Lighting & Acoustics

Objective of Course
To acquaint the students about light and sound theory and their
application to building design
Unit 1:
- Day lighting: Physical parameters of day lighting, Day light penetration, Day light factor
- Integrating day lighting with artificial, automatic control of artificial lighting in relation to
day lighting, calculation of requirements of artificial lighting in relation to available day
lighting
- Types of lamps : Incandescent Lamp, Reflector Lamp, Blown bulb lamps, Tungsten Halogen
Lamp, Tubular fluorescent lamps, Mercury vapour lamps, Sodium Vapour Lamps, Compact
Fluorescent lamps
Unit 2:
- Vocabulary of artificial lighting: Lumens, Lux, M.F., R.I.R, Lighting level requirements for
various areas
- Types of Luminaries Decorative commercial, Industrial, Outdoor, Working out room index
ratio and coefficient of utilization
- Design of artificial lighting for various types of buildings
- External lighting : Lighting for various types of buildings

Unit 3:
- Acoustical concepts: Wave theory, Sound power, Sound intensity, Decibels, Sound power
level, Sound intensity level, Sound pressure level, frequency bands concept of reflection,
absorption, transmission.
- Absorption coefficient, NRC, Sound absorption materials, fibrous, membrane, resonators,
perforated facing, application techniques.
- Noise control by absorption, Sound transmission, Transmission loss, Composite barriers,
Noise reduction between rooms, Light construction.
Unit 4:
- Reverberation time (RT), Calculation of RT, Sample problems, RT and noise criteria for
spaces for speech and music.
- Acoustical design of enclosed spaces for speech and music, reflection analysis, echoes,
flutter echo, foci.
- Acoustical design consideration in interior design and sound amplification system.

Introduction - Lighting
Building - acts as a barrier between the Internal and
External environment
Internal environment Controlled
External environment Undesirable conditions.
Building should be a selective barrier or filter, which
excludes the unwanted influences whilst admits those
which are desirable.
One such desirable effect is Day light.
Most important communication channel for man with
his environment is Vision and without light this
communication is not possible.
Light is prerequisite for seeing

Light

Natural
Source of Day light is Sun and Sky
Ultimate Source of Daylight is Sun
Large amount of thermal radiation are
received with light
In Bright Sunshine, Illumination is
around 100 Klux (1,00,000 Lux)

Artificial
Light source is under designers control
Light source is independent of Location,
Climate

Nature of Light
Light is a narrow Wavelength band of electromagnetic radiations i.e. 380nm 780nm
These waves are vibrations of electric and magnetic fields that pass through space.
Each colour has its own particular wavelength and frequency.

A wavelength is the
distance between the
same locations on
adjacent waves

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The frequency of a wave

is determined by the
number of complete
waves, or wavelengths,
that pass a given point
each second

 Light travels along a straight path.

Velocity of light 3 X 108 m/s
When light from the sun passes through a prism, the light is split into the seven visible
colours by refraction.
Refraction is caused by the change in speed experienced by a wave of light when it
changes medium.

Transmission
Reflectance (r)
Absorption (a)
Transmittance (t)
Transparent : These materials when exposed to light transmit large part of it.
Opaque: These materials when exposed to light block the passage of light.
Therefore behind an opaque object there is no light.
Translucent: These are materials which transmit part of incident light, break its
straight passage, scatter it in all directions, creating diffuse light.

In all cases, r + a + t = 1
In case of opaque objects, t=0, r + a = 1

Photometric quantities/ Vocabulary of artificial lighting

Intensity of Light (I) : Light flux emitted in a particular direction from a
given light source. {measured in units of Candela (cd) }
OR

luminous intensity is a measure of the wavelengthweighted power emitted by a light source in a particular
direction per unit solid angle.
The SI unit of luminous intensity is the candela(cd)

Flux (or Flow) of Light (F)(): Light flux is the total quantity of light
emitted per second. {Measured in Lumens (Lm)}
It is the total perceived power emitted in all directions.
Illuminance (E): amount of flux falling on unit area i.e. Lm/m2
E = / Surface Area
It is a measure of the intensity of the incident Light
Lux(= lm/m2)
Luminance (L): measure of brightness of a surface.
often used to characterize emission or reflection from surfaces
It is an indicator of how bright the surface will appear.
L= I/ Surface area {measured in cd/ m2}

Photometric quantities/ Vocabulary of artificial lighting

Candela Definition: The candela is the
luminous intensity, in a given direction, of
a source that emits monochromatic
radiation of frequency 540 1012 hertz
and that has a radiant intensity in that
direction of 1683 watt per steradian.
The steradian is the cone of light as it
emerges from the source, such that it
would light up one meter square of the
inside of a sphere with a one meter
radius.
The frequency chosen is in the visible
spectrum near green, corresponding to a
wavelength of about 555 nanometers.
The human eye is most sensitive to this
frequency, when adapted for bright
conditions.

