the Cordillera Oriental, often associated with archaeological sites
(see Salazar, 1986; Bell, 1974; Carrasco, 1987), as well as in the Quito
basin (Knapp and Ryder, 1983). Given its mineralogy, fine-grained
nature, and uniform thickness over a large region, local sources such as
Cotopaxi, Antisana or Cayambe volcanoes were considered unlikely.
Studies carried out over the last 10 years at Quilotoa Volcano in the
Cordillera Occidental demonstrate that the eruption of 800 years ago
of this volcano was the source of important siliceous ash falls that were
dispersed over an extensive area to the north, east, and west of the volcano, and especially in the InterAndean Valley and on the flanks of
both Cordilleras (Mothes and Hall, 1992; 1997). By virtue of being easily recognized, even far from its source, this Quilotoa ash serves as an
important stratigraphic horizon, providing an excellent time marker
for archaeological and geological studies.
GENERALITIES OF QUILOTOA VOLCANO
Quilotoa Volcano is located in a remote part of Ecuadors western Cordillera, 35 km west of Latacunga, capital of Cotopaxi province.
The volcano (3914m) is considered active and has had 5 large, ash-producing eruptions during the last 40,000 years (Mothes y Hall, 1992). It
is representative of the dacitic volcanism common to the Cordillera
Occidental, in having large explosive eruptions separated by relatively
long inactive periods.
The volcanos structure is that of a low caldera, 2.5 km in diameter, situated upon an older volcanic edifice whose diameter is about 6
km and which overlies a basement of late Cretaceous to Eocene sediments and volcanics. Its southern flank is formed by an extensive pyroclastic plain which descends gradually and terminates at the town of

Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash 113

Zumbagua, only several hundred meters lower than the caldera rim. To
the north and east the volcanos flanks descend more abruptly to the
Ro Toachi and are strongly dissected by stream erosion. Pre-existing
higher topography lies immediately west of the volcanic center and
has, in large degree, blocked the eruptive products from flowing westwards. The area surrounding the volcano is drained exclusively by the
Ro Toachi which flows NNW to Santa Domingo de Los Colorados. To
the west of Quilotoa the western flanks of the Andes are drained by two
rivers that flow westward through Pucuyacu and La Man (Fig. 1).
The most notable aspect of Quilotoa is its 3 km2 intercaldera
lake (3500 m elevation) that is enclosed by the steep and high (~300 m)
walls of the caldera. The lakes measured depth is about 240 m and its
water volume is estimated at 0.6-0.7 km3 (Fig. 2). The walls of the
caldera are comprised of domes and their remnants as well as debris
ejected during past eruptions. Seven subsidiary volcanic domes are
found on its eastern and northeastern flanks and one dome emerges
from the caldera floor (Mothes and Hall, 1997).
The volcanos flanks and the surrounding plateau are mantled
by a thick blanket of pyroclastic material. Pyroclastic flow deposits typically covered areas of about 150 km2 and buried pre-existing canyons
with up to 200 m of incandescent material (Mothes and Hall, 1991).
With time these surfaces have been gullied by erosional processes, the
rivers again establishing their courses to form the present Quilotoa
landscape, which bears similarity to the morphology of the Valley of
Ten Thousand Smokes (Katmai Volcano) in Alaska described by
Fenner (1923).
The ash fall, on the other hand, has an exceptionally widespread
distribution, having left a blanket of pumiceous lapilli and ash over
more than 37,000 km2 and undoubtedly a still finer ash mantle over a
much larger area, although evidence in the field is sparse to nonexistent.

114 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall

Fig. 2. Photo of the Quilotoa caldera , view toward the E-NE, vertical relief is
about 300 m. Photo taken in May, 1996.

Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash 115

116 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall

QUILOTOAS 800 YEAR BP ERUPTION


Quilotoa has experienced at least five major eruptive episodes,
the oldest dating to more than 40,000 years before present (Fig. 3). The
products of eruptions I-IV are the most discernible, while the evidence
for the oldest eruption is observed at only a few outcrops.
Unfortunately the older episodes have experienced greater erosion or
burial by younger deposits and has effectively masked them. Only the
latest eruption episode, corresponding to pre-Columbian times, is
described here. A more comprehensive description of Quilotoas volcanic history is in preparation.

Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash 117

Quilotoas only Holocene eruptive activity, herein called


Quilotoa I, was dated by the Carbon 14 method using carbonized
wood taken from pyroclastic flow deposits. Dates of 840 50 yBP
(Beta Analytic Laboratories) and 900 150 yBP (US Geological
Survey- M. Rubin, pers. comm. 1989) are assigned to this event.
Subsequently an AMS Carbon-14 date of 785 50 yBP (USGS) was
obtained and is considered to be the more reliable age. Note that all
dates are uncalibrated.
The Quilotoa I eruptive sequence begins with a plinian fallout
and is followed by pyroclastic surges and flows and locally by lahars.
The plinian ash fall deposit, composed of coarse-grained biotite and
hornblende-bearing pumice, gray rhyodacite and hydrothermally
altered lithics, is normally graded and well-sorted. The largest lithic
and pumice clasts are found nearest to the vent where they have diameters up to 40 cm. Their dimensions decrease rapidly with distance
from the vent. At the time of the eruption, the lower winds were mainly from the ESE, which carried the ash to the WNW where the greatest
concentration is found. However, the widespread distribution of the
fine ash to the E implies that the ash was carried to high altitudes
(stratosphere), from where it was transported eastwards by jet stream
winds.
Subsequently, surge deposits exhibiting cross-bedded stratification were laid down, but they extend outward only a few kilometers
from the caldera. Associated with the surges were large pyroclastic
flows that traveled tens of kilometers in different directions and left
thick deposits, sometimes attaining thicknesses of 100 m or more.
Generally several flow units are present, separated by pumice segregations or surge units. Subsequently, additional surge deposits (1-5 m
thick) were laid down upon the pyroclastic flow debris near the volcano. These deposits are well-stratified and carry accretionary lapilli,
which suggests the presence of water during the later stages of the
eruption.
Downstream the pyroclastic flows mixed with the waters of the
Ros Toachi and Blanco to form lahars. Laharic/volcanoclastic deposits
thought to be related to this eruption outcrop in a riverside quarry
near Nueva Brasilia on the Ro Blanco and further downstream along
the Ro Esmeraldas at Majua and Viche.

118 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall

A soil horizon of partially weathered ash and pumice with a


moderate organic content overlies the eruptive sequence and forms the
present-day surface. This soil horizon, typically 30 cm thick, developed
during the last 800 years. Very significantly, the Quilotoa I ash is almost
always observed at this soil depth throughout the InterAndean Valley
and adjacent Cordilleras. Thus its shallow stratigraphic depth as well as
its white color set in a dark-colored soil greatly aid in its recognition.
Underlying the Quilotoa I eruptive phase is a 3.0-4.5 m thick soil
sequence composed of a dark brownish-black andisol with a high
organic contenttypical of the pramo soils formed in the Sierra.
Evidence of early pre-Hispanic occupation of the region that includes
ceramics, bones, and charcoal was found at the soil/ash contact (Hall
and Mothes, 1992). This thick soil sequence attests to a long period of
inactivity. Two thin yellow-beige pumiceous ash layers, apparently
related to two plinian eruptions of Cotopaxi volcano, are found within
this soil sequence throughout the region. Since the underlying
Quilotoa II eruptive episode is dated at 14,770 100 yBP, the formation of this thick soil corresponds to about 14,000 years.
PETROGRAPHY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF QUILOTOA
ERUPTIVE PRODUCTS
In general, the petrography and geochemistry of the eruption
products of this volcano show little change from one eruption to the
next, or from the oldest to the youngest episode. Without exception the
Quilotoa rocks can be described as white to medium-gray porphyritic
rhyodacites, in which large phenocrysts (3-7 mm) of sodium-rich plagioclase, black hornblende, and booklets of black and gold biotite are
abundant. In thin section other minerals are apparent, including pale
green hypersthene, quartz, potassium feldspar, and magnetite as well as
volcanic glass. In most rocks, hornblende predominates over biotite as
the most important Mg-Fe mineral. However, biotite becomes
enriched, almost to the exclusion of hornblende, in the powdery distal
ash, thanks to its planar structure aiding its aerial transport.
Quilotoa I products are unique, as compared to the young
tephra products of other Ecuadorian volcanoes, in having large crystals
of abundant plagioclase, hornblende, and biotite (e.g. Hall and Mothes,
1994). The products of the volcanoes of the Cordillera Occidental typ-

Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash 119

ically carry abundant plagioclase, hornblende, and hypersthene, but


only trace amounts of biotite. In the Cordillera Real, on the other hand,
very different, two pyroxene andesites predominate, although some
Holocene eruptions of Cotopaxi have produced biotite-rich, hornblende-poor rhyolites.
Chemical fingerprinting of a magma, using both major and
trace elements, has become a recognized tool for ash correlation
throughout the world. In order to clearly characterize Quilotoas fallout, as well as to confirm its range and distribution, chemical analyses
were obtained for representative pumices from ash falls and pyroclastic flows near the volcano. At greater distances the cleaner and coarsergrained ash was selected for analysis. In Appendix 1 are presented the
normalized analyses (without volatiles) for Quilotoa I pumices and
presumed distal ash equivalents, as well as for representative pumices
of important Holocene eruptions from other volcanoes.
Experimental plots of different elements, oxides, or their ratios
were attempted, in order to obtain graphs that would serve to clearly
distinguish between different volcanic sources. Because it is well
known that the absolute element concentrations of an ash will change
with distance, due to the lighter magmatic fraction (volcanic glass)
being carried farther than the denser fraction (crystals), it is best to
employ the ratios of selected incompatible and compatible elements
which were found not to vary appreciably with distance, making them
useful guides over a large region. In Figures 4-A and B, plots of K/Rb
against Rb and Ni/Cr, respectively, clearly differentiate Quilotoas ash
from those of other volcanoes. A plot of K/Rb vs Ba/Rb (Fig. 4-C) generates the tighter sample clusters, implying that the chemical-variation-with-distance factor has been neutralized and that this specific
plot is very definitive for identifying the source volcano. Additional
plots, albeit not as definitive, are shown in Figures 5-A, B, C. Together
these plots serve to distinguish between the Holocene tephras of these
volcanoes.

120 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall

Fig. 4- ABC. Ratios of incompatible and compatible elements which


dont vary appreciably with distance serve to clearly differentiate
Quilotoa Is ash from those of other volcanoes.

Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash 121

Fig. 5- ABC. Ratios of oxides and trace elements serve to distinguish


between the Quilotoa I ash and tephras of other Holocene volcanoes.

122 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall

DISTRIBUTION OF THE QUILOTOA I ASH


The Quilotoa I eruption was of plinian nature and produced an
ash column that probably rose to an altitude of 35-40 km, based on
comparisons with clast fallout patterns established by Carey and Sparks
(1986). Close to the volcano are found the coarser pumice/lithic airfall
deposits. Certainly the most important aspect of this eruption was the
exceptionally widespread distribution of its fine ash, characterized by a
layer of uniform grain size and thickness almost everywhere. It is
thought that the widespread distribution of the ash is due mainly to the
great altitude that the plinian column attained, which facilitated greater
wind dispersal, but also to the ash cloud (co-ignimbritic ash) that elutriated from the pyroclastic flow (see Sparks and Walker, 1977; Woods
and Wohletz, 1991). Consequently, it is thought that the lower winds
were responsible for carrying the ash to the NW and W, while the
stratospheric winds carried the ash to the NE, E, and SE.
In Figures 6 and 7 are presented the regional maps showing the
ash distribution. While a distinct pumice fall with a grain size >2mm
can only be found as far as Toacazo to the NE, Toachi to the N, and in
the pramos above Pujil to the SE, the finer-grained co-ignimbritic ash
composed of vitric ash and very small crystals traveled a much greater
distanceup to 150 km from Quilotoaand generally left a 10-15 cm
thick layer. Areas such as Papallacta, Cosanga, Pintg, los Llanganates
represent the presently known limits to the E. Areas in the InterAndean
Valley where the ash has been clearly identified include Volcn Igualata,
Latacunga, Otavalo, Salcedo, and the Laguna Negra of Volcn Mojanda.
Westwards, the Quilotoa I ash layer, up to 10 cm thick, has been identified in Nanegalito, Alluriqun, La Man, and on the NW flanks of
Chimborazo Volcano. Granulometrically, the size of the ash particles
corresponds from coarse to fine-grained sand (1.0 to 0.06 mm) over
most of the region, and to the silt-size fraction (0.06 to 0.03 mm) at
greater distances.

Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash 123

124 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall

Using the log thickness versus area (A_) method of Fernstein


and Nathenson (1992), the volume of fallout tephra for the Quilotoa I
eruption is estimated at 37.5 km3. The area mantled by an ash layer 10
cm in thickness is about 37,000 km2, while that covered by a layer 1 cm
thick attains a magnitude of 400,000 km2, employing the extrapolation
method suggested by Fierstein and Nathenson (1992),
Preservation of the coarser-grained components has been good
where prevailing surface winds have not eroded it. The finer ash is best
preserved in marshy, low-lying areas where it was not eroded by winds
nor reworked by earthworms and grubs. Furrows in ancient raisedfield terrains (camellones) generally offered good preservation for
Quilotoas fine ash. The high pramo environment of both Cordilleras
also provided excellent preservation conditions, probably because the
ash fell upon a thick grass cover or onto a humid landscape.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES ASSOCIATED WITH THE
QUILOTOA ASH
To date the Quilotoa ash has been found at 9 archaeological sites
(Figure 8).
1. Site located near Anchi (2.5 km east of the Quilotoa Caldera).
Consists of agricultural furrows (wavelength of 1.5 m) which are filled
with the plinian ash.
2. Sites located near Tagna and Yal (near Sigchos). Consist of
agricultural furrows (wavelength of 2.0 m) that were developed in a
soil, bearing ceramics and charcoal and that were filled with the plinian ash.
Sites 1 and 2 can perhaps be attributed to precursors of the
seoro Sigchos-Angamarca, agriculturists-traders living in the
Toachi basin in post-eruption times and up to the Conquest (Carrera,
1981, p. 146-147). The same author states that the Sigchos-Angamarca
peoples probably had strong ties with ethnic groups of the Patate basin,
such as the Cosanga-Pillaro III-IV group, and acted as intermediate
traders in the exchange of products between the Yumbo culture (western foothills of the Cordillera Occidental) and the Sierran groups.
Preliminary investigations of stone structures, presumably constructed
by the Sigchos-Angamarca groups, shows no mantling of Quilotoa ash,
implying that they are post-eruption in age. An interesting aspect about

Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash 125

the Cosanga-Pillaro III-IV group is that many of their tumbs have been
found in which the skeleton rests upon a layer of white volcanic ash,
presumeably placed there by the family (Porras, 1984, p. 280).

