~

':'

'

.'-"

i I

THE TIDES:
THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS DEMONSTRATED
WITHOUT MATHEMATICS,
AND THE

INFLUENCE ON THE LENGTH OF THE DAY DISCUSSED.

BY

T.

K.

ABBOTT,

B.D.,

FELLOW AND TUTOR, TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN.

w/

i^7T7*
LONDON:
LONGMANS, GREEN, &

CO.,

1888.

PATERNOSTER-ROW.

DTJBLIN

PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS,

BY PONSONBY AND "WELDRICK.

PREFACE.
THE

substance of the following pages has already ap-

peared, partly in the Philosophical Magazine, 1871, 1872,

and the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics,

partly in Hermathena, 1882.

1872, and

Hitherto correct statements

about the Tides have been confined to treatises which

employ the resources

of the higher mathematics.

Other

works almost without exception* repeat such erroneous

statements as that the place of high water without
friction

would be under the moon, and that high water

retarded by friction.

is

No

apology then

is

needed for

the publication in a more accessible form of the present

Essay, in which the fundamental theorems are deduced

from elementary physical principles without the use of

mathematics, except for quantitative calculations.

The

problem of the influence of the Tides on the length of

the day

is

discussed in a similar method.

The only exception with which I am acquainted is Stubbs' edition of

Brinkley's Astronomy, in which the reasoning of this Essay is adopted.

PREFACE.

IV

For the
latter

benefit of readers

who may wish

to

see the

problem analytically treated, I have given in an

Appendix the substance

gation.

of

Sir

George Airy's

investi-

ELEMENTARY THEORY OF THE

THE

tide-producing force

attraction of the
earth,

which

is

moon

is

the difference between the

(or sun)

the same as

TIDES.

if

it

on the solid body of the

were

all

concentrated at

the centred, and that on the particles of the ocean at

Confining ourselves to the moon

x, z.

The
tial,

direction of the tide-producing force is always tangen-

and towards

the

line

joining the centres of the earth

and moon.
First, the vertical

component being in the same line

same or an opposite direction)

as gravity (either in the

cannot directly produce any motion. In fact, it could not

do so unless it actually exceeded the force of gravity.

And

it is

too minute to produce

any

indirect effect.

Secondly, the tangential component is the difference

between the tangential components of the moon's force at
the centre and at the surface.
Now (see figure), at a point

x in the hemisphere nearer the moon, the force is

greater
than at E, and, moreover, makes a less angle with the
therefore the effective difference

tangent

tion of

its

tangential component,

i. e.

is

in the direc-

towards C.

At a

in the further hemisphere the force is less than

point
at E, and also makes a
greater angle with the tangent
z

THE

*J

TIDES.

therefore the effective difference

site to

its

i.e.

tangential component,

The tide-producing

in the direction oppo-

is

acts towards

it

force then always acts towards

From

(in the direction of the arrows).

this

A.

EM

we can deduce

theorems relating to the place of high and low water, &c.,

without requiring to determine the magnitude of the
force

which

will

be hereafter taken into account.

we need only

At

it is

very small com-

First, then, let us consider the case of

water limited to

present

observe that

pared with gravity.

The moon being supposed

an equatorial canal.
equator,
i.

we

shall establish the following

no

If there were

friction it

theorems

in the
:

would be low water

under the moon, and high water in quadratures.

n. Friction accelerates the

times of high and

low

water.
in. In addition to the oscillatory motion of the water

there

is

a constant current produced

by the

action of

the moon.
iv.

The

effect of

friction

on

this

is

to increase the

length of the day.

I.

Without friction

it

would be low water under the moon,

and high water

moon

in quadratures.

and the earth rotating

the
ocean with it.
ABCD, carrying
in the course of one lunar day every particle of

I suppose the

to be fixed,

in the direction

Now,

subjected to precisely the same forces, acting

in the same order of succession and for the same periods,

the ocean

is

being accelerated for about one quarter of a day,

viz.

PLACE OF HIGH WATER IN EQUATORIxVL CANAL.

while passing from

from

to

D, and

B to C

so on.

then retarded for a quarter,

The

amount of
being the same for every

variation in the

the force does not concern us,

particle.

This being

so, it is

faster

moving
on by an

obvious that those particles will be

for a longer time acted

which have been

accelerating force,

and the velocity

will be a

maximum when

the accelerating force has acted during

On the other
its full period, viz. through one quadrant.
will
be
slower
which have
those
hand,
moving
particles

been longer acted on by a retarding force, and the

absolute velocity will be a minimum when the retarding

Fig

i.

force has acted during its full period,

quadrant. The maximum velocity

and D.
C, the minimum at

is

or

through one

therefore at

and

Secondly, it is clear that the tide will be rising where

each portion of water is moving faster than that just in

advance of

or, in

other words, where water

flowing in
faster than it flows out.
Where this process has gone on
for the maximum time the tide will be highest.
On the
it

is

other hand, the tide will be falling where the water is

moving slower than that in advance of it or, in other

words, is flowing out faster than it flows in.

has continued for the maximum time the tide
u

Where
is

this

lowest.

THE

TIDES.

Now consider any point s in the quadrant BC. The

water now passing s has been subject to an accelerating
force during the whole time since it passed JB, longer
therefore than any particles behind it, as at r. It is therefore

moving

faster

and

as the water in the space r

s is

thus flowing out faster than it flows in, the tide is falling.
This is the case through the whole quadrant BC.
At C the force changes and becomes a retarding force.

The particle at y has been subject to this retarding force

longer than one behind it, as at x, and is therefore moving
slower.
Here, therefore, water is flowing in faster than it
and the

flows out,

tide is rising

the quadrant CD.

What
also of those opposite to

through
at

DA

and

and

this holds

through

them

the tide

is

falling all

Hence it is highest
rising through AB.
and C. Where will the tide be
D, lowest at

between r and

Clearly where the difference of velocity

greatest, i. e. where the amount of force

s is

which the water

is

said of these quadrants holds

and

falling fastest ?

to

is

greatest

maximum,

has been subject since it passed r

in other words, where the force is at its
at

viz.

at

(fig.

2),

45

from C.

Similarly

will be rising fastest at that point in the quadrant

where the force

is

greatest, viz. at g,

it

CD

45 from C.

On

the whole, then, the water in the supposed equatorial

canal assumes the form of an ellipse and as it is the earth
;

that

is

rotating, this ellipse does not change

its

absolute

position except with the moon's motion; only the water

and
accompanying the rotating earth moves fastest at

is

and

is

there lowest

there highest.

westward from

and slowest

at

and D, and

Eelatively to the earth it is moving

tof and from g to h eastward from /to
;

FRICTION ACCELERATES HIGH WATER.

g and from h to
their

mean

mean

places

places,

At A, B,

e.

at

h,

<?,/, g,

C, D, the particles are in

they are farthest from their

and change the direction of their relative

is represented in fig. 2, where the inside

This

motion.

