ECV211

ECV 211:
Course Outline
Electromechanical Engineering: ECV 211
Introduction The objective of this course is assist the civil engineering student to
provide for electrical and mechanical services
Expected Outcomes At the end of the course the student should be able to:
Understand current, voltage and resistance.
Understand alternative and direct current.
Understand single phase and three phase alternating current.
Carry out electrical installation.
Design for fire protection.
Design for mechanical systems e.g. pumps lifts etc
Course Structure
Lectures: 2 hours/week (Mondays 1100hrs to 1300 hrs)
Tutorial: 1 hour/week (Thursdays 0900hrs to 1000 hrs)
Practical: 3 hours/week (Wednesdays)
CATs:
Week 6
Week 9
Week 12
Assignments:
Three Assignments, each to be handed in two weeks after date issued.
Assessment:
Continuous assessment:
Tests- 10%
Assignments- 5%
Practicals- 15%
Examination- 70%
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
ECV 211:
Course Description
Current, voltage and resistance, Ohms law. Electric power. Joules law. Power
sources. Series and parallel circuits. Kirchhoffs laws. Direct Current (D.C.) circuit
analysis.
Alternating voltage and current. Impedance and admittance. Single phase A.C.
circuits. Three-phase alternating current.
Electrical measurements and measuring instruments.
Electrical installation; wiring facilities and ducting.
Fire protection: means of escape, fire regulations, grading, resistance, fire detection
and fighting facilities.
Refuse disposal systems: Chutes, incinerator, garchey systems, macerator equipment.
Solid waste and soil drainage disposal.
Mechanical systems, pumps sizes and location. Provision of specialized services such
as lifts, excavators and ventilation, air conditioning and refrigeration.
Practical Work/Laboratory Exercises
Each student is required to conduct the four experiments listed below. The practical
work/laboratory exercises are to cover the following topics
(a) Speed control of different types of electrical machines
(b) Principles of voltage stepping down
(c) Design and draw an electrical installation for a small building
(d) Carry out electrical installation in buildings
Literature
1. Electrical and Electronic Technology, Edward Hughes, Publisher: Pearson Prentice
Hall; 10th edition (June 2008) ISBN-10: 0132060116
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
ii
Chapter 1
BASIC ELECTRIC PRINCIPLES
1.1
Definitions
1. Current: The amount of charge(Q) flowing in a circuit. Is measured in Amperes.

An Ampere is defined as one Coulomb of electrons (1 Coulomb = 6.25 1018
electrons) passing through a given point in a circuit in 1 second.
2. Voltage: A measure of specific potential energy between two locations. Voltage
is always relative between two locations. Voltage is measured in volts. The voltage
between two points is one volt if it requires one joule of energy to move one coulomb
of electrons from one point to the other. In equation form, the voltage, V, in volts,
is found as:
W
(1.1)
V =
Q
where W is the energy in joules and Q is the charge in coulombs.
3. Resistance: Is the opposition to flow of current. Is measured in Ohms.
4. Short Circuit: A circuit offering little or no resistance to the flow of electrons.
Short circuits are dangerous with high voltage power sources because the high
currents encountered can cause large amounts of heat energy to be dissipated.
5. Open Circuit: A circuit whose continuity has been broken by an interruption in
the path for electrons to flow.
6. Closed Circuit: A complete circuit with good continuity throughout.
1.2
Ohms Law
Gives the relationship between current, voltage and resistance. Ohms law is stated as:
The potential difference across the ends of a conductor is proportional to
ECV 211: CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELECTRIC PRINCIPLES
the current flowing through the conductor, provided the temperature is held
constant. This is expressed as:
V I
(1.2)
The value relating voltage and current is known as the resistance of the conductor, thus
I=
V
R
or
V = IR
and
R=
1.3
V
I
Electric Power
Power is a measure of how much work is done in a given amount of time. In electric
circuits, power is obtained as a product of voltage and current, such that:
P = IV
(1.3)
The unit of electric power is the Watt.

The relationship between power and resistance is related using Joules Law, and
may be derived from the Ohmic relationship between voltage and resistance. Thus,
P = I 2R
(1.4)
Electrical Energy is a measure of the work done by the electric power, and is a
product of power and time.
The unit of electrical energy is the Joule or the watt second. For practical purposes,
power companies measure energy in Kilowatt hours (kWh).
1.3.1
Power Sources
A source of electrical energy can be represented by a source of e.m.f in series with an

internal resistance. It can also be represented by a source of current in parallel with an
internal resistance.
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
A constant voltage source supplies the same voltage to all loads, regardless of the
current flowing through the load. An ideal constant voltage source is one with zero
A constant current source supplies the same current to all loads, regardless of the
potential difference across the load. An ideal constant current source is one with infinite
1.4
Series and Parallel Circuits
In a series connection, components are connected end-to-end in a line, forming a single

path for current to flow, as shown in Figure 1.1. Thus the current across all the components in a purely series circuit is common. The order of series components may be
changed without affecting the operation of the circuit.
Two elements are said to be connected in series if they are connected
at a single point and if there are no other current carrying connections at
that point.
Figure 1.1: Simple series connection

In a parallel connection, the components are connected across each others leads.
This is as shown in Figure 1.2. In a purely parallel circuit, there are never more than
two electrically common points, no matter how many components are connected. There
are many paths for current to flow but only one voltage across all the components.
Figure 1.2: Simple parallel connection
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
1.4.1
Properties of Simple Series Circuits
(i) Components in a series circuit share the same current, thus IT otal =I1 = I2 = I3
. . . = In and so on for all components.
(ii) Total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances,
i.e. RT otal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn
(iii) Total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops:
VT otal = V1 + V2 + V3 + . . . Vn
1.4.2
Voltage Divider Circuits
Series circuits are also referred to as voltage divider circuits because they effectively
divide the total voltage into fractional portions of constant ratio, dependent on the value
of the components in the circuit.
For a voltage divider circuit:
Voltage drop across any resistor is obtained as
Vn = In Rn
(1.5)
Current in the circuit is obtained as

IT otal =
VT otal
RT otal
(1.6)
Substituting the value of current from equation 1.6 into equation 1.5,
Vn =
VT otal
Rn
RT otal
(1.7)
or
Rn
RT otal
This is known as the Voltage Divider Formula.
Vn = VT otal
1.4.3
(1.8)
Properties of Simple Parallel Circuits
(i) Components in a parallel circuit share the same voltage, thus VT otal =V1 = V2 = V3
. . . = Vn and so on for all components.
(ii) Total resistance in a parallel circuit is less than any of the individual resistances,
i.e. RT otal = 1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ... + 1/Rn )
(iii) Total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops:
VT otal = V1 + V2 + V3 + . . . Vn
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
1.4.4
Current Divider Circuits
Parallel circuits are also referred to as current divider circuits because they effectively
divide the total current into fractional portions of constant ratio, dependent on the value
of the components in the circuit.
For a current divider circuit:
Current through any resistor is obtained as
In =
Vn
Rn
(1.9)
Voltage in a parallel circuit is obtained as

VT otal = Vn = IT otal RT otal
(1.10)
Substituting the value of voltage from equation 1.10 into equation 1.9,
In =
IT otal RT otal
Rn
(1.11)
or
RT otal
Rn
This is known as the Current Divider Formula.
In = IT otal
1.5
(1.12)
Kirchhoff s Laws
1. Kirchhoff s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop
must equal zero.
2. Kirchhoff s Current Law states that the algebraic sum of all voltages entering
and exiting a node must equal zero.
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
TUTORIAL 1
1. Rewrite the following as indicated:
(a) 1000 pF = . . . . . . nF
(b) 0.02 F = . . . . . . pF
(c) 5000 kHz = . . . . . . MHz
(d) 47 k = . . . . . . M
(e) 0.32 mA = . . . . . . A
2. (a) What quantity of charge is carried by 6.24 1021 electrons?
(b) An initially neutral body has 1.7C of negative charge removed. Later, 1.87
1012 electrons are added. What is the bodys final charge?
(c) After 1.061 1014 electrons are added to a metal plate, it has a negative charge
of 3C. What was its initial charge in coulombs?
(d) Body A has a negative charge of 0.2C and body B has a positive charge
of 0.37C. If 8.7 1013 electrons are transferred from A to B, what are the
charges in coulombs on A and on B after the transfer?
(e) A metal plate has 1.46 1014 electrons added. Later, 1.3C of charge is added.
If the final charge on the plate is 5.6C, what was its initial charge?
3. (a) A current of 3A flows for 5 minutes. How many electrons are transferred past
any given point in the circuit?
(b) If 7.4881021 electrons pass through a point during a time interval of 2 minutes,
what is the current?
(c) How long does it take 100C to pass through a point if the current is 25 mA?
(d) The charge passing through a wire is given by the equation
q = 10t + 4
where q is in coulombs and t is in seconds.
(i) How much charge has passed at t = 5 seconds?
(ii) How much charge has passed at t = 8 seconds?
(iii) What is the current in Amperes?
(e) The charge passing through a wire is q = (80t + 20)C. What is the current?
4. (a) The voltage between two points is 19V. How much energy is required to move
6.7 1019 electrons from one point to the other?
(b) The potential difference between two points is 140 mV. If 280J of work required to move a charge, Q from one point to the other, what is Q?
(c) A circuit consists of a load connected to a 12V battery. The switch is closed for
a short interval then opened. If the current, I = 6A, and the battery expends
230,040 J moving charge through the circuit, how long was the switch closed?
(d) How much energy is gained by a charge of 0.5C as it moves through a potential
difference of 8.5 kV?
(e) If the voltage between two points is 100 V, how much energy is required to
move an electron between the two points?
(f) If 1353.6 J are required to move 4.7 1020 electrons through a lamp in 1.3
minutes, what are V and I?
5. (a) A lamp draws 25 mA when connected to a 6V battery. What is its resistance?
(b) The current through a 2M resistor is 0.15 mA. What is the voltage across it?
(c) How much voltage can be applied across a 560 resistor if the current through
it must not exceed 50 mA?
(d) A relay with a coil resistance of 240 requires a minimum of 50 mA to operate.
What is the minimum voltage that will cause it to operate?
6. (a) A 100 resistor dissipates 169 W. What is the current flowing through it?
(b) A 3 resistor dissipates 243 W. What is the voltage across it?
(c) An electric heater consumes 1.728 MJ when connected to a 240 V supply for
30 minutes. Find the power rating of the heater and the current taken from
the supply.
(d) Your power use per month is as follows: a 1.5 kW water heater for 7.5 hours,
a 3.6 kW grill for 17 minutes, three 100 W lamps for 3 hours, a 900 W toaster
for 6 minutes and a 1 kW iron box for 4.5 hours. The power utility company
charges are as follows:
Fixed charge: Ksh 120.00

Consumption charge: Ksh 2.00 per kWh
Fuel cost charge: Ksh 5.35 per kWh
Forex Adjustment: Ksh 1.35 per kWh
(i) Calculate your power bill for the month.

(ii) If you replace the lamps with energy saving bulbs each consuming 15W
and use solar water heating for 60% of your water heating needs, calculate
the new power bill per month.
(e) The load on a 120 V circuit consists of six 100 W lamps, a 1.2 kW electric
heater and an electric motor drawing 1500 W. If the circuit is fused at 30 A,
what happens when a 900 W toaster is plugged in? Justify your answer.
7. A 120 V DC motor draws 12A and develops an output power of 1194 W. Calculate
the efficiency of the motor and the power wasted.
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
8. Given a series circuit consisting of three resistors and a single battery, fill in the
table below for the following values of Vs , R1, R2 and R3.
R1
Vs
R2
R3
R1
R2
R3
V
I
R
P
Total
Volts
Amps
Ohms
Watts
(i) Vs = 9 V, R1 = 3k, R2 = 10k, R3 = 5k

(ii) Vs = 11.1 V, R1 =5k, R2 = 12k, R3 = 20k
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
ECV 211: CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Chapter 2
DC Circuit Analysis
2.1
Example 1
Consider the Series-Parallel circuit shown in Figure 2.1
Figure 2.1: Series-Parallel Circuit

The circuit is composed of two parallel branches, which are in turn connected in series
with respect to one another. In order to analyse the circuit, it is necessary to obtain the
currents and voltages for each component.
A table format can be used to simplify analysis, as given in Table 2.1.
R1
V
I
R
100
R2
R3
250
350
R4
200
Total
24
Volts
Amps
Ohms
Table 2.1: Table for solving DC circuit

The first step is to obtain the total resistance in the circuit. This can be expressed
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
as:
RT otal = (R1kR2) + (R3kR4)
(2.1)
To obtain the equivalent resistances in parallel:

1
1
1
=
+
(R1kR2)
R1 R2
(2.2)
1
1
1
=
+
(R3kR4)
R3 R4
(2.3)
and
The table is then redrawn to include the parallel resistances, as shown in Table 2.2
R1
V
I
R
100
R2
250
R3
R4
350
200
R1||R2
R3||R4
71.429 127.272
Total
24
Volts
Amps
Ohms
Table 2.2: Table for solving DC circuit (cont...)

Since the parallel branches are in series, the total resistance is obtained by summing
up the parallel equivalents. The total current flowing into each set of parallel connections
can be obtained by applying Ohms law to the source voltage and the total resistance
obtained above. The current is then used to obtain the voltage across the parallel
branches. These four steps result in Table 2.3:
V
I
R
R1
R2
R3
R4
100
250
350
200
R1||R2
R3||R4
Total
24
Volts
8.627
15.372
120.78m 120.78m 120.78m Amps
71.429 127.272 198.701 Ohms

Since voltage across parallel branches is equal, it is now possible to obtain individual
voltages across R1, R2, R3 and R4, and through application of Ohms law, to find current
through each resistor. The final table is as shown in Table 2.4:
The final circuit is as shown in Figure 2.2, with all currents and voltages indicated.
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
10
V
I
R
R1
8.627
86.27m
100
R2
8.627
34.51m
250
R3
15.372
43.92m
350
R4
R1||R2
R3||R4
Total
8.627
15.372
24
Volts
15.372
76.86m 120.78m 120.78m 120.78m Amps
200
71.429 127.272 198.701 Ohms
+
8.627 V
34.51 mA
86.27 mA
76.86 mA
43.92 mA
Figure 2.2: Series-Parallel circuit after analysis
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
11
+
15.372 V
-
2.2
Example 2
For figure 2.3, given that R1 = 100, R2 = 250, R3 = 470, R4 = 56, R5 = 330, R6
= 560 and R7 = 120, and that the source voltage is 12V, find the currents through
and voltages across each resistor.
Figure 2.3: Series-Parallel circuit: Example 2
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12
TUTORIAL 2
1. Figure Q1 shows a network of resistors.
(a) Find the total circuit resistance, RT
(b) Determine the current IT through the voltage sources.
(c) Solve for the currents I1 and I2 .
(d) Calculate the voltage Vab
Figure 2.4: Figure Q1

2. Find all the currents and voltages through the resistors in Figure Q2.
3. Find the currents through and the voltages across R1 and R2 in Figure Q3.
4. A current of 6A flows in the circuit in Figure Q4. What is the value of R?