Conversions

Lighting level requirements for various areas

Illuminance

Day Light Factor Concept

Daylight Factor :
In a building, at a certain point,
the ratio of the illumination to
the simultaneous out-door
illumination can be taken as
constant. This constant ratio,
expressed as a percentage, is
the daylight factor.
Day light factor concept is valid
only under conditions, when
there is no direct sunlight.

Day Light Factor Concept

Consider a point inside a
building {say P}

Light from sun reaches

P in following ways

Diffused or Skylight : Through a window or opening

Externally Reflected Light(ERC) : by ground or other buildings through same
window
Internally Reflected Light (IRC): From walls, ceiling or other internal surfaces.
Direct Sunlight: along a straight path from the sun

Day Light Factor Concept

DF = E I / E o X 100
Where E I = Illumination Indoor
(At the point taken)
E o = Illumination Outdoor
(from Unobstructed sky hemisphere)
DF = SC + ERC+ IRC
Where SC = Sky Component
ERC = Externally Reflected Component
IRC = Internally Reflected Component
Day light factor concept is valid only under conditions, when there is no direct sunlight.

Day Light Factor Concept

DF = E I / E o X 100
Where E I = Illumination Indoor
E o = Illumination Outdoor

SC : The area of sky visible from the point considered and its average altitude angle (i.e.
Luminance of sky at that angle)
ERC: The area of external surfaces visible from the point considered and the reflectance of
these objects.
IRC: The size of the room and reflectance of these indoor surfaces.

Concept of Utilization Factor

A source of I candela emits a total flux of 4I lumens
At a distance d this flux will be distributed over a
sphere of radius d i.e. 4d2
E = 4I / 4d2

I / d2

This is known as Inverse square law and applicable

when the illuminated plane is normal to the direction
of light. i.e. angle of incidence, = 0
When the plane is tilted, the same flux is distributed
over a larger area, thus illumination is reduced.
This reduction is proportionate to the cosine of angle
of incidence.
E = En X Cos
E = Illumination on a tilted plane
En = Illumination on normal plane

Concept of Utilization Factor

Illumination of a surface from several sources will be
the simple sum of the component illuminations
E = E1+ E2+ E3+

But, the method above leads to very lengthy and cumbersome

calculation.
If the fittings are positioned in a regular array, much simpler method
can be followed, based on the concept of utilization factor.

UF = FR / FI
Where FR = Total flux received on the working plane
FI = Total flux emitted by all the lamps.

Concept of Utilization Factor

This UF depend on
- Geometrical proportions of the room.
- Mounting height of the lamp.
- Surface reflectance's
- type of fitting used.
Values of UF can be found in fitting catalogue . Generally
its value ranges from
For downward direct lighting 0.4 0.9
For diffusing fittings
0.2 0.5
For indirect lighting
0.05 0.2

Maintenance Factor: Allowance should be made for dirt on the fitting or

deterioration of the lamp.
The UF should be multiplied by maintenance factor (MF) (usually = 0.8)

Types of Lamps
Incandescent Lamps:
An electric current passes through a
thin filament, heating it until it
produces light.
These are lamps in which current is
passed through a tungsten filament.
The enclosing glass bulb prevents the
oxygen in air from reaching the hot
filament, which otherwise would be
destroyed rapidly by oxidation.
These lamps have luminous efficacy
of 10 16 Lm/ W
5% of Light and 95% Heat.
Low Installation cost
Warm colour tone
Application: Interiors, Exteriors,
Night lamps, Decorative lighting in
chandelier, signboards, Torches etc.

Types of Lamps
Reflector Lamps:
Reflector lamps are for directional
light. No more wastage of energy.
Lamps with Satin frosted front
finish and internal mirror reflector.
Satin frosted finish ensures
diffused output and internal
reflector gives high intensity beam.