B
Fig. 2.

arrows show the direction of the earth's motion

side arrows that of the relative

the out-

The

any one particle

path of

where the

when

motion of the water.

its

letter

mean

may be represented by fig. 3,

indicates the position of the particle

place

is

at

in

fig.

2.

BD

AC
Fig.

II.

3.

Friction accelerates high

The theorem

and low water.

that the effect of friction

is to

accelerate

the time of high and low water admits of an equally

simple proof. As the water approaches C, the tangential
Therefore it
force diminishes gradually to zero at C.

must have been equal to the force of friction at some point

n (fig. 1), after which friction prevails and the velocity

THE
diminishes.

It

is

TIDES.

therefore low water at n.

Approach-

ing D, the ocean is moving slower than the earth therefore here friction tends to accelerate it, while the
retarding
;

is
The two forces, then, must be
decreasing to zero.
equal at same point o, after which the velocity again
increases.
It is high water therefore at o.

force

is proper to observe that the

preceding proof assumes
the
ocean
is
carried
round
that
by the earth in its rotation.

It

This amounts to supposing that

it

has not assumed a posi-

tion of equilibrium.*
It is a priori an admissible suggestion that the ocean is
in a state of equilibrium under the moon's action, i. e. that

absolutely at rest (relatively to the moon), while the

earth rotates.
But this would imply an apparent move-

it is

ment

of the

whole body of water with a velocity equal and

opposite to that of the earth's rotation,

i.e.

at the equator

there would be an apparent current of about 1000 miles

per hour. As this does not correspond to the fact, the

hypothesis is practically inadmissible but when friction

is considered it appears theoretically inadmissible also.
For in this case friction would continually act in the
;

same
* It

direction,
is

the tide

and

its

effect

would be

to

make

the east-

important to observe that we are not entitled to assume that when

This is
rising fastest the water is flowing in from both sides.

is

by no means evident. The rate of rise depends on the difference in velocity

between two successive parts of the ocean, and this may be greater when
the two velocities have the same sign than when they have different
Taking into consideration the rotation of the earth, the assumption
amounts to this that the tide is rising fastest where the velocity of the
signs.

ocean
fact it

rate

is

This is certainly not evident in

the tangential force did not decrease at the same

just equal to that of the earth.

would not be true

if

on both sides of each of the four maxima.

be assumed, but deduced.

It

ought not, therefore, to

CONSTANT WESTWARD CURRENT.

ward

forces preponderate
so that although the ocean
should be supposed at rest at first, it would ultimately be
dragged round by the earth. The actual form of the
;

which the equatorial ocean is interrupted by continents, would render this equilibrium of the
earth, moreover, in

ocean impossible.
There

III.

a constant current westward produced by

is

the moon's disturbing force.

This occurs from two causes.

ellipse

First, the

now taken

supposed equatorial canal has

water in the

the form of an

consequence of friction, the places of

not at B and D, but somewhere

and, in

greatest elevation are

in the quadrants BA,

CD.

the moon's tangential

force is, cceteris paribus, proportional to the distance of the
It folparticles attracted from the centre of the earth.

lows that

it is

the other two

in the latter

Now,

greater in the quadrants BA,

but in the former the force

it

is

accelerating;

force exceeds the accelerating,

CD, than
is

in

retarding

therefore the

retarding

and produces a permanent

westward motion.
Secondly, the water having reached its mean place at n,
it with its
greatest eastward velocity, it is, when

and passed
it

g.

reaches C, eastward of

On

the whole

that point than

it

begins to

if

way

its

mean

i.

place,

e. it is

before reaching g

but

its

is

nearer to
nearer to

but on passing y
eastward excursion

there were no friction

move westward

it

having been shortened by friction, it begins this motion to

the west of where it would otherwise be. At o it again
arrives at its mean place, which, without friction, it would
not reach until D.

Thus, in the whole quadrant CD, the

THE

TIDES.

particles are nearer to g

than

But

is

had not operated.

the
nearer
the particles
greater
are to g, being proportional to sin 2 (angle from moon) =
cos 2 (angle from/ or 0)
hence the force in the quadrant
the tangential force

if friction

CD, which
its

mean

a retarding force, is increased. After passing

place at o, the water going westward is, on arrivis

ing at D, west of its mean place and until it reaches h

it continues to be west of the
place which it would have
;

occupied had friction not operated, /. e. friction withdraws

it from h.
At h its westward excursion is stopped, and it

it is eastbegins to return eastward. But now from h to

ward of the place due to it without friction. Thus throughout this quadrant the particles are brought farther from h

by

friction.

But here the

force

is

accelerating.

Therefore

the force in the accelerating quadrants is diminished, while

that in the retarding quadrants is increased, and hence

again a balance of retarding force, and therefore a current

westward. Or thus
Without friction, the quadrant/,?,
:

throughout which the water

earth, has its middle point at
drant in which

moving faster than the

C and the following qua-

is

its middle point at D.

These quadrants are, therefore, equally divided between the
accelerating and the retarding quadrants. With friction,
it

is

slower has

the middle points being displaced to n and o respectively, the

water is moving faster than the earth through more than
half the quadrant

the quadrant

DE

CD

BC, and

slower through more than half

in the opposite quadrants.

and similarly

AB

But .5(7,
are the accelerating quadrants, and CD,
the retarding quadrants.
Therefore the water is exposed
for a longer time to the
retarding than to the accelerating
Force.

CONSTRUCTION FOR TIDAL FORCE.

We

have here, therefore, a vera causa which

may

pos-

sibly be effective in retarding the earth's rotation. An

attempt will presently be made to estimate the maximum

amount

On

of this effect.

the Quantitative Valuation of the Tidal Disturbance.

Construction for the magnitude of the disturbing force.

Fig. 4.

Let xl (fig. 4) be perpendicular to EM, and let 1m = inn

= El. Then if
represent the attractive force of the

ME

moon

at the centre E,

ing force in

jcn

will represent the

magnitude and

direction.

whole disturb-

The proof

is

as

follows:

Let

it

be borne in mind that

the radius of the earth.