5. From the circuit in Figure Q5, find I1, I2 and VA.
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
ECV 211: CHAPTER 3. AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Chapter 3
AC Circuit Analysis
3.1
Definitions
1. AC: Alternating currents (ac) are currents that change direction during the course
of their cycle. In general, ac is used to refer to the alternating waveform. Thus,
we have ac currents and ac voltages.
2. Amplitude: The amplitude of a waveform is the distance from its average to its
peak. The Peak Value is the maximum value of the waveform with respect to
zero. The Peak-to Peak value is the distance between the highest and the lowest
peaks.
3. Period (T): Is the duration of one cycle. Is measured in seconds.
4. Frequency (f ): Is the number of cycles per second. It is the inverse of the period.
Is measured in Hertz (Hz).
5. Average (dc) Value: Is obtained by dividing the area under a waveform by the
length of its base. This is the value that a dc meter connected to the waveform
will read as its measurement.
6. rms Value: Is obtained by squaring the expression for the waveform, obtaining
the mean then finding the square root of the mean. This value represents the
equivalent dc voltage/current that would be required to dissipate an equal amount
of power.
7. Phase Difference: Is the angular displacement between different waveforms of
the same frequency.
8. Phasor: A rotating vector that can be used to represent a sinusoidal waveform,
indicating the position of the waveform at time t = 0.
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16
3.2
Impedance and Admittance
Ac impedance is defined as the ratio of ac voltage to current, and is denoted Z, thus:

V
I
(3.1)
v = iR
(3.2)
Z=
3.2.1
Resistor Impedance
Let v = A cos t = A6 0
A6 0
R
Thus, the impedance, ZR , is obtained as:
i(t) =
ZR =
=
VR
IR
(3.4)
A6 0
A6 0
R
ZR = R
3.2.2
(3.3)
(3.5)
Impedance of an Inductor
vL = L
di
dt
Z
1
vL dt
iL =
L
Z
1
iL =
A cos tdt
L
=
=
(3.6)
(3.7)
(3.8)
A
sin t
L
cos(t )
L
2
(3.9)
Thus:
vL = A6 0
A
6
L
2
ZL = L6
2
iL =
= jL
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
17
(3.10)
3.2.3
Impedance of a Capacitor
iC = C
dVC
dt
(3.11)
d
(A cos t)
dt
(3.12)
= C(A sin t)
(3.13)
=C
= CA cos(t +
)
2
(3.14)
vC = A6 0
iC = CA6
ZC =
1
6
C
2
j
C
1
jC
(3.15)
(3.16)
The impedance of a circuit, Z, is expressed as:

Z(j) = R(j) + jX(j)
(3.17)
where R is the ac resistance and X is the reactance.

The reactance component of the impedance is made up of the inductive reactance,
XL , equal to L, which is always positive, and the capacitive reactance, XC , equal to
1
C
, which is always negative.
3.2.4
Admittance
Admittance, Y, is the reciprocal of the impedance, and its unit is the Siemens.
1
= G + jB
Z
G is known as the ac conductance, and B is referred to as the susceptance.
To obtain G and B from Z:
Y =
Y =
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
18
1
1
=
Z
R + jX
(3.18)
(3.19)
(R jX)
(R + jX)(R jX)
R jX
R2 + X 2
Equating the real and imaginary terms, we get:
Y =
G=
(3.20)
(3.21)
R
+ X2
(3.22)
X
+ X2
(3.23)
R2
and
B=
3.3
R2
Power in ac Circuits
(a) For a purely resistive ac circuit, the average power dissipated is given by:
P = V I = I 2R =
V2
W atts
R
(3.24)
(b) For a purely inductive circuit, average power dissipated is ZERO.

(c) For a purely capacitive circuit, average power dissipated is ZERO.
(d) For an R-L, R-C or R-L-C circuit, average power dissipated is given by:
P = V I cos
(3.25)
where cos is known as the power factor.
3.4
Three Phase AC Circuits
Single phase voltage is induced when a single coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field.
It makes use of two wires- a live wire (usually red) and a neutral wire (usually black).
The neutral is usually connected to the earth, with the earth wire being coloured green.
The standard voltage for a single phase ac supply is 240V.
A three phase voltage is generated when three coils are placed 120 apart and the
whole setup rotated in a uniform magnetic field. The result is three independent supplies
of equal voltages displaced from each other by 120 .
The convention adopted to identify each of the phase voltages is Red, Yellow and
Blue, and the phase sequence is Red-Yellow-Blue.
A three-phase ac supply is carried by three conductors, called lines, which are coloured
red, yellow and blue. A fourth conductor, the neutral, usually coloured black, may be
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
19
Figure 3.1: Single phase ac generator
Figure 3.2: Three phase ac generator

used with a three phase supply. The current flowing through the conductors is known
as line current (iL ), and the voltages between them are known as line voltages (vL ).
If the three voltages are connected independently, it would be necessary to use at
least six wires. However, to reduce the number of wires required to connect loads to
three-phase supplies, there are two common types of connection used- star (or wye) and
delta.
3.4.1
Star Connection
(a) In a star connection, the three conductors are joined together at a common point
known as the star point. If a neutral conductor is used in the connection, it is also
connected to the star point, resulting in a 4-wire connection.
(b) VR , VY and VB , are known as phase voltages, denoted Vp .
(c) VRY , VY B and VBR are called line voltages.
(d) The phase currents Ip are equal to their respective line currents, IR , IY and IB .
(e) For a balanced system, IR = IY = IB , VR = VY = VB , VRY = VY B = VBR and
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20
Figure 3.3: Star connected three-phase load

ZR = ZY = ZB , and the current in the neutral conductor, IN = 0. When a star
connection is balanced, the neutral conductor is unnecessary, and is often omitted.
(f) For a balanced star system, VL = 3Vp

(g) A 4-wire star connection allows for the use of 2 voltages. The standard electricity
supply in Kenya from a three-phase voltage supply is 415/240 V, 50 Hz.
3.4.2
Delta Connection
Figure 3.4: Delta connected three-phase load
(a) In a delta (or mesh) connection, the end of one load is connected to the start of the
next load.
(b) The line voltages are the respective phase voltages, i.e. VL = Vp .
(c) IL = 3Ip
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21
3.4.3
Power in Three Phase Circuits
Power dissipated in a three-phase system is given by the sum of the power dissipated
in each phase. If the system is balanced, the power dissipated is 3 times the power
consumed by one phase.
VL
For a star connection, Vp =
and IL = Ip . Thus,
3

P =3
=
For a delta connection, Ip =
IL
V
L
3

IL cos
(3.26)
3VL IL cos
and VL = Vp . Thus,

P = 3VL
=
I
L
3

cos
(3.27)
3VL IL cos
Hence, for either a star or delta connection, power is given by
P = 3VL IL cos W atts
(3.28)
or
P = 3Ip2 Rp W atts
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
22
(3.29)
Chapter 4
Electrical Measurements and
Measuring Instruments
4.1
Introduction
A meter is any device built to accurately detect and display an electrical quantity in a
form readable by a human being. This readable form is usually visual and may involve
motion of a pointer on a scale, a series of lights arranged to form a bargraph or some
sort of display composed of numerical figures.
Meters may be divided into analogue and digital types. Analogue meters give an
output action that directly represents the quantity being measured. Digital meters give
output in the form of digits displayed on an output device.
Advantages of Analogue Instruments
They are cheaper
People find it easier to visualize the output using an analogue display, thus many
prefer it to a digital one.
Disadvantages of Analogue Instruments
They are not very accurate
They tend to distort the circuit in which they are applied
4.2
Analogue Instruments
All analogue instruments require three essential devices:

(i) A deflecting or operating device: A mechanical force is produced by the current or voltage which causes the pointer to deflect between its zero position at
zero current/voltage and its f.s.d (full scale deviation) position at the maximum
current/voltage rating of the device.
23
ECV 211: CHAPTER 4. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS
(ii) A controlling device: It acts in opposition to the deflecting force and ensures
that the deflection shown on the meter is always the same for a given measured
quantity. It also prevents the pointer always going to the maximum deflection.
There are two main types of controlling device- spring control and gravity control.
(iii) A damping device: A damping force ensures that the pointer comes to rest in its
final position quickly and without undue oscillation. There are three main types
of damping used- eddy current damping, air friction damping and fluid friction
damping.
There are two types of scale- Linear Scale, in which the divisions or graduations
are evenly spaced, and Non-Linear Scale, which is cramped at the beginning and the
graduations are uneven throughout the range.
4.2.1
Moving Iron Instrument
Moving iron instruments are of two types: attraction type and repulsion type.
Figure 4.1: Moving Iron Instruments
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
24

INSTRUMENTS
(a) In the attraction type moving iron instrument, when current flows in the solenoid,
a pivoted soft iron disc is attracted to the solenoid and the movement causes the
pointer to move across a scale.
(b) In the repulsion type moving iron instrument, two pieces of iron are placed inside the solenoid, one being fixed and the other attached to the spindle carrying
the pointer. When current passes through the solenoid, the two pieces of iron are
magnetized in the same direction and therefore repel each other. The pointer moves
across the scale.
The force moving the pointer is, in each type of moving iron instrument, proportional
to I 2 , thus the direction of current does not matter. For that reason, moving iron
instruments can be used to measure both dc and ac. The scale, however, is non-linear.
4.2.2
Moving Coil Instrument
Figure 4.2: Moving Coil Instrument

The rectangular moving-coil consists of insulated copper wire wound on a light aluminium frame fitted with steel pivots resting on bearings. Current is led into and out of
the coil by spiral hairsprings AA, which also provide the controlling torque. The coil is
free to move in airgaps between the soft-iron pole pieces PP and a soft-iron cylinder B
supported by a brass plate (not shown). The functions of core B are:
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
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INSTRUMENTS
to intensify flux by reducing the air-gap length

to give a radial magnetic flux of uniform density, thus enabling the scale to be
uniformly divided.
Figure 4.3: Distribution of Flux in Moving Coil instrument

The manner in which a torque is produced when the coil is carrying a current may
be understood more easily by considering a single turn PQ. Suppose P to carry current
outwards from the paper; then Q is carrying current towards the paper. Current in
P tends to set up a magnetic field in a counterclockwise direction around P and thus
strengthens the magnetic field on the lower side and weakens it on the upper side. The
current in Q, on the other hand, strengthens the field on the upper side while weakening
it on the lower side. Hence, the effect is to distort the magnetic flux. Since the flux
behaves as if it was in tension and therefore tries to take the shortest path between poles
NS, it exerts forces FF on coil PQ, tending to move it out of the magnetic field.
4.2.3
Moving Coil Rectifier Instrument
Consists of a moving coil instrument used in conjunction with a bridge circuit to provide an indication of alternating currents and voltages. This meter is calibrated in rms
values rather than average values, and it is assumed by the manufacturers that the ac is
sinusoidal.
4.2.4
4.3
Comparison between Moving Iron, Moving Coil and Moving Coil Rectifier Instruments
Voltmeter Design
Most meters are sensitive devices, thus it is necessary to reduce the quantity being
measured to a value the instrument can handle.
For voltmeters, the range of voltage that the instrument can measure is increased by
use of the voltage division principle. A resistor is connected in series with the instrument
such that the greater voltage appears across the resistor, known as a multiplier, and a
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INSTRUMENTS
Figure 4.4: Moving coil rectifier instrument
Table 4.1: Comparison of Instrument types
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INSTRUMENTS
smaller voltage appears across the instrument. The scale on the meter face is also calibrated in proportion to indicate the new range. The value of the multiplier is calculated
depending on the range required and the characteristics of the instrument, i.e. its full
scale deviation and its internal resistance.
Multi-range voltmeters are designed using a multi-pole switch and several multiplier
resistors, each one sized for a particular range.
4.4
Ammeter Design
In ammeter design, the current division principle is applied to reduce the current flowing
through the instrument. Thus, a low value resistor known as a shunt is connected in
parallel with the instrument to carry the larger proportion of the current, while a smaller
proportion of the current to be measured flows through the instrument.
4.5
Ohmmeter Design
An ohmmeter measures the value of resistance between its leads. This resistance reading
is indicated by a pointer movement which is operated by electric current. Analogue ohmmeters are designed with an internal voltage source to provide the current for moving the
pointer and a protective resistor in series to allow for the required range of measurements
to be included in the calibrations.
The ohmmeter scale ranges from 0 to infinity, and is reversed. The scale is non-linear,
with the calibrations calculated based on the current drawn from the meter.
Ohmmeter reliability is highly dependent on the reliability of the voltage source, and
the ohmmeter can only function correctly when used to measure a resistance that is NOT
connected to a live circuit.
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TUTORIAL 4
Voltmeter Design
Example
A moving coil meter has a full scale deviation of 1 mA and a coil resistance of 500.
Use the meter to design a voltmeter with a range of:
(a) 10 V
(b) 100 V.
Solution:
The full scale deviation of the meter unaltered allows for the measurement of a range
given by:
V = IR = 1 103 500 = 0.5V
To allow for measurement of more than 0.5 V, a multiplier must be connected in
series with the meter to take up the extra voltage, as shown in the Figure 4.5.
Rm
Figure 4.5: Voltmeter design from moving coil instrument

Using the voltage divider formula, it is possible to calculate the value of resistance
required for the multiplier.
(a) For the 10 V voltmeter, the multiplier is required to have a potential difference of
(10-0.5) V across it at f.s.d, which works out to 9.5 V. Using the voltage divider
formula, the value of resistance required for the multiplier can now be worked out
thus:
Rm
9.5V =
10V
(500 + Rm )
9.5(500 + Rm ) = 10Rm
10Rm 9.5Rm = 9.5 500
0.5Rm = 4750
Thus, Rm is found to be equal to 9500 or 9.5k.