Types of Lamps
Halogen Lamps :
A halogen lamp is an incandescent
lamp in which a tungsten filament
is sealed into a compact
transparent envelope filled with an
inert gas and halogen
These last longer than Filament
bulb but are more costly.
Produce white light than ordinary
tungsten.
Small and energy efficient.
Compact and easy to install and
maintain.
Application: Car parks,
Construction areas, security
lighting, storage yards, Factory
Bays, Godowns, Monuments etc.

Types of Lamps
Fluorescent Lamps:
These tubular fluorescent lamps
are basically low pressure mercury
vapour lamps.
These have advantage of low
wattage consumption and higher
efficacy.
Use of these lamps are diverse and
almost universal.
These lamps give 40-70 lm/W
These lamps give 21% - light and
79% heat.
A fluorescent lamp tube is filled
with a gas containing low pressure
mercury vapour and argon, xenon,
neon or krypton.
The inner surface of the bulb is
coated with a fluorescent (and
often slightly phosphorescent)

It is a gas discharge lamp that uses

electricity to excite mercury vapour.
This exited mercury vapour then
produce ultraviolet light. The UV light is
absorbed by the bulb's fluorescent
coating, which re-radiates the energy at
longer wavelengths to emit visible light.

Types of Lamps
High Intensity Discharge Lamps :
The high ceiling and heights in
Industrial interiors and outdoor
lighting applications necessitate
the use of high intensity light
sources.
These lamps have high lumen
output.
These include Mercury Vapour and
Sodium Vapour lamps.
A mercury-vapor lamp is a gas
discharge lamp which uses mercury
in an excited state to produce light.
A sodium vapor lamp is a gas
discharge lamp which uses sodium
in an excited state to produce light.

Types of Lamps
High Intensity Discharge Lamps :
Application: typically used when
high levels of light over large areas
are required, large public areas,
movie theaters, football stadiums,
outdoor activity areas, roadways,
parking lots, floodlighting of
monuments, ports etc.

Types of Lamps

Compact fluorescent lamp:

CFLs generally use less power
have a longer rated life
higher purchase price

Three objectives of modern lighting design

Task Lighting:
Designed specifically to direct light onto some task performed by a person or machine.
(e.g. focus on page while reading, type-writer, keyboard, rather than throwing shadows
or glare on to the screen)
Combine task lighting with background lighting to avoid eye strain.
Ensure that specific work areas are not in shadows.
Accent Lighting:
The basic purpose of an accent lighting is to produce a specific focus on a single object
or detail in a room.

Ambient Lighting:
This lighting fills the undefined areas of a room with a soft level of light.
This is to soften the contrast between the light source and surroundings areas.
Illumination should be uniform.
It helps to enhance the general ambience.

Luminaires
Luminaire:
A body housing the light source which has been designed to produce a particular spatial
distribution of light by using reflector or diffuser surfaces. Certain light fittings
incorporate part or all or the auxiliary equipment necessary for correct functioning of
the light source.
Indoor Commercial Luminaire
Create an optimum ambience combined with high efficiency, good glare protection and
maximum comfort.
Also perform other functions like creation of moods, add value by highlighting products.
Indoor Industrial Luminaire
High efficiency luminaires
Initial cost and maintenance expense.
Outdoor Lighting
Long life, economical in long run.
(include street lighting, floodlighting etc)

 Commercial Luminaires

 Indusrtial Luminaires

 Outdoor Lighting

Factors to be considered while selecting light fixtures

Function:
A primary consideration about any fixture is to ensure that it directs the light where it is
needed.
Size:
Should be according to room area.
Design:
Personal taste, manufacturers offer variety of fixtures like spotlights, pendants, track
lights, wall, floor and ceiling fixtures.
Flexibility:
Movable or adjustable lamps offer more flexibility.
Cost:
Consider both purchase and operating cost in selecting light fixtures.
Maintenance:
To achieve optimum efficiency, all fixtures should be cleaned regularly.

Light Fittings

GLARE
Glare:
Glare is defined as a shine with a harsh, dazzling light.
One of the most important considerations in the placement of light fixtures is to study
the glare they produce.
Types of Glare:
Direct Glare:
A bare light source is the worst kind.
Deeply recessed light fixture will solve the problem.
The interior surface finish of the reflector can also affect the amount of glare.
Reflected Glare:
Light bounces from an object into our eyes from the same angle it hits it.
Angle should not be too steep. (safety range is about 30 45 degree)
Veiling Glare:
If a light fixture is located directly over a flat, shiny surface, veiling glare can be a
problem.