Hence,

the error cannot exceed

<o

ME
if

about sixty times

we consider Ml = MX,

=
.

t)U

OU

is

^r^th part. Again,

Mn, Mm, Ml, ME, being

arithmetical proportionals with a

difference less than

may

th,

be regarded as geometrical

proportionals the greatest possible error being the

as before.
Ml or MX Ml 2 or MX*
Hence,
;

Mn

as the

moon's force at

force at x

Mn

same

ME\

therefore, if

MX

i,

e.

re-

will represent the force

present the moon's force at x,
at
in magnitude and direction, and the difference or

10

THE

TIDES.

disturbing force will be represented in magnitude and

by xn. In order to Lave a fixed scale we must

direction

On this scale
represent the force at the centre by ME.
is in the nearer
too
and
in the more
small,
hemisphere
remote too large, in the proportion of Mn to ME. This
xn

error

it

is

at

ths =

most

OU

^th.
^(j

This will be considered by-and-by, but for the present

may be overlooked. The tangential component of xn is

equal and parallel to nh, the perpendicular on the radius,

and is, therefore, proportional to Ik, which is one-third of

The same reasoning applies to the dotted letters in

the further hemisphere.
To determine more precisely the magnitude of the dis-

nli.

turbing force

The moon's
moon's mass

attraction

earth's

Ma*
f ore

by

--

>

ME]

moon

But on the same

force

or nearl J =

the whole attraction of the

= -"

at

mass

of

gravity

87

(^

(represented in

there fig.

scale the greatest tide-

producing force
of Ik being r),

is

i.e.

represented

by

-.

(This

greatest tangential force then

40
nearly.

87

60 2

Neglecting the

- r
(the greatest value

by &

we

shall call H.}

The

is

12,528,000

400,000'

effect of pressure,

the effect of the

moon's action through one quadrant the

maximum continued for the same period
:

appears from the construction in

fig, 5).

effect of this
:

ITT

(this

11

HEIGHT OF TIDE.
The number

of seconds in a lunar

the velocity generated

22320

400000
This

x^
is

in

of

this

time

is

28

the difference between the

and the greatest westward velocity

eastward velocity
is

day being 89280,

one-fourth

is

greatest eastward
therefore the greatest

and the greatest westward velocity

56
,

also

56'

As the same amount of water passes through a given

total
section in a given time, the increase in height
:

relative westward velocity of the

depth of the sea
water
earth's velocity of rotation (relatively to the
:

moon).

The

last is

Hence

about 1486 feet per second.

of sea
= depth
01
83216
56
1486
For a sea of three miles in depth this would give 2*268

the rise of the tide -

inches.

depth of sea

..

12

THE
The following

and height

Bound

at

BcO

angle at

and

fig. 4,

a geometrical construction for the velocity

is

any place

the

OB

radius
is

TIDES.

right,

describe

obvious that

it is

Since the

circle.

Be

is

equal to xl in

cp equal to Ik; so that the tangential disturbing

force at a is proportional to the perpendicular cp.

If aa'
be the space passed over in the rotation of the earth in one
second,, the force acting on the water may be supposed un-

passes from a to a' and its effect during

that interval (i.e. in this quadrant, the retardation) will

changed while

it

also be proportional to cp

time

that

or

double

its

cf,

and

to the

aa, or the angle at 0, aOa.

to

Calling
the moon's greatest tide-producing force, r the earth's
:

and

radius,
2ir

is,

r the

angular velocity =

'

the retardation =

= the angle at

seconds in lunar day

Mcf
-

aOa

2r

Now the angle at

and this
being in the same circle
=
angle multiplied by cf the small perpendicular cd, or pp
which is parallel and equal to it. Therefore the whole
/,

retardation since leaving

n n
all
the

T,

'

abscissee

pp

A
that

B is proportional

is,

*
to

n
Bp

'
.

T.
It is

to the

sum

of

Vp' 89280
T

ZTT

This represents the defect from the greatest eastward veloand after passing its mean value at the middle point
city
;

represents a velocity which, relatively to the earth, is

The velocity of the current relatively to the
westerly.
s it

earth

is

We
above

represented

shall

by ps.

now show

that the height of the tide at

'

lowest point is also proportional to Bp'.

If at any point in the supposed canal a thin section be
its

taken, the quantity of water entering this section in a given

CONSTRUCTION

FOE,

VELOCITY AND WEIGHT.

13

proportional to the product of the depth and the

If the water flows in a little more rapidly than
velocity.

time

is

flows out, it is clear that the increase in the quantity

contained in the section, and therefore the increase in depth,
will be proportional to the difference between these two
it

and

to the

--

/diff. of vel. x

velocities

whole depth

-=

-j

\
depth
-

length or section. /
small compared with

This holds as long as the change is

If this be supposed uniform throughout
the whole depth.
the canal, the increase in it (that is, in the height of the
x

therefore proportional to the retardation ;

began to rise at B, where the velocity
began to diminish, it follows that Up' is also proportional
to the height of the tide at a above its lowest point.
at

tide)

and

is

since the tide

easy to deduce from this construction the cor= r, we have

responding formulae. For, if OB
It

And

is

since

from

sB

is

proportional to the

mean height, the defect

this height is proportional tops,

and therefore

to

cos 2w.

The
small.

effect of pressure

As

it

with such a tide will be extremely

operates to send the water

position of greatest elevation,

force without

it

away from

will so far assist the

changing the place

of

its

moon's

high water.

In the preceding demonstrations we have supposed the

water to be limited to an equatorial canal, the

being in the equator.

It

is

moon

desirable to consider

modifications will be introduced,

also

what

by supposing the
water
earth to be uniformly covered with
and, secondly,
by taking into account the moon's declination.
first,

THE TIDES.

14

It will save repetition

general principles which

if

we

we

state once for all certain

have to employ

shall

1. First, suppose an accelerating force acts alternately

in opposite directions the effect (measured by velocity)
increases as long as the force acts in either direction and
;

therefore the velocity in that direction

moment

that the force changes

is

greatest at the

its direction.

2. Secondly, the velocity (diminishing under the counteraction of the force) continues to be in the same direction
until this counter force has

undone

all

the

work accom-

If the
plished in that direction by the previous force.
circumstances are alike in both directions, this will be

when the

force has done half its work.

the case of the

This

is

precisely

common pendulum.

3. Thirdly,

in the case before us, the water rises

when

the particles behind are

The

rate of rise

but as the effect

rise is greatest at
is

moving faster than those before.

when this difference is greatest
is cumulative, the whole amount of the
the moment when the difference = 0, and

is

greatest

about to change to the opposite.

4. Fourthly,

as in

2,

this difference ceases to increase

when

the force (or difference of forces)

greatest)
until
producing it ceases to act ; but it is not reduced to
(i.e. is

the opposite force has done half

the accumulation is greatest.