3. The raised-field site at Chillogallo in southern Quito is


described by Knapp and Ryder (1983) and Knapp (1988), the latter
concluding that the raised fields were abandoned after being buried by
14 cm of Quilotoa ash. Over the subsequent 400 years, they were covered by 10-12 cm of soil, followed by another ash unit, thought to be
that of the 1660 eruption of Guagua Pichincha (M. Hall, per. comm.
1983).
4. The extensive buried raised-fields observed in deep excavations in north-central Quito, as reported by Alvarado (1996) (see
Villalba and Alvarado, this volume). Several levels of raised-fields are
recognized which represent different periods of intense occupation of

126 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall

the Quito basin. The Quilotoa I ash is found filling the most recent
(highest) of these furrows.
At a new building excavation site (Banco Central) at the intersection of Amazonas and Villalengua streets in Quito, visited by the
authors in July 1997, the camellones of the Quilotoa period are underlain by others which had been buried by ashes from the 980 yBP eruption of Guagua Pichincha, consisting of fine-grained reworked ash and
pumice clasts up to 3 cm in diameter (Geotrmica Italiana, 1989).
The lowest level of camellones observed at this site had been dug
in fine-grained lacustrine sediments. The furrows are approximately 20
cm deep and contain organic material. The wavelength of the camellones is about 1.4-2.4 m. These camellones were filled with 50-75 cm of
reworked ash and pumice and pods of fine-grained lacustrine material, indicating ponding of water and reworking. The ash may correspond to the 1400 yBP eruption of Guagua Pichincha. Following this
depositional period these camellones were re-excavated.
The 800 yBP Quilotoa ash, consisting of whitish-gray to tannishgray, silt-size ash with abundant small gold biotites, fill the furrows of
the youngest camellones (Figures 9A y 9B). These raised-fields were not
reoccupied after the Quilotoa I event and were subsequently buried by
reworked ashes, debris flows, and fluvial sediments washed into the
Quito basin from the active quebradas coming off of the eastern slopes
of Pichincha volcano.
The repeated association of the 980 yBP Guagua Pichincha ash
and the overlying 800 yBP Quilotoa ash is observed in many excavations in Quito, as well as in the Chillogallo area and on the southern
flanks of Guagua Pichincha volcano. This stratigraphically tight association lends further credibility to the Carbon-14 dates of both ashes.
5. The shelter cave in the Mullumica obsidian flow in the
Cordillera Real, east of Pifo. The Quilotoa ash, 10-15 cm thick, overlies
the occupational level of the cave, site of obsidian tool making. The soil
underlying the ash gave a date of 680 150 yBP (Salazar, 1986).
6. Visible in the banks of the Ro Upayacu on the Hacienda San
Juan, northwest of Cayambe, camellones are filled with a fine-grained
beige/off-white colored ash. The ash is finely laminated suggesting that
it likely fell into shallow water in the furrows. Based upon its mineralogy, fine-grained texture, and overall similarity to the Quilotoa ash, this
ash was interpreted tentatively to be the Quilotoa I ash (Mothes, 1994).

Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash 127

7. In roadcuts in the Urbanizacin del Valle in Otavalo, P.


Mothes and S. Athens sampled an ash layer which fills relict camellones. Inspection of the mineralogical components as well as a chemical analysis of the ash indicate a Quilotoa source. Dating of an ash fall
in sediment cores taken from two nearby lakesLaguna Chiquita and
Laguna Negra (see Athens, this volume), give ages which accord well
with the Quilotoa I eruptive episode.

Fig. 9A. Excavation north of Carolina Park in Quito near the intersection of Amazonas y Villalengua streets. The Quilotoa I ash
infills camellones visible in the wall of the cut. Spacing between
each camellon is about 2-2.5 m. View is to the N-NW. Note great
depth of the camellonesdue mainly to the rapid rate of sedimentation from quebradas transporting sediments into the Quito
basin from the Pichincha volcano massif, in the background.

128 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall

Fig. 9B. Excavation near the intersection of Alpallana y Diego


de Almagro streets, SE of Carolina Park. Camellones are
infilled with the Quilotoa 1 ash and are at a shallower depth
than those in Fig 9A, due to less sediment influx from quebradas coming off the eastern flanks of Pichincha volcano.

More recent investigations by the authors in the Chota valley


provide evidence that there are two other young, off-white, finegrained ash layers that are in close contact with precolombian artifacts,
but the source volcano is still not known. Near tolas on the Hacienda
San Alfonso, located on the Panamerican Highway a few kilometers
east of Chota, Echeverria et al (1995) reported a cultural horizon
between two ashes. The site is thought to belong to the Perodo
Tardo, that is between 1250 and 1525 AD (Echeverria, pers. comm.,
Nov. 1997). These ashes are too thick and coarse-grained to have been
derived from distant Quilotoa Volcano.
8. At La Man, Cotopaxi province, 50 km west of Quilotoa
Volcano, the 800 yBP ash is found in association with tolas located on
the Hacienda San Antonio del Delta (Guillaume-Gentil, 1996; pers.
comm., 1997). Examination of the ash and small pumice clasts suggests
that they are of Quilotoa origin. The ash thickness varies between 15
and 40 cm and has a grain size between 0.5 and 2.0 mm. The ashy

Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash 129

material appears to have been used in tola construction. Dates are


forthcoming. Earlier work by Hall and Mothes (1992) in the La Man
area identified ashes in 14 soil profiles from the last 4 Quilotoa eruptions as well as an ash probably from Ninahuilca Volcano, whose last
eruption (2400 yBP) mantled a wide region to SW-W-NW of Atacazo
volcano in the Cordillera Occidental.
9. In June 1998 Elizabeth Curry and Freddy Acua recognized
one level of camellones associated with the 140 tolas at the Hacienda
Zuleta, south of Ibarra. The furrows contain a white, powdery ash carrying small gold biotites, which is similar to the Quilotoa ash. The tolas
post-date this ash, as the ash is incorporated in the construction materials of the structures.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on stratigraphic position, mineral identification, chemical
analyses, and distribution plots, the ash fall associated with Quilotoas
800 yBP eruption is found to mantle an area greater than 40,000 km2.
Compared to other important eruptions, such as those of Pululagua
(2400 yBP) (Issacson and Zeidler, this volume) and Cuicocha (2900
yBP) (Hall and Mothes, this volume), the Quilotoa I eruption was
much greater in volume of material ejected as well as in the area covered by the fallout. Thus, without doubt, this eruption affected to some
degree the entire population that inhabited the InterAndean Valley and
the adjoining slopes of the Cordilleras, in addition to the western foot
of the Andes.
During such an extensive ash fall, it is likely that choza-like
structures, especially those with thatch or paja roofs, would have
been severely affected. Given that a 10-15 cm thick accumulation of
fine ash will create loads of 100-150 kg/m2 on the roofs - and even
more if the ash is wet (Blong, 1984), loading would have probably
resulted in the collapse of many roofs and structures which in turn
would have caused deaths and injuries. This event might have seriously deterred the continued occupation of the area.
The field evidence also suggests that once the camellones were
filled with the 800 yBP ash, they were abandoned everywhere, even at
distal sites far from the volcano. In many cases the land was apparently abandoned following the ash fall, since the overlying volcanic and

130 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall

alluvial units are not disturbed by agricultural practices. While it would


seem that most raised-fields were permanently abandoned, some large
raised-field sites were later reoccupied, such as at Chillogallo, Cayambe,
and in Imbabura province. Unfortunately it is not clear if the raisedfield methodology was voluntarily discontinued at this time, or
whether other agricultural practices were devised or imported, or
whether, following the Conquest, deep plowing with horse or oxen,
have erased all traces of past cultivation techniques in the top meter of
soil.
Given the excellent time control for the Quilotoa 800 yBP ash, it
can be reliably employed as a marker unit for Ecuadors Integration
Period. The extensive regional coverage of the ash assures that it will be
found in more archaeological sites in the future, for instance along the
dry coastal zone.

Acknowledgements: We would like to thank Dr. Dennis Geist of


the Univ. of Idaho- Moscow, who over the past 8 years, has greatly facilitated the geochemical analysis of many of our tephra samples. Also, we
would like to extend our thanks to ORSTOM (French Scientific
Research Institute for the Development in Cooperation) with whom
the Instituto Geofsico has a cooperative program in volcanology, for
providing other geochemical analyses.

Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash 131

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1996
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Barragn T., R.
1994
A Petrologic Transect of the Ecuadorian Andes. Thesis, Geology
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Bell, R.
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Blong, RJ.
1984

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Carey, S., Sparks, RSJ.


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Quantitative models of the fallout of pyroclasts from explosive
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Carrera C., J.
1981
Apuntes para una investigacin etnohistrica de los cacicazgos
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132 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall


Fenner, CN.
1923
The Origin and Mode of Emplacement of the Great Tuff Deposit of
the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. Paper 48- Contributed
Technical Papers. National Geographic Society, Washington,
DC, 72 p.
Fernstein, J., Nathenson, M
1992
Another look at the calculation of fallout tephra volumes. Bull.
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Geotrmica Italiana, srl.
1989
Peligrosidad Volcnica del Guagua Pichincha. Informe Final (No
Publicado). Pisa & Quito. 101 p.
Guillaume-Gentil, N.
Patrones de asentamientos prehispnicos en la cuenca norte de
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Guayas, Ecuador. Separata de: Beitrge Zur Allgemeinen Und
Vergleichenden Archologie, Band 16. Verlag Philipp Von Zabern,
Gegrndet 1785, Mainz, p. 264-300
Hall, ML. and Mothes, P.
Quilotoa Volcano-Ecuador. Eruption History and Possible
1992
Effects of Future Eruptions to the Hacienda San Juan, La Mana,
Cotopaxi Province. Unpublished report for The Imperial
Tobacco Company, London, England. 30 p.
Hall, ML, Mothes, P.
1994
Tefroestratigrafa Holocnica de los Volcanes Principales del
Valle Interandino, Ecuador. en Marocco, R. (ed): El Contexto
Geolgico del Espacio Fsico Ecuatoriano-Estudios de Geografa,
Vol. 6, pp 47-67, Quito.
Von Hillebrandt, C.
1989
Estudio geovulcanolgico del complejo volcnico CuicochaCotacachi y sus aplicaciones, Provincia de Imbabura. Thesis.
Geology Faculty, Escuela Politcnica Nacional, Quito-Ecuador,
167 pp.
Knapp, G.
1988

Ecologa Cultural Prehispnica del Ecuador. Banco Central del


Ecuador, Quito. 206 p.

Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash 133

Knapp, G., y Ryder, R.


Aspectos of the Origin, Morphology and Function of Raised
1983
Fields in the Quito Altiplano, Ecuador. in Darch, J.P. (ed.):
Drained Field Agriculture in Central and South America. Oxford:
British Archaeological Reports, International Series, 189.
Lewicki, J.
1994

Mineralogical and Geochemical Variation in Andesites from


Pululagua and Imbabura Volcanoes, Northern Ecuador. Senior
Thesis, Dept. of Geology, Hamilton College, Clinton, NY 79 p.

Mothes, P y Hall, ML.


Mapa de Los Peligros Volcnicos Asociados con el Volcn Quilotoa,
1991
Provincia de Cotopaxi. Esc. 1:50.000, Instituto Geofsico, Esc.
Pol. Nac., Quito.
Mothes, P y Hall ML.
1992
Historia Eruptiva del Volcn Quilotoa. Resumenes-Segundas
Jornadas en Ciencias de la Tierra. EPN, p 52-53.
Mothes, P., and Hall, ML.
1997
Quilotoa Caldera, Ecuador. A Young Eruptive Center in the
Western Cordillera. Abstracts. IAVCEI General Assemably,
Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, p 49.
Mothes, P.
1994

Porras, P.
1984
Salazar, E.
1986

Descripcin de la sequencia de tefras: corte Ro Upayacu,


Hacienda San Juan, Cayambe. Informe indito para el Instituto
Patrimonio Cultural, Quito.

Arqueologa del Ecuador. Third Edition, Quito, 312 p.

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Samaniego, P.
1996
Estudio volcanolgico y petrolgico de la historia reciente del
volcn Cayambe. Thesis. Faculty of Geology. Escuela
Politcnica Nacional, Quito-Ecuador, 143 pp.

134 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall


Sparks, RSJ, and Walker, GPL.
1977
The significance of vitric-enriched air-fall ashes associated
with crystal-enriched ignimbrites. Journal of Volcanology and
Geothermal Research, Vol. 2, p. 329-41.
Woods, A., and Wohletz, K.
Dimensions and dynamics of co-ignimbrite eruption columns.
1991
Nature, Vol. 350, 21 March, p. 225-227.

Anal. #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34

Volcano
Quilotoa
Quilotoa
Quilotoa
Quilotoa
Quilotoa
Quilotoa
Quilotoa
Quilotoa
Quilotoa
Quilotoa
Quilotoa
Quilotoa
Cayambe
Cayambe
Cayambe
Cayambe
Cayambe
Cotopaxi
Cotopaxi
Cotopaxi
Cotopaxi
Cotopaxi
Cotopaxi
Ninahuilca
Ninahuilca
Ninahuilca
Ninahuilca
Pululagua
Pululagua
Pululagua
Cuicocha
Cuicocha
Cuicocha
Cuicocha

Site
QUIL
QUIL
HuecRep
HuecBC
CayMilQ
LnegA
Chota-1
Tambo
Antiojo
Sucus
Otavalo
Cayambe
Fp4Cay2a
Fp4Cay2e
Fp1Cay46b
Fp1-C44d
Fp1Cay46dl
923228 FPf
843298McPf
853339ULL
843298Uccpf
850353LLPf
Huec-Q=F
Y. Dome
Y. Dome
Y. Dome-Coc
Ydome Arena
Recent
Recent
Recent
CUI 13A
CUI 13C
CUI 5
CUI 2

SiO2
67.86
65.53
69.37
69.34
66.97
70.39
70.3
67.54
68.03
69.01
70.12
72.73
62.83
65.37
65.5
65.96
62.79
68.76
74.15
68.87
72.49
70.51
74.3
66.4
62.66
63.28
62.57
63.31
63.24
63.53
61.79
61.93
62.2
62.84

Al2O3
15.31
16.86
15.54
15.29
16.8
15.45
14.95
16.21
16.53
16.42
15.39
14.59
17.1
16.9
16.72
16.54
17.28
16.51
14.19
16.36
15.39
15.86
14.76
16.04
16.64
16.88
16.48
16.45
16.46
16.43
17.32
16.95
16.72
17.13

TiO2
0.497
0.466
0.332
0.331
0.472
0.324
0.293
0.379
0.369
0.343
0.321
0.244
0.64
0.546
0.551
0.548
0.66
0.346
0.24
0.345
0.22
0.278
0.194
0.594
0.627
0.627
0.618
0.58
0.57
0.56
0.58
0.59
0.57
0.56

MnO
0.07
0.068
0.059
0.061
0.066
0.058
0.058
0.07
0.064
0.057
0.063
0.045
0.09
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.09
0.085
0.048
0.083
0.077
0.079
0.061
0.053
0.085
0.086
0.087
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.09

APPENDIX I

Fe2O3
4.02
3.8
2.81
3.39
3.65
2.5
2.62
3.74
3.09
2.44
2.65
1.95
5.45
4.42
4.57
4.42
5.77
2.75
1.23
2.7
1.65
2.13
1.41
5.03
6.06
5.7
6.63
5.88
5.88
5.82
6.17
6.29
6.2
5.83