INSTRUMENTS
(b) Working as for (a), for the 100V voltmeter, the voltage across the multiplier will be
99.5 V. The resistance required for the multiplier will be:
99.5V =
Rm
100V
(500 + Rm )
99.5(500 + Rm ) = 100Rm
100Rm 99.5Rm = 99.5 500
0.5Rm = 49750
Thus, to create a 100V voltmeter, the value required for the multiplier is 99500,
which is equivalent to 99.5k.
It is possible to design a multi-range voltmeter by including a range of multiplier
resistors, as shown in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6: Multi-Range voltmeter

However, since the values obtained for the multipliers are often uncommon values, not
usually easily obtained commercially, the usual configuration for a multi-range voltmeter
is as shown in Figure 4.7.
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INSTRUMENTS
Figure 4.7: Multi-range voltmeter using practical resistor values
Exercises
1. A moving coil instrument gives f.s.d for a current of 10 mA. Given that the internal
resistance of the instrument is 250, calculate the value of the multiplier required
to enable the instrument to measure up to:
(a) 20V
(b) 100V
(c) 250V
2. A moving coil instrument having a resistance of 20 gives a f.s.d when the current
is 5 mA. Calculate the value of multiplier required so that it can be used as a
voltmeter with a range of up to:
(a) 10V
(b) 25V
(c) 100V
(d) 250V
Ammeter Design
Example
Using the same instrument used in voltmeter design, we wish to create an instrument
with a full scale deviation of:
(a)100 mA
(b)5 Amps
Solution
The current that causes f.s.d in the instrument is 1mA. To allow the instrument to
measure currents greater than that, a shunt resistance is connected in parallel to carry
the extra current, as shown in Figure 4.8.
The current divider formula is used to calculate the resistance of the shunt used.
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INSTRUMENTS
Figure 4.8: Ammeter design from moving coil instrument

(a) To calculate shunt resistance for a 100 mA ammeter, we use current division, as
follows: Working in milliamperes:
1mA =
Rs
100mA
(500 + Rs )
500 + Rs = 100Rs
99Rs = 500
The value of shunt resistance required is 5.05051.
(b) For a 5A ammeter, the required shunt is:
1mA =
Rs
5000mA
(500 + Rs )
500 + Rs = 5000Rs
4999Rs = 500
The value required for the shunt is thus found to be 0.10002.
Multi-range ammeters can be made by using a range of shunt resistors and a range
selector switch, as shown in Figure 4.9.
Since the values used for shunt resistances are very low, they usually have to be
specially fabricated from relatively large diameter wire or solid pieces of metal.
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INSTRUMENTS
Figure 4.9: Multi-Range ammeter
Exercises
1. A moving coil instrument gives f.s.d for a current of 10 mA. Given that the internal
resistance of the instrument is 250, calculate the value of the shunt required to
enable the instrument to measure up to:
(a) 2 A
(b) 10 A
(c) 25 A
2. A moving coil instrument having a resistance of 20 gives a f.s.d when the current
is 5 mA. Calculate the value of multiplier required so that it can be used as a
voltmeter with a range of up to:
(a) 100 mA
(b) 250 mA
(c) 1 A
(d) 2.5 A
(e) 10 A
(f) 25 A
Ohmmeter Design
Example
An ohmmeter is to be designed from a moving coil meter with a full scale deviation
of 1 mA, an internal resistance of 500 and a voltage source supplying 9V.
To investigate how it serves as a simple ohmmeter, first consider the case when there
is infinite resistance between the leads, i.e. there is no continuity in the circuit. Current
flow will be zero and the pointer will be at the extreme left of the scale.
If the test leads of the ohmmeter are directly connected, the meter will have maximum current flowing through it, obtained by dividing the supply voltage by the internal
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INSTRUMENTS
Figure 4.10: Simple ohmmeter

resistance of the meter, resulting in a current flow of 18mA. This is higher than the
full scale deviation of the meter, and would likely damage the meter. To accommodate
the extra current, it is necessary to add a series resistance which ensures that full scale
deviation is just accomplished by zero resistance between the leads.
The total resistance required in the circuit is obtained by Ohms law as:
Rtotal =
9
V
=
= 9k
I
1 103
The value of the series resistance is obtained by simple arithmetic: R = Rtotal 500 =
8.5k.
In order to graduate the scale, it is necessary to determine the values at half, quarter
and three-quarters of the full scale deviation. Since the resistance ranges from infinity
on the left to 0 on the right, the scale is non-linear.
To determine the half-scale value, the calculation is as follows:
If the full scale deviation is achieved by a current of 1 mA, then 0.5 mA through the
instrument causes half-scale deviation. Using the design with the 9V battery,
Rtotal =
V
9
=
= 18k
I
0.5 103
Since there is a series resistance of 8.5k in addition to the instrument resistance

of 500 in the circuit, the resistance connected between the leads is equal to 18k
8.5k 500 = 9k
At quarter scale deflection, the current is 0.25 mA. The total resistance is:
Rtotal =
9
= 36k
0.25 103
The value of the resistance connected between the leads for a quarter scale deflection
would then be 36k 8.5k 500 = 27k.
Using similar calculations, the three-quarters scale deviation is calculated to be 3k.
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INSTRUMENTS
Exercises
(a) A student wishes to design an ohmmeter from a moving coil meter and a voltage
source. Given the following specifications for the instruments available, show the
ohmmeter as designed, and indicate the values that will be required to mark the
halfway point, the quarter-way and the three-quarter mark on the scale.
(i) A moving coil meter with a full scale deviation of 2.5 mA and an internal
resistance of 100 and a voltage source supplying 20V.
(ii) A moving coil meter with a full scale deviation of 10mA and an internal resistance of 250, and a voltage source supplying 15V.
(b) An ohmmeter is to be designed from a moving coil meter with a full scale deviation
of 5 mA and an internal resistance of 500.
(i) Given that the half-scale deviation is to be 15k and the three-quarter scale
deviation is to be 3.5k, calculate the voltage and series resistance required.
(ii) If the instrument was designed using a 20V voltage source, calculate the series
resistance required and the half, quarter and three-quarter scale values.
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
ECV 211: CHAPTER 5. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
Chapter 5
Electrical Installation
5.1
5.1.1
Wiring Facilities
Introduction
Electrical services in a building may be provided for different kinds of loads- lighting,
heating, motors, communication equipment, etc. These loads may vary in voltage and
time of service, as for example, continuous lighting and intermittent elevator motors. It
is highly improbable that all of the intermittent loads will occur at once. To determine
the probable maximum load, diversity factors, consisting of coincidence factors and
demand factors are applied to the total connected load.
The coincidence factor is a ratio of the maximum demand load of a system to the
sum of its individual components, and indicates the largest portion of all the electrical
loads likely to be operating at any one time. The demand factor is the ratio of the
actual peak load equipment or system to its maximum rating.
5.1.2
Electrical Plans
Electrical plans should be drawn to scale, traced or reproduced from the architectural
plans. Floor heights should be indicated if full elevations are not given. Locations of
windows and doors should be reproduced accurately and door swings shown, to facilitate
location of wall switches. Length of wiring required may be estimated from the plans
with sufficient accuracy.
Location of all electrical equipment should be indicated on the plan by use of symbolsceiling outlets, wall receptacles, switches, junction boxes, panel boards, telephone and
interior communication equipment, fire alarms, television master-antenna connections,
etc.
5.1.3
Branch Circuits
It is good practice to limit branch runs to 50 ft for 120V circuits and 100 ft for 277V
circuits by installing sufficient panelboards in efficient locations.
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General lighting branch circuits with a 15A fuse or circuit breaker in the panelboard
are usually limited to 6 to 8 outlets, although most building codes permit up to 12. No
more than 2 outlets should be connected in a 20A appliance circuit.
5.1.4
Service Entrance Switch and Metering Equipment
Fused switches and circuit breakers must be provided near the entrance point of electrical
services in a building for shutting off the power. Each incoming service in a multioccupancy building must be controlled near its entrance by not more than 6 switches or
circuit breakers.
Metering equipment must be located near the point of service entrance, unless otherwise permitted by the utility company. Tenant meter closets on upper floors, opening
on public halls, may also be permitted.
5.1.5
Electric Wiring Circuits
Power Sockets
Power sockets should be positioned between 150 mm and 250 mm above floor level and
work surfaces. An exception is in buildings designed for the elderly and the infirm, where
the socket heights should be between 750 mm and 900 mm above the floor.
Every socket terminal should be fitted with a double socket to reduce the need for
adaptors. Positioning of sockets should reduce the need for lead lengths to no more than
2 m.
Ring Circuits
Ring circuits (see Fig. 5.1) are used for single phase supply to 3 pin sockets or to lighting
circuits. It consists of a PVC sheathed cable containing live and neutral conductors in
PVC insulation and an exposed earth looped into each socket outlet or ceiling rose (see
Fig. 5.2).
In a domestic building, a ring circuit may supply an unlimited number of sockets up
to a maximum floor area of 100m2 . A separate circuit is also provided solely for the
kitchen, which contains relatively high-rated appliances.
The number of socket outlets on a spur should not exceed the number of socket outlets
and fixed appliances on the ring.
Radial Circuits
A radial circuit (see Fig. 5.3) may be used as an alternative to a ring circuit to supply
any number of outlets, provided the following limitations are effected:
For 2.5 mm2 cross-sectional area cable, minimum overload protection is 20A, and
maximum coverage is 17 m cable length over 20m2 floor area.
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Figure 5.1: Ring circuit socket connection

For 4 mm2 cross-sectional area cable, minimum overload protection is 30A, and
maximum coverage is 21 m cable length over 50m2 floor area.
Since the ring circuit limitation for the 2.5 mm2 cable is 54 m cable length over 100
m floor area, radial circuits are usually limited to the following applications:
2
lighting circuits
immersion heaters
cookers
showers
storage radiators
outside extensions
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Figure 5.2: Ring circuit lighting connection
Figure 5.3: Radial circuit socket outlet connection
5.1.6
Lighting Circuits
In a one-way switch circuit the single-pole switch must be connected to the live conductor.
To ensure that both live and neutral conductors are isolated from the supply a doubleL.A. KAdoyo, 2013
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pole switch may be used, although these are generally limited to installations in larger
buildings where the number and type of light fittings demand a relatively high current
flow. Provided the voltage drop (4% max.) is not exceeded, two or more lamps may be
controlled by a one-way single-pole switch.
In principle, the two-way switch is a single-pole changeover switch interconnected in
pairs. Two switches provide control of one or more lamps from two positions, such as
that found in stair/landing, bedroom and corridor situations. In large buildings, every
access point should have its own lighting control switch. Any number of these may
be incorporated into a two-way switch circuit. These additional controls are known as
intermediate switches.
5.1.7
Testing of Completed Installation
Three tests are essential once electrical installation is completed:

1. Continuity: This test ensures integrity of the live, neutral and earth conductors
without bridging (shorting out) of connections.
2. Insulation: This test is done to ensure that there is high resistance between
the live and neutral conductors, and between these conductors and the earth. A
low resistance would result in current leakage and energy wastage, which could
be a potential fire hazard. The test to earth requires that all lamps and other
equipment be disconnected, all switches and circuit breakers closed and fuses left
in. Ohmmeters should read at least 1 M .
3. Polarity: This test ensures that all switches and circuit breakers are connected
in the phase or live conductor. Connection of switchgear to the neutral conductor
could lead to a very dangerous situation where apparent isolation of equipment
would still leave it live.
5.2
Ducting
Before installing ducts for the entry of services into a building, it is essential to ascertain
the location of pipes and cables provided by the public utilities companies. Thereafter,
the shortest, most practicable and most economic route can be planned.
For flexible pipes and cables, a purpose-made plastic pipe duct and bend may be
used. For rigid pipes or large cables, a straight pipe duct to a pit will be required. Pipe
ducts must be sealed at the ends with a plastic filling and mastic sealant, otherwise
subsoil and other materials will encroach into the duct. If this occurs, it will reduce
the effectiveness of the void around the pipe or cable to absorb differential settlement
between the building and incoming service.
To accommodate horizontal services, a skirting or floor duct may be used (Figure
5.5). These may be purpose made by the site joiner or be standard manufactured items.
Vertical services may be housed in either a surface-type duct or a chase (Figure 5.6).
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Figure 5.4: Ducts for entry of services into buildings

The latter may only be used if the depth of chase does not affect the structural strength
of the wall. The reduction in the walls thermal and sound insulation properties may
also be a consideration.
Figure 5.5: Horizontal ducts for small diameter cables
5.2.1
Floor and Skirting Ducts
A grid distribution of floor ducting is appropriate in open plan offices and shops where
there is an absence of internal walls for power and telecommunications sockets. It is also
useful in offices designed with demountable partitioning where room layout is subject to
changes. Sockets are surface mounted in the floor with a hinged cover plate to protect
them when not in use. The disruption to the structure is minimal as the ducts can
be set in the screed, eliminating the need for long lengths of trailing cables to remote
workstations.
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Figure 5.6: Vertical ducts for small diameter cables
Figure 5.7: Floor Ducting