5.

its

Fifthly, in the case which

work.

we

are

At

now

this

moment

considering,

the effective force depends on the form of the surface, and

vice versa.
If, then, when this form is spherical the difference mentioned in 3 were always in the same direction,
it would continue to act until a certain
permanent alte-

CASE OF GLOBE COVERED WITH WATER.

15

was produced. If the difference were constant,

a state of equilibrium would be attained ; but if it alternately increases and diminishes, then the mean form of

ration

the surface will be the same as would be produced by a

constant force equal to the mean amount of the actual

The

force.

alternate excess

and defect

cause a periodical motion, just as

if it

of the latter will

were an independent

force.*
First, then, the

moon being

still

supposed to be in the

equator, let the earth be uniformly covered with water.

The tangential force may be resolved into two components one touching the parallel of latitude (i.e. east and
west), the other meridional.

giving rise to distinct waves

north and south.

The
follows

By

actual

amount

These

may

be regarded as

one east and west, the other

may

be found as

(ME

being moon's

of these forces

the previous construction

(fig. 4)

force at E), the disturbing force at

IT
A

sin

is

2AM.

Eesolved along the parallel of latitude, this

3r sin

by

represented

AM cos AM sin

is

6.

* If the reader wishes to

apply these considerations to the case of an
equatorial canal assumed above, it must he observed that there the elevating
force

that

is

the excess of easterly force acting on any particles of water abovo

This excess is
affects those in advance, i.e. to the east of them.

which

positive from 45

west of the moon to 45 east

from 45 east zenith distance

to 45

(i.e.

while the

west), then negative for

moon

passes

90, and so on.

THE

16

But by the right-angled

sin

TIDES.

spherical triangle

(fig. 6)

AM sin 6 = sin MS (hour angle from moon),

and

cos

AM =

cos

Hence the component

H cos

MB cos AB

(latitude).

parallel to equator
lat. sin

2 (hour angle)

(H being the greatest disturbing force) This is less than

the force in the equatorial canal in the proportion of cos
1.
lat.
But the velocity of rotation is less in the same
.

proportion
this force

hence the

rise of the tide will

were alone (that

is, if

be the same.

the water

moved

If

in canals

M-

Fig. 6.

parallel to the equator), the ocean in every circle of latitude

would take the form of an ellipse with its short axis towards

the moon.

But

these ellipses

would not be similar unless

the depth of the sea varied as cos lat.

The effect of the meridional component
kind.

is

of a different

Its value is

Q
~ r sin

2AM cos

0.

tii

But
and

AM cos

AB cos MB,
cos A M = cos MB sin AB (as above).
sin

= sin

GLOBE COVERED WITH WATER.

17

Therefore this component

H sin 2
H- 2

lat. cos

sin

lat.

(hour angle)

H sin 2

lat. cos

2 (hour angle.)

term, the effect of which

to cause a permanent accumulation at the equator.
The second term represents the tide-producing part of

The mean value

is

This

the force.
the

moon

of this

is less

is

is

the

first

positive as long as the

on either side

than 45

from the equator to

lat.

45

hour angle from

and in that case

an elevating force,
are further from the equator
this is

being greater as the particles

from 45 to the poles it is depressing.

In the remaining
Hence, by 5 and 4,

quadrants this term is negative.

the elevation at the equator (and up to

lat.

45)

will be

will be high water), 90 from the moon.

45 the depression will be greatest under the
In these latitudes, therefore, the
same circumstances.

greatest

(i.e. it

Beyond

lat.

effect of the

former component would be partially counter-

acted.

easy, however, to see that the variation in the

It

is

meridional force (and it is only the variation that affects

the tide) is in any latitude less than that in the force
parallel to the equator in the proportion of sin lat.
so that while the height of the tide

would be

lessened, the

The actual
place of high water would be as before.
nitude of the tide may be ascertained as follows

mag-

TT

sin 2A cos 2m (\ being lat., and in

hour angle).
In order to apply the same method of summing as in

The

fig. 5,

force being

we

write this
TT
sin

2A sin 2(45 c

/}.

THE

18

Then, as in

TIDES.

fig. 5,

TT

=
velocity

sin 2 A cos

2(45-

m}.

Now, this increase in the height of the water depends on

the difference in velocity at two points, of which the latitude is A and A + a where a is very small. In fact the
difference in the

amount

and leaving

equal to the area of the section multiplied

by the

it is

of the water entering the section

and the decrease or

difference of velocity,

increase

equal to this difference of amount divided by

the area of the surface, i. e.
of height

is

depth x increase of velocity

Decrease of height = )'a

(the height increasing

and

when

the velocity

is

diminishing,

vice versa}.

But a being

small,

sin 2(A

a)

sin

2A = 2a
7)

/. decrease of

....

and

height =

total rise or tail

cos

2A

TT

^
2rar
-

cos 2 A sin 2m,

JTcos2A
-

4r2

cos 2m.

= cos 2A

x half the total rise or fall in the

equawith the moon in the equator.
After passing 45 latitude, the decrease in the circles of
If we assume our merilatitude requires to be noticed.

This

is

torial canal

dional canal to be of uniform width, then the canals will

gradually overlap, the tide thus diminishing until at the

is obvious, there will be no tide.
pole, as

MOON'S DECLINATION CONSIDERED.

19

Let us now consider the case of the moon having a

declination, which for simplicity I shall suppose less than
22 30'. This limitation will not affect our results. We
shall, as before,

With

take the two components separately.

component which acts parallel

Near the equator itself the consideraNext consider
previously applied still hold good.
respect, then, to the

to the equator.
tions

whose polar distance is less than the moon's

declination, to which therefore the moon is circumpolar,
a place

a,

and (with the assumed

declination) alternately north

Fig.

south of the zenith.

such a place,

it is

and

7.

If abed be the circle of rotation of

obvious that the water will be accelerated

through the whole semicircle,

and retarded through

as already employed will show
that it will be low water at c and high water at a.
Now
take an intermediate place whose circle of rotation is Imno.
Here the water is retarded and rising from / to m and from
n to o and accelerated and falling from m to n and from
o to /, and the interval olm is less than mno.
Hence the
cda.

The same reasoning

C 2

abc,

THE

20
tide is lowest at n

at

and

o.

and not

TIDES.

so

low at

/,

and

Hence we have a diurnal

to the semi-diurnal, this diurnal tide

it is

high water

tide in addition

becoming of more

importance as we recede from the equator until the colatitude = moon's co-declination, when the semi-diurnal
tide disappears.

The meridional component

at the equator acts during

half a rotation northward, and during the other half

southward, and in each case is an elevating force, which,
as before, has its greatest effect 90 from the moon.
At
all places whose latitude is less than the moon's declination
In the circle abed
there is a permanent accumulation.
this

component

is

directed towards the north at a

towards the south at

c,

and

the points of change being where

touch abed. This gives rise to

the great circles from

a north and south oscillation.