GLARE

Bright, concentrated light source above and forward of the task

surface present the ideal condition for veiling reflectance's.

Colour Rendition/ Colour Rendering index/ Correlated colour temperature

The interaction between an object and a light source is called colour rendition.

E.g. Colour of a blue vase under a blue light will be heightened as the colour of the light
intensifies the colour of vase.
Under red light same vase will appear dull (red absorbed and no blue light to reflect)
To solve this problem different light sources throw different amount of colours.
The colour rendering index (CRI) is a quantitative measure of the ability of a light source to
reproduce the colours of various objects faithfully in comparison with an ideal or natural
light source.
The colour rendering characteristic of a lamp describe how natural the surroundings appear
in its light.

Light sources with a high CRI are desirable in color-critical applications.

Technically, colour temperature refers to the temperature to which one would have to heat
a theoretical "black body" source to produce light of the same visual color.

Colour temperature describes the

colour appearance of the light
source and the light emitted from
it.
Colour rendering describes how
well the light renders colours in
objects.

Spectral Power Distribution :

the power per unit area per unit wavelength of an illumination
OR
more generally, the per-wavelength contribution to any radiometric quantity (radiant
energy, radiant flux, radiant intensity, radiance, irradiance, radiant exitance, or
radiosity).
SI units: watt meter3
is the radiant flux of the source
A is the area over which the radiant flux is integrated
is the wavelength

Soft, hard, Warm and Cool Colours

Introduction - Acoustics
Acoustics is the branch of physics that deals with the production, control,
transmission, reception, and effects of sound.
The science of sound acoustics can be broadly divided into two major areas:
a) The handling of wanted sound i.e. creation of most favorable conditions for
listening to a sound we want to hear. (room acoustics)
b) The handling of unwanted sound i.e. Noise
Hearing is most important communication channel (second to vision)
Noise is the term used for unwanted
sound, thus definition is subjective, one
mans sound is another mans noise.
Noise may also be defined as a disturbance
in an elastic medium which includes solid,
liquid and gasses.

Areas

Rural
low density of rural areas ensures
greater distance between source and
listener.
In village areas, one knows everyone
else, sound originates from known
source.

Urban
Noise sources are Industries, factories,
aircrafts, radio etc.
High density towns Distances between
sources and listeners are much less.

Nature of Sound
Sound is sensation caused by vibrating medium acting on the ear, but term is usually
applied to vibration itself.
The medium conveying it to ear can be gas (air), liquid or solid.
In gases or liquids, vibrations are transmitted as a longitudinal wave motion.
In solids, vibrations are transmitted as lateral wave motion.
As density of air changes with temperature, velocity of sound also varies with air
temperature (for rough calculations 340 m/s)

Sound Waves

A wavelength is the
distance between the
same locations on
adjacent waves
The frequency of a wave
is determined by the
number of complete
waves, or wavelengths,
that pass a given point
each second

Transverse wave

Longitudinal or compression wave (sound)

Sound consists of longitudinal or compression waves that move through air or
other materials. It does not travel in a vacuum. Sound has the characteristics of
wavelength, frequency, speed and amplitude. Sound waves are created by the
vibration of some object and are detected when they cause a detector to vibrate.

Nature of Sound - Classification of Sound

Depending upon the position of source, sound can be broadly divided into two classes :
Airborne sound
An airborne sound is one which is transmitted through air and travels direct to the ear
of the person.
This type of sound travels from one part of building to another or from outside of the
building to the inside through open doors, windows or other openings.

Impact sound/Structureborne sound

The sound which is first transmitted through structure is called impact sound.
The noise of footsteps, furniture movement, dropping of utensils.
Impact sounds are troublesome and are often very sharp.

Nature of Sound
Speed of Sound Wave
In general, the speed of sound c is given by

where
C is a coefficient of stiffness (or the modulus of bulk elasticity for gas mediums)
is the density

Nature of Sound
Power and Intensity:
Power is output of a source and it is measured as rate of energy flow (unit Watts)
Sound intensity is the strength of sound in a carrying medium (e.g. air) or in other
words, density of energy flow through unit area. (unit W/m2)
In case of a point source emitting sound uniformly in all directions
I = W/ 4 d2
Where, I is intensity in W/m2
d is distance from source
This is known as Inverse Square Law.