For partitioned rooms, a branching duct layout may be preferred. The branches can
terminate at sockets near to the wall or extend into wall sockets.
Where power supplies run parallel with telecommunications cables in shared ducts,
the services must be segregated and clearly defined.
For some buildings, proprietary metal, plastic or laminated plywood skirting ducts
may be used. These usually have socket outlets at fixed intervals.
5.2.2
Medium and Large Vertical Ducts
The purpose of a service duct is to conceal the services without restricting access for
inspection, repair and alterations. A duct also helps to reduce noise and protect the
services from damage.
When designing a service duct, the transmission of noise, possible build-up of heat in
the enclosure and accessibility to the services must be considered. The number of ducts
required will depend on the variation in services, the need for segregation and location
of equipment served.
Vertical ducts usually extend the full height of a building which is an important factor
when considering the potential for spread of fire. The duct must be constructed as a
protected shaft and form a complete barrier to fire between the different compartments
it passes. This will require construction of at least 60 minutes fire resistance with access
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Figure 5.8: Distribution of floor ducts

doors at least half the structural fire resistance.
5.2.3
Medium and Large Horizontal Ducts
Floor trenches are usually fitted with continuous covers. Crawl-ways generally have
access covers of minimum 600 mm dimension, provided at convenient intervals. A crawlway should be wide enough to allow a clear working space of at least 700 mm and have
a minimum headroom of at least 1 m. A trench has an internal depth of less than 1 m.
Continuous trench covers may be of timber, stone, reinforced concrete, metal or a
metal tray filled to match the floor finish. The covers should be light enough to be raised
by one person, or, at most, two. Sockets for lifting handles should be incorporated in
the covers. In external situations, the cover slabs (usually of stone or concrete) can be
bedded and joined together with a weak cement mortar. If timber or similar covers are
used to match a floor finish, they should be fixed with brass cups and countersunk brass
screws.
In internal situations where ducts cross the line of fire compartment walls, a fire
barrier must be provided within the void and the services suitably fire stopped.
5.2.4
Raised Access Floors
Raised flooring provides discrete housing for the huge volumes of data and telecommunications cabling, electrical power cables, pipes, ventilation ducts and other services
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Figure 5.9: Medium and large vertical ducts

associated with modern buildings (Fig. 5.11).
Proprietary raised floors use standard 600 mm square interchangeable decking panels,
suspended from each corner on adjustable pedestals. These are produced in a variety of
heights to suit individual applications, but most range between 100 mm and 600 mm.
Panels are generally produced from wood particle board and have a galvanised steel
casing or overwrap to enhance strength and provide fire resistance. Applied finishes vary
to suit application, e.g. carpet, wood veneer, vinyl, etc.
Pedestals are screw-threaded steel or polypropylene legs, connected to a panel support
plate and a base plate. The void between structural floor and raised panels will require
fire stopping at specific intervals to retain the integrity of compartmentation.
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Figure 5.10: Medium and large horizontal ducts
5.2.5
Suspended and False Ceilings
A suspended ceiling contributes to the fire resistance of a structural floor. An additional

purpose for a suspended ceiling is to accommodate and conceal building services, which
is primarily the function of a false ceiling.
False ceiling systems may be constructed from timber or metal framing. A grid or
lattice support system is produced to accommodate loose fit ceiling tiles of plasterboard,
particle board or composites. As with raised flooring, the possibility of fire spreading
through the void must be prevented. Fire stopping is necessary at appropriate intervals
(Fig. 5.12).
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Figure 5.11: Raised Access Floor
Figure 5.12: False Ceiling
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46
ECV 211: CHAPTER 6. FIRE PROTECTION
Chapter 6
Fire Protection
6.1
Introduction to Fire Safety
There are two distinct aspects of fire protection, which may overlap in some cases: life
safety and property protection. Life safety may be ensured by a program that ensures
prompt notification and evacuation of occupants. Property protection is ensured by
proper consideration of material properties and fire resistant structures.
The first obligation of designers is to meet legal requirements while providing the facilities required by the client. Many clients will also require that their insurance provider
be consulted to obtain the most favourable insurance rate.
Fire risk assessment involves the following three steps:
Identifying fire hazards
Identifying people at risk
Evaluation, removal, reduction and protection from risk
6.1.1
Identification of Fire Hazards
A fire requires three ingredients:

A source of ignition
A source of fuel
A source of oxygen
Fire hazards are items or conditions that provide one or more of the ingredients listed.
Sources of Ignition
Possible sources of ignition may include:
(i) smokers materials, such as cigarettes, lighters and matches
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(ii) naked flames, such as candles or gas or liquid-fuelled open flame equipment
(iii) electrical, gas or oil-fired heaters
(iv) hot processes, e.g. welding
(v) cooking equipment and activities
(vi) faulty or misused electrical equipment
(vii) lighting equipment placed too close to stored products
(viii) machines with hot surfaces
(ix) obstruction of equipment ventilation
(x) arson
(xi) boilers
Sources of Fuel
Anything that burns is fuel for a fire. Common sources of fuel may include:
(i) flammable liquid-based products such as thinners, paints, adhesives and varnishes.
(ii) flammable liquids and solvents such as white spirit, methylated spirit, cooking oils
and disposable cigarette lighters.
(iii) flammable chemicals such as certain cleaning products, photocopier chemicals and
dry-cleaners that use hydrocarbon solvents.
(iv) packaging materials, stationery, advertising material and decorations
(v) plastics and rubber such as video tapes, polyurethane foam-filled furniture and
polystyrene-based display materials
(vi) textiles and soft furnishings such as hanging curtains and clothing displays
(vii) waste products, particularly finely divided material such as shredded paper and
wood shavings, off-cuts and dust
(viii) flammable gases such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
(ix) wall and ceiling hangings
(x) decorations for seasonal and religious occasions
(xi) water storage and refuse containers
(xii) materials used to line walls and ceilings such as polystyrene tiles.
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Sources of Oxygen
The main source of oxygen for a fire is in the air around us. In an enclosed building
this is provided by the ventilation system in use. This generally falls into one of two
categories: natural airflow through doors,windows and other openings; or mechanical
air conditioning systems and air handling systems. In many buildings there will be a
combination of systems, which will be capable of introducing/extracting air to and from
the building.
Additional sources of oxygen may be from:
(i) Some chemicals (oxidizing materials), which can provide additional oxygen to a
fire.
(ii) Oxygen supplies from cylinders and piped systems
(iii) Pyrotechnics (fireworks)
6.1.2
Identification of People at risk
Everyone within a building is potentially at risk from fire, but there are those who are
at greater risk, and they may fall in the following categories:
(i) employees who work alone and/or in isolated areas, e.g. cleaners, security staff,
night staff, maintenance staff, etc
(ii) people who are unfamiliar with the premises e.g. guests, visitors, customers, seasonal staff, new staff and contractors
(iii) people asleep (they will be slow to respond and disorientated)
(iv) people with disabilities
(v) people with language difficulties
(vi) unaccompanied children and young persons
(vii) people who may have some other reason for not being able to leave the premises
quickly, e.g. elderly customers or parents with children
(viii) people who are sensorially impaired due to drugs, alcohol or medication
(ix) other people in the immediate vicinity of your premises
6.1.3
Evaluation, Reduction, Removal and Protection from Risk
Absolute fire safety is unattainable, thus, the objective of fire protection is to reduce
occurrence of preventable fires and to minimize the losses caused by fires that do occur.
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Evaluation of risk of occurrence of fire

Evaluation of risk of fire occurrence requires knowledge of the ways in which fires start,
i.e.
Accidentally, e.g. when smoking materials are not properly extinguished or when
lighting displays are knocked over.
Through negligence, e.g. when office electrical equipment is not properly maintained or when waste material is allowed to accumulate next to a heat source
Deliberately, i.e. arson
Evaluation of risk to people from fire
Evaluation of risk to people involves a knowledge of methods by which fire and smoke
spread, i.e.
(i) Convection: is the most dangerous, resulting in the highest number of injuries
and deaths. When fires start in enclosed spaces, the smoke rising from the fire gets
trapped by the ceiling and then spreads in all directions to form an ever-deepening
layer over the entire room space. The smoke will pass through any holes or gaps
in the walls, ceilings and floor into other parts of the building. The heat from the
fire gets trapped in the building and the temperature rises.
(ii) Conduction: some materials such as metal shutters and ducting can absorb heat
and transmit it to neighbouring rooms where it can set fire to combustible materials
that are in contact with the heated material.
(iii) Radiation: radiation causes the air in the room to heat up. Any material close to
a fire will absorb the heat until the material starts to smolder and then burn.
Smoke produced by a fire also contains toxic gases that are harmful to people. Thick,
black smoke obscures vision, causes difficulty breathing and can block escape routes.
In evaluating risk to people, it is important to consider situations such as:
(a) Fire starting on a lower floor affecting the only escape route for people on upper
floors or people with disabilities.
(b) Fire developing in an unoccupied space that people have to pass by to escape from
the building
(c) Fire or smoke spreading through a building via routes such as vertical shafts, service
ducts, ventilation systems, poorly installed, poorly maintained or damaged walls,
partitions and ceilings affecting people in remote areas.
(d) Fire starting in a service room and affecting hazardous materials
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(e) Fire spreading rapidly through the building because of combustible structural elements and/or large quantities of combustible goods
(f) Rapid vertical fire spread in racked displays
(g) Fire and smoke spreading through a building due to poor installation of fire precautions, e.g. incorrectly installed fire doors or incorrectly installed services penetrating
fire walls
(h) Fire and smoke spreading through the building due to poorly maintained and damaged fire doors or fire doors being wedged open.
Reduction and removal of sources of ignition
This can be done by taking the following precautions:
Wherever possible replace a potential ignition source by a safer alternative.
Replace naked flame and radiant heaters with fixed convector heaters or a central
heating system. Restrict the movement of and guard portable heating appliances.
Separate ignition hazards and combustibles e.g. ensure sufficient clear space between lights and combustibles.
Operate a safe smoking policy in designated smoking areas and prohibit smoking
elsewhere.
Ensure electrical and mechanical and gas equipment is installed, used, maintained
and protected in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
Check all areas where hot work (e.g. welding) has been carried out to ensure that
no ignition has taken place or any smoldering materials remain that may cause of
fire.
Ensure that no-one carrying out work on gas fittings which involves exposing pipes
that contain or have contained flammable gas uses any source of ignition such as
blow-lamps or hot-air guns.
Take precautions to avoid arson.
Reduction and removal of sources of fuel
This can be accomplished by the following steps:
Ensure combustible items, such as furniture, laundry, decorations, are stored properly and are separate from potential ignition sources, such as boilers.
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Reduce stocks of flammable materials, liquids and gases on display in public areas
to a minimum. Keep remaining stock in dedicated storerooms or storage areas
where the public are not allowed to go, and keep the minimum required for the
operation of the business.
Ensure flammable materials, liquids and gases, are kept to a minimum, and are
stored properly with adequate separation distances between them.
Reduce or protect combustible displays, furnishings and foliage.
Keep areas containing flammable gases ventilated.
Clean ducts and flues.
Make sure staffs responsible for cleaning bedrooms are aware of potential fire hazards (e.g. storage, use and disposal of aerosols/newspapers) that may be brought
into rooms by guests and residents and left in a haphazard manner. There should
be a policy in place to deal with this constant hazard.
Do not keep flammable solids, liquids and gases together.
Remove, or treat large areas of highly combustible wall and ceiling linings, e.g.
Polystyrene to reduce the rate of flame spread across the surface.
Develop a formal system for the control of combustible waste by ensuring that
waste materials and rubbish are not allowed to build up and are carefully stored
until properly disposed of, particularly at the end of the day.
Take action to avoid storage areas being vulnerable to arson or vandalism.
Check all areas where hot work (e.g. welding) has been carried out to ensure that
no ignition has taken place and no smoldering or hot materials remain that may
cause a fire later.
Reduce the amount of combustible materials, such as paper products and plastics.
Keep spare items in storerooms or storage areas where the public are not allowed
to go.
Reduction and removal of sources of oxygen
This can be accomplished by taking the following precautions:
Closing all doors, windows and other openings not required for ventilation, particularly out of working hours.
Shutting down ventilation systems which are not essential to the function of the
premises;
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Not storing oxidizing materials near or with any heat source or flammable materials
Controlling the use and storage of oxygen cylinders, ensuring that they are not
leaking.
Reduction and removal of risks to people
Where travel distance is in excess of the norm for the level of risk determined, the
following precautions may be taken to reduce risk to people:
Provide early warning of fire using automatic fire detection.
Revise the layout to reduce travel distances.
Reduce the fire risk by removing or reducing combustible materials and/or ignition
sources.
Control the number of people in the premises.
Limit the area to trained staff only (no public).
Increase staff training and awareness.
6.2
Fire Load and Resistance
The nature and potential magnitude of fire in a building are directly related to the
amount and physical arrangement of combustibles present, whether as contents of the
building or as materials used in its construction. Thus, buildings are classified by occupancy and construction.
The total amount of combustibles in a building is referred to as the fire load. It
is expressed as a ratio of mass per unit area. For highly combustible materials such as
petroleum, alcohols, waxes, fats and similar materials, their masses are taken at twice
the actual mass, because of their higher calorific value.
The fire load affects the severity of a fire, with an average fire load of 5 pounds per
square foot(about 24.41 kg per square metre) resulting in an equivalent fire severity of
1
hour, and an average fire load of 60 psf (about 292.95 kg per square metre) resulting
2
in a 7 12 hour fire.
Fire resistance ratings are required for structural members, exterior walls, fire divisions, fire separations, ceiling-floor assemblies, and any other constructions for which a
fire rating is necessary. Ratings are also required for interior finish of walls, ceilings and
floors, classified as to flame spread, fuel contributed and smoke developed.
6.2.1
Fire and Smoke Barriers
Buildings should be designed to control fires and smoke so that they do not spread from
building to building. The following measures may be employed:
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Zoning
Application of fire zones or fire limits that restrict types of construction or occupancy
that can be used. Additional regulations establish minimum distance between buildings
and specify the types of construction that may be used for enclosing the exterior of
buildings.
Building codes also require extending exterior walls as parapets at least 3 feet above
roof level. Parapets shield fire fighters who may be fighting a fire on an adjacent roof
and prevent flames from spreading from roof to roof.
Building codes also specify the level of fire-resistance required for roof coverings.
Fire Divisions/Barriers
Fire divisions are employed to prevent the spread of fire and smoke horizontally in building interiors.
A fire division is any construction with the fire-resistance rating and structural stability under fire conditions required for the type of occupancy and construction of the
building to bar the spread of fire between adjoining buildings or between parts of the
same building on opposite sides of the division. A fire division may be an exterior wall,
fire window, fire door, fire wall, ceiling or firestop.
A fire wall should be built of incombustible material, have a fire rating of at least
4 hours, and extend continuously from foundation to roof. Also, the wall should have
enough structural stability to allow collapse of construction of structures on either side
without the wall collapsing. The size of openings that may be provided in a fire wall are
restricted by building codes, and the openings must be fire protected.
A firestop is a solid or compact, tight closure set in a hollow, concealed space in a
building to retard spread of flames, smoke or hot gases. All partitions and walls should
be firestopped at every floor level, at the top story ceiling level and at the level of support
for roofs. Also, very large unoccupied attics should be subdivided by firestops into areas
of 3000 f t2 or less. Similarly, any large concealed space between a ceiling and floor or
roof should be subdivided. Firestops should extend the full depth of the space and be
placed along the line of support of structural members and elsewhere, if necessary, to
enclose areas not exceeding 1000 f t2 when situated between a floor and ceiling or 3000
f t2 when situated between a ceiling and roof.
Openings between floors for pipes, ducts, wiring, and other services should be sealed
with the equal of positive firestops. Partitions between each floor and a suspended
ceiling above are not generally required to be extended to the slab above unless this
is necessary for required compartmentation. But smoke stops should be provided at
reasonable intervals to prevent passage of smoke to noninvolved areas.
Height and Area Restrictions
Limitations on heights and floor areas included between fire walls in any story of a
building are mainly placed to protect human life. Height and area restrictions are usually
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ensured by placing requirements determining minimum number of exits, proper location