The southerly force being

the greater, there will be a residual depression of the water
in this

The depressing

force, however, varies,

while
the elevating force
6-*,
meet the circle.
is greatest where the tangents from
Hence, by 4 and 5 the tide will be lowest at the latter

region.

being greatest at a

and

at

points and high at the former,

the former case.

tide, as in

former

and there

will be a diurnal

Combining

this

with the

result, the effect of both components together will

be to give high water at a.

It is not necessary to enter into a detailed examination
* If the moon's declination were
greater than 22 30', c might be less than
45 from M, in which case the force there would be an elevating one.
Again, at a place whose latitude was greater than 22 30', and less than the

moon's declination, the moon's least nadir distance (= IN] would be greater
than 45, and the force depressing.

21

MOON'S DECLINATION CONSIDERED.

It is not
of the state of things at intermediate places.
difficult to see that, as long as the moon's declination is

an accumulation effected by the mecomponent extending from the equator to about

lat. 45, and that, as the moon's declination increases, the
accumulation becomes less at the equator and greater to-

small, there will be

ridional

If the declination were exactly 45, there

wards 45.
would be no accumulation at the equator, but two elevated
With a greater declination these rings
rings at lat. 45.
the
and obviously, if the moon
would approach
poles
were at the pole, the ocean would take the form of a
;

prolate spheroid.
The place of high water at any latitude, as far as
this is due to the meridional component, would be easily

found

but the proportionate

effect

of

the meridional

and equatorial components depends partly on the latitude

and partly on the moon's declination and it does not
;

come within the scope

of the present essay to solve this

problem. It is sufficient to observe that the importance

of the meridional component increases with the declination
as well as with the latitude.

pole this force

would be alone

tion, it alone produces

an

The same reasoning

If the
;

moon were

at the

and, whatever the declina-

effect at the pole.

applies, mutatis mutandis, to the

solar tide.

was remarked, on
slightly greater on the
It

remoter

side.

The

p. 10, that the disturbing force is

side nearer the

moon than on

effect of this inequality is to

a small diurnal tide.

the

produce

THE

ON THE EFFECT

TIDES.

OF THE TIDES ON THE

LENGTH OF

THE DAY.
I.

Historical.

In the year 1754 the Berlin Academy proposed, as the

" Does
subject for a prize essay, the question,
any Cause
"

What
tending to Retard the Rotation of the Earth ?
the result of the competition was I do not know but the
exist

question led to the publication by Kant of a short essay,

in which he suggested that such a retarding cause existed
He worked out this suggestion in a rough
in the tides.

way, there being, as he truly said, no ascertained data on

which any trustworthy calculation could be built.
Laplace examined the question from the historical side,
with the help of the records of ancient eclipses, and came to
the conclusion that the period of rotation had not altered.
Recently, in consequence of the improvement of the
lunar tables, astronomers have seen reason to re-open the
question. It has been inferred from the records of ancient

day is lengthening at the rate of one

second in two hundred thousand years. At first sight
this may seem to be an amount too small to leave any
eclipses that the

must be remembered, however, that

in calculating what part of the earth's surface came into
the shadow of a given total eclipse, say 2500 years ago,
trace in history.

we have

to

It

"unwind" 2500

and a

times 365 (= 91,250,000)

difference

of

amounting
a second between the first and last

in

the

rotations,

to

an eightieth

of these

whole period have a very considerable

M. Delaunay

attributes the retardation to the

would
effect.*

moment

the moon's disturbing force on the tidal prominences.

*

About 100 minutes

see Ball,

"Elements

of

Astronomy,"

of

He

p. 377.

EFFECT ON LENGTH OF DAY.

2-'i

started from the assumptions that without friction

it

would

be high water under the moon and anti-moon, and that

Both these asfriction retards the time of high water.

sumptions were erroneous but they so far counteracted

one another as to leave the place of high water in the
;

same quadrants
east of the
is

as the true theory, viz. in the quadrants

moon and

retarding.
Sir Greorge

anti-moon, in which the moon's force

Airy corrected these

errors,

and working out

the equations, found two terms which indicate a constant

current westward one term (the smallest) depending on

the vertical, and the other on the horizontal, displacement

of the water.

In

my own Essay

on the Theory of the Tides (Quarterly

Journal of Mathematics, 1872, and Philosophical Magazine),

the effect of friction was indicated, but there was no at-

tempt

to estimate

it

quantitatively.

any attempt has been made to solve

indeed it would be absurd to pretend

am

not aware that

problem and
to do so with any

this

What I propose to do is to estimate

degree of accuracy.
the effect so far as to enable us to form a judgment as to
the actual importance of the tides as a cause retarding the
earth's rotation.

It will be convenient first to prove the following proposition respecting the effect of obstacles

II.

Obstacles which check the motion of the water towards

a certain point retard the time of high water, and

increase the height.

a complete barrier, the tide will rise as

long as the motion of the water is towards it, and will fall
If the obstacle

is

24

THE

TIDES.

as long as the motion is from it.

Hence, at 45 east of
will
be
water
it
on
the east of such an
quadratures
high,

and low water on the west

obstacle,

of this on the time of high

extend as far as the pressure

An

it.

The

influence

is felt.

not sufficient to

obstacle

of

water at other places will

stop motion altogether

will produce a similar effect, but of course

much

smaller,

If the
in consequence of the continuity of the surface.
obstacle be such as to destroy half the velocity of the water,

then high water would be 30

after quadratures.

In both

would obviously be increased.

It appears from this that the effect of such obstacles

cases the height

is

in both respects the reverse of that of friction.

tidal

moment of the moon's attraction on the

prominences in an equatorial canal with the

moon

in the equator.

Effect of the

III.

This

is

the

by Delaunay

way

in

which the retardation was supposed

and Thomson and Tait have

to be produced,

adopted the same view.*

Now,

in order to estimate the greatest effect possible,

us suppose that the greatest elevation is in the middle

and further
of the quadrant, /. e. 45 before quadratures
friction.
is
not
diminished
elevation
that the
by

let

Let

If = the moon's greatest horizontal

o> =
angle from the moon.
elevation.
e =

force.

greatest

The statement

that the earth rotates in a

"

friction collar,"

which

seems to put the matter in a nutshell, obviously assumes that the passage of
But this is true only so
the tidal wave is the passage of a mass of water.
far as there

evident.

is

a residual westward current,

which

is

certainly not self-

ATTRACTION ON TIDAL PROMINENCES.