CaO
3.58
4.44
3.38
3.38
3.77
3
3.51
3.74
3.58
3.37
3.1
2.22
4.93
4.18
4.2
4.08
5.02
3.15
1.23
3.17
2.13
2.73
1.66
4.53
5.78
5.76
5.64
5.55
5.58
5.63
5.91
6.14
6.37
5.95

MgO
1.68
1.8
1.7
1.67
1.78
1.6
1.4
2.01
1.92
1.76
1.61
1.18
2.35
1.74
1.7
1.69
2.16
0.77
0.2
0.75
0.33
0.55
0.31
1.47
2.41
2.39
2.69
2.65
2.64
2.63
2.81
2.84
2.86
2.27

K2O
2
1.65
2.1
2.02
2.04
2.07
2.17
1.77
1.8
1.94
2.12
2.63
1.98
2.21
2.13
2.23
1.78
2.35
4.88
2.36
2.7
2.54
2.87
1.16
1.09
0.98
1.06
1.07
1.05
1.01
1.21
1.23
1.14
1.22

Na2O
4.83
5.24
4.56
4.4
4.26
4.5
4.55
4.36
4.51
4.5
4.5
4.31
4.46
4.31
4.28
4.46
4.2
5.1
3.8
5.18
4.92
5.2
4.36
4.61
4.52
4.22
4.1
4.29
4.36
4.18
3.96
3.76
3.68
3.95

P2O5
0.164
0.152
0.144
0.136
0.184
0.14
0.131
0.14
0.109
0.142
0.135
0.09
0.19
0.17
0.18
0.171
0.2
1.74
0.03
0.171
0.086
0.126
2.87
0.118
0.139
0.079
0.126
0.13
0.13
0.13
0.15
0.16
0.16
0.15

Total
100.002
100.006
99.995
100
99.99
100
99.99
99.962
100.002
99.982
100
99.989
99.72
99.98
99.89
99.97
99.95
99.995
99.998
99.989
99.993
100.003
100
100.005
100.011
100.002
100.001
100
99.99
100
100
100
100
100

Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash 135

Anal #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34

SiO2/K2O
34.1
39.7
33
34.3
32.8
34
32.4
38.13
37.8
35.6
33.1
27.6
31.73
29.57
30.75
29.57
35.27
29.25
15.19
29.18
26.9
27.8
25.9
57
57.5
64.6
59
59.1
60.2
62.9
51.06
50.34
54.56
51.5

K2O/Na2O
0.412
0.314
0.46
0.45
0.476
0.46
0.476
0.405
0.399
0.431
0.471
0.61
0.443
0.512
0.512
0.5
0.423
0.46
1.284
0.455
0.548
0.488
0.66
0.251
0.241
0.232
0.258
0.249
0.24
0.241
0.305
0.265
0.309
0.308

Na2O/FeO
1.2
1.38
1.62
1.3
1.16
1.8
1.7
1.37
1.46
1.84
1.7
2.21
0.818
0.975
0.943
1
0.727
1.85
3.08
1.91
2.98
2.44
3.09
0.916
0.745
0.74
0.618
0.729
0.741
0.718
0.641
0.597
0.593
0.677

Ni
14
13
17
16
27
18
25
13
21
21
24
17
13
9
8
9
7
5
8
5
5
4
22
13
10
8
20
10
8
7
12
14
16
8

Cr
17
19
14
13
22
11
15
16
21
16
14
16
25
15
13
14
8
4
1
5
0
2
4
72
72
68
149
36
33
39
60
58
46
20

V
94
82
59
52
70
46
45
66
69
51
45
29
112
83
85
85
109
32
20
35
12
19
17
105
137
136
135

135
140
139
130

Sc
12
10
8
12
8
4
6
7.6
9
9
8
8
9.2
6.6
6.3
6.4
8
7
6
9
7
8
4
5
13
11
15

13.5
14
14.5
12.5

Ba
677
584
734
730
760
704
764
668
647
692
727
856
811
886
900
920
745
877
1054
835
921
883
962
534
503
493
479
499
498
497
590
610
600
600

Rb
39
34
42
44
48
43
45
35
39
41
45
54
51
59
58
61
46
62
180
63
68
64
78
22
21
18
22
19
14
22
21
21.5
21.5
21.5

Sr
419
532
408
416
456
368
395
440
436
423
377
307
570
554
555
545
585
448
211
449
342
408
274
381
427
428
389
411
396
418
455
465
450
470

Zr
105
108
89
90
107
84
83
38
97
94
80
72
90
78
77
73
99
147
179
146
135
141
119
105
99
90
96
83
90
87
82
87
82
53
13.5
14.2
14
12.6

Y
9
9
8
9
9
7
8
8.3
9
8
8
7
11.2
9.5
10.1
9.5
12
13
15
12
11
12
10
6
11
7
10

2.8
2.8
2.7
2.9

Nb
3.6
4.4
3.3
3.9
6.4
4.6
4
3.4
4.1
4.1
4.5
4.3
6.2
6.6
6.6
6.5
5.9
6.7
12.7
6.3
6.7
6
7.6
3.6
3.3
3
2.1

136 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall

Anal #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34

Cu
15
20
35
34
35
38
17

45
72
75
86

2
8
0
2
2
3
32
21
14
31

Ga
19
20
22
18
19
19
19

19
20
16
19

20
18
19
18
17
15
18
17
20
17

64
36
65
53
62
56
106
97
75
94

73
64
67
61

Zn
64
61
65
65
59
62
59

11
23
11
11
11
15
5
3
5
7

Pb
11
7
8
10
10
11
10

39
39
39
37
36
43
61
45
37
38
38
28
22
12
19

19
19
18
17

8.4
9.2
8.4
8.5

Ce
30
26
24
36
26
36
23
26

19.2
20.5
20.5
20.5
18.7
20
36
27
21
20
22
6
10
0
10

La
16
15
1
16
21
14
21
13

5
22
8
7
6
6
2
0
2
0

Th
3
5
3
3
3
5
5
3.4

Ni/Cr
0.82
0.68
1.21
1.23
1.22
1.6
1.66
0.81
1
1.3
1.7
1.06
0.52
0.6
0.6
0.64
0.88
1.25
8
1
5
2
5.5
0.18
0.14
0.11
0.134
0.27
0.24
0.18
0.2
0.24
0.34
0.4

Ba/Rb
17.35
17.17
17.5
16.6
15.8
16.4
17
19.08
16.59
16.88
16.16
15.86
15.91
15.01
15.51
15.08
16.19
14.14
5.85
13.25
13.54
13.8
12.3
24.27
23.95
27.38
21.772
26.26
35.57
22.56
28.09
28.37
27.9
27.9

Ba/Sr
1.61
1.1
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.9
1.9
1.51
1.48
1.64
1.93
2.79
1.42
1.59
1.62
1.68
1.27
1.95
5
1.85
2.69
2.16
3.5
1.401
1.177
1.151
1.23
1.21
1.25
1.188
1.296
1.31
1.333
1.276

K/Rb
426
403
415
381
353
400
400
420
383
393
391
404
322
310
304
303
321
314
225
310
329
329
305
437
430
451
400
467
622
381
478
474
440
471
0.225
0.24
0.31
0.625

Sc/Cr
0.7
0.52
0.6
0.9
0.36
0.4
0.4
0.48
0.429
0.56
0.57
0.5
0.37
0.44
0.48
0.46
1
1.8
6
1.8
7
4
1
0.069
0.18
0.161
0.1

Quilotoas 800 yBP Ash 137

138 Patricia Mothes / Minard Hall

Source of samples presented in Appendix 1


Sample No.
1,2

Source
Pumices from Quilotoa I lapilli fall

3-13

Distal ashes of presumed Quilotoa I origin.


Geochemical ( XRF) analyses of samples 1-13 done
by Washington State Univ. (WSU), Pullman
GeoAnalytical Lab.

13-17

Pumices from two pyroclastic flows (FP1 and FP4)


of Cayambes Holocene activity (Samaniego, 1996).
Geochemical analyses done by ORSTOM-Univ. of
Brest, France.

18-23

Pumices from two series of pyroclastic flows from


Cotopaxi dated at 5800 and 4500 yBP (Hall and
Mothes, 1994). Geochemical (XRF) analyses done
by WSU at Pullman, GeoAnalytical Lab.

24-27

Pumices from lapilli falls of the 2350 yBP eruption


(samples no. 24 & 25) and older Holocene eruptions
of Ninahuilca described in Barragn, (1994).

28-30

Pumices from the 2300 yBP plinian lapilla fall of


Pululagua (Lewicki, 1994.) Geochemical (XRF)
analyses done at Hamilton College, Clinton,NY

31-34

Pumices from the pyroclastic flows of the 29003000 yBP eruptions of Cuicocha (Von Hillebrandt,
1989. Analyses done by ORSTOM, Univ. of Brest,
France.

Also important to point out is that with increased distance from


source, there is often an enrichment in SiO2, thus ratios between
SiO2/K2O and K2O/Na2O were calculated. Overall, the results basically show a strong affinity of the distal ashes with a Quilotoa source.

QUILOTOA ASH AND HUMAN


SETTLEMENTS IN THE EQUATORIAL
ANDES
Gregory Knapp
Department of Geography
University of Texas at Austin, TX 78712
Patricia Mothes
Instituto Geofsico
Escuela Politcnica Nacional, Casilla 2759
Quito, Ecuador

ABSTRACT
The Quilotoa ash fall (800 yBP) helps to date the agricultural
development of the northern Ecuadorian Andes. The ash fall did not
for long inhibit agricultural intensification in the Equatorial Andes as
a whole, although it probably influenced the coarse and fine scale geographic patterning of subsequent land use and settlement.
La cada de ceniza del volcn Quilotoa hace 800 aos es una excelente capa guia para determinar la edad del desarrollo agrcola de los
Andes septentrionales del Ecuador. La ceniza no tuvo un impacto negativo en el desarrollo agrcola de los Andes septentrionales, sin embargo se puede ver su influencia en cuanto a patrones geogrficos del uso
de la tierra y de los asentamientos humanos.
Quilotoa Ash Fall
Hall and Mothes have pointed out that at least 17 volcanoes in
Ecuador and southern Colombia have experienced eruptions during
the last 10,000 years (Mothes and Hall 1991, Hall and Mothes 1994).
The most recent major eruption was that of Quilotoa volcano in the
Western Cordillera, located west of Latacunga about 050 S latitude.

140

Gregory Knapp / Patricia Mothes

This event generated a pyroclastic flow covering about 150 km2 and
extensive ashfalls. Radiocarbon dates from carbonized tree trunks
located in the vicinity of the Quilotoa crater vary from 840 50 to 785
50 yBP uncalibrated about 1280 AD (Hall and Mothes 1994).
As described by Mothes and Hall, the Quilotoa eruption produced ash which blanketed the Interandean valley between 0 20 N
(Cunro lake, about the latitude of Atuntaqu) and 1 30 S (just north
of the latitude of Guano). The eruption also probably reached the
coastal plain to the west, although evidence is sparse. Ash accumulation
varied from decimeters near the source to several centimeters toward
the limits of the ash falls distribution. The ash fall has a distinctive
mineralogy rich in biotite, hornblende and plagioclase, helping to
readily identify it in the field.
Stratigraphic Relationship with Some Raised Field Sites
The Quilotoa ash has been identified at archaeological sites in
the vicinity of Otavalo, Cayambe (possibly), Quito, Chillogallo and
Sigchos, among others. The Sigchos site located NW of Latacunga , will
not be discussed here. The remaining sites are of interest because of the
possible relationship with the Late Period cultural complex of ramp
tolas and raised fields which developed after 1250 AD.
The ash fall is also of interest in helping to explain a long-standing puzzle of highland cultural ecology. Knapp (1981) suggested that
humid flats in the Andes should have been the sites of extreme agricultural intensification, based on the deployment of large, permanent
raised fields in prehistoric times. There was good evidence for raised
fields in many of these flats, including Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia, and
Chillogallo, Cayambe, Paquiestancia, San Pablo and Otavalo in
Ecuador.
However, evidence for raised fields was curiously lacking in
other apparently suitable flats, including those in Quito and Zuleta.
The Quilotoa and other ash falls, along with other depositional
processes, now allows us to account for this apparent anomoly. Knapps
(1981) thesis appears correct, but much of the evidence is buried, and
intensification did not necessarily continue until the conquest.

Quilotoa Ash and Human Settlements

141

Southern Quito
South of Quito, at Chillogallo, the Quilotoa ash layer was found
by Knapp and Ryder (1983) as ditch fill between abandoned raised
fields visible at the surface. The ash layer in the ditches was 10 cm deep,
but this may reflect lesser accumulation at the surface: ash presumably
washed from the raised field surfaces into the ditches. A sample of this
ash was provided in 1982 to Minard Hall, of the Geology Faculty of the
Escuela Politcnica Nacional in Quito, who later identified it, based on
its mineralogical content, as belonging to the Quilotoa eruption. This
was the first empirical evidence that raised fields predate the Late
Period and is consistent with the 1000-1500 AD dates for Chillogallo
tomb ceramics reported by Echeverra (1976). This was also the first
evidence that all of the Ecuadorian highlands were not at the peak of
intensification at the time of the Spanish conquest
After 800 years this ash layer is still white in color (Munsell 10YR
8/1) and very low in organic matter (0.4%) with massive structure
(Knapp and Ryder 1983). The deposition of the ash was apparently
coincident with the abandonment of the Chillogallo raised field complex. The fields were not abandoned previous to the ashfall, since there
is no fill beneath the ash layer. Nor were fields re-cultivated, because a
typical raised field amplitude (distance from mean ditch bottom level
to field top) of 0.8 meters would have required cutting into the ash
layer. Furthermore, there was a sequence of subsequent fills including
at least one more volcanic ash layer, probably related to an eruption of
nearby Guagua Pichincha Volcano, given the coarse grain size of the
ash and pumice (Fig 1).