of exits and maximum travel distance (hence escape time) necessary to reach a place of
refuge. The limitations are also aimed at limiting the size of fires.
Unlimited height and area may be permitted for the most highly fire-resistant types of
construction. Also, in general, installation of automatic sprinklers increases permissible
height and area in all classes, except those allowed unlimited height and area.
6.2.2
Fire Resistance Classification of Buildings
Types of construction may be divided broadly into 5 classes, which may be further
subdivided, depending on local building codes.
1. Type I: Fire resistive construction- The primary structural frame, both interior and exterior bearing walls, interior and exterior non-bearing walls and partitions, roof and floor construction and associated secondary members are of noncombustible materials, except as permitted by local building codes.
2. Type II: Protected noncombustible construction- The primary structural
frame, both interior and exterior bearing walls, interior and exterior non-bearing
walls and partitions, roof and floor construction and associated secondary members
are of non-combustible materials, except as permitted by local building codes.
3. Type III: Unprotected noncombustible construction-The exterior walls are
of non-combustible materials and the interior building elements are of any materials permitted by local building codes. Fire-retardant wood framing material
is permitted within external wall assemblies with a 2 hour or less fire-resistance
rating.
4. Type IV: Heavy timber construction- The exterior walls are of non-combustible
materials and the interior building elements are of solid or laminated wood without concealed spaces. Fire-retardant wod framing is permitted within external wall
assemblies with a 2 hour or less fire resistance rating.
5. Type V: Ordinary construction- The structural elements, interior walls and
exterior walls are of any material permissible by local building codes.
Types of occupancy may be divided into the following classes:
1. Assembly (average fire load- 10.0 psf)
2. Business (average fire load- 12.6 psf)
3. Educational (average fire load -7.6 psf)
4. Factory and Industrial (average fire load- 25.0 psf)
5. High hazard
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6. Institutional (average fire load- 5.7 psf)

7. Mercantile (average fire load- 15-20 psf)
8. Residential (average fire load- 8.8 psf)
9. Storage (average fire load- 30.0 psf)
10. Utility and Miscellaneous
6.3
Means of Escape
The aim of the building designer is to prevent panic in emergencies, especially in confined
areas where large numbers of people may assemble. Thus, the arrangement of exit
facilities should permit occupants to move freely towards exits that they can see clearly
and that can be reached by safe, unobstructed and uncongested paths.
There should be more than one path to safety, and the paths should be accessible
and usable by handicapped persons, including those in wheelchairs.
6.3.1
Corridors
Minimum floor to ceiling height permitted for corridors is generally 80 inches. Minimum
width depends on type of occupancy and passageway. Codes may require subdivisions
into lengths not exceeding 300 ft for educational buildings and 150 ft for institutional
buildings. Subdivision should be accomplished with noncombustible partitions incorporating smokestop doors. In addition, codes may require the corridor enclosures to have
a fire rating of 1 to 2 hours.
6.3.2
Exit Doors
These are doors providing access to the street or to exit passageways. Doors at stairs or
passageways should have a fire rateing of at least 34 hour.
6.3.3
Horizontal Exit
This is a passageway to a refuge area. The exit may be a fire door through a wall with
a 2 hour fire rating, a balcony providing a path around a fire barrier, or a bridge or
a tunnel between two buildings. Doors in fire barriers with 3 or 4 hour ratings should
have a 1 12 hour rating on each face of the fire division. Balconies, bridges and tunnels
should be at least as wide as the doors accessing them, and enclosures or sides of these
passageways should have a fire rating of 2 hours or more.
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6.3.4
Interior Stairs
These are stairs inside a building and that serve as an exit. Should be built of noncombustible materials. Stairway enclosures should have a 2 hour fire rating.
6.3.5
Exterior Stairs
These are stairs that are open to outdoors and serve as an exit to ground level. Height
of such stairs is often limited to six stories. The stairs should be protected by a fireresistant roof and be built of non-combustible materials. Wall openings within 10 ft of
the stairs should have a 34 hour fire rating.
6.3.6
Refuge Areas
A refuge area is a space protected against fire and smoke. When located within a
building, the refuge should be at about the same level as the areas served and separated
from them by construction with at least a 2-hr fire rating. Access to the refuge areas
should be protected by fire doors with a fire rating of 1 12 hr or more.
A refuge area should be large enough to shelter comfortably its own occupants plus
those from other spaces served. The minimum floor area required may be calculated by
allowing 3f t2 of unobstructed space for each ambulatory person and 30f t2 per person
for hospital or nursing-home patients.
Each refuge area should be provided with at least one horizontal or vertical exit, such
as a stairway, and in locations more than 11 stories above the ground level, with at least
one elevator.
6.3.7
Location of Exits
Building codes usually require a building to have at least two means of escape from
every floor.
Exits should be remote from each other, to reduce the chance that both will be
blocked in an emergency.
All exit access facilities and exits should be located so as to be clearly visible to
building occupants or signs should be installed to indicate the direction of travel
to the exits.
Signs marking the locations of exits should be illuminated.
Floors of means of egress should be illuminated with artificial light whenever the
building is occupied.
If an open floor area does not have direct access to an exit, a protected, continuous
passageway should be provided directly to an exit. The passageway should be kept
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open at all times. Occupants using the passageway should not have to pass any
high-hazard areas not fully shielded.
Maximum travel distance on corridors without sprinklers is 100 ft for storage and
institutional buildings and 150 ft for residential, mercantile and industrial occupancies. With sprinklers installed, maximum permissible travel distance is 150 ft
for high hazard and storage buildings, up to 300 ft for commercial buildings and
200 ft for other occupancies.
Corridors leading to dead ends are prohibited in high hazard buildings. In assembly,
educational and institutional buildings, the maximum length of corridor leading to
a dead end is 30 ft, for residential buildings, maximum is 40 ft, and for all other
occupancies, except high hazard, maximum is 50 ft.
6.3.8
Required Exit Capacity
Minimum width of a passageway for normal one way travel is 36 inches. For two way
travel, 60 inches is required. Running slope should not exceed 1:20 and cross slope 1:50.
Capacities of exit facilities are generally measured in units of 22 inches, and the
number of persons per unit of width is determined by the type of occupancy. If 12 inches
or more are left over, 12 unit can be counted. Less than 12 inches is disregarded.
Exit capacities of different facilities per unit of width are as follows:
Level components, such as doors: 100 persons per unit
Stairway: 60 persons per unit
Ramps, 44 inches or more wide, not more than 10% slope: 100 persons per unit
Narrower or steeper ramps- Up: 60 persons per unit
Narrower or steeper ramps- Down: 100 persons per unit
6.4
Fire Detection Facilities
There are five general types of detectors:

fixed temperature
rate of rise
photoelectric
combustion products
ultraviolet or infrared (flame detectors)
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6.4.1
Fixed Temperature Detectors
They detect the actual ambient temperature which is reflected by a rise in the temperature of the detector itself. Since there is a thermal lag between the time the ambient
temperature reaches the rated temperature and the detector is able to react, for greater
sensitivity, spacing between detectors is reduced.
Examples of fixed temperature detectors are:
(i) Disk Thermostats: These are the cheapest and most widely used detectors. They
consist of a bimetallic assembly which closes an electric contact when rated temperature is achieved. These detectors are self-resetting. The contact is disconnected
when normal temperature is achieved.
(ii) Thermostatic Cable: Consists of two sheathed wires separated by a heat sensitive
coating which melts at high temperatures allowing the wires to contact each other.
The assembly is covered by a protective sheath. When any section has functioned,
it must be replaced.
(iii) Continuous Detector Tubing: Consists of a small diameter Inconel tube of
almost any length, containing a central wire separated from the tube by a thermistor
element. At elevated temperatures, the resistance of the thermistor drops to a level
permitting current to flow between the wire and the tube. The current can be
monitored, thus temperature changes over a range of up to 500 C can be detected.
The detector is self-restoring when normal temperature is achieved.
6.4.2
Rate of Rise Detectors
They are designed to operate when the temperature rises at a specific rate, usually 10
or 15 degrees per minute, regardless of the original temperature. They are not affected
by normal temperature increases and are not subject to thermal lag.
6.4.3
Photoelectric Detectors
They indicate a fire condition by detecting the smoke. A light source is directed so
that it does not impinge on a photoelectric cell. When sufficient smoke particles are
concentrated in the chamber, their reflected light reaches the cell, changing its resistance
and initiating a signal.
These detectors are particularly useful when a potential fire is likely to generate
substantial smoke before appreciable heat and flames erupt.
6.4.4
Combustion-Products Detectors
Combustion products detectors are designed for extremely early warning, and are useful
when it is desirable to have warning of impending combustion when combustion products
are still invisible. The detectors involve either ionization chambers or resistance bridge
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circuits, which are disrupted by the presence of combustion products, resulting in current
flow sor the ionization type and change in impedance for the resistance bridge type.
The detectors are sensitive to air currents, humidity and temperature, and should
only be used in consultation with competent designers.
6.4.5
Flame Detectors
They discriminate between visible light and the light produced by combustion reactions.
The effective distance between flame and detector is about 10 ft for a 5 inch diameter
pan of petrol, but a 12 inch diameter pan can be detected from 30 ft away.
Infrared detectors employ the characteristic flame flicker to distinguish between heat
from combustion and heat from other sources, such as humans, animals or machinery.
They also have a built in delay to eliminate accidental detection.
6.5
Fire Fighting Facilities
The method and material used to extinguish a fire depends on the type of fire. Fires are
classified into four, based on the combustible materials involved.
1. Class A fires involve ordinary combustibles, and are readily extinguishable by water, or by cooling, or by coating with a suitable chemical powder.
2. Class B fires involve flammable liquids and are extinguished by smothering. Cooling
agents, if used, must be applied with care.
3. Class C fires involve live electrical equipment. The extinguishing agent must be
non-conductive. Since a continuing electrical malfunction will keep the fire active,
circuit protection must operate to cut off current flow after which an electrically
conductive agent may be used with safety.
4. Class D fires involve metals that burn, such as sodium, potassium, magnesium and
powdered aluminium. Special powders are necessary to extinguish such fires as well
as special training for operators. Such fires must never be attacked by untrained
personnel.
6.5.1
Automatic Sprinklers
Sprinklers provide an automatic spray dedicated to an area of fire outbreak. Sprinkler

heads have temperature sensitive elements that respond immediately, discharging the
contents of the water main to which they are attached.
Types of sprinkler heads include:
1. Quartzoid Bulb:Consists of a glass tube which retains a water valve on its seating.
The bulb or tube contains a coloured volatile fluid, which when heated to a specific
temperature expands to shatter the glass and open the valve. Water flows on to
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a deflector, dispersing as a spray over the source of fire. Operating temperatures

vary with a colour coded liquid:
Orange : 57 C
Red : 68 C
Yellow : 79 C
Green : 93 C
Blue : 141 C
Purple : 182 C
Black : 204 or 260 C
Figure 6.1: Quartzoid Bulb type sprinkler head

2. Fusible strut: It has two metal struts soldered together to retain a water valve
in place. A range of solder melting temperatures are available to suit various
applications. Under heat, the struts part to allow the valve to discharge water on
the fire.
3. Duraspeed solder type: Contains a heat collector which has a soldered cap
attached. When heat melts the solder, the cap falls away to displace a strut
allowing the head to open. Produced in a range of operating temperatures.
Advantages of sprinkler systems include rapid response which reduces and isolates
fire damage and lower water usage than conventional fire-fighting service, resulting in
less damage from excess water.
Sprinkler systems can be used for all Class A fires, and in many cases, Class B and
Class C fires as well. For Class B fires, a sealed (fusible) head system may be used if the
flammable liquid is in containers or is not present in large quantity. For Class C fires,
water may be applied in the form of a nonconductive fog-like spray.
There are several types of sprinkler systems based on the mode of operation:
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Figure 6.2: Strut type sprinkler head
Figure 6.3: Duraspeed solder type sprinkler head

(i) Wet Type: This system is used in heated buildings where there is no risk of the
water in the pipework freezing. All pipework is permanently pressure charged with
water and the sprinkler heads attach to the underside of the range pipes. When
a sprinkler head is fractured, water is immediately dispersed. Water will also flow
through a groove in the alarm valve to an alarm gong, sounding both an internal
alarm and alerting the local fire service.
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Where water is mains supplied, it should be supplied from both ends so that if any
repairs are being undertaken on one side of the system, the branch on that side can
be closed and the system supplied from the other side.
(ii) Dry Type:In the dry system, installation pipework above the differential valve is
permanently charged with compressed air. When a sprinkler head is fractured, the
air escapes to allow the retained water to displace the differential valve and flow to
the broken sprinkler.
(iii) Alternate wet and dry: Is operated as a wet system most of the year but during
the winter season it functions as a dry system.
(iv) Tail End: This system is mainly wet, i.e. charged with water, with the exception
of one section of pipework which is fitted with an air valve to maintain that section
with compressed air. It can be used where part of the building, such as a warehouse,
is unheated.
(v) Pre-action: Is used where there is the possibility of mechanical damage to the
sprinkler heads by tall equipment, for example, by forklift trucks. To avoid unneccesary water damage, the system is dry. If a sprinkler head is damaged, compressed air discharges to effect an initial alarm. Water supply to the sprinkler is
dependent on a fire detector which will operate a motorized valve on the water
supply to effect another alarm.
(vi) Recycling: This is a damage limiting installation developed from a pre-action
type system. After sprinklers have subdued a fire, ceiling mounted detectors set at
a slightly lower response temperature than the sprinkler heads sense the reduced
temperature to effect closure of the water supply after a 5 minute delay.
Deluge Systems
Are used specifically for high fire hazards such as plastic foam manufacturers, fireworks
factories, aircraft hangars, etc, where there is risk of intensive fire with very fast rate
of propagation. They are used where a large volume of water is required to be applied
quickly to contain the fire and keep surrounding equipment cool.
The pipework is in two parts, compressed air with quartzoid bulbs and a dry pipe
with open ended spray projectors. When a fire occurs, the quartzoid bulbs shatter, and
compressed air in the pipeline is released allowing a diaphragm inside the deluge control
valve to open and discharge water through the open pipe to the projectors.
Water supply for sprinkler systems
Water for sprinkler systems may be sourced from:
Elevated private reservoir
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Suction tank- supplied from a water main