25

sin 2w, and the

the tangential force at any point =
the
element
of the
elevation = e sin 2w.
Multiplying by

Then

He sin 2w rdu r. The

the moment
equator, we get
=
constant part of this is
^Herdw.
and multiplying by the cothe
round
circle,
Summing
efficient of friction,

we have

whole moment Heirrf.

for the

Taking the density of the earth as 5, the

of

section

inertia of the equatorial

Dividing the former by the

latter,

moment

the earth

we have

is

of

TT)

A
.

for the angular

acceleration -=-r-.

or

Now
If

'

32

depth of sea

13 millions

84,000

we assume

the depth of the sea to be 3 miles, the

angular acceleration becomes nearly =

f
,,...

203

.'-.-.

billions x r

Multiplying by the number of seconds in 100,000 years

1 f
(about 3 billionsl, we obtain
nearly.
bo r

Now,

the velocity of the earth's surface at the equator

about 1530

the angular velocity therefore

1

Ience '

68

/=

earth's velocity

is

is

'

104,040

If the earth's velocity is diminished in this proportion,

the length of the day will be increased by

86,400
~
,y fi
AA
7o,oOO

Now,
friction

/ seconds

= nearly '83 / seconds.

in the case supposed,

is

excessively small, the

being chiefly that of water on water.

Hence we

26

THE

TIDES.

that in an unobstructed equatorial canal the

of
effect
friction in retarding the rotation would be quite

conclude

insignificant,

even on the supposition above adopted, that

is 45 before
If this
quadratures.

the place of high water

place

would

were affected only by friction, the displacement

It apreally be only a few degrees, if so much.

pears, therefore, that the direct effect of the moon's dis-

turbing force on the tidal prominences is wholly insensible.

It would not amount to one second in a thousand million
years.

But

there

is

this

way of viewing the matter, which

The following consideration explains

another

does not introduce/.

:

IV.

Of the
to the

The

dm

of the residual current westward

change in the time of high water.

effect

constant force found above =

\He produces an
accumulating westward tendency in the water. This once
impressed will continue to increase until checked by friction, that
force.

may

until friction

becomes equal to

this constant

when we

take a sufficiently long time we

assume that the total moment (of the water) is not

affected

tion

is,

Therefore

by
made

friction

the coefficient/ that is to say, on the assumpabove, that the elevation is not affected and
;

being so slight, this

be assumed.

Moreover,
may
although friction alone could not accelerate high water so
much as three hours (= 45) our conclusion will hold if the
,

displacement takes place from any other cause.

This being premised, I shall now examine the question
from the point of view suggested by Airy.

27

EFFECT OF DISPLACEMENT OF WATER.

Effect of the changes in the disturbing force due

V.

to the

displacement of the water.

substituting, in the expression for the disturbing

water for the

By

force, the altered value of the ordinate of the

original value (x + X, for %), Airy finds that the expression contains a constant term dependent on the distance
of high water from quadrature.
The source of this constant term may be understood from the following observation

The

particles are in their

mean

place at the

moment

of

high water and at that of low water at the former they

are travelling ~W. with their greatest velocity; at the
;

they are travelling E., also with their greatest

Now, the place of high water being W. of
velocity.

latter

quadrature, and the water moving W., it follows that

when the water reaches quadrature, approaching the moon,
it is

behind, or

W.

of the place which, without friction,

would have occupied.

in advance, or E. of

its

it

On

the other hand, at syzygy it is

In both cases the disturbplace.

diminished by this displacement, the force being

greater the nearer the particles are to the middle point of
the quadrant.
In other words, If sin 2co is diminished

ing force

is

throughout, w being increased when over 45, and diminished when less than 45. In the following quadrant,
i. e. after
passing the moon, the opposite change takes
since

place,

the particles enter

it

E. of the place they

would otherwise occupy, and leave

Now, the former quadrant

force

is

is

accelerating, the latter that in

The same

it

W.

of their place.

that in which the moon's

which it

is

retarding.

observation applies to the other two quadrants.

28

THE

TIDES.

Thus the accelerating and retarding forces are no longer

in equipoise, the latter predominating.
To calculate the effect: The maximum excursion of
the water without friction in the case of a canal three miles

deep would be about 126 feet. Assume that this is undiminished and assume, as before, that it is high water
45 W. of quadratures. Then we may assume the dis;

placement at each point

be 126 cos

to

force being II sin 2r>, the

due to

2H cos

2w

cos
r

constant part of this =

Putting for
effect

and the moon's

this displacement

The

2ai

change in the disturbing force

its

2w per

H 126
r

value

second.

and calculating the

continued for one lunar day (89,000 seconds),

we

have

126

10

TT
45

or

>

^
75

100
^r-

millions'

nearly.

This acts on the whole mass of the canal.

the moments, as in p. 25,

we have

Introducing

as the acceleration for

one day

200

_^_^___________

75 millions

mass of canal

mass

of equatorial section of earth x r

"With the assumed depth of sea, the latter factor =

Hence the

daily angular acceleration

1

375,000

3300

^-^

ociOO x r

AMOUNT OF RETAEDATION.

29

Multiplying by the lunar days in 100,000 years (about

33 millions), we have as before

This gives a retar-

-.

dation of about '83 seconds.

For the reason before

stated,

it

is

unnecessary to

by the coefficient of friction.

a third way of viewing this cause.

multiply this

There

is

Owing

to

the displacement of the place of high water, since that is

the point where the water is moving fastest westward, the
is a longer time in the retarding quadrants than in
the others, e.g. on the previous hypotheses it is 126 feet

water

place on entering the accelerating quadrant,

126 feet in advance on leaving it. It is, therefore, in

behind

and

its

252

-r seconds = about "17" less than a

14oO
This would give a similar result
quarter of a lunar day.

that quadrant about

-j-

to that already found.

We

have yet to take

22

Reckoning

mum

this as

50

into

account

of the lunar,

the

we have

solar

as the

tide.

maxi-

If we suppose the actual

be half the possible maximum, this would agree
curiously with the result deduced from eclipses, viz. I'O
total effect 1'2 seconds.

effect to

second in 200,000 years. But too much importance must

not be attributed to this coincidence.

The preceding calculations are

obviously applicable to the

case of a globe uniformly covered with water, since each

section parallel to the equator

would give the same results.

effect on the rotation.

The meridional wave would have no

It

is

not worth while to extend our calculation to the

case of the
result

moon

would be

not being in the equator.

to diminish the retardation.

The

nett

THE

30

VI.

TIDES.

Application to the actual state of the earth's

surface.