Nature of Sound
Sound Pressure
Sound pressure is the local pressure deviation from the ambient (average, or
equilibrium) pressure caused by a sound wave.
The SI unit for sound pressure is the pascal (symbol: Pa)
Sound Pressure Level

Where, P is sound pressure being measured

P0 is the reference sound pressure (usually = 20 Pa)
Sound Power Level

Where, W is power emitted

W0 is the reference power (10 -12 Watt)

Ears Sensitivity
The average person can hear
frequencies from 20 to 16000 Hz
(this range reduces with age)
Standard threshold of audibility is
10 -12 W/m2 (1 picowatt per Sq. Mt.)
Threshold of pain is 1 W/m2
The ear has a built in defence
mechanism: its sensitivity decreases for
higher intensity sounds.
N = 10 Log I /I0
The logarithm of the ratio of the
measured sound intensity to the
Where I = the measured Intensity
intensity at the threshold gives the
I0 = Reference Intensity (10 -12 W/m2 )
sound level scale or decible (dB) scale.

Ears Sensitivity
Decibel (dB) is a unit for expressing
relative pressure or intensity of sounds
on a uniform scale from 0 for the least
perceptible sound to about 130 for the
average threshold of pain.
Because decibel measurement is based
on a logarithmic scale, the decibels of
two sound sources cannot be added
mathematically.
An equal loudness contour is a curve
that represents the sound pressure level
at which sounds of different frequencies
are judged by a group of listeners to be
equally loud.

Noise in Enclosed Space

Sound incident on the surface of a solid
body is partly reflected, partly absorbed
and partly transmitted.
Absorption coefficient all the sound
that is not reflected (i.e. includes the
part actually absorbed and transmitted)
Absorption coefficient is denoted by a
Absorption (A) = a X s
Where a = absorption coefficient
s = area of given surface

Noise in Enclosed Space

In an enclosed space, even from single
source, there will be a complex pattern
of interreflected sound (referred as
reverberant sound)
At any point in room the total sound
received will consists of two parts:
-Direct Component
-The reverberant component
The magnitude of reverberant
component depends on the absorbent
qualities of room surfaces.

Noise in Enclosed Space

Reflective surfaces are useful when they
reinforce desirable sounds by directing
and distributing their paths in a room.
The continued presence of reflected
sounds, can also cause problems of
echo, flutter or reverberation.
Echoes: when a reflecting surface is so
far away from the source that the sound
is reflected back as a distinct repetition
of the direct sound, the reflected sound
is called an echo.
Echoes are produced, when the time
interval between the direct and the
reflected sound waves is about 1/15th of
a second.

Flutter: In smaller rooms, parallel

reflective surfaces can cause a rapid
succession of echoes we call flutter.

Noise in Enclosed Space

Reverberation: when the sound waves
get reflected, a part of sound energy is
converted into heat energy by friction
and is absorbed by the walls.
Subsequently the reflected waves get
inter reflected from one surface to
another until they gradually fade and
become inaudible.
This phenomenon of undue
prolongation of sound by successive
reflections from surrounding surfaces,
after the source has ceased is termed as
reverberation.
Reverberation: The persistence of a
sound within a space, caused by
multiple reflections of the sound after
its source has stopped.

While some music is enhanced by long

reverberation times, speech can
become muddled in such an acoustic
environment.
To ensure clarity of sound, it may be
necessary to alter the shape and
orientation of a rooms surfaces or
adjust the ratio of reflective and
absorbent materials.

Noise in Enclosed Space

Reverberation Time: The reverberation
period is the time taken for the sound energy
to decay by 60 db, after the sound source has
stopped.
Formula for calculating reverberation time by
Prof. Sabine
t = 0.16 V / a1s1 + a2s2 + a3s3 + ..
Where t= time of reverberation
V = Volume of room in m3
a1, a2,a3..= Coefficient of absorption
s1, s2, s3= area of absorbing surface

Noise in Enclosed Space

The time of reverberation plays a significant role in achieving
desired acoustical condition.
If the reverberation time is too long it results in overlapping of
speech, and if its too short, it produces the effect of deadness.
Reverberation time > 3 seconds (considered Bad)
3 sec > Reverberation time > 2 seconds (Fairly good)
2 sec > Reverberation time > 1/2 seconds (Very good)

The selection of correct time of reverberation is called optimum

time of reverberation.
Presence of audience in a room reduces the time of
reverberation. This is on account of the absorption provided by
the audience ( due to clothing worn by persons)
(Therefore theatre will have greater reverberation time when its empty )