142

Gregory Knapp / Patricia Mothes

Figure 1. Sedimentary sequence in ditch of raised field, at Chillogallo


(from Knapp, 1991, p. 153)

Central Quito
Alvarado (1996), with the interpretive help of Marcelo Villalba
and Patricia Mothes (see text of Villalba and Alvarado, this publication)
identified deeply buried raised fields under approximately 300 hectares
of central Quito. These pre-Quilotoa raised fields (group C), constructed and worked prior to the 800 yBP Quilotoa eruption, have a
wave length of 3 meters or more.
As observed by the co-authors of this report, the ditch fill of volcanic ash is up to 60 cm deep, suggesting that the original ditches could
well have been one meter or more deep. Some raised fields exhibit a
shallow (10-20 cm deep) secondary furrow running parallel to the

Quilotoa Ash and Human Settlements

143

main ditches, suggesting two rows of cultivation at the time of the ash
fall.
The raised fields are buried under guide layer 3, which has a
similar mineralogy to the Quilotoa ash. Examination of fourteen ash
samples show a median biotite content of 8.5%, which is akin to the
biotite content in samples taken from the plinian tephra deposits
around Quilotoa volcano. No ceramics were found to aid with dating,
nor were radiocarbon samples found directly within or adjacent to this
layer. Radiocarbon analyses were performed on organic soil samples
located well above guide layer 3; these produced dates (uncalibrated) of
640 60, 1070 40, and 1540 60 yBP respectively. The latter two
dates appear incompatible with a Quilotoa origin for guide layer 3.
However, the problems associated with dating organic soils are well
known, especially in wetland sites. A carbon sample (0.3 grams) located 2.8 m below guide layer 3 yielded a date of 1730 110 yBP; this actually is consistent with a Quilotoa age for layer 3, given uniform sedimentation rates. More 14C dating is needed.
There are two ash layers associated with the C group of raised
fields at an excavation of the Banco Central at the intersection of
Amazonas y Villalengua in Quito. The first ash layer to infill the ditches is probably that of a well-dated eruption of Guagua Pichincha of 980
yBP. The centimeter+ size of the pumice and its mineralogical composition exclude other volcanoes as being the source. An ensuing 170-200
years of relative calm saw at least some of the raised fields reconstructed before their burial by the second ash fall, i.e. Quilotoa.
(Unpublished fieldnotes P. Mothes, 1997) (Fig. 2). A sample of this ash
layer, taken from the excavation was analyzed for major and trace elements in March, 1998 by the GeoAnalytical Lab of the Univ. of
Washington at Pullman the results indicate a Quilotoa source.
A lower set of raised fields, called group D, are located about 1
meter below the Group C ditches and cut into pumice and sands layers which may be of the Guagua Pichincha eruption of 1400 yBP
(uncalibrated)(Fig. 3).
The deepest and probably the oldest raised fields are those of
Group A and B which are located 2.5-3 meters deep, under ash guide
layer 5. This ash layer, by mineralogical correlation and field-mapping
is associated with the Pululahua eruption and is dated at approximately 2300 (uncalibrated) yBP based on carbonized wood pulled from the

144

Gregory Knapp / Patricia Mothes

pyroclastic fan, in the vicinity of San Antonio de Pichincha (Hall,


1977). These fields appear to be different than true raised fields in
that their approximate dimensions appear to resemble temporary
rather than permanent agricultural landforms huachos (potato
ridges) and possibly canals.
Cayambe
Raised fields have long been known to exist in the Cayambe area
and have been the subject of numerous reports (Ryder 1970, Batchelor
1980, Knapp 1981, 1984, and 1991, Gondard and Lpez 1983, Knapp
and Denevan 1985). The features were well-preserved at the surface
into the 1980s, before being plowed under or built over, but earlier
buried fields have only recently been discovered.

Figure 2. Outlines of Group C raised fields and their relationship to


volcanic ashes. RF= Top of buried raised field. GGP 980yBP = Ash and
pumice fall of Guagua Pichinchas 980 yBP eruption. Q 800yBP= Fine
ash of Quilotoas 800 yBP eruption. Site is Noth of Carolina Park at intersection of Amazonas and Villalengua.

Quilotoa Ash and Human Settlements

145

Figure 3. Outlines of Group D raised fields and their relationship to


overling ashes and Group C raised fields. RF= Top of raised field.
GGP 1400yBP = Ash and pumice fall and reworked debris of Guagua
Pichinchas 1400 yBP eruption. GGP 980= Ash and pumice fall of
Guagua Pichinchas 980 yBP eruption. Q 800yBP= Fine ash of Quilotoas
800 yBP eruption. Site is noth of Carolina Park at intersection of
Amazonas and Villalengua.

In February, 1994, Monica Bolaos and Fabin Villalba (1994)


made a cut through raised fields in Hacienda San Juan - Cayambe. In
this cut, the ash is located beneath a dark surface layer 70-100 cm deep.
The ash buried an earlier set of raised fields; the depth of the ash
apparently varied from 50-75 cm over the base of the prehistoric ditches to 20-45 cm above the prehistoric ridges. The character of the ash
indicated that it was deposited in standing water and that the thickness
at this site is likely attributable to preferential infilling into depressions,
such as those of the ditches. This, plus the rather reduced amplitude of
the raised fields, suggests that the fields were probably abandoned and
became progressively flooded at the time or shortly after the ash fall.
Although the ash in the Cayambe raised fields has abundant
biotite, some other aspects of its chemistry do not match well with
other samples of known Quilotoa origin. The results of a June 3, 1997

146

Gregory Knapp / Patricia Mothes

analysis of the ash by the GeoAnalytical Lab of the University of


Washington at Pullman, reported high SiO2 values, enrichment in
K2O, Sr, Ba and Rb and diminished values for CaO and Fe2O3. Still
Ni/Cr and Ba/Rb ratios are compatible with a Quilotoa source (see article by Mothes and Hall, this volume). The ash may have come from
another (perhaps unknown) source in the northern Cordillera
Occidental, although the overall fineness of the ash suggests that it was
airborne over a long distance. Given the chemical characteristics it is
unlikely that the ash comes from nearby Cayambe volcano where ash
falls occurred at approximately 910, 680-650, and 400-360 (uncalibrated) yBP, as well as during an historic eruption in 1785-1786
(Samaniego, Monzier, Robin, and Hall, 1998).
Beneath the old raised fields at San Juan was another ash layer,
probably associated with Pululagua (last eruption about 2300 years
BP). Thus the fields were constructed sometime after 2300 BP.
San Pablo:
Raised fields at the San Pablo flats, near Otavalo, have been
known for many years (Ryder 1970, Athens 1978 and 1980, Gondard
and Lpez 1983, Knapp 1984, 1988, and 1991). Again, these fields were
well preserved at the surface until relatively recently.
A thin (8-10 cm) gray layer of volcanic material is readily visible
below the surface of some of the San Pablo raised fields (Knapp 1984).
The Itambi riverbed has migrated here over time, cutting into the edge
of raised field sets. As observed and sketched in the field, the gray layer
was 40-45 centimeters below the mean surface level. Raised fields were
cut into the lens of gray ash, clearly indicating that, here, raised fields
are younger than the ash fall.
This ash was examined in the field during the summer of 1997
by Minard Hall, and was determined not to match the mineralogy of
the Quilotoa ash fall. It may well relate to one of the eruptions of
Cayambe discussed above.
In the early 1980s, Knapp collected a carbon sample from the
ditch fill at a ramp tola in San Pablo. The carbon sample was dated at
500 100 BP (uncalibrated) (QL-1747, Isotope laboratory, University
of Washington at Seattle , 1985). If this carbon washed into the ditches
from adjacent ridges soon after the abandonment of raised field main-

Quilotoa Ash and Human Settlements

147

tenance, it could mean that the fields were abandoned about the time
of the Inca and Spanish invasions (unless, of course, the carbon was
deposited long before being washed into the ditches this would
mean a relatively recent age for raised field abandonment). As for the
period of field construction, the raised fields are physically integrated
into a ramp tola, suggesting that the fields were in existence during the
period the ramp tola was in use, i.e. during the Late Period (post 1250
AD).
Raised fields near Imbaya suburb north of the town of Otavalo
were studied by Stephen Athens (see text by Athens, this volume). The
ditches between these fields contain ash similar to that of Quilotoa
(identified by P. Mothes), suggesting agricultural use of these flats prior
to that eruption. The chemical analyses of this ash done for Mothes by
the GeoAnalytical Lab of the Univ. of Washington at Pullman suggest
that this material more closely resembles the Quilotoa ash than the
ash found at the Cayambe (San Juan) site. Raised fields were later
established again in Otavalo (Knapp, 1984, 147), and were visible as
recently as the 1980s.
Functions of Raised Fields
The function of raised fields has been subject to much debate. It
is generally agreed that raised fields have multiple functions, including
frost control, drainage, facilitation of surface irrigation, and perhaps
inhibiting the spread of Phytophthora infestans, a fungus which infests
potatoes (Myers, 1991). Knapp (1984, 1991) has suggested that the
major function of large, permanent raised fields is soil fertility
improvement, allowing exceptional productivity per unit area. The
frost control function was demonstrated by Knapps temperature
experiments at Cayambe in 1981 (Knapp 1984, 1988). The soil fertility
function was supported by soil analyses of ditch fill at Cayambe and
elsewhere (Knapp 1984, 1988).
Raised field productivity comes at the cost of great labor investment in ditch maintenance. Studies of such competing technologies as
canal irrigation and slope agriculture indicate that under low to moderate population levels, large, permanent raised fields are an inefficient
choice for subsistence. They can perhaps best be interpreted as a
response to high demand and/or low labor costs, due either to high

148

Gregory Knapp / Patricia Mothes

populations, or to the creation of a spatially concentrated subservient


labor force (i.e. a chief s wives and slaves).
The existence of early raised field complexes suggests, therefore,
that complex society and/or high populations were widespread in highland Ecuador well before the Quilotoa eruption of 800 years ago, and
perhaps as early as 1400 years ago.
In the case of the Quito basin, it appears that the Quilotoa ash
disrupted either agriculture or society to the extent that raised fields
were not re-established. Farther north, at Otavalo, San Pablo and
Cayambe, it appears that this and other ash falls were less of a problem,
as there is little evidence of ash falls disrupting raised-field agriculture
for an extended period.
Relationships of Ash Fall with Settlement Evolution
The Quilotoa ash fall, of about 1280 AD, corresponds with a cultural boundary in the northern highlands. In the terminology of
Athens (1978, 1980) this corresponds with the beginning of the Late
Period or Cara culture, marked by the construction of ramp tolas and
quadrilateral or hemispheric mounds.
Mounds were possibly constructed for the first time in the north
during Period 4 (200-700 AD). There is no evidence for mounds during the preceding period. This is also when pottery appears with red
paint and negative painting. Mounds were definitely widely built during periods 5 (700-1000 AD) and 6 (1000-1250 AD); Athens obtained
most of his data for this period from mounds in Socapamba, while
Oberem found remains of Period 6 in Cochasqu (Athens 1978, 1980;
Oberem 1981)
Athens found great continuity between period 6 and the Late
Period in ceramic styles and mound building (Athens 1980:134). But
the Late Period is the only one with ramp tolas, and Athens ascribes to
it greater social complexity.
Reasons for Abandonment
Raised fields were widespread in the northern highlands, from
Cayambe to Quito, before the Quilotoa ash fall 800 years ago. Probably
no large, permanent raised fields predate the Guagua Pichincha ash fall

Quilotoa Ash and Human Settlements

149

of 1400 yBP. The current dates could relate raised fields to the moundbuilders of Athenss periods 4, 5, and 6 e.g., after about 700 or 800
AD.
Raised fields may have been abandoned due to (1) direct agricultural effects of the ash fall; (2) climatic causes which coincidentally
occurred at the same time as the ash fall; or (3) social and political
changes which may or may not have been triggered by the ash fall.
Thorarinson (1971, cited by Isaacson 1987) has stated that for
Iceland, 10 cm or more of ash is required to cause abandonment for up
to a year, over 15 cm for 1-5 years, and 20-50 cm of ash is needed to
cause abandonment for decades. More ash is required in warmer areas.
Closer to Quilotoa volcano, the thicker and coarser ash may have
discouraged reconstruction of raised fields; no post-Quilotoa fields
have been found south of Cayambe. Lowered productivity would have
made the labor efficiency of this method even less attractive than normal.
Another possible cause of raised field abandonment is coincidental climate change over the continent. Kolata (1986) and his team
have suggested that raised fields were substantially abandoned around
Lake Titicaca about 1100 AD, due to the start of a dryer climatic period after 950 AD. There are however logical problems with this interpretation in particular, raised fields seem to be more susceptible to
damage from excessive moisture than from insufficient moisture. The
Titicaca fields could have been shifted closer to Lake Titicaca, and
would have been able to continue to rely on exogenous sources of
moisture (springs). It is unlikely that Quitos climate was closely related to that of Titicacas during this period.
In Mexico, Sluyters (1995) survey has indicated that raised fields
were abandoned in 400 BC, 0 AD, 100 AD, 200 AD, 500 AD, 700 AD,
1200 AD, 1300 AD, and 1500 AD. These 9 different dates are hard to
reconcile with any purely climatic theory of field abandonment,
although the 1200 AD dates roughly correspond to abandonment at
Quito, Chillogallo, and Titicaca raised fields.
A third possible reason for raised field abandonment is social
and political. Since permanent raised fields are labor intensive, they are
unlikely to be widely attractive except under conditions of high population density, stratified society, or both. It is possible that around 1200
AD society and/or population densities devolved in the Quito area.

150

Gregory Knapp / Patricia Mothes

This devolution could have been triggered in part by the Quilotoa


eruption, but not necessarily only through its effect on raised fields
the eruption could have disrupted society in other ways, through a
more generalized if brief collapse of food production, the inspiration
of panic, disruption of trade routes, or other effects. There could even
have been an unrelated population collapse due to epidemic or war, or
a social upheaval, which just happened to occur relatively close in time
to the eruption. Evidence will be hard to find.
Consequences of Raised Field Abandonment
Isaacson (1987) suggested that the Cayambe-Otavalo area was a
refuge area for populations to the south and west affected by ash from
the 2400 yBP Pululahua eruption (at the time of this writing, he did not
know about the Quilotoa eruption).). He suggested that after the
Pululahua eruption, the population of central and western Pichincha
fled to Cayambe/Otavalo, subsequently returning to Pichincha after
they had learned the raised field system. As noted by Echeverra (1976)
the ceramics in the two areas are similar. If this were the case, there conceivably could have been a second exodus from Quito to
Cayambe/Otavalo after the 1280 AD Quilotoa eruption.
The number of people affected by the Quilotoa eruption can be
estimated. The area of the Quito flats with known pre-Quilotoa raised
fields is 300 hectares. The Chillogallo flats contain up to 1800 hectares
suitable for raised fields. These could have supported 15,000 or so people (Knapp 1991). However, in the Cayambe-Ibarra area there are
about 6000 hectares of suitable flats, which could have supported
48,000 people, room for a substantial migration from the south.
In Cayambe, it is clear that after initial field abandonment, the
land was re-utilized for raised fields, however the timing is not known.
It is tempting to argue for a few decades of field abandonment, followed by a heroic reconstruction project led by leaders, whose power
was augmented by both elite and commoner refugees from the south,
and who symbolized their control with the ramp tolas.
Ramp tolas are also associated with raised fields in Otavalo and
Zuleta, and with flats suitable for raised field construction in
Ibarra/Caranqu and elsewhere. Did the augmented power of the new
chiefdoms promote an expansion of raised field technology to the

Quilotoa Ash and Human Settlements

151

north of its pre-Quilotoa extent? Or did raised fields persist through


the Quilotoa event in the far northern area, due to the minimal impact,
with only a social/architectural change as evidenced by the ramp tolas?
These are intriguing questions of historical cultural ecology and
cultural history, and more archaeological work is needed to answer
them.

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Gregory Knapp / Patricia Mothes

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VOLCANISM AND
ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE
NORTHERN HIGHLANDS
OF ECUADOR
J. Stephen Athens
International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc.
949 McCully St., Suite 5
Honolulu, Hawaii 96826
Tel.: (808) 946 2548, 943 0628
FAX: (808) 943 0716
e-mail: iarii@aloha.net

ABSTRACT
Periodically intense Holocene volcanic activity has been documented from lake core studies and archaeological investigations in the
northern highlands of Ecuador. Thirty-two tephra layers are present in
the 6800 cal. B.P. Lake San Pablo sequence, and 25 tephra layers are in
the 13,000 cal. B.P. Laguna Negra sequence. Excavations at the 94-1 site
near Otavalo revealed a buried prehistoric ridge-and-furrow agricultural field system preserved by 700 year old Quilotoa ash. The underlying Cuicocha ash, also observed at the nearby Im-11 site, was documented as an important chrono-stratigraphic marker for the region.
This major eruptive episode occured between about 3500 and 3000 cal.
B.P. A preceramic deposit dating to about 3600 cal. B.P. was discovered
in a paleosol beneath the ash at the Im-11 site. These ash records will
be valuable aids for future archaeologists seeking new preceramic sites,
and also for dating archaeological deposits throughout the Holocene.