In attempting to apply the preceding

results to the

actual condition of things on the earth's surface, the fol-

lowing points must be noted

On

First.

the earth as

proper on the

it

actually

tides is trifling

is

the effect of friction

compared with that of ob-

Against these the tidal current impinges, and in

addition the increased elevation gives the moon an instacles.

creased pull, which,

moment on

its full

if
acting towards the obstacle, exerts
the earth, but only for a fraction of a

day.

The
we have

Secondly.
pends, as
in

what I have

existence of a retarding influence deon the place of high water being

seen,

called the retarding quadrants,

i.e.

less

than six hours in time later than the moon's meridian

passage.

is violated, the influence

might
Suppose a continent whose coasts run
those of America may be roughly said to do)

If this condition

be accelerating.

N. and
then

S. (as

high water on the east coast

if it is

hours after the moon, the

less

effect of the pull just

than six

mentioned

retarding if it is high water on the west coast more

than six hours after the moon, the effect is to accelerate.
is

In other

cases the direct effect is

Now, owing

nil.

to the great irregularity of distribution of

land and water, theory will not help us in determining the

times of high water but on consulting the Tables founded
;

on observation we
sults

find,

for example, the following

re-

ACTUAL STATE OF EARTH.

31

In the open part of the Pacific Ocean high water is

about 30 before quadratures farther from the equator at
;

both sides

it is

at quadratures

farther

still it is

30 after

quadratures.

(Confining ourselves to the direct effect of the moon's

action on the tidal prominences)

The

on

effect

East coast of China,

,,

India,

,,

Australia,

,,

Africa,

,,

S.

,,

West

.....
...

coast of

None.

.....
....
.

America,

,,

,,

Australia,

Eetarding.

....
....

N. America,
S. America (Peru),
N. America

,,

,,

None.
Accelerating.

(California, &c.),

,,

,,

should be observed, that for the present purpose we

ought to take the time of high water where the depth of
(It

the sea begins sensibly to diminish in approaching the

coast, but this we are unable to do.)

These instances are

haps amounting
there

is

any

fall

it is

difficulty (per-

all.

whether

At

all

clear that the retardation, if any,

very far short of the

It is to be

show the

preponderance of retardation at

events, however,

must

sufficient to

to impossibility) of determining

maximum.

remembered, further, that in the case con-

sidered above of a globe uniformly covered with water,

each section of the globe parallel to the equator has its

own

tidal current to encounter its

own

inertia,

and hence

the result in the case of the equatorial canal was applicable

32

THE

TIDES.

to the entire globe.

But

in the case of the earth

not

so,

and

this

would

still

it

is

further diminish the retar-

dation.

On

it would appear that no certain conclusion

amount of retardation of the earth's rotation by
can be drawn from theoretic considerations.

the whole,

as to the

the tides

APPENDIX,

GEORGE AIRY ON THE TIDES *

SIR
THE

case considered is that of the water in an equatorial canal

Adopting some one point of the canal as

zero of measure, let x, measured westwardly from that point, be
the abscissa for any point of the fluid under consideration ;
of

uniform depth.

for the point to

y the similar abscissa

which the moon

is

verti-

the angular distance of the

meridian of the point x will be

If r be the earth's radius,

cal.

moon westward from

the

ff

AJ

Then
known from the ordinary theory of perturr
r
bation that the horizontal force produced by the moon on
particles in the place x and its neighbourhood may be repreit is

sented by

3C\

/*?/

sin 2

The measure y

).

rJ
\r
the time, and therefore the

put in the form

+ -Tsin
/ a

because

when

sin 2

(it
OT\

is

proportional to

expression of this force may be

mx~), the positive sign being used
;

is positive,

\r
rj
the water in the direction in which x

the force tends to

move

second force

mean
*

abscissa for

is

is

measured.

derived front friction.

any particle

is x,

but that

Suppose that the

its

true disturbed

Monthly Notices of Royal Astronomical Society, 1866,

p. 221.

34

APPENDIX.

abscissa at

any moment

x +

is

(X depending

on, or being a
//

function

of,

x and

t}.

And, supposing the

Then the

velocity of the particle

Y~

is

(tt

friction proportional to the velocity,

direction always opposed to the direction of motion,

and the

it

be

may

dX

represented by

-/f -57-.
(it
on the form

third force depends

A.

Let the mean depth

water.

mean
points
kSx.

of

state

of the

water be

of the

surface of the

Then, in the

k.

the volume included between the

the water,

whose mean ordinates (abscissa?) are x and x + Sx, is

But in the disturbed state x is changed to x + X, and
7 "V7"

x + 8x

X+

changed to x + Bx +

is

tween the points

still

is

now

8x1

dOO

The

Sx.

distance

be-

dx
*\7"\

and

as the

volume k8x

is

included between them, the depth of the water

now

is

This

is

7 -irr

nearly, or its surface is raised

tidal elevation of the point

tidal elevation of the point

d
7
- k, fdX
+ h
-j
V

ax

ax

by

- k

whose mean

whose mean

dX\
.

Ax

of the

former

is

abscissa

abscissa is

- k,

or

},,

dX-

+ kh

is x.

the

The

x + h will be

,.

- kh

ax

d2

The excess

nearly.

ax*

X
.

dxz

the height of a head of water which acts horizontally

upon the whole depth k of the water, and of which, therefore,

This

is

the entire pressure

is

+ k2 h

d?X
-.

The volume

of

water on which

(t'X

it

acts

is

kh.

Hence, by the usual rule connecting pressure with

GEORGE AIRY ON THE TIDES.

SIR

accelerating force, the accelerating force

cause

is

d*

+ gk

35

depending on this

dx

and forming the

Collecting these three accelerating forces,

usual equation of motion, and remarking that the abscissa to

which the motion really applies is x + X, but that, as x is
independent of t, the expression

d~X

= + 11
It

is

sin

dX

MI - mx) - Jt,

r-

dt

+ gk

f-r-

dx*

impossible (in our present state of mathematical

ledge) to give a general solution of this equation,

be useless

we

if

ripple on the
its

sin (it

X in

this for

mx) +

And

B (cos it - mx},

the left-hand term, and in two of

the right-hand terms of the equation

(i

we

obtain immediately,

A + H +fiB - glim* A} sin (it - mx}

-fiA - gkmPB} cos (it -

(i

as each of these terms

(i

must separately =

mx}.

0,

z
gkm ]A +/. B + H,

= (i?-gkm 2 )B-fi.A;
from which
i*

=
(t

tides

X=A

and substitute

which produce the

by the following assumption of corresponding

periodic character

knowwould

could give it, because it must include every

But a solution of the utmost generality in

reference to the periodic forces

it

sea.

will be obtained

Let

and

glim*

2 2
gkntf + / i

___
z

fi

c/km

y +p

"
2
*'

APPENDIX.