Noise in Enclosed Space

Noise Insulation
Noise insulating qualities of an element can be expressed by:
Transmission coefficient (t): A decimal fraction, expressing the proportion of sound
energy (Intensity) transmitted.
Transmission Loss (TL) or Sound reduction index: The reduction effect of an element
expressed in dB.
e.g. A wall with TL = 30 dB will reduce noise of
90 30 = 60dB
The relationship between the two quantities is reciprocal and logarithmic:
TL = 10 Log 1/t
or
t = antilog TL/10

Noise Control
Means of Noise Control:
Against External Noise the following means of protection are available to the
designer:
Distance
Avoiding zones of direction sound
Screening
Planning: Using non noise sensitive parts of the building as barriers
Noise insulating building envelope
Against Internal Noise (generated within the building) the following means of
protection are available to the designer:
Reduction at Source
Enclosing and isolating the source, or use of absorbent screen
Planning: Separating noisy spaces from the quiet ones; placing indifferent areas
in-between
Reduce impact noises by covering surfaces with resilient materials
Reduce noise in the space where it is generated by absorbent surfaces
Reduce airborne sound transmission by airtight and noise insulating construction
Reduce structureborne sound transmission by discontinuity

Noise Control The Screening effect of barriers

Noise Control The Screening effect of barriers

Reduction within a space

Noise in the space where source is located can be divided into two components
Direct and Reverberant Noise.
Direct Noise :
Can be reduced by placing a screen between the source and the listener.
The closer this screen is to the source, the better result will be (Optimum is full
enclosure)
Reverberant Noise :
Can be reduced by using absorbent materials on critical surfaces of the room.

Absorbent qualities of different materials vary with the frequency. Four basic type of
absorbents can be distinguished:

Sound
Absorbents

Sound Absorbents

Sound Absorbents
Material having hard, rigid and non porous surface, provide the least absorption.
Flexible, soft , porous can vibrate and absorb more sound.
Classification of Absorbents:
Porous Absorbents:
When sound wave strike the surface of porous material, part of the wave get
reflected while part enters the pores and is thought to be dissipated into heat energy.
The efficiency depends upon thickness and porosity.
E.g. Slagwool, wood wool, faomed plastic, perforated fibreboards etc.
These are mainly selected to absorb sound having high frequency.
Resonant Absorbents:
The absorbent material is fixed on sound framing (usually Timber) with an air space
left between framing and the wall at the back.
Such arrangement works most efficient for absorbing low frequency sound waves.
The principle of sound absorption in this method is that sound waves cause vibrations
in the panel which act as a diaphragm. The absorption of sound takes place by virtue
of the dampening of vibration in the panel by means of the air space behind the
panel.

Sound Absorbents
Classification of Absorbents:
Cavity Absorbents :
Cavity resonators essentially consists of a chamber with a narrow opening in which
absorption takes place by resonance of the air in the chamber which gives loss of
sound energy.
Such an arrangement is effective over a single selected frequency.
Application of cavity resonator is normally restricted to absorption from individual
machine or in similar cases.
Composite type of Absorbents :
They consists of perforated panels mounted on battens so as to leave a cavity
between panels and wall at the back.
The panels may be of metal, wood hardboard etc.
The area of holes in the panel should vary between 10 to 20% of total area of the
panel.
The effectiveness of this system can be increased by placing a porous material in the
cavity.
This type is commonly used, as it is easy to install, economical and accommodate
wide range of frequencies.

Multilayer Construction

Ventilators

Resonance_Data from Internet for reference

A resonator is a device or system that exhibits resonance or resonant behavior, that
is, it naturally oscillates at some frequencies, called its resonance frequencies, with
greater amplitude than at others. The oscillations in a resonator can be either
electromagnetic or mechanical (including acoustic). Resonators are used to either
generate waves of specific frequencies or to select specific frequencies from a signal.
Musical instruments use acoustic resonators that produce sound waves of specific
tones.
A cavity resonator, usually used in reference to electromagnetic resonators, is one in
which waves exist in a hollow space inside the device. Acoustic cavity resonators, in
which sound is produced by air vibrating in a cavity with one opening, are known as
Helmholtz resonators.
In physics, resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate at larger amplitude at
some frequencies than at others. These are known as the system's resonant
frequencies (or resonance frequencies). At these frequencies, even small periodic
driving forces can produce large amplitude vibrations, because the system stores
vibrational energy.