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RESUMEN
Se ha registrado volcanismo Holocnico de intensidad peridica
en estudios sedimentarios de muestras de sondaje efectuado en lagos y
a travs de investigaciones arqueolgicas en la Sierra Septentrional del
Ecuador. Se encuentran presente 32 capas de tefra en la serie de 6.800
cal. A.P. [aos radiocarbnicos calibrados antes del presente] del Lago
San Pablo, y 25 capas de tefra estn presente en la serie de la Laguna Negra de 13.000 cal. A.P. Las excavaciones en el sitio 94-1 cerca de Otavalo revelaron debajo de la superficie un sistema agrcola prehistrico de
camellones preservado por la ceniza de 700 aos del Quilotoa. La subyacienta ceniza del Cuicocha, tambin observada en el vecino sitio de
Im-11, fue documentada como un marcador crono-estratigrfico importante para la regin. Este significativo episodio eruptivo ocurri entre los aos 3.500 y 3.000 cal. A.P. Un depsito precermico fechado alrededor de 3.600 cal. A.P. fue descubierto dentro de un paleosuelo bajo la ceniza en el sitio Im-11. Estos registros de cenizas sern de valiosa
ayuda para futuros arquelogos en busca de nuevos sitios precermicos, y tambin para fechar depsitos arqueolgicos a lo largo del Holoceno.

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Introduction
Archaeological field investigations conducted in 1989 and 1994
provide important new information concerning the sequence of
Holocene volcanic episodesprimarily tephra fallsin northern
highland Ecuador. Not only does this research document paleostratigraphic marker horizons for precisely dating (or establishing the contemporaneity of) archaeological sites and landforms, but in at least one
case the sometimes thick ash layers also have contributed to the preservation of the archaeological record. The relevant data on these topics
will be presented in the following discussion.
The study region is that of the temperate highland valleys
between the dry and relatively low elevation Guayllabamba and ChotaMira River valleys north of Quito (Fig. 1). This area comprises northern Pichincha Province and much of Imbabura Province. In between
the river valleys, the volcanic soils of the intermontane basins tend to
be very fertile as well as amply watered by winter rains between about
October and May. The town of Otavalo, at an elevation of 2,580 m, is
centrally located in the intermontane basin of Imbabura Province just
25 km north of the equator and 120 km north of Quito. The highest
elevations of the Cordillera Oriental and Cordillera Occidental on the
eastern and western sides of these intermontane basins are dominated
by volcanic peaks, including Cayambe at 5,790 m and Cotocachi at
4,937 m. However, impressive volcanoes are also located between the
two cordilleras, including Imbabura at 4,630 m and Fuya-Fuya at 4,260
m, and there are also the enormous calderas of Mojanda at 3,716 m
and Cuicocha at 3,068 m (elevations are those of the lakes inside the
calderas; see Fig. 1). Volcanism, therefore, was clearly a major factor in
the development of the landscape of this region.
The focus of the archaeological investigationsthe history of
agriculture in the northern highland valleyswas quite influential in
terms of collecting data relevant to the topic of volcanism. This was
because a major strategy of the work involved collecting and analyzing
sediment cores from Lake San Pablo, an intermontane lake only 2.5 km
southeast of Otavalo. This 6.2 km2 lake was in an ideal setting for
obtaining a long sequence of palynological data related to agriculture
because of its location in the heart of an extremely rich indigenous
agricultural zone having a watershed or catchment area of roughly 145

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km2. The sediment core data, of course, also provides an especially well
documented stratigraphic sequence of tephra falls.

Figure 1. Archaeological site locations and lake coring in northern highland Ecuador.

Another important strategy of the investigations was to obtain a


geomorphological understanding of the Holocene landscape. That is,
there was a need to determine in stratigraphic terms where early
archaeological sites might be found, and to do this it was necessary to

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161

obtain information on the Holocene sedimentary chronology of the


region. As a result, it became apparent very quickly that
tephrochronology would be a fundamental consideration in pursuing
this goal.
It is important to acknowledge three important predecessors in
the field of tephrochronology in Ecuador. These are John Isaacson and
the team of Minard Hall and Patricia Mothes. Isaacson (1987) demonstrated the value of tephrochronology for archaeological studies in
Ecuador and the possible significance of volcanic eruptions to an
understanding of prehistoric human cultures in the region. Hall and
Mothes (1994), on the other hand, provided the first detailed chronology and distributional study of tephra falls in Ecuador. Others, of
course, have contributed to such studies over the years, but the work of
these investigators provides a modicum of focus and detail that was
previously lacking. In effect, they provide a solid foundation on which
to build new knowledge.
Lake San Pablo
In 1989 a 6.15 m core (Core 2) was raised from Lake San Pablo;
stiff sediments prevented deeper penetration with the available equipment. Nine radiocarbon dates from this core documented a ca. 4200
year uninterrupted sediment sequence (Fig. 2). Maize pollen and maize
charcoal1 were present all the way to the base of the core, implying that
maize has an even greater antiquity than the basal date of the core. The
findings from this core established the presence of maize farmers in the
inter-Andean valley at least 1550 years prior to the earliest archaeological site evidence (Athens n.d., 1995).
In 1994 two additional cores (Cores 3 and 4) were recovered
from Lake San Pablo using heavier duty equipment in order obtain
deeper sediments. Although several thick volcanic ash layers made
penetration difficult, it was possible to retrieve sediments to a depth of
about 6.00 m below the bottom depth of the 1989 core (both cores
have a combined length of about 12.25 m, including a combined total
of 2.34 m of volcanic ash). Pollen and phytolith analyses are presently
underway for Core 4.

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Figure 2. Profile of Core 2, Lago San Pablo.

The sediments in these near-shore cores consist primarily of what may


be described as a banded fibrous or peaty humic silt often interspersed
with thin bands of darker humic silt. The ash and dating sequences of
Core 4 are illustrated in Figure 3, and Figure 4 shows a depth-age curve
for the combined dating results of Cores 2 and 4 (detailed information
for all radiocarbon samples will be presented in a forthcoming report).

Volcanism and Archaeology

Figure 3.Profile of Core 4, Lake San Pablo.


Radiocarbon dates are illustrated for the earlier part of
sequence. Note match line with base of Core 2.

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Stephen Athens

Figure 4. Depth-age graph for Cores 2 and 4 at Lake San Pablo,


showing combined radiocarbon dating results (dates are illustrated
with 1 sigma calibrated range). In the graph Core 2 reaches a depth
of 560 cm (minus ash). Note that at a depth of 250-260 cm there are 3
radiocarbon dates.

As may be seen in Figure 4, almost all of the radiocarbon dates


show a progression of age with depth for the entire sequence (Cores 2
and 4). The depth-age curve indicates that the basal date for Core 4 is
about 6834 cal. B.P. Although it was hoped that a somewhat earlier
sequence could have been obtained, Core 4 extends the time range of
the San Pablo sediments close to the period when the earliest evidence
for agriculture (i.e., maize) might be expected given findings from the
Colombian highlands and the Ecuador coast (see discussion in Athens
n.d.; also Kuhry 1988:72,127; Bray et al. 1987:445; Stothert 1985:621;
and Pearsall and Piperno 1990:322). In the future deeper penetration
to obtain earlier sediment is potentially feasible, but will require use of
casing pipe and a winch.
The Lake San Pablo core sediments demonstrate that northern
highland Ecuador was a volcanically active region during the Holocene.
Interspersed in Core 4 are 32 tephra layers, which are alphabetically
designated in the Figure 3 profile. Table 1 provides depth, thickness,
origin, and age information, as well as correlations with Core 2.

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Table 1. Volcanic ash layers, Core 4, Lake San Pablo.


Tephra Old Desig
nation.+
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
AA
BB
CC
DD
EE
FF
+
++
+++
*

**

N
O
P
Q
X
Y
AA
BB
CC
GG

Depth
cm++
338-338.2
357.5-358.5
414.5-462**
538.5-539.5
587-587.5
672-672.3
683-698
700-700.2
735-735.2
776-776.3
790-790.3
835-838.2
839-842.5
858-859.5
861-863.5
872.5-873.5
874.5-875.5
878.5-880
892-893.5
905-905.3
910.5-912.5
920-920.5
935-938.5
944-959
1002.5-1002.7
1127-1148
1175-1277
1284-1306
1317-1318.5
1332-1332.3
1386.5-1387
1393-1398+

Thickness
cm
0.2
1.0
27.0
1.0
0.5
0.3
15.0
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
3.5
3.5
1.5
2.5
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
0.3
2.0
0.5
3.5
15.0
0.2
20.0
102.0
22.0
1.5
0.3
0.5
5.0+

Core 2
Correlation
A
B
C
E
F
H
I
K (?)
-

Origin+++ Estimated Age,


(preliminary)
B.P.*
Cayambe
Pululagua
Cuicocha
Cayambe
Cayambe
Cayambe
Cayambe
Cayambe
Cayambe
Cayambe
Cayambe
Cayambe
Cayambe

1649
1797
2284
2443
2706
3288
3413
3416
3592
3798
3867
4086
4089
4165
4172
4216
4221
4236
4295
4374
4427
4486
4627
4660
5043
5423
5873
5914
5973
6133
6774
6804

Applies only to samples submitted for Tephra analysis, November 24, 1995.
Depth is below lake surface (subtract 250 cm for depth below lake bottom).
Based on physical analysis by Patricia Mothes.
The ages are based on the interpolation of calibrated radiocarbon dates using the Maher
(1992) computer program and a linear interpolation model. The ages, although listed as
single numbers, should be understood as encompassing a range similar to the standard
error of the radiocarbon dates upon which they are based. Interpolations from intervals
above 698 cm are based on Core 2 data.
The difference between the depth and thickness values for Ash C is due to a rodding
problem during coring.

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The origin designations are from observations by Patricia


Mothes based on physical characteristics of the ash, which varies in texture from very fine silt/sand to coarse sand. The origin designations
should be regarded only as preliminary; studies of the ash chemistry
are presently underway and will provide more definitive results. It is
interesting, nevertheless, that Tephra C appears to be from the
Pululagua volcano, Tephra G (I in Core 2) is from Cuicocha volcano,
and the remaining ashes (of those analyzed) are from Cayambe volcano. The latter part of the 6th millennium B.P. apparently was a particularly devastating time due to massive eruptions from the Cayambe
volcano (Tephras Z, AA, and BB). After the Tephra AA of Cayambe,
Tephra C from Pululagua (2284 cal. B.P.) would have been the most
destructive ash fall in terms of thickness (27 cm thick), though it pales
in comparison to Tephra AA (102 cm thick). The impact of most of the
ash falls on human settlement during the Holocene was probably fairly minimal, though presumably Tephra AA would have had more or
less severe consequences, and Tephra C may have had significant
though less severe consequences.
Laguna Negra
This approximately 15 ha lake, adjacent to the much larger Lake
Mojanda of which it was once a part, is located at an elevation of 3,718
m inside the Mojanda caldera. This elevation is well above the zone of
agriculture. The surrounding slopes have mostly a pramo-type vegetation, though steep slopes to the south and east above the lake are densely forested (Bosque de Polylepissee Ulloa and Jrgensen 1995:30-31).
Sediment cores were recovered from Laguna Negra primarily to
obtain data that could be used to document Holocene climate change.
Unlike Lake San Pablo, the pollen record of Laguna Negra would not
have been directly influenced by human land use and agriculture.
However, it is recognized that intentional summer burning of the
pramo grass could have occurred, much as happens at the present
time, and that the possible effect of this burning must be considered in
any interpretations of the causes behind any observed vegetation shifts
(pollen and phytolith studies of the Laguna Negra cores have yet to be
completed).

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167

Cores of 5.50 and 7.04 mCores 1 and 2were obtained in


1994. At both locations the basal core drive was stopped by volcanic
rock. This rock is interpreted as deriving from the scoured land surface
left by a retreating glacier at the close of the Pleistocene (Miguel
Jmenez, pers. comm.). Only Core 2 has been analyzed, and the
sequence, including four radiocarbon dates, is presented in Figure 5.
Extrapolating from a depth-age curve (not illustrated), sediment deposition on top of the basal rock was initiated at about 13,025 cal. B.P.
(plus or minus an undefined error range). This date may be regarded
as a minimal age for the retreat of the Mojanda glacier. Although the
last glacial maximum terminated about 14,600 to 14,700 cal. B.P. with
the onset of the Blling/Allerd interstadials (Taylor et al. 1993:433,
Thompson et al. 1995:47), the Laguna Negra sequence suggests that
complete glacial retreat in the northern Andes may have occurred over
the course of perhaps 1,600 years or so. The basal date, because of its
age, also suggests that there was not a subsequent Younger-Dryas ice
advance within the Mojanda caldera, though such an advance at higher elevations in the Ecuadorian and Peruvian Andes has recently been
demonstrated (Clapperton 1996, Thompson et al. 1995).
In general, the sediment consisted of fibrous peaty material
down to about 300 cm below the surface, whereupon it became a fine
humic silt loam sediment. Interspersed were 25 volcanic ash layers,
which are illustrated in the profile of Core 2 (Fig. 5). The depths and
thickness of the tephra layers are listed in Table 2, along with estimated ages and origins for some of the tephras. The tephra deposits range
from very fine silt/sand to coarse sand.
Despite its proximity, the Laguna Negra tephra sequence does
not closely correspond to that documented at Lake San Pablo.
Especially notable is the absence of the thick ash deposits recorded for
San Pablo during the latter part of the 6th millennium (although the
radiocarbon date distributions suggest that there is no unconformity
in this part of the core, additional radiocarbon determinations should
be obtained). However, there are other dissimilarities between the two
records, and these cannot be attributed to a simple miscalculation of
the depth-age curve. It would appear, therefore, that many tephra falls
are quite localized, and that even adjacent geographical areas in the
same region can experience very different histories.

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Figure 5. Profile of Core 2,


Laguna Negra.

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Table 2. Volcanic ash layers, Core 2, Laguna Negra.


Tephra

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y

**

Depth
cm

Thickness
cm

Estimated Age*
Years B.P.

50-58
132-146
171-176
178.5-182
218-219
315-315.5
319.5-320
325.7-326
336-347
348.5-351
358.5-362
369-369.5
377-377.5
402-429
459-484
490-504.5
559-559.5
600-601
606.5-610
654-655
663.5-663.7
668-671.5
674.5-676
686-686.5
687-690

8.0
14.0
5.0
3.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.3
11.0
2.5
2.5
0.5
0.5
27.0
25.0
14.5
0.5
1.0
3.5
1.0
0.2
3.5
1.5
0.3
2.4

676
925
1033
1044
1221
2071
2125
2206
2358
2382
2506
2647
2788
3310
4090
4267
6220
8130
8423
11,078
11,659
11,961
12,175
12,912
12,964

Origin**
(preliminary)
Quilotoa
Pululagua
Cayambe
Cayambe
Cayambe
-

Age estimates from depth-age curve using 3-degree polynomial function and substracting thickness of superior ash deposits from actual depth of ash deposit. This was done
using the Maher (1992) computer program. The ages, although listed as single numbers,
should be understood as encompassing a range similar to the standard error of the
radiocarbon dates upon which they are based.
Based on physical analysis by Patricia Mothes.