:}6

and

X=-

(P-gkni*} sin

If the constant angle

(lY

F be determined by the

F will

where, with a positive denominator,

then
and less than 90

#-

wz) +/(cos

equation

always be positive

'

cos

F=

.-

r~km?
a

r-^

= 777^

The

sin

fi

F=

j-^

sm (^ + F- mx).

77VT

T~V^

were no

(sin(^- mx}.cosF+ cos(it-mz~)sinF}

tidal elevation of the surface of the water, or

If there

^T

X becomes

and the expression for

X=

- k -7ax

is

mHk

friction,

/=

0,

^=0,

and we should have

77"

X without friction =
^

sin (it - mx}.

-ff/cm

Tidal elevation of surface without friction

- mHk
- ^
r~5
i*-

cos

gkwf

In order

to arrive at a proper understanding of the import of

these expressions, it is necessary

z
gkm? is greater or less than *'

first

to

ascertain whether

Now, it has been assumed that y is proportional to the time,

say = nt, in which assumption it is obvious that n is the number

GEORGE AIRY ON THE TIDES.

SIR

37

measure on the earth's equator over which the

of units of linear

rnoon passes in a unit of time, and

or

ft

is

therefore

and

2n
i is

where n exceeds 1000 miles per hour, or 1400

feet per

second.

The value

of

is

and gk

is

the product of 32 by the depth

of the sea in feet (always using the foot

units of measure

i~

Thus

and time).

gkm~ =

(2800

and the second as the

- 128 x
depth

of sea in feet).

This quantity will always be positive except the depth of

the sea exceed 12 miles far exceeding any supposed real depth
;

The denominator

of the sea.

be considered positive.
Now when the moon

y-x =
Therefore,

or 2

0,

- ghn 2

vertical over

(---)
r
\r

therefore, is always to

any point x
or

0,

ft

of the canal,

- mx =

0.

there be no friction, the tidal elevation of the

if

= -

surface

is

mHk

^'

it is

Consequently

This

is its

,.

maximum

negative value.

(//cm?

low water under the moon.

the term glum? in the denominator be neglected, the

tidal elevation (which has k for a factor] is proportional to the
Also,

if

depth of the

sea.

Theorems equivalent
If there be friction,

D cos

(ft

quantity has
it

F - mx},
its

- mx =

were proved by Laplace.

the tidal elevation of the water

to these

(D being the

coefficient above).

greatest negative value, or

0, or

when

mx
:

it is

is

This

low water when

had been no

If there

^
YftiOG

friction,

low water would have occurred when

-.

The

38

APPENDIX.

former value of
tvater

t is

the smaller

and therefore

(and consequently the other phases of the

the

phase of low

tide) are accele-

rated by the friction.

The magnitude

of the tide is evidently diminished (but connot

its
stantly,
varying from day to day) by the friction
denominator being \/{(i z - gkm'2 y+f2 i 2 instead of i 2 - gkm 2
;

The value

of friction

upon the water

at

any place x

is

and therefore the reaction of the water's friction upon the

channeli

is+/

solid

or
ar

(it

Hif

~T~i\2

To

/2

cos (^ +

-a>

F- mx).

obtain the effect of this on the entire solid globe,

we must

integrate
/

cos (it

with respect
is

to x,

obviously =

0,

+ F-mx), or coslit +
from x =

to

and therefore

x =

F-

-x\,

This definite integral

2rir.

the friction does not tend at

any

instant either to accelerate or to retard the rotation of the solid

glole.

Subsequently, however, Sir G. Airy wrote as follows

I have at length discovered two terms which appear to exercise

a real effect on the rotation of the earth
:

First.

The

designated by

of

coefficient

H,

is

horizontal

not constant, but

distance from the earth's centre.

If

we

forces,

which I have

proportional to the
take that value which
is

corresponds to half the depth of the water, the true value, or ZT',
may be represented nearly by

tidal rise }

SIR

GEORGE AIRY ON THE TIDES.

mHk

1
*-*-

<

A "~

~*~,~7~*

o\~n

force, or

and the true horizontal

sin

cos (it

~"

.ZZ

sin (it

39

- mx +
F},
-

mx}, will be

z#)

(<tf

sn

Giving to sin

F its value,

mx +

this contains the constant

mH

sin

term

Second.
acting

is

The

JBTsin (it

H
-

sin (it

and therefore, instead

- mx}, we ought

mx - mX},

Putting for

which the force

ordinate of the water on

not x but x +

expression

kfi

or JETsin (it

is

of using the

to use

mx}

mHX cos

X value, the last term becomes

mH
- #z# +
sin
cos

(it

mx}.

its

(et

jr

...

(it

mx},

which, with similar expansion, and substitution for F, gives the

constant term

mH fi
2

This term

sum

of these

is

much

larger than that found above.

two terms +

Then the equation

c.

Call the

of motion, as

2
applying to this term only, and putting I for gk becomes
t

_
~
Let

It

X = u, H - x = v

then this equation may be changed

into

dz

dX

cu

cuv

40

APPENDIX.

X = -^ (b

or,

- x2 +
<f>(bt-x}
")

For determining the form of the arbitrary functions, we rethat the final solution must contain no power of x (other-

mark

we

wise

should have inconsistent values in completing the

circle), and that the form of the first term then

round of the

Thus we

admits only algebraical functions.

solution must be

find

that the

X.= +

(e-*) + ^(*t-xy + ^(K + *y = + -P,

dX
-jT
at

That

is,

there

is

=+ct

a constant acceleration of the waters as fol-

lowing the moon's apparent diurnal course.

As

this is opposite

to the direction of the earth's rotation, it follows that,

action of the moon, there

is

from the

a constant retarding force on the

rotation of the water, and therefore (by virtue of the friction

between them) a constant retarding force on the rotation

of the

earth's nucleus.
If, as

in the preceding cases,

we

include in the equation the

term depending on/, the form of solution is somewhat modified,

and a better view of the term is obtained. Remarking that,
as is stated above, no

dz

ax2

powers

and the equation

of

x can be admitted, we may omit

as regards the

d*X

JX = 1

h /

d&

The

new term becomes

C.

dt

solution of the equation is

X~j
from which the

friction

+ S +*'.<*,

APPENDIX.

41

Whatever, therefore, be the primary state of things, the second

term will ultimately become insensible the frictional force on
the water will be - c in the direction of the moon's apparent
diurnal motion, or + c in the direction of the earth's rotation
and this
a force - c in that direction
the nucleus
;

upon

implies

of the earth, constantly retarding its rotation.

THE

KJfl).

Printed by PoNSONBY AND WELDRICK, Dublin,

m
-

"'
'.

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