Acoustical Definitions
Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC): NRC is a single-number rating representing and
overview of how much sound is absorbed by a material.
Example: gypsum board (drywall) on 2x4 studs has an NRC of 0.05.

Soft materials like acoustic foam, fibreglass, fabric, carpeting, etc. will have high
NRCs; harder materials like brick, tile and drywall will have lower NRCs.
A materials NRC is an average of its absorption coefficients at 250, 500, 1000 and
2000 Hz.
In general, the higher the number, the better the absorption.
NRC is useful for a general comparison of materials. However, for materials with very
similar NRCs, it is more important to compare absorption coefficients.
Sound Absorption Coefficient (a)
The actual absorption coefficients of a material are frequency dependent and
represent how well sound is absorbed in a particular octave or one-third octave band.
Example: drywall on 2x4 studs has an absorption coefficient at 125 Hz of 0.29.

Acoustical Definitions
Sound Transmission Class (STC) :
STC is a single-number rating of how effective a material or partition is at isolating
sound.
Example: drywall has an STC of 28.
is a single-number rating representing and overview of how much sound is absorbed
by a material.

Hard materials like rubberized sound barriers, concrete, brick and drywall will
have high STCs. Softer materials like mineral fiber, acoustic foam and carpet will have
much lower STCs. Virtually every material filters out some of the sound that travels
through it, but dense materials are much better at this than are porous or fibrous
materials. Like NRC, STC is useful to get an overview-type comparison of one material
or partition to another. However, to truly compare performance, the transmission loss
numbers should be reviewed.
Sound Transmission Loss (STL or TL)
The STL represents the amount of sound, in decibels (dB), that is isolated by a
material or partition in a particular octave or one-third octave frequency band.
Example: drywall has an STL at 125 Hz of 15 dB.

Acoustical Definitions
Decoupling :
STC This is the concept of detaching partitions from each other, or physically
detaching layers in a partition in order to improve sound isolation.
The most common methods of decoupling are:
Air gaps or air spaces between two partitions.
Using resilient channels between layers and structural framing members for walls
and ceilings.
Floating a floor using springs, rubber isolators or other decoupling layers.

Room Acoustics
Behaviour of sound in an Enclosed Space :
Various phenomena which may occur are 1) Attenuation due to distance
2) Audience absorption of direct sound
3) Surface absorption of direct and reflected sound
4) Reflection from re- entrant angle
5) Dispersion at modelled surface
6) Edge diffraction
7) Sound Shadow
8) Primary Reflection
9) Panel resonance
10) Inter- reflection, standing waves and
reverberation
11) Sound Transmission

Room Acoustics
Types of Auditorium:
Can be classified as follows
1) For Speech
2) For Music
3) Multipurpose

 Acoustics for Speech :

For Speech
1) Nature of Source of sound and its location is first to be considered.
2) Unamplified speech sound normally Range from about 30 dB (whispering)
to about 60 dB (Lecture voice) when measured at a distance of 3m.
3) Understanding depends upon the clear reception of a rapid sequence of
discreet sound, some are of which very short duration.
Power + Clarity = Intelligibility (able to be understood)

Power
Distance
From
Speaker

Directional
Relationship
to Speaker

Audience
absorption
of Direct
Sound

Reinforcement
by reflectors

Reinforceme
nt by Loud
Speakers

Sound
Shadows

Clarity
Delayed
Reflection

Echoes

Reverberation

Intrusive
Noise

Ambient Noise

Duplication
of sound by
Loudspekers

 Distance from Speaker:

1) Its the extent to which the sound of human voice is accentuated by
distance alone.
2) It is important to discover the arrangement the arrangement which
minimizes the distance to rear rows of seats.

The measures which should be taken are therefore

a) Economy in seat spacing
b) Economy in Row spacing
c) Economy in Gangway width within the seating area
d) Economy in number of Gangways
e) Optimum shape of audience area
f) Introduction of a Gallery if necessary.

Directional Relationship of
Speaker
Speech intelligibility varies in
accordance with the directional
Relationship of speaker to
listener

S
Equal Intelligibility Contour

Approximately
Upto 15 m = Relaxed Listening
15 to 20 m = Good Intelligibility
20 25 m = Satisfactory
30 m = electronic amplification

Open
Stage
Theatre

Box Set
Stage

Restoration
Apron Stage

Theatre in
the Round