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Perhaps of greatest archaeological interest (see below) is the


uppermost ash, Tephra A, which is 8 cm thick at a depth of 50-58 cm
below the surface. Physical examination of this tephra by Patricia
Mothes indicated it to be Quilotoa ash, which has radiocarbon dates to
735-666 cal. B.P. and 790-688 cal. B.P. (1 sigma range; A.D. 1215-1284
and A.D. 1160-1262see Hall and Mothes 1994:59-60). A radiocarbon
determination below Tephra A at 80-86 cm (with an intervening sediment void) indicates that it dates just after 1059-753 cal. B.P., which fits
well with the slightly earlier date of the Quilotoa eruption. Thus, the
assigned age of Tephra A, 676 cal. B.P. as calculated from the depth-age
curve, is within the error range of one of the Quilotoa radiocarbon
dates and very close to the other (interpolated dates also have error
ranges similar to radiocarbon dates, though they are undefined; the
overlap in ages between the Quilotoa dates and the interpolated
Laguna Negra date, therefore, is more substantial than might appear to
be case).
Further dating evidence for what is presumably the same tephra
is available from a short core from Laguna Chiquita, a similarly sized
though much shallower lake 2.2 km southwest of Laguna Negra. A
radiocarbon date of 907-692 cal. B.P. was obtained immediately above
what is presumably the same ash layer at 62.6-70.6 cm below the surface (Riedinger 1992:32-35). With this information there can be little
doubt that there was a general ash fall in the area closely corresponding
to the time of the Quilotoa eruption.
Notwithstanding the above conclusion, it is curious that the
Lake San Pablo cores do not record a similarly dated ash fall. Perhaps
the near-shore location of these cores had some adverse effect on the
preservation of the ash deposit for this time period.
Site 94-1
This site is located immediately west of the Imbaya suburb just
north of Otavalo (Fig. 1). It is within the new El Valle housing project
area (or urbanizacin). At the time of fieldwork in June of 1994, initial site preparation for construction had just begun, which included
grubbing and grading the entire land surface, major bulldozer cuts for
street alignments, and the excavation of a long utility trench across the
entire property on the east side (from north to south) for potable

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171

water. Prior to construction work, the land was utilized for pasture and
agriculture. The area is labeled with the name Cardn on a 1938 topographic map (1:25,000, Ilumn). As shown on this map, it and surrounding fields to the north and east consisted entirely of pasture; no
houses or other structures were present. The entire area is a plain with
a gentle downward slope to the west. Elevation averages about 2,515 m
above sea level.
Discovery of the site was the result of the opportunistic examination of the newly exposed land surface and subsurface exposures in
search of archaeological remains. Because of the construction work, an
ideal opportunity was at hand to find out whether anything of archaeological interest was present over a broad area. Given the nearness of
the Otavalo mound group (Im-1) and the Im-11 site to the south (see
Fig. 1), it seemed likely that archaeological remains would be present.
The bulldozer cuts were about 50 to 150 cm deep and 9 m wide. The
potable water trench averaged about 1.5 m deep.
An initial walk-through indicated that the ground surface of the
entire area had a low density of archaeological material. There were a
few prehistoric sherds and chunky obsidian pieces here and there, but
nothing that would suggest a specific site or habitation area. Profiling
of the bulldozer cuts, however, quickly provided at least part of an
explanation for the limited portable remains on the surface: the entire
area had once been utilized as an ancient ridge-and-furrow field system
(see Knapp 1984:245-295 and 1988:129-159) for a detailed discussion
about this type of traditional cultivation system).2 The regular patterning of the freshly exposed white furrow features made this obvious. Also, a matching pattern of furrows was often present on the
opposite sides of the bulldozer cuts, suggesting that these were indeed
long, linear features such as have been documented on the surface in
the Cayambe and other areas of the northern highlands (Batchelor
1980, Knapp and Denevan 1985). The white material of the furrows, of
course, is very fine volcanic ash, which stands in contrast to the dark
brown loam that surrounds it. However, evidence for ridges or mounds
between the furrows was completely lacking. There was not even a
trace of an outline caused by soil layering or mounding. The prominent furrows, nevertheless, leave no doubt about the nature of the
remains.

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Stephen Athens

With the initial identification of the furrows, all of the bulldozer


cuts and the single long potable water ditch were inspected for such
features. Though the ditch was not as systematically inspected as the
bulldozer cuts (i.e., it was only partially profiled), clear evidence was
obtained to indicate the distribution of this ancient field system over
the entire area of the construction project. This amounts of an area of
at least 8 hectares (Fig. 6). A measured profile was drawn of a section
of the furrow features, which provides detailed information on their
size and configuration (Fig. 7). Photographs of selected furrows are
presented in Figures 8-11.

Figure 6. Plan map of Site 94-1 (urbanizacion El Valle). The


designation TT1 indicates the location of Trench 1. GU1 is
the location of another excavation unit that sampled dense
habitation remains (not discussed in text). The Residential
Area at the bottom of the map is that of Ciudadela Imbaya.

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Figure 7. Profile of 94-1 site showing ridge field system. Layers I


and III consist of brown silt loam (Layer I is the plow zone), Layer II
is the Quilotoa ash that fills the furrow features, and Layers IV-XVIII
are Cuicocha ash. Layer XIX is a paleosol.

Figure 8. Photograph of furrow feature, Site 94-1.

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Stephen Athens

Figure 9. Photograph of furrow feature, Site 94-1.

Figure 10. Photograph of furrow feature, Site 94-1

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175

.
Figure 11. Photograph of furrow feature, Site 94-1.

Trench 1 and Site Stratigraphy


The Figure 7 profile illustrates the stratigraphy of Site 94-1 as
obtained from a north-south bulldozer cut and adjacent trench (TT1). Trench 1 was excavated at the indicated location (see Figs. 6 and 7)
for the purpose of obtaining as complete of a record as possible of the
sedimentary history of the site area. Although there were 19 distinct
sedimentary units, these may be subsumed into only four major depositional units (DU). These depositional units will be the focus of this
analysis.
DU-1 consists of Layers I (the plow zone) and III. This is a dark
brown (when moist) A-horizon formed largely from volcanic ash/sand
parent material and humic matter. It is virtually homogenous (without
lenses or subunits), though there is increased sandiness and a higher
concentration of pumice pebbles toward the base (especially the bottom 15-20 cm). Prehistoric pottery sherds were rarely found in the
upper half of Layer III and none were in the lower half.
DU-2 consists of white, very fine volcanic ash that was deposited at some intermediate time during the formation of DU-1.

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Stephen Athens

Apparently subsequent agricultural activities resulted in the ashs


blending and incorporation into the matrix of DU-1 without leaving a
trace except for that which accumulated in the furrow features. Perhaps
part of the explanation for the thick ash accumulations in the furrows
is that some of it may have been washed or blown in from the ridges
between the furrows at the time of deposition. The ash is completely
homogenous; no lensing or other subunits could be discerned in the
furrows.
DU-3, the next earlier depositional unit, consists of Layers IV
through XVIII, which comprise a number of eruptive events and related depositional features within what is believed to have been a single
volcanic episode (see below for identification and dating of the
episode). At least two layersLayers XIII and XVIsuggest fluvial
action, perhaps due to the impoundment of water behind a pyroclastic
flow.
DU-4, consisting of a dark brown sediment, is clearly a buried Ahorizon or paleosol. The Trench 1 excavation shows that it is of some
thickness (though the exact thickness was not determined). The sediment is somewhat comparable to DU-1 (though with a higher
silt/humus content), and presumably it formed over a lengthy span of
time. This same paleosol has been observed over a wide area in the
Otavalo region, including the Im-11 site (to be discussed), Peguchi, and
other localities. The water table presently occurs at the top of DU-4.
Furrow Features
There is a lack of sand in the bottom of the furrow features
(either in Layer II or III). Thus, there is no evidence for water flowing
through these ditches, which suggests that they may not have served so
much a drainage function (as usually assumed), but a source of sediment to raise the planting bed above the level of the water table (i.e., a
technique of land reclamation for agriculture) and coincidentally as a
source of fertilizer (Knapp and Denevan 1985).3 The presence of these
ditches can only indicate that the water table was once near the former
land surface; thus the ground surface of the Cardn area must have
been formerly marshy. Since the water table is presently at the top of
Layer XIX (DU-4), it is obvious that the hydrology of the site area has

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177

changed considerably, though whether as a result of modern drainage


efforts or through natural factors is not known.
None of the furrow features contained any organic material or
hint of discolored sediments as might have resulted from formerly
anaerobic conditions that would be expected in the furrows. The reason is unclear, though perhaps such were eliminated by natural pedogenic processes once the water table was lowered.
Space between furrows ranges between about 2 to 4 m. The furrows themselves are between 1.5 and 1.1 m wide (measuring the width
of the white ash), while the width of the underlying excavation into
Layer IV (below the ash) averages about 2 m wide.
There are clearly three episodes of furrow digging recorded in
the profiles. The initial furrow construction effort is recorded by the
furrow outline in Layer IV and the accumulated Layer III sediments
below the white ash. The next episode is that represented by the white
ash sediment of Layer II. The final episode is represented by the scalloping or removal of sediment from the top of the Layer II ash. The
scalloped shape at the top of most Layer II furrows could only have
been the result of subsequent excavation of a new ditch (or re-digging
or cleaning of the old ditch). This sequence of superimposed furrows,
therefore, suggests some temporal depth in the use of a ridge-and-furrow agricultural system at the Cardn location.
Chronology of Field System and Trench 1 Profile
Direct radiocarbon dating of the furrow features could not be
undertaken due to the lack of charcoal or other associated organic
material in the furrows. Another approach to dating, however, is by
means of tephrochronology (e.g., Isaacson 1987). The key is identifying the tephra in question, assuming it has already been dated in other
deposits or sites. In the case of northern highland Ecuador, a substantial effort to develop a tephrochronology has been undertaken by Hall
and Mothes (1994), and dates and distribution maps are provided for
a long series of ash falls that blanketed highland Ecuador during the
Holocene. With this basis, matching the Layer II tephra in Site 94-1 to
one of those studied by Hall and Mothes is the critical part of the exercise. Fortunately, Patricia Mothes undertook a field examination of the
exposed profiles and in situ deposits at Site 94-1. She had no difficulty

178

Stephen Athens

assigning the Layer II ash to the QUIL-1 unit of Quilotoa Volcano. As


noted earlier, two radiocarbon dates are reported for this eruption,
which are 735-666 cal. B.P. and 790-688 cal. B.P.; Hall and Mothes
1994:59-60). Based on these dates, the initial development of the ridgeand-furrow field system of Site-94-1 must date sometime prior to these
radiocarbon determinations (i.e., furrows were dug prior to the ash
fall). As it is unlikely that there is a significant temporal difference
between the earliest and middle phases of ditch construction (the middle phase being associated with the volcanic ash), the early part of the
ranges of these dates are assumed to provide an approximation for the
age of the ridge-and-furrow field system.
Since the above dating hinges on Mothes proper identification
of the Layer II ash as Quilotoa ash, it is fortunate that there is independent confirmation for a major ash fall in the immediate vicinity at this
time. This comes from the previously discussed sedimentary cores
from both Laguna Chiquita (Riedinger 1992:32-35) and Laguna Negra.
While visiting the 94-1 site, Mothes also identified the Layer IV
ash as pertaining to the Cuicocha eruption (unfortunately Trench 1
had been backfilled by this time, preventing her from observing the
deep ash deposits below Layer IV at this location). The Cuicocha ash,
which is commonly seen in road cuts and other excavations in the
Otavalo area, has radiocarbon dates of 3546-2765 and 3449-3059 cal.
B.P. (1 sigma ranges; Hall and Mothes 1994:48-50). A charcoal sample
from the base of the DU-4 volcanic series in Trench 1 (Layer XVIII)
yielded a radiocarbon determination of 3871-3576 cal. B.P. (1 sigma
range; see Table 3). This is somewhat earlier than the dates reported by
Hall and Mothes, which could either mean that the eruptive sequence
at Cuicocha began somewhat earlier than their findings indicate, or
possibly that Layer XVIII and perhaps some of the layers above constitute an entirely different and earlier eruptive episode. The latter does
not seem as likely, but regardless of which of these interpretations may
be correct, the important point is that the Layer XVIII radiocarbon
date provides a definite chronological starting point for the onset of a
major episode of volcanic activity in the Otavalo region, which apparently lasted until about 3050-3450 cal. B.P. (i.e., presumably several
hundred years). Interestingly, the Lake San Pablo cores contain a thick
Cuicocha ash layer that dates to 3413 cal. B.P. (see Table 1).

Volcanism and Archaeology

179

A radiocarbon determination of 4082-3835 cal. B.P. (1 sigma)


was also obtained from the Layer XIX paleosol in Trench 1 (see Table
3). Because this sediment date is only slightly earlier than the Layer
XVIII date (on charcoal), which is as expected from its stratigraphic
position, there is a high degree of confidence in the result. The significance of this date for archaeological purposes is that it provides a definite indication as to where to look for archaeological sites predating
about 3500 cal. B.P. in the Otavalo region. Until now there has been no
consideration of the sedimentary contexts where such early sites might
be found.
Site Im-11
This archaeological site, located along the Pan American
Highway on the northern outskirts of Otavalo, has been enigmatic
since small test units and several burials were excavated in 1972 and
1973 (Athens and Osborn 1974; see map, Fig. 12). A charcoal sample
from a bell-shaped pit feature yielded an age of 720 B.C., and another
on bone from a burial gave an age of 820 B.C. These were the earliest
ceramic period radiocarbon dates in the region, though the associated
pottery had characteristics suggesting a later time frame (e.g.,
Lumbreras 1990:19). Confounding matters were the presence of several isolated sherds of the earliest La Chimba pottery style.
In order to clarify the dating of the Im-11 site and also to obtain
botanical samples and other materials from securely documented contexts, several test units were excavated in the richest part of the site in
1994 (see profile of Trench 3, Fig. 13). Layer I consists of a dark brown
loam identical to Layers I and III at the 94-1 site. Layer II consists of
fine white volcanic ash, identified in the field by Patricia Mothes as
Cuicocha ash. Layer III is a sandy volcanic ash, representing a earlier
episode of presumably the same Cuicocha eruption. Layer IV consists
of a dark brown paleosol 60 cm thick, and Layer V consists of rocky
colluvial deposits. No evidence for Quilotoa ash was present at the Im11 site.