Pressure tank- supplied from suction tank, and used in conjunction with automatic
pump.
Gravity tank- usually located on a tower to provide sufficient water pressure
River or canal - strainers must be fitted on the lowest part of the suction pipes
corresponding with the lowest water level. Duplicate pumps and pipes are requiredone diesel and one electric.
Distribution of sprinkler heads
Spacing of sprinkler heads is dependent on the hazard classification of the building. Light
fire risk classification covers buildings such as educational institutions, hotels, hospitals,
museums, etc. Ordinary fire risk covers buildings such as breweries, clothing factories,
engineering workshops, sound and film studios, restaurants, etc. High fire risk covers
buildings such as fireworks factories and warehouses, paints and plastics factories and
warehouses, volatile chemicals and fluids processing, etc.
For light fire hazard classification, the maximum spacing of sprinkler heads on range
pipes is 4.6 m, and the maximum floor area covered per sprinkler is 21m2 . For ordinary
classification, the maximum floor area per sprinkler is 12m2 . This can be accomplished
by spacing the sprinkler heads on the pipes at a maximum spacing of either 4.0m for
standard spacing or 4.6m for staggered spacing. For high fire hazard classification,
maximum floor area per sprinkler head is 9m2 . Maximum spacing between sprinkler
heads on range pipes is 3.7m.
6.5.2
Drenchers
A drencher fire control system provides a discharge of water over roofs, walls and windows
to prevent fire spreading to or from adjacent buildings.
6.5.3
Hose Reel Installations
Hose reels are firefighting equipment designated for use as first-aid by building occupants.
They should be located where users are least likely to be endangered by fire, i.e. the
staircase landing.
The hose most distant from the source of water should be capable of discharging 0.4
l/s at a 6m distance from the nozzle, when the two most remote hose reels are operating
simultaneously. A pressure of 200 KPa is required at the highest reel. If the water main
cannot provide this, a booster pump should be installed.
Fixed or swinging hose reels are located in wall recesses at a height of 1m above floor
level. They are supplied by a 25mm internal diameter pipe to 20 or 25 mm internal
diameter reinforced non-kink rubber hose in lengths up to 45 m to cover 800m2 of floor
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Figure 6.4: Types of drencher heads

area per installation. Distribution of hoses in the international building code also stipulates that all portions of the building should be within 30 feet (9144 mm) of a nozzle
attached to 100 feet (30480mm) of hose.
6.5.4
Dry Risers
A dry riser is an empty vertical pipe which becomes a fire-fighters hose extension to
supply hydrants at each floor level. Risers should be disposed so that no part of the floor
is more than 60m from a landing valve. This distance is measured along a route suitable
for a firefighting hose line, to include any dimension up or down a stairway.
Buildings with floors up to 45 m above fire service vehicle access level require one
65mm landing valve on each floor from a 100 mm internal diameter riser. Buildings
between 45m and 60m above fire service vehicle access level with one or two landing
valves per floor require a 150mm internal diameter riser. For buildings above 60m a wet
riser must be installed.
Two 65 mm internal diameter inlet hose couplings are required for a 100 mm riser
and four 65 mm i.d. inlet hose couplings are required for a 150 mm riser. The riser must
be electrically grounded.
NB: A dry riser is installed either in unheated buildings or where the
water main will not provide sufficient pressure at the highest landing valve.
A hard standing for the Fire service vehicle is required at the base of the
riser. One landing valve is required for every 900m2 of floor area.
6.5.5
Wet Risers
Wet risers are suitable in any buildings where hydrant installations are specified. A wet
riser is essential in buildings greater than 60 m above the level of access of a fire service
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Figure 6.5: Dry riser installation

vehicle.
A wet riser is constantly charged with water at a minimum running pressure of
400 KPa with up to three most remote landing valves operating simultaneously. The
maximum pressure with one outlet open is 500 KPa to prevent fire hoses from rupturing.
To maintain water at the required pressure, it is necessary to install pumping equipment. Pumping directly from the main water supply is unacceptable, thus a suction
tank with a minimum water volume of 45m3 is used. One 65mm landing valve should
be provided for every 900m2 floor area.
6.5.6
Foam Extinguishers
Foam consists of masses of air-filled or gas-filled bubbles, and is useful in extinguishing

class B fires. Foam is most useful in controlling fires in liquids with low flash points and
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Figure 6.6: Landing valve

low specific gravity, such as petrol. The mass of bubbles forms a cohesive blanket that
excludes air and cools the surface.
For fires involving water-soluble liquids such as alcohol, a special foam concentrate
must be used. Foam is not practical for fires involving compressed gases such as propane,
nor is it safe for use on Class C and Class D fires.
Foam extinguishers are of three types:
(i) Chemical Foam, which is formed by the chemical reaction of two compounds,
usually sodium bicarbonate and aluminium sulphate. The reaction produces carbon
dioxide, which is the content of the bubbles.
This foam is the most viscous and tenacious of the foams. It forms a relatively tough
blanket, resistant to mechanical or heat disruption. The volume of expansion may
be 10 times that of the water used in the solution.
Chemical foam is sensitive to the temperature at which it is formed, and the chemicals tend to deteriorate over long storage periods. It is not capable of being transported through long pipelines. For these reasons, it is not as commonly used as
other foams.
(ii) Mechanical Foam, also known as Air Foam, is made by the mechanical mixing of
water and a protein-based chemical concentrate. The foam concentrate is induced
into a flowing stream of water through a metering orifice and a suitable device, such
as a venturi. The volume of foam generated is from 16 to 33 times the volume of
water used. Several kinds of mixing apparatus are available, depending on volume
required, availability of water, type of hazard and characteristics of the protected
area or equipment.
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Air foam can be conducted through pipes and discharged through a fixed chamber
mounted in a bulky fuel storage tank, or it can be conducted through hoses and
discharged manually through special nozzles. This foam can also be distributed
through a sprinkler system of special design.
(iii) High Expansion Foam is formed by passage of air through a screen constantly
wetted by a solution of a chemical concentrate, usually with a detergent base. This
foam can generate volumes from 100 to 1000 times the volume of water used.
High expansion foam is useful for extinguishing fires by totally flooding indoor
confined spaces as well as for local application to specific areas. It extinguishes by
displacing air from the fire and by the heat-absorbing effect of converting the foam
water into steam.
High expansion foam can be conducted by ducts, either fixed or portable, and can
be applied manually by small portable generators.
High expansion foam is more fragile than either chemical or air foam, and is not
generally reliable when used outdoors where it is subject to wind currents. High
expansion foam is not toxic, but it has the effect of disorienting people who may
be trapped in it.
Fixed Foam Installations
A pump operated mechanical foam installation consists of a foam concentrate tank located outside of the area to be protected. The tank has a water supply inlet and a foam
pipe outlet. A venturi is fitted in the pipeline to draw foam out of the tank. When
the water pump is switched on, the venturi effect causes a reduction in pressure at the
foam pipe connection, resulting in a mixture of foam concentrate and water discharging
through the outlet pipe.
A pre-mixed foam installation consists of a storage tank containing foam solution.
When a fire occurs in the protected area, a fusible link is broken to release a weight
which falls to open a valve on the carbon dioxide cylinder. Foam solution is forced out
of the tank at a pressure of about 1000 KPa to discharge over the protected equipment.
Foam Installations
A foam installation is used for application from remote points onto type B fires. A foam
access box is built into the wall at an easily accessible place for fire fighters to attach
hoses from their foam generating and mixing equipment.
The box is usually located 600 mm above adjacent ground and should be clear of
any openings through which smoke, heat or flames can pass. The glass fronted box can
be broken and the lock released from inside. Two 65mm diameter inlets can be used.
A 65 mm or 75 mm i.d. galvanised steel pipe is normally used for the distribution. A
maximum pipework length of 18 m is recommended and this must slope slightly towards
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Figure 6.7: Mechanical foam installation

the spreaders. Vertical drop pipes are acceptable but vertically inclined pipes must not
be used.
Spreader terminals are positioned about 1m above oil burners and about 150 mm
above oil spill level of stored fuel.
6.5.7
Gas Extinguishing Systems
Gas extinguishing systems tend to be either halon-based or Carbon-dioxide based. Air

tightness of a protected room is essential for the success of such systems as total flooding
relies on gas containment by peripheral means.
Halon and Halon Substitutes
Halons are electrically non-conductive and safe to use where personnel remain in the
area of gas discharge. They are also more effective than carbon dioxide, being 5 times
the density of air while carbon dioxide is only 1 21 times air density.
However, halon or bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF) gases deplete the ozone layer,
thus their use was to be phased out by 2002 and systems using halons have been employing halon substitutes. These include inergen and argonite, both mixtures of argon
and nitrogen, with the former containing a small amount of carbon dioxide.
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Figure 6.8: Pre-mixed foam installation

Halon based systems are used where there is a high density of equipment, e.g. computer laboratories, where a water based system would be considered too damaging.
The gas is stored in spherical steel containers which can be secured in a ceiling or
floor void or against a wall. When activated by smoke or heat, detectors immediately
open valves on the extinguishers to totally flood the protected area with a colourless and
odorless gas.
Carbon dioxide extinguishers
Carbon dioxide is particularly useful as a portable extinguisher in the containment of electrical fires. It can also be used to contain fires caused by textiles, machinery, petroleum
and oils.
Carbon dioxide is not effective on Class D fires, nor is it effective on oxygen-containing
materials, such as nitrocellulose.
Automated carbon dioxide systems can either be mechanical, pneumatic or electrical
with a manual override facility. Since carbon dioxide is hazardous to personnel, it is
essential that the system is automatically locked off when the protected area is occupied.
In these circumstances, it can be switched to manual control.
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ECV 211: CHAPTER 7. REFUSE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS
Chapter 7
Refuse Disposal Systems
7.1
Introduction
Wastewater disposal involves three main types of wastewater:

Domestic Wastewater: This is primarily spent water from the building water
supply to which is added water from bathrooms, kitchens and laundries. It can be
discharged into a municipal sewer, if one is available.
Storm water: This is primarily the water that runs off the roofs or the site of the
building, and is usually directed to roof drains or gutters. This is then fed to drain
pipes that convey it to a municipal or private storm water sewer system. Discharge
into sanitary sewers is objectionable because the large flows interfere with effective
wastewater treatment and increase treatment costs.
Industrial wastes: This is spent water from industries, which usually contains
industrial contaminants, and requires specialized treatment before discharge into
streams, lakes, rivers and tidal waters.
There are two main types of drainage system used for wastewater disposal from
buildings:
Combined System: Uses a single drain to convey both domestic wastewater
and storm water to a shared sewer. The system is economical to install but the
processing costs at the treatment plant are high.
Separate system: The domestic wastewater is conveyed to a foul water sewer and
the storm water is conveyed in a surface water drain to a surface water sewer or a
soakaway. The system is relatively expensive to install, particularly if the ground
has poor drainage qualities and soakaways cannot be used. However the benefit is
reduced volumes and treatment costs at the treatment plant.
Drain Access
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Drain access may be obtained through rodding points, shallow access chambers, inspection chambers and manholes. Pipe runs should be straight and access provided only
where needed, i.e.,
at significant changes in direction
at significant changes in gradient
near to, or at the head of a drain
where the drain changes in size
at junction
on long straight runs
Drains Under or Near Buildings
Drain trenches should be avoided near to and lower than building foundations. If
it is unavoidable and the trench is within 1 m of the building, the trench is filled with
concrete to the lowest level of the building. If the trench distance exceeds 1 m, concrete
is filled to a point below the lowest level of the building equal to the trench distance less
150 mm.
Figure 7.1: Construction of drain trench near building

Drains under buildings should be avoided. Where it is impossible to do so, the pipe
should be completely protected by concrete and integrated with the floor slab. If the
pipe is more than 300 mm below the slab, it is provided with a granular surround.
Pipes penetrating a wall below the ground should be installed with regard to building
settlement. Access through a void or with flexible pipe joints on each side of the wall
are both acceptable.
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Figure 7.2: Construction of drain pipe under building
7.2
Refuse Chutes
In design of refuse chutes, the quantity and location depend on:

(i) layout of the building
(ii) number of dwellings served- maximum 6 per hopper for apartment buildings
(iii) type of material stored
(iv) frequency of collection
(v) volume of refuse
(vi) refuse vehicle access- within 25 m
The chute should be sited away from habitable rooms, but not more than 30 m
horizontal distance from each dwelling.
It is more economical to provide space for additional storage beneath the chute
than to provide additional chutes.
Chute linings are prefabricated from refractory or Portland cement concrete with
a smooth and impervious internal surface.
The structure containing the chute void should have a fire resistance of 1 hour.
The refuse chamber should also have a 1 hour fire resistance and be constructed
with a dense impervious surface for ease of cleaning.
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Figure 7.3: Refuse Chute
7.3
Incinerators
Incinerator systems have an on-site flue to discharge the incinerated gaseous products
of combustion above roof level. A fan ensures negative pressure in the discharge chute
to prevent smoke and fumes being misdirected. A large combustion chamber receives
and stores the refuse until it is ignited by an automatic burner. Duration of burning
is thermostatically and time controlled. Waste gases are washed clean before discharge
into the flue. There is no restriction on wet or dry materials, and glass, metal or plastics
may be processed.
Health risks associated with storing decomposing rubbish are eliminated entirely as
the residue from combustion is odorless and sterile. Refuse removal costs are reduced
because the residual waste is only about 10% of the original volume.
Sanitary incinerators are usually installed in office lavatories, hospitals and hotels.
They are the quickest, easiest and most hygienic method of disposal of dressings, swabs
and sanitary towels. When the incinerator door is opened, gas burners automatically
ignite and burn the contents. After a predetermined amount of time, the gas supply is
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Figure 7.4: Vertical section of refuse disposal system

cut off by a time switch. Each time the door is opened, the time switch reverts to its
original position to commence another burning cycle.
Sanitary incinerators have a removable ash pan and a fan assisted flue to ensure
efficient extraction of the gaseous combustion products. In event of fan failure, a sensor
ensures that the gas burners cannot function.
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Figure 7.5: View of incinerator
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Figure 7.6: Sanitary incinerator system
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7.4
Garchey Systems
Figure 7.7: Garchey system