Ota-266

Ota264/265
Ota-288
Ota-313

94-1

94-1

Ota,1,3,
B1

Ota-427

Ota-432

Ota-448

Burial 2

Im-1

Im-11

Im-11

Im-11

Im-11

Wk-3496
NZA5070**
CAMS10177***

Wk-3495
NZA5069**

Wk-3494

Beta107685

Beta107684

Wk-3492
Wk-3493

Wk-3491
NZA5058**
Wk-3490

Burial 2 (1973 excavation)

Ridge field, Trench 1, 244-256


cm b.d., Layer XIX.
Grid 1, Level 5, 61-70 cm b.d.
Grid 1, Level 10, 100-107 cm
b.d.
Mound 3, upper charcoal lens
near base on south side (7 m
below top and pos. ca. 1 m
above base of mound).
Mound 3, lower charcoal lens,
Level 1, near base on south side;
this lens is 58 cm below the
upper lens.
Trench 3, Layer I, Level 8,
118/127-136/140 cm b.d.
Trench 3, Layer I, Level 11, 175
cm b.d., Feature 2; in situ charcoal from beneath a large
metate.
Trench 3, Layer IV, Level 18, 227
cm b.d.

Ridge field, Trench 1, 221-239


cm b.d., Layer XVIII.

-27.5 2.0

ca. 8.00
human bone

1728 72

-24.2 2.0

0.22
charcoal

1530 50

-22.7 0.2

18.42
charcoal
0.59
charcoal

1380 60

3356 75

730 50

-25.9

18.47
charcoal

680 40

-26.1

630 30
610 50

-21.6 0.2
-19.1 0.2

21.02
charcoal

3650 70

-24.9 0.2

989.4
sediment
12.68 charcoal
12.16 charcoal

3480 110

-23.9 0.2

0.38
charcoal

1335-1261

3682-3467

1710-1534

1518-1347

688-655 BP

665-564 BP

652-556 BP
652-541 BP

4082-3835 BP

3871-3576 BP

Table 3. Recent radiocarbon determinations, Sites 94-1, Im-1, and Im-11, Otavalo, Ecuador.
Lab.#
Provenience
Weight, g/
C13/C12
Conventional
Calibrated
Age B.P.
Age B.P.*
Material

A.D. 615-689

B.C. 1732-1517

A.D. 240-416

A.D. 432-603

AD 1262-1295

AD 1285-1386

AD 1298-1394
AD 1298-1409

BC 2132-1885

BC 1921-1626

Calibrated Age
A.D./B.C.*

* Calibration from Calib 3.0.3 computer program of Stuiver and Reimer (1993) using decadal treering dataset; all dates have a 1 sigma probability age range.
** Samples processed using AMS (accelerator mass spectrometry) technique
*** Sample prepared for AMS dating (XAD resin process and associated protocolsStafford et al. 1991) by Thomas W. Stafford, Jr., Laboratory for Accelerator Radiocarbon Research, Institute of Arctic and
Alpine Research, University of Colorado at Boulder (sample NSRL-751).

Ota,1,3,
A

Im-1

94-1
94-1

Cat.#

Site

180
Stephen Athens

Volcanism and Archaeology

181

Figure 12. Plan map of north part of Otavalo and Site Im-11 as
defined by the areas of excavation in 1972, 1973, 1989, and 1994. The
earthen mounds of the Otavalo group (Im-1) are also depicted. This
map is based on a 1966 aerial photograph with some additions. The
94-1 site is located immediately above the location
of the 1973 excavations.

182

Stephen Athens

Figure 13. Profile of Trench 3, Im-11 site (1994 excavations). Layer I


is a dark brown loam with ceramic-period deposits; Layers II and III,
are Cuicocha ash, Layer IV is a paleosol with preceramic deposits,
and Layer V consists of rocky colluvium. Note the large pit featureFeature 2-excavated from Layer I into Layer II.

Three new radiocarbon determinations are now available for the


archaeological deposits of Layer I (Table 3). Importantly, one of these
is a specially prepared sample (using the XAD resin process and other
protocolssee Stafford et al. 1991) that redates bone from the same
burial that had been previously dated in 1973. All of the dates, from
stratigraphically secure locations, yielded calibrated ages between
about 1650 and 1300 cal. B.P. (A.D. 300 and 650). There now can be no
longer any doubt that the ceramic-period deposits of Im-11 are intermediate in age between those of the La Chimba site and the Late Period
sites represented by the large earthen mounds of the region (Athens
1992, 1995). The original radiocarbon dates obtained from Im-11 in
1972 and 1973 are clearly incorrect.
Beneath the Im-11 archaeological deposits in Layer I there are
volcanic ash deposits (Cuicocha ash) and beneath the ash there is a
paleosol. The paleosol was carefully excavated, and all sediment was

Volcanism and Archaeology

183

waterscreened. A total of 51 pieces of obsidian flake debris (plus 351


obsidian fragments) were collected from the paleosol. Other artifacts
were absent (e.g., there was no pottery). Charcoal from one of the paleosol levels was dated to 3682-3467 cal. B.P. (B.C. 1732-1517see Table
3), again confirming the Cuicocha ash chronologysee discussion of
Site 94-1 above).
The obsidian flake debris of the paleosol appears to represent
the first documentation of apparently preceramic deposits in the
Otavalo area. Confirmation that the obsidian is in fact associated with
the paleosol (and not merely the result of downward migration from
Layer I due to bioturbation processes) comes from a hydration rind
thickness study that shows that the rinds from obsidian in the paleosol
tend to be thicker than rinds from the upper Im-11 deposits (data to
be presented in forthcoming report). Also, the obsidian is more abundant in the deeper and very compacted levels of the paleosol as
opposed to the somewhat less firm sediments in the upper part of the
paleosol, which is contrary to what might be expected if the obsidian
had derived from the Layer I deposits (above the thick Cuicocha ash).
Finally, the hypothesis of downward migration from Layer I is contradicted by the absence of small sherds in the paleosol, which also should
be expected if this was the origin of the obsidian flake debris. Thus, the
evidence very much points to a preceramic deposit in the paleosol.
As a result of the Lake San Pablo coring investigations (see
above) it is known that early maize agriculturalists were in the region
long before the earliest evidence for pottery use. Thus, the documentation of preceramic deposits in the Otavalo area should not be regarded as surprising. Many more such sites should be found in the future
now that it is known that such deposits can only be found in the paleosol beneath the Cuicocha ash.
Conclusion
Recent archaeological investigations in the northern highlands
of Ecuador have documented a long sequence of Holocene volcanic
ash falls in Lake San Pablo and Laguna Negra. These records provide a
basis for developing a detailed tephrochronology for the region, adding
to the work begun by Hall and Mothes (1994). It is clear from this data
that the region was volcanically active throughout the Holocene

184

Stephen Athens

(though some periods were more intensely so than others). However,


only a few of the ash falls appear to have been large enough to have had
a significant impact on the human occupants of the region. The beneficial effects of most ash falls for maintaining the productivity of the
regions rich agricultural soils probably more than offset their harmful
effects.
A complicating issue for developing a regional tephrochronology concerns the difficulty of correlating the documented ash falls at the
different coring locations in the study region. There is little correspondence in the stratigraphic pattern of the ash layers between the Lake
San Pablo and Laguna Negra cores. The same may also be said for the
Lake Cunro core, located near Angochagua about 13 km south-southeast of Ibarra (De Oliveira 1985:8; see also Steinitz-Kannan et al. 1988).
This suggests that there was a great deal of sub-regional variation in
tephra falls. Although this is a complicating factor, it should not preclude the development of a tephrochronology that will be of use to
archaeologists.
Investigations at the 94-1 and Im-11 sites near Otavalo demonstrate the utility of tephrochronology for preserving and dating archaeological features; besides providing important new data concerning
regional geomorphology and the identification of important regional
chrono-stratigraphic markers. In the former instance, the presence of
Quilotoa ash in the furrows of a prehistoric field system at the 94-1 site
not only provided for the preservation of what otherwise would have
been an invisible prehistoric agricultural field system, but its identification made possible the determination of its age. In this case, the field
system dates just prior to about 700 cal. B.P.
In terms of regional geomorphology and the identification of
important regional chrono-stratigraphic markers, the identification
and dating of Cuicocha ash and the underlying paleosol at both the 941 and Im 11 sites are important contributions. With respect to
Cuicocha ash, it is a widespread horizon marker in the Otavalo basin,
and new radiocarbon determinations indicate a rather protracted
eruptive episode between about 3600 and 3000 cal. B.P. (though the
Lake San Pablo cores date this event to about 3400 cal. B.P.). The
underlying paleosol is obviously the place to look in the future for early
archaeological sites. The documentation of a preceramic deposit dating

Volcanism and Archaeology

185

to about 3600 cal. B.P. in this paleosol at the Im-11 site is a case in
point.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the generous support of the
Fulbright Commission for fellowships in 1989 and 1994 that made this
research possible. My thanks also goes to the Instituto Otavaleo de
Antropologa for their sponsorship and for doing so much to facilitate
the investigations and my stay in Otavalo. The encouragement and
support of Dra. Monica Bolaos of the Instituto Nacional de
Patrimonio Cultural in 1994 are also appreciated. Thanks also to Lic.
Jos Echeverra A. for his enthusiastic help and numerous insights over
the years. To Patricia Mothes I am enormously grateful for her visits to
our excavations in 1994. The 1994 fieldwork was greatly facilitated by
the dedicated assistance of Roger Blankfein, Rona Ikehara-Quebral,
Miguel Jmenez, Maria Movira, Marco Vargas, and Jerome Ward.
Finally, I offer an agradecimiento to Margarita Tempes for translating
the abstract to Spanish.

186

Stephen Athens

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Stuiver, Minze and Paula J. Reimer


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Notas
1

2
3

Maize has a diagnostic cell structure. Dense particles of charcoal at the base of
the core were identified as maize by Dr. Roger Byrne, University of California,
Berkeley.
Other sources include Broadbent (1987), Batchelor (1980), Denevan (1970,
1982), Knapp and Denevan (1985), Parsons and Denevan (1967).
Knapp and Denevan (1985:194), however, make clear that raised fields almost
certainly performed a vital frost-protective function in the highlands of
Ecuador. It is apparent that raised field systems had multiple important agronomic functions

APROVECHAMIENTO DE CAMPOS
ANEGABLES PARA LA AGRICULTURA
EN LA EPOCA PREHISPANICA
El caso Cayambe
Fabin Villalba Sevilla
Madrid 379 y Corua, Quito.

INTRODUCCION
La presencia de tecnologas agrcolas prehispnicas se han detectado en grandes extensiones en diversas regiones de Amrica Central y
Sudamrica, sea en tierras bajas o tierras altas. Por ejmplo, en la cuenca del lago Titicaca se estima un clculo de 82.000 hectreas de campos
elevados (Smith, et al, 1981). En la llanura del ro San Jorge en la Sabana de Bogot se ha encontrado una extensin aproximada de 32.000
hectreas (Smith, op sit). Tambin han sido detectadas algunas extensiones de campos elevados asociados a lomas o grandes terraplenes en
los llanos de Moxos de la regin de Beni en la amazona de Bolivia.
Especialmente en los ltimos aos se ha podido conocer las
construcciones de ingeniera agrcola prehispnica, gracias a las nuevas
formas de reconocimiento como fotos areas convencionales e imgenes satelitales. Vale notar que existe una amplia y variada informacin
bibliogrfica de la agricultura intensiva prehispnica, expresada en una
terminologa ms conocida como andenes, terrazas, campos elevados,
qochas y terraplenes. Esta variedad de tcnicas de agricultura ha llamado la atencin de gegrafos, arquelogos, etnohistoriadores, antroplogos e historiadores.
En Ecuador se ha logrado determinar al menos tres tcnicas prehispnicas asociadas con actividades agrcolas: terrazas, campos elevados o tambin conocidos como camellones y campos lineales o zanjas.
La mayor densidad de campos elevados se encuentra en la baja cuenca
del ro Guayas, donde se ha estimado la construccin de aproximadamente 50.000 hectreas (Denevan y Mathewson, 1983).

192

Fabin Villalba

En la regin interandina en cambio, la mayora de campos elevados se localiza en la Sierra Norte, entre los cuales la zona de Cayambe
contiene un espacio de alrededor 2000 hectreas (Gondard y Lpez,
1983), con lo cual se convierte en la mayor extensin de la regin norte.
De aquella ltima extensin, 1200 hectreas estn distribuidas
en la llanura del mismo nombre, mientras que los restantes se encuentran en Paquiestancia y Cariyacu; dos poblados distanciados a 3 y 4 Km
respectivamente, al noreste de la ciudad de Cayambe.
Esta tecnologa de campos elevados tambin se encuentra en San
Pablo, al sur de Quito, San Pedro y probablemente Angochagua, para
referirnos solamente al norte del pas. En cambio, la presencia de terrazas es ms comn, muchas de las cuales hasta la actualidad se puede
apreciar como las de Cayambe, Zuleta, Pimampiro, Cordillera occidental de Imbabura y Carchi, Tulcn y Pinsaqu.
En la planicie de Cayambe, Ryder (1970) reconoce por primera
vez los campos elevados y ms tarde Batchelor (1980), realiza una clasificacin en: campos lineales acanalados y campos represados. Athens
(1980), identifica tambin, aquellos campos en Paquiestancia y al este
de Ayora , atribuyendo su construccin a los Caras, cuyo argumento
es la asociacin con sitios arqueolgicos del Perodo Tardo.
En 1983, Gondard y Lpez (Op. Sit.), realizan un inventario preliminar de monumentos arqueolgicos en la Sierra Norte, entre ellos,
determina un vasto espacio de campos elevados y terrazas agrcolas. De
acuerdo a su investigacin a las fotos areas ms antiguas disponibles
en el Instituto Geogrfico Militar, an exista para el ao 1956, todo un
gran espacio cubierto de estos grandes campos elevados en Cayambe.
Es a partir de los ltimos 30 aos, cuando las haciendas ganaderas sienten la necesidad de sembrar nuevos pastos, van ocasionado la destruccin y el desaparecimiento casi total.
LA LLANURA DE CAYAMBE
Se encuentra en el sector nordeste del valle de Guayllabamba,
provincia de Pichincha, en la parte norte del Ecuador, aproximadamente a 78 10 W y 0 4 N. La altura promedio es de 2.800 metros sobre el
nivel del mar. El valle est rodeada por un conjunto de elevaciones as:
el nudo de Mojanda Cajas (volcn Mojanda y cerro Cusin) al norte, al

Aprovechamiento de Campos Anegables

193

este el nevado Cayambe y al sur Pambamarca, al oeste de extiende con


una abertura que comunica con Guayllabamba.
Por el centro de la planicie cruza el ro Granobles, el mismo que
est alimentado bsicamente por el ro La Chimba, ro Blanco y San Jos, originados en los deshielos del nevado Cayambe. El ro Granobles
conjuntamente con el ro Guachal que aparece por el sur se convierten en los principales tributarios del Pisque que se va a unir con el
Guayllabamba (Fig. 1).
En los meses de invierno la llanura se vuelve anegable y especialmente el centro. El nivel fretico asciende hasta pocos centmetros bajo la superficie; en cambio, en verano (desde junio hasta mediados de
septiembre) el dficit hdrico es muy notorio que incluso llega a secarse el lecho del ro Granobles, apoyado tambin por el desvo del poco
caudal por acequias para el riego.
Asociacin Histrica
La llanura de Cayambe se inscribe al interior del territorio Caranqui (Cara) preincaico, el mismo que se extiende aproximadamente
entre los ros Guayllabamba al sur y el ro Chota-Mira al norte. Esta regin geogrfica presenta desde el punto de vista cultural, pautas similares de conducta socio culturales y econmicas, a las que hay que aadir el uso constante de la tierra como elemento tcnico y arquitectnico bsico en la construccin de grandes complejos monumentales conocidos como tolas, como las de Zuleta, Cochasqu, Puntiachil, Ayora,
Pinsaqu, Socapamba y Gualiman.