They allow for disposal of food wastes, bottles, cans and cartons at source without
the need to crush the refuse. A bowl beneath the sink retains the normal waste water.
Refuse is placed inside a central tube in the sink. When the tube is raised, the waste
water and the refuse are carried away down a stack or discharge pipe to a chamber at
the base of the building. Refuse from the chamber is collected at regular intervals by a
specially equipped tanker in which the refuse is compacted into a damp, semi-solid mass
that is easy to tip. Waste water from the tanker is discharged into a foul water sewer.
7.5
Macerators
Macerators are used for processing organic food waste, and do not have the facility
to dispose of metals, glass, rags or plastics. Where a chute or garchey system is not
installed, macerators may be used to reduce the volume otherwise deposited in dustbins
or refuse bags.
Food waste is fed through the sink waste outlet to the unit. A grinder powered by
a small electric motor cuts the food into fine particles which are then washed away by
wastewater. The partially liquefied food particles discharge through a standard 40mm
bore waste pipe into a back inlet gully.
As with all electrical appliances and extraneous metalwork, the unit and the sink
should be earthed.
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Figure 7.8: Garchey overall layout
7.6
Pneumatic Transport of Refuse
Refuse from conventional chutes is collected in a pulveriser and disintegrated by grinder

into pieces of about 10 mm across. The refuse is then blown a short distance down a 75
mm bore pipe in which it is retained, until at predetermined intervals a flat disc valve
opens. This allows the small pieces of refuse to be conveyed by vacuum or air stream at
75 to 90 km/h through a common underground service pipe of 150-300 mm bore. The
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Figure 7.9: Macerator Equipment

refuse collection silo may be up to 2.5 km from the source of refuse. At the collection
point the refuse is transferred by a positive pressure pneumatic system to a treatment
plant where dust and other suspended debris is separated from bulk rubbish. The process
can be adapted to segregate salvagable materials such as metals, glass and paper.
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Figure 7.10: Pneumatic transport diagrammatic layout
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ECV 211: CHAPTER 8. MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Chapter 8
Mechanical Systems
8.1
8.1.1
Pump Sizes and Location

Fresh Water Pumps
Pumps are mainly used in buildings more than 8 stories high, where water is pumped
to one or more elevated storage tanks from which pipes convey the water downwards to
plumbing fixtures and water heaters. Water in the lower section of the tank is usually
reserved for fire fighting.
Float-operated electric switches in the chambers control the pumps supplying water
to the tank. When the water in the tank falls below a certain level, the pump is automatically switched on, and when the water rises above a certain level, the pump is
automatically switched off.
Usually, at least two pumps are installed to supply each tank. One is used during
normal operation, and the second pump is a standby. Generally, a suction tank is
installed at the bottom of the building for storage of water drawn from main supply,
then the elevated tanks are supplied with water pumped from the suction tank. This
prevents reduction of pressure in the main water supply by excessive pumping.
Tall buildings may be divided into zones, each with its own storage tank supplied
from its own set of pumps in the basement. All the pumps draw from a common suction
tank in the basement.
Pump ratings depend on the pressure, the maximum flow rate and the head (or
height), as well power consumption.
8.1.2
Drainage Pumps
When considering methods of drainage pumping, the following factors should be considered in selecting the pump type and rating:
Drainage medium- foul water (domestic or industrial), storm water or a mixture
of both
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Figure 8.1: Drainage pump equipment

Maximum quantity- anticipated flow in m3 /h
Height to which the sewage is to be elevated
Length of delivery pipe
Availability of electricity- mains or generated
Planning constraints, regarding appearance, and siting of pump station
In the interests of visual impact, it is preferable to construct the motor room below
ground. This absorbs some of the operating noise.
In basements there may be some infiltration of ground water. This can be drained
to a sump and pumped out as the level rises. In plant rooms, a sump pump may be
installed to collect and remove any leakage that may occur. It is also useful for water
extraction when draining down boilers for servicing.
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Figure 8.2: Sump Pump
8.2
8.2.1
Lifts
Considerations when planning Lifts(Elevators)
1. Priority should be given to locating lifts centrally within a building to minimize

horizontal travel distance.
2. Consideration should be given to lift positioning relative to entrances and stairs.
3. Where the building size justifies several lifts, they should be grouped together. In
large buildings it is usual to provide a group of lifts near the entrance and single
lifts close to the ends of the building.
4. The lift lobby must be wide enough to allow pedestrian traffic to circulate and pass
through the lift area without causing congestion.
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5. For tall buildings exceeding 15 floors, high speed express lifts may be provided
which bypass lower floors.
Requirements when Designing Lifts
Necessary in all buildings higher than three storeys.
Essential in all buildings over a single storey if they are accessed by the elderly or
the disabled.
Minimum standard- one lift per four storeys
Minimum walking distance to access a lift- 45m.
Floor space and lift car capacity can be estimated at 0.2m2 per person.
8.2.2
Elevator Shaft Design
The size of the elevator shaft depends on:

the car capacity
the space required for the counterweight
space required for the guides
space required for the landing door
allowance given for pit for overtravel downwards and for location of car and counterweight buffers
allowance given for smoke vent at top of shaft
clearance at the top for car overtravel
The dimensions of the elevator shaft are to be such that clearance between the shaft
and the car is at least 34 inch, except on the side used for loading and unloading. Clearance
between the car and its counterweight should be at least 1 inch, and clearance between
the counterweight and other components should be at least 34 inch. In multiple shafts,
a minimum 2 inch clearance should be provided between moving equipment. Maximum
clearance between the loading side of the car platform and the shaft enclosure generally
is 5 inches but may be as much as 7 12 inches when vertically sliding doors are used.
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8.2.3
Car Capacities and sizes
Cars are rated according to their load carrying capacity (in kg). Capacities of passenger
elevators range from 800 kg lifts used in apartment buildings to 2400 kg lifts used in
malls and hospitals. To obtain the number of persons carried, the capacity is divided
by 80 kg. Freight elevators range from 800 kg for light duty up to 5000 kg for general
purpose work or 10,000 kg for heavy duty.
To obtain the external dimensions of an elevator car, 4 inches is added to the clear
inside width (parallel to the elevator door), then to the clear inside depth, add the
following
10 inches for passenger elevators with center opening doors or a single sliding door
11 12 inches for passenger and hospital elevators with two-speed or two-speed, centre
opening doors at one end only.
19 inches for hospital elevators with two-speed front and rear doors
7 inches for freight elevators with front doors only
10 inches for freight elevators with front and rear doors
8.2.4
Lift Control
There are three main systems of lift control:

1. Single Automatic Lift Control: This is the simplest and least sophisticated of
controls. The lift can be called and used by only one user or group of users at
a time. When the lift is called to a floor, the signal lights engraved in use are
illuminated on every floor. The car will not respond to any subsequent landing
calls, nor will these calls be recorded and stored. The car is under complete control
of the occupants until they reach their destination and alight. The lift car can now
respond to the next call.
This method is only suitable for light traffic conditions in low rise buildings such
as nursing homes, flats and small hospitals, and for very exclusive hotel accommodations.
2. Down Collective Lift control It stores calls made by passengers in the car and
those made from the landings. As the car descends, landing calls are answered in
floor sequence to optimize car movement. If the car is moving upwards, the lift
responds to calls made inside the car in floor sequence. After satisfying the highest
registered call, the car automatically descends to answer all the landing calls in
floor sequence. Only one call button is provided at landings.
This system is most suited to flats and small hotels, where the traffic is mainly
between the entrance lobby and specific floors.
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3. Full or Directional Collective Lift Control Car and landing calls are immediately stored in any number. Upward and downward intermediate landing calls
are registered from one of two directional buttons. The lift responds to calls in
floor order independent of call sequence, first in one direction, then in the other,
combining both car calls and landing calls. It is appropriate for office buildings and
departmental stores where there is more movement between intermediate floors.
8.2.5
Lift Doors
The type of entrance is a vital part of the lift installation, since the average lift car will
spend more time at a floor during passenger transfer time than it will during travel.
For general passenger service, either side opening, two-speed, or even triple speed side
opening doors are preferred. The most efficient in terms of passenger handling is the twospeed centre opening. The clear opening may be greater and usable clear space becomes
more rapidly available to passengers. Vertical centre bi-parting doors are suitable for
very wide openings typical of industrial applications.
8.2.6
Paternoster Lifts
A paternoster consists of a series of open fronted two-person cars suspended from hoisting
chains. The lift is continuously moving and provides for both upwards and downwards
transportation of people in one shaft. Passengers enter or leave the car while it is moving,
therefore waiting time is minimal. Passengers have to be fairly agile, limiting this type
of installation to factories, offices, universities, etc. It is not suitable in buildings that
accommodate the infirm or the elderly. In the interests of safety, car speed must not
exceed 0.4 m/s.
This type of lift has the advantage of allowing passengers to begin their journey
undelayed, regardless of direction of travel. It also has simple gear, with minimal breakdowns, since the normal process of stopping, starting, accelerating and decelerating is
eliminated. It is suited to medium rise buildings.
8.2.7
Planning for Passenger Elevators
Elevator service is judged by two criteria: quantitative, i.e. is the number of elevators
adequate to meet traffic requirements, and qualitative, i.e. is the time between departures of available elevators during heavy traffic periods sufficiently short to handle the
amount of traffic?
Calculating Number of Elevators Required
The number of passenger elevators required in a particular building depends on the
number of people required to live and work in the building. Traffic is measured by the
number of persons requiring service during a peak 5-minute period.
After the peak 5 minute traffic flow is established, an estimate may be made of the
quantity of elevators required. The ability of a specific system to handle the traffic is
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Figure 8.3: Lift Doors

tested against the projected traffic level. The 5 minute handling capacity of the individual
elevator is determined from the round trip time as:
HC =
300P
T
where HC is the handling capacity of the car per 5 minute period, P is the car capacity
in persons and T is the round trip time of the elevator in seconds.
The minimum number of elevators required can then be computed as:
n=
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V
VT
=
HC
300P
Figure 8.4: Paternoster Lift with plan view showing change-over(on left)
where V is the peak traffic, i.e. the number of persons requiring service in 5 minutes.
Thus the minimum number of elevators required is directly proportional to the round-trip
time of a car and inversely proportional to the car capacity.
Elevator related space requirements may not be minimized through the use of the
fewest elevators to serve a particular building, since large groups of high capacity elevator
cars must be employed to serve a large number of floors. Large groups of elevators
increase the overall cost of the whole system by increasing the average number of elevator
entrances required for the building.
For greatest efficiency and lowest cost, elevator group sizes should not exceed six
elevators, with four elevators per group as a more practical approach.
Calculating the Interval between Elevators
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The average interval between elevators is calculated by dividing the round trip time
by the number of elevators. Round trip time is composed of all the elements of the
elevator trip, including starting, running and stopping, opening and closing of doors,
and time for passengers to move in and out. Often some factor is added to the round
trip time to simulate normal use.
Opening and closing of doors may contribute to lost time, unless the doors are properly designed. A 3ft 6 inch door conveniently allows two passengers to enter and leave
the elevator abreast. Wider doors are of little advantage, except for department stores
and hospitals, which require 4-foot doors. Centre opening doors are also faster in opening than either single or two-speed doors of the same width. The impact on closing is
smaller with the centre opening door, thus there is less chance of injuring a passenger.
Also, transfer time is less, as passengers can start to move out as soon as the doors start
to open.
Another factor affecting passenger transfer is the shape of the car. Narrower and
deeper cars require greater time for passenger entry and exit during peak traffic conditions.
8.2.8
Freight Elevators
In planning for freight elevators, the following factors should be considered:

Building characteristics, including travel, number of floors, floor heights and openings required for the car. Also, structural conditions that may influence the size,
shape and location of the elevator should be studied.
Units to be carried in the elevator- size, weight, type and method of loading.
Number of units to be handled per hour
Probable cycle of operation and principal floors served during the peak of the cycle
Freight elevators are not allowed to carry passengers
Car Capacity of Freight Elevators
The size of car to be used for freight elevators is usually dependent on the dimensions
of the freight package to be carried per trip and the weight of the package and loading
equipment. The distribution of the weight to be carried is also important, to ensure that
no members are unnecessarily strained.
The carrying capacity of a freight elevator per hour is determined by the capacity or
normal load of the elevator and the time required for a round trip. Round trip time is
composed of the following elements:
Running time, which may be readily calculated from rated speed, with allowances
for accelerating and decelerating time, and the distance traveled.
Time for operation of the car gate and hoistway doors
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Loading and unloading time. Wherever practical, a study should be made of the
loading and unloading operations for a similar elevator in the same type of plant.
Otherwise, an approximation of 25 seconds for a hand truck and 15 seconds for a
power truck may be applied.
8.3
Escalators
Figure 8.5: Escalator: Straight section

Escalators, or powered stairs, are used where it is necessary to move large numbers
of people from floor to floor. They provide continuous movement, and can thus remedy
traffic conditions that are not readily addressed by elevators.
Escalators are preferred in situations where:
heavy traffic volumes are expected
number of floors is relatively few
Escalators are used to connect airport terminals, parking garages, sports facilities and
large mixed use facilities.
Although escalators are usually in straight sections, spiral escalators are also available,
though more expensive.
8.3.1
Components of an Escalator
An escalator consists of articulated, grooved treads and risers attached to a continuous

chain moved by a driving machine and supported by a steel truss framework. The
installation also includes a handrail on each side of the steps that moves at the same
speed as the steps, balustrades or guards that enclose the steps on each side and support
the handrails, brakes, control devices and threshold plates at the entrance to and exit
from the treadway. The purpose of the threshold plates is to facilitate smooth passage
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Figure 8.6: Escalator: Spiral section

of passengers between the treadway and the landing. The plates are equipped with a
comb, or teeth, that mesh with and are set into grooves in the treadway in the direction
of travel so as to provide a firm footing and to minimize the chance that items become
trapped between the treadway and the landing.
8.3.2
Dimensions of Escalators
The following limits are set on the dimensions of escalators:

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Figure 8.7: Escalator Dimensions

Maximum depth in direction of travel - 15 34 in
Maximum rise between treads- 8 21 in
Minimum width of tread - 24 in
Maximum width of tread - 40 in
Maximum clearance between tread and adjacent skirt panel-
3
8
in
Maximum distance between handrail centerlines- width between balustrades plus

6 in with not more than 3 in on either side of escalator.
The escalator width should be at least as wide as the step but not more than 13
in wider than the step. It is measured on the incline between balustrades.
8.3.3
Safety Devices for Escalators
To provide a firm footing, steps are grooved in the direction of travel. The grooves mesh
with the combs or teeth of the threshold plates at the top and bottom of the escalator.
The handrails, which should move in synchronization with the steps, should be 30
to 34 inches above the treads. The handrails should extend at normal height at least 12
inches beyond the line of points of the combplate teeth. The balustrades, which support
the handrails and prevent passengers falling off the sides of the moving steps, should be
designed to resist simultaneous application of a horizontal load of 60 kg/m and a vertical
load of 75 kg/m, both applied to the top of the balustrades.
The brakes are activated automatically when power fails, when the treadway or
handrail breaks, or when a safety device is activated.
Safety devices required for escalators include switches for starting, emergency stopping and maintenance stopping, and an electromechanical speed governor. An emergency
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stop button, protected against accidental activation, is required to be set in the right
hand (when facing the escalator) newel at the top and bottom landings.
8.3.4
Escalator Speeds and Capacities
Escalators typically operate at 90 or 120 ft/min, as required for peak traffic, and are
reversible in direction. Slope of the stairs is either 30 or 35 . Standard escalator widths
are 32 and 48 inches. Manufacturers rate their 90 ft/min units at corresponding capacities
of 5000 and 8000 persons per hour, though observed capacities, even in heavy traffic,
rarely exceed 2000 and 4000 persons per hour, respectively. 120 ft/min escalators are
rarely used due to the potential for adverse litigation.
8.3.5
Planning for Escalator Units
The location of moving stairs should be planned only after studying potential traffic flow
within the planned project. They should be installed where most attractive to traffic
and where most convenient to passengers. The facility should be designed and signed in
a way that makes it apparent where the visitor will find the escalator. Since escalators
fail on occasion, the designer should provide alternative transportation (usually adjacent
stairs) for times when the escalator is unavailable for passenger use. Where the escalators
will be operating at capacity, the designer must plan alternative routing when one or
more escalators are under repair.
In design of a new building, adequate space should be allotted for escalators. Generous areas should be provided at both the loading and unloading areas. Special consideration should be given to the possibility of a disaster resulting at a constricted exit from
the escalator when pedestrian traffic is restricted below the escalators capacity in the
path of travel. Similarly, planning of landing areas should consider both queuing space
and what happens when an escalator is stopped for some reason and pedestrian traffic
continues. Potential for pedestrian jams should be carefully weighed.
Escalators are usually installed in pairs, one moving upwards and one moving downwards. The units may be placed parallel to each other in each story or crisscrossed.
Crisscrossed stairs are generally preferred because they are more compact and reduce
walking distance between stairs at various floors to a minimum. Spiral escalators are
more versatile, allowing for a wide range of possible arrangements.
8.3.6
Structural Considerations in Escalator Installation
Floor-to-floor height should be taken into account in determining loads on supporting

members. For floor-to-floor height of less than 20 ft, the escalator truss need only be
supported at the top and bottom. Increased vertical rise creates the need for intermediate
support points. A structural frame should be installed around the escalator well to carry
the floor and wellway railing.
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Consideration should be given to the potential for noise and vibration in the design
of the escalator structural supports. Where necessary, the escalator can be mounted on
vibration-isolating mountings to reduce noise and vibrations.
8.4
Ventilation
The objectives of ventilation are to:

(i) provide fresh air for respiration- about 0.1 to 0.2 l/s per person.
(ii) preserve the correct level of oxygen in the air- approximately 21% by volume.
(iii) control carbon dioxide content to no more than 0.1%. Concentrations above 2%
are fatal to humans.
(iv) control moisture- relative humidity of 30% to 70% is acceptable.
(v) remove excess heat from people, machinery, lighting, etc.
(vi) dispose of smoke, odours, dust and other atmospheric contaminants.
(vii) remove stagnation and provide a sense of freshness- air movement of 0.15 to 0.5
m/s is adequate.
Requirements of air supply in buildings vary depending on nature of occupation and
activity. As guide, between 8 and 32 l/s of outdoor air supply per person can be applied
between the extremes of non-smoking to very heavy smoking environments. Converting
this to m3 /h equates to between 29 and 115 m3 /h per person.
Air changes per hour, or ventilation rate is the preferred criterion of system design.
This is calculated by dividing the quantity of air by the room volume and multiplying
by the occupancy, e.g. 50 m3 /h in a 100m3 office for 5 persons equates to
50/100 5 = 2.5
which is an equivalent of 2.5 air changes per hour.
8.4.1
Natural Ventilation
It uses components integral with the buildings construction such as air bricks and louvres, or openable windows. The sources for natural ventilation are wind effect/pressure
and stack effect/pressure.
Stack effect is an application of convection of air currents. Cool air is allowed to enter
a building at lower levels. It is warmed by the occupants, lighting, machinery and/or
purposely located heat emitters. A column of warm air rises through the building to
discharge through vents at high level. A temperature differential of at least 10K is
necessary for this method to be effective.
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
95
Also, in tall buildings, during winter months, the cold, more dense air outside will
tend to displace the lighter, warmer air inside through any openings, particularly on the
upper floors. This must be regulated, otherwise it will create cold, draughty conditions
in the lower floors and excessive warmth on the upper floors.
8.4.2
Mechanically Assisted Ventilation Systems
These are applied where natural ventilation is considered inadequate or impractical.

A low powered silent running fan is usually located within the roof structure. It runs
continuously and may be boosted by manual control when the level of cooking or bathing
activity increases. Humidity sensors can also be used to automatically increase air flow.
8.4.3
Mechanical Ventilation with Heat Recovery
This is a development of Mechanically assisted systems to include energy recovery from

the warmth in fan extracted moist air from bathrooms and kitchens. The heat recovery
unit contains an extract fan for the stale air, a fresh air supply fan and a heat exchanger.
Up to 70% of the heat energy in stale energy can be recovered in this system.
8.4.4
Mechanical Ventilation Systems
There are three categories of mechanical ventilation systems:

natural inlet and mechanical extract
mechanical inlet and natural extract
mechanical inlet and mechanical extract
In public buildings and basement car parks, duplicate fans must be provided with
automatic changeover in case of failure of a duty fan.
Fan assisted facilities supplying external air to habitable rooms must have a facility to
pre-heat the air. They must also have control over the amount of air extracted, otherwise
there will be excessive heat loss.
With any form of recirculated air system, the ratio of fresh air to recirculated air
should be at least 1:3.
8.4.5
Heat, Odour and Moisture Removal
Removal of concentrated heat, odour or objectionable vapours by ventilation is best

carried out by locating the exhaust outlets as close as possible to the source of discomfort. When concentrated sources of heat are present, for example, in kitchens, canopy
hoods remove the heat more efficiently. A grease filter reduces the frequency of required
cleaning.
All air exhausted from a space must be replaced with fresh air from outside either by
infiltration through doors and windows or through a mechanical ventilation system.
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
96
8.5
Air Conditioning
The objective of air conditioning is to provide and maintain internal air conditions at
a predetermined state, regardless of time of the year, season or external atmospheric
condition.
8.5.1
Definitions
1. Dew Point: The temperature at which air is saturated (100% relative humidity),
and any further cooling results in condensation of water in the air.
2. Enthalpy: Total energy, i.e. latent heat + sensible heat.
3. Latent heat: Heat energy added or removed as a substance changes state while
the temperature remains constant.
4. Occupied zone: The volume bounded by levels 3 inches above the floor and 6
feet above the floor and planes 2 feet from the walls. Used as the conditioned space
in design of air conditioning systems.
5. Relative Humidity: Ratio of the amount of water contained in air at a given
temperature as a percentage of the maximum amount of water that could be held
in the air at that temperature.
6. Sensible heat: Heat energy which causes the temperature of a substance to change
without changing its state.
8.5.2
Central Plant System
Also known as an all air system. Is used where the air condition is required to be the same
in the various parts of the building. It is categorized as low velocity for use in buildings
with large open spaces such as theatres, supermarkets, factories, assembly halls, etc.
8.5.3
Variable Air Volume System
It has a central air processing unit to produce air at a specified temperature and relative
humidity. The conditioned air from the main unit is conveyed in ductwork to ceiling
diffusers which incorporate actuators controlled by thermostats, which can vary the air
volume to suit each room load. The system is only suitable for buildings having a fairly
evenly distributed cooling load.
8.5.4
Induction (Air/Water) System
Perimeter induction units, usually located under windows, blend primary air from the
processing unit with secondary air from the room. The volume of room air is passed
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
97
Figure 8.8: Central plant air conditioning system
Figure 8.9: Variable air volume air conditioning system

through thermostatically controlled heating coils, which may be used with chilled water
as cooling coils during hotter months of the year.
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
98
Figure 8.10: Induction air conditioning system layout
Figure 8.11: Section through an induction room unit
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
99
Figure 8.12: Dual Duct System
8.5.5
Dual Duct System
Peripheral discharge units are fitted with terminal reheaters or coolers, and kept free
of water circulation. Delivery is at high velocity with hot and cold air regulated by a
damper mechanism connected to a room thermostat. A control plate in the mixing unit
maintains constant air volume.
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
100
Figure 8.13: Section through mixing unit
8.6
Refrigeration
Refrigeration systems are used to:

cool water for circulation through chiller coils. Brine may be used as a more efficient
cooling agent.
Directly chill air by suspending the cold evaporator coil in the air stream. When
used this way, the energy exchanger is known as a direct expansion coil.
The system most suited to refrigeration in a building is the vapour compression cycle.
It is a sealed pipe containing refrigerant, compressor, condenser coil, expansion valve and
evaporator coil, i.e. all the components of a domestic refrigerator.
Refrigerants are very volatile and boil at extremely low temperatures of -30 to 40 C.
Some also contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer when released into the atmosphere. CFC, also known as R12(dichlorodifluoromethane) is used in older systems, and
is currently banned, while newer systems use HCFC, also known as R22(monochlorodifluoromethane).
Efficient operation of refrigeration systems requires maintaining condenser temperature at optimum level. This is necessary for correct reaction of the refrigerant. The
cooling medium can be water (more effective) or air (more practical and healthier). Air
cooling is accomplished through use of high powered fans, which can be mounted horizontally or vertically to draw high velocity air through the condenser coils. Water cooling
can take many forms, ranging from a pond in which warm water is pumped into one
end and cooled water is drawn out from the other end, to spray ponds, which may be
designed as ornamental fountains. Water cooled systems must have the water regularly
treated for bacteria.
L.A. KAdoyo, 2013
101

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ECV 211:

L.A. KAdoyo, 2013

1. Current: The amount of charge(Q) flowing in a circuit. Is measured in Amperes.

ECV 211: CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELECTRIC PRINCIPLES

The unit of electric power is the Watt.

A source of electrical energy can be represented by a source of e.m.f in series with an

ECV 211: CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELECTRIC PRINCIPLES

Series and Parallel Circuits

In a series connection, components are connected end-to-end in a line, forming a single

Figure 1.1: Simple series connection

Figure 1.2: Simple parallel connection

L.A. KAdoyo, 2013

ECV 211: CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELECTRIC PRINCIPLES

Properties of Simple Series Circuits

Voltage Divider Circuits

Current in the circuit is obtained as

Properties of Simple Parallel Circuits

L.A. KAdoyo, 2013

ECV 211: CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELECTRIC PRINCIPLES

Current Divider Circuits

Voltage in a parallel circuit is obtained as

L.A. KAdoyo, 2013

ECV 211: CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELECTRIC PRINCIPLES

Fixed charge: Ksh 120.00

(i) Calculate your power bill for the month.

ECV 211: CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELECTRIC PRINCIPLES

(i) Vs = 9 V, R1 = 3k, R2 = 10k, R3 = 5k

L.A. KAdoyo, 2013

ECV 211: CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Consider the Series-Parallel circuit shown in Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1: Series-Parallel Circuit

Table 2.1: Table for solving DC circuit

ECV 211: CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

To obtain the equivalent resistances in parallel:

Table 2.2: Table for solving DC circuit (cont...)

Table 2.3: Table for solving DC circuit (cont...)

L.A. KAdoyo, 2013

ECV 211: CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Table 2.4: Table for solving DC circuit (cont...)

Figure 2.2: Series-Parallel circuit after analysis

L.A. KAdoyo, 2013

ECV 211: CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Figure 2.3: Series-Parallel circuit: Example 2

L.A. KAdoyo, 2013

Figure 2.4: Figure Q1

ECV 211: CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Figure 2.5: Figure Q2

Figure 2.6: Figure Q3

Figure 2.7: Figure Q4

L.A. KAdoyo, 2013

ECV 211: CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Figure 2.8: Figure Q5

L.A. KAdoyo, 2013

ECV 211: CHAPTER 3. AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

L.A. KAdoyo, 2013

ECV 211: CHAPTER 3. AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Impedance and Admittance

Ac impedance is defined as the ratio of ac voltage to current, and is denoted Z, thus:

ECV 211: CHAPTER 3. AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

The impedance of a circuit, Z, is expressed as:

where R is the ac resistance and X is the reactance.

L.A. KAdoyo, 2013

ECV 211: CHAPTER 3. AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

(b) For a purely inductive circuit, average power dissipated is ZERO.