Figura 1. La Planicie de Cayambe.

194
Fabin Villalba

Aprovechamiento de Campos Anegables

195

Esta singularidad arquitectnica, el idioma comn y las pautas


socioculturales fundamentalmente, hace que ciertos investigadores
conserven el criterio del funcionamiento de una unidad socio-poltica
en aquel territorio, durante el perodo tardo preincaico; inicialmente
conocido como territorio Cara, trmino bautizado por el padre Juan
de Velasco (1841).
En contraposicin a dicho planteamiento, varios estudios etnohistricos proponen a este espacio geogrfico subdividido, ms bien en
dos, tres y hasta cuatro cacicazgos (Moreno, 1983; Larrain, 1980; Espinosa Soriano, 1988; Ramn, 1986; Caillavet. 1991).
Adscrito a este ltimo criterio y ms precisamente a la versin de
Galo Ramn (op sit.). Enfocamos este estudio, sobre la permanencia de
tres cacicazgos: Otavalo, Caranqu y Cayambe, distribuidos en esta parte de la Sierra Norte. El conjunto de campos agrcolas prehispnicos o
campos elevados se encuentran en la parte central de la llanura, esto es
entre el ro Upayacu y el ro Granobles hacia el norte.
Los campos elevados que se observan en la superficie de una
parte de la llanura de Cayambe, al menos los que an se conservan en
el sector de La Tola, mantienen una correspondencia cronolgica general, con el perodo de los cacicazgos tardos, desde cuyo punto de vista,
y de acuerdo al criterio etnohistrico, aquella tecnologa se asocia con
el cacicazgo Cayambe.
LA INVESTIGACION ARQUEOLOGICA
Durante tres faces de investigacin realizadas como parte del
Proyecto Arqueolgico Cayambe, auspiciado por el Instituto Nacional
de Patrimonio Cultural y la Municipalidad del cantn Cayambe se
orientaron los estudios hacia la bsqueda de informacin que permitan conocer de mejor manera la funcionalidad, morfologa y relaciones
cronolgicas de campos elevados que hasta aquel entonces an se conservaban en buen estado en los sectores de San Juan y La Tola. Los trabajos realizados, fundamentalmente se basaron en un reconocimiento
del rea y excavaciones sistemticas.
El reconocimiento consisti en una combinacin entre la revisin estereoscpica de fotos areas y el recorrido a pie por toda la extensin de la llanura por donde se haba observado seales de campos

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Fabin Villalba

elevados y tambin por aquellos lugares donde se logr registrar estructuras monumentales de tierra.
En las afueras de la planicie, se realiz un trabajo similar, nicamente en Paquiestancia y Cariyacu, lugares que tambin presentan vestigios de campos elevados.
Las excavaciones, por otra parte, se llevaron a efecto ms intensamente en el sector conocido como La Tola, donde mejor se conserva
la tecnologa agrcola preincaica. Se excav en San Juan, hacienda colindante al norte; Tajamar, igualmente colindante con La Tola pero hacia el sudeste.
Reconocimiento
El espacio habilitado a la produccin agrcola mediante la construccin de campos elevados se localiza bajo la curva de nivel de 2800
m.s.n.m., que viene de ser prcticamente el centro de la planicie a un
lado y a otro de los ros Granobles y Upayacu. El rea estimada es de
1200 has. (Gondard y Lpez op sit) observables nicamente en fotos
areas de los aos 1965.
Para los aos para cuando se pona a efecto el Proyecto Arqueolgico Cayambe (1994-95) el espacio donde se poda apreciar aquella
tecnologa se haba reducido al sector de la Hda: La Tola en una extensin aproximada de 10 has., de lo cual nicamente subsiste 1 Ha.
Todo el conjunto de campos elevados diseados en la llanura
anegable presenta una muy variada expresin en formas y dimensiones
que hacen que resulte dificultoso describirlos debido a la escasa semejanza con figuras geomtricas o figuras conocidas. A esto se debe aadir el factor destructivo provocado antes de los aos 1956, lo que ha hecho que varios de los grupos se observen desmembrados.
En general, se observan dos categoras de campos elevados: uno
corresponde a los surcos (camellones) propiamente dichos y otros a los
terraplenes. Los terraplenes no son otra cosa que elevaciones de mayor
altura que los surcos, el ancho que lleva hasta los 7m y largo ms all de
los 100m, en comparacin con los surcos (camellones) que en su mayora no pasan de los 40 m de largo.
La presencia de terraplenes siempre est relacionada con grupos
de camellones, no as, stos que pueden estar sin terraplenes. Adems,
los terraplenes, en los casos que se pudo observar, estn orientados en

Aprovechamiento de Campos Anegables

197

contra de la pendiente mnima que existe en el terreno; caracterstica


que conduce a interpretarlos como elementos que tienden a conseguir
nivelar la superficie a maneras de muros o pequeas represas en cuyo
interior yacen los areas de surcos cultivables, sin descartar la posibilidad de que pudieran servir como caminos de acceso, e inclusive tambin sean cultivables en un lado.
Los terraplenes se presentan generalmente en formas semicirculares o curvilneas y en pocos casos rectos, pero siempre aislados entre
s; en cambio los surcos (camellones) constituyen conjuntos en damero abierto (cruzados), en escalera regular e irregular y curvilneos (Fig.
2).
A parte de estas dos categoras de campos elevados es muy notorio la localizacin de pequeos montculos entremezclados y distribuidos al interior de los campos de cultivos. De acuerdo en sondeos efectuados en dos de ellos se descarta la posibilidad de que se trate de construcciones habitacionales, y mejor hay indicios de interpretarlos como
lugares de ofrendas para conseguir buenas cosechas.
La llanura de Cayambe a ms de ser un espacio aprovechado intensamente para la produccin agraria tiene vestigios propios del territorio Caranqui, como son las tolas, se encuentran asociadas a los campos elevados y tambin en la periferia de la planicie.

Figura 2. Fotografa erea tomado por IGM en 1965 de la llanura de


Cayambe y de los camellones y los terreplanos en formas
semicirculares o curvilneas.
Fuente: Instituto Geogrfico Militar (Quito), rollo 215, fotografa 9330.

198

Fabin Villalba

Un conjunto de tolas distribuidas en el interior de los espacios de


cultivo es el de Tajamar. Un poco ms al sudeste del mencionado sitio
se encuentran varias tolas en apariencia aisladas, dos de ellas son cuadrilaterales con rampa. En la periferia de la planicie hay dos complejos
monumentales de tolas: Puntiachil y Ayora con sus caractersticas morfolgicas propias.
EXCAVACIONES
El programa de excavaciones estuvo orientado para definir caractersticas tecnolgicas de los campos elevados y tratar de comprender la funcionalidad de elementos asociados tales como montculos circulares o alargados.
Durante este proceso se logra distinguir las caractersticas constructivas de los surcos y terraplenes. La diferencia es notoria al encontrarse que los terraplenes contienen una estructura de bloques de tierra
dura (conocidos en la regin como cangahua); en cambio los surcos
son acumulaciones de suelo suave y orgnico y solamente se distingue
un estrato superior relacionado con el espacio cultivable. En ambos casos se aprecia muy poca presencia de material cultural.
Las excavaciones realizadas en dos montculos asociados a campos elevados del sector La Tola nos ayuda a descartar la posibilidad de
que aqu se haya levantado alguna construccin habitacional o de otro
tipo, por la ausencia total de moldes de poste o cimientos.
A cambio se encontr material cultural diagnstico como cermica y ltica en condiciones muy especiales. En un montculo estuvo
presente en la parte este dos ollas de cermica en sentido cruzado, al sur
aparecen una concentracin de fragmentos de cermica en un espacio
bien delimitado. En otro montculo se registr una frecuencia considerable de cermica reconstruble al fondo de un corte tipo zanja abierto
bajo el canal de dos surcos presentes a 1 m de profundidad.
En otro espacio abierto localizado a escasos 20 m al sudeste del
conjunto de tolas Tajamar, aparecen 12 piezas de cermica completas
pero fragmentadas. Este ltimo hallazgo debera ser interpretado como
una clara evidencia de un lugar donde se preparaban alimentos, cuyo
criterio es reforzado por el carcter utilitario de dichos objetos y por la
presencia de holln en las ollas.

Aprovechamiento de Campos Anegables

199

Otro hallazgo tambin muy significativo para comprender el carcter histrico de los campos elevados es, adems de los surcos subterrneos del montculo, es un conjunto de campos elevados existentes
igualmente bajo la superficie en un corte provocado por un desvo accidental del ro Upayacu en el lugar de la Hda. San Juan (Fig. 3).
El corte del ro deja a la vista un conjunto de 5 surcos que estaran orientados en sentido nordeste, por debajo de dos estratos.
El estrato superior o actual es un suelo de color caf obscuro
(10YR 3/3) de 80 cm de espesor y de alto contenido orgnico. En fotos
areas de 1956 se puede observar en este espacio campos elevados del
tipo escalera y damero. En la columna estratigrfica del nivel superior,
se observa unas pequeas concavidades, las cuales seguramente se tratan de los surcos presentes en la superficie.
El siguiente estrato es una ceniza blanca-gris fina (5Y 8/1) de 100
cm de espesor en los canales de los surcos que subyacen. En cambio en
la cresta de los surcos este segundo estrato es de 50 cm. El depsito de
ceniza representa varias faces de la erupcin del volcn Quilotoa hace
aproximadamente 800-900 aos antes del presente (Mothes, 1994:).
El siguiente y tercer estrato es el suelo cultural de color caf grisceo (10YR 5/2) compuesto por surcos o campos elevados cortados
semitransversalmente. Los surcos tienen una altura entre 60 y 70 cm y
una longitud de onda para la mayora de 2.3 m y uno que se separa 4
m. En el interior se encontr dos fragmentos de cermica.
Siguiendo la descripcin de los depsitos que contiene hacia
abajo se encuentra una capa de ceniza de 4 cm la misma que sugiere
como fuente el volcn Pululagua en su ltima erupcin hace 2300 aos
AP. Ms abajo de esta ceniza hay un suelo negro ( 10YR 3/1) de 70 cm
de espesor donde aparece un fragmento de cermica .

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Fabin Villalba

Figura 3. Camellones al lado del Ro Upayacu, Hacienda San


Juan, llanura de Cayambe, relleos con ceniza fina, color grisblanco, proveniente de una tremenda erupcin del volcn Quilotoa hace 800 aos.

Resultados finales
De acuerdo a los estudios preliminares realizados en la planicie
de Cayambe, orientados a la bsqueda de informacin bsica que nos
sirva como elementos de referencia que conduzca a intensificar estudios ms especficos del pasado aborigen de esta rea, podemos asumir
tentativamente la distribucin especial del rea destinada a la produccin agrcola en una amplia llanura, de la cual el sector ms hmedo ha
sido modificado e incorporado a la produccin mediante una alta inversin de fuerza de trabajo comunitario.
Aquellos campos que sobreviven a la destruccin de las haciendas ganaderas dan cuenta de un nivel de conocimientos muy elevado
en la construccin misma. La continuidad en la reconstruccin de
aquellos campos destruidos e inhabilitados por la acumulacin de cenizos volcnicos dan cuenta de la eficiencia y eficacia en el funcionamiento de la tcnica. Debe interpretarse como una tecnologa sustentada en la existencia de una especializacin al interior de la organizacin
social de la sociedad para la produccin agrcola prehispnica. En el ca-

Aprovechamiento de Campos Anegables

201

so de Cayambe el uso y manejo de suelos de sociedades preincaicas, es


una alternativa de rehabilitacin de terrenos anegadizos para ser incorporados a la produccin de alimentos.
Los campos elevados son surcos o huachos (en idioma Quichua), de dimensiones mayores a los que hace el arado en la tierra, son
hechos a mano, mediante la extraccin de suelo, el cual se va colocando a los lados hasta conseguir elevaciones mayores a la superficie original.
La presencia de las estaciones bien marcadas en el rea: una lluviosa y otra de sequa oblig a los agricultores preincaicos a construir
en los lugares donde el nivel fretico es muy alto y el declive del terreno es mnimo, conjuntos de grandes surcos, que vengan a resolver por
una parte el problema de la presencia de excesiva humedad y las prolongadas sequas; y, por otra parte la amenaza de las heladas.
De acuerdo a observaciones en el sector de La Tola, la presencia
de grandes terraplenes semicirculares y rectos resolvera el problema de
la necesidad de retener agua para irrigar por filtracin y a la vez servira para controlar el drenaje de aguas lluvias en el perodo de inviernos.
De esta manera sera posible conseguir dos cosechas al ao.
De forma paralela los canales de los surcos se convierten en una
agente que minimizar la destruccin de los cultivos provocados por la
cada de heladas, al crear un microclima favorable con uno o dos grados de temperatura mayor que el ambiental. Al respecto varios experimentos han sido documentados comprobando en buena medida una
menor afectacin de heladas en sembros con campos elevados (Riley
y Freimuth, 1979; Waddell 1972; Knapp 1988; Erickson 1986).
En Cayambe una de las corrientes de viento, muy conocidas por
los campesinos del lugar, es el huayracusin. Aparece en el cerro Cusin,
localizado al norte de la llanura, se desplaza por sus laderas sureas y
pasa a recorrer una buena parte de la llanura. Esta corriente de viento
aparece con ms fuerza en verano, en los meses de julio, agosto y septiembre a su paso provoca la destruccin de sembro.
En los lmites de San Juan y La Tola existe an una elevacin artificial alargada de aproximadamente 150 m, 4 de alto y 3 de ancho, de
origen prehispnico. De acuerdo a versiones del mayordomo de la hacienda El Prado, localizada ms al norte de San Juan, hasta hace dos dcadas varias de estas construcciones artificiales an existan en dicha
hacienda. En apariencia estos promontorios alargados de tierra, esta-

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Fabin Villalba

ran cumpliendo la funcin de cortinas rompevientos, debido en parte


a la orientacin perpendicular a la direccin de circulacin del viento
del Cusin.
Las funciones ms importantes de los campos elevados seran:
habilitacin de suelos para la produccin agrcola intensiva; control del
agua definido en el drenaje y su retencin; control de agentes naturales
destructivos de los cultivos como las heladas; y produccin de abono
natural.
A parte de la descripcin formal e interpretacin de los campos
elevados es fundamental considerar que estos constituyen una tcnica
de produccin agrcola y que en algunos casos estn asociados con canales de riego, lugares de almacenamiento y de cuidado de los cultivos.
Deben ser vistos como parte del sistema agrcola en el cual intervienen
factores como el ambiental, econmico y social e ideolgico. Estamos
de acuerdo con Hilda Araujo, quin sostiene que la ingeniera agrcola
prehispnica forma parte de una cosmovisin que se plasma en un manejo y control sistmico, coherente del espacio y territorio, y que rebasa por ello, a una consideracin parcial y aislada de lo agrcola propiamente dicho (Araujo, 1986: 278).

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