NEBOSH International Diploma in Occupational Health and Safety

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Version 1.2c (06/11/2012)

Element IB6: Physical Agents 1 Noise & Vibration

Learning outcomes:
On completion of this element, candidates should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Explain the basic physical concepts relevant to noise.

Explain the effects of noise on the individual and the use of audiometry.
Explain the measurement and assessment of noise exposure.
Explain the principles of controlling noise and noise exposure.
Explain the basic physical concepts relevant to vibration.
Explain the effects of vibration on the individual.
Explain the measurement and assessment of vibration exposure.
Explain the principles of controlling vibration and vibration exposure.

Relevant Standards

International Labour Standards, List of Occupational Disease Recommendations, R194,

International Labour Organisation, Geneva, 2002

Article 1.3: Biological agents

International Labour Office, Ambient Factors in the Workplace, an ILO Code of Practice,
ILO, 2001. ISBN 922111628

Minimum hours of tuition: 10 hours.

1.0 Basic Physical Concepts Relevant to Noise

Noise is often described as unwanted sound. The reasons why a particular sound is considered
unwanted are varied, but the main ones are that it can cause physical injury to the body, be distracting or cause annoyance. Occupationally, it can lead to possible ill-health or become a contributory factor in causing a physical accident. However, you must remember that we obtain a
considerable amount of useful information from noise. Complete silence can cause distress, even
to the extent that mental breakdown may occur. "Unwanted sound" is also a relative term; a warning car horn may be useful to those at risk, but to someone sleeping nearby, it causes considerable disturbance and annoyance.
The International Labour Organisation C148 - Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and
Vibration) Convention, 1977 (No. 148) is the convention concerning the Protection of Workers
against Occupational Hazards in the Working Environment Due to Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration (Entry into force: 11 Jul 1979).
http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:12100:0::NO::P12100_INSTRUMENT_ID:312293
For the purpose of the convention article 3 states that:
`(b) the term noise covers all sound which can result in hearing impairment or be harmful to
health or otherwise dangerous;'
The basic concepts of sound.
Very simply, sound is the vibration of any substance. The substance can be air, water, wood, or
any other material, and in fact the only place in which sound cannot travel is a vacuum. When
these substances vibrate, or rapidly move back and forth, they produce sound; our ears gather
these vibrations and allow us to interpret them.
To be a little more accurate in our definition of sound, however, we must realise that the vibra-

tions that produce sound are not the result of an entire volume moving back and forth at once. If
that were the case, the entire atmosphere would need to shift for any sound to be made at all!
Instead, the vibrations occur among the individual molecules of the substance, and the vibrations
move through the substance in sound waves. As sound waves travel through the material, each
molecule hits another and returns to its original position. The result is that regions of the medium
become alternately more dense, when they are called condensations, and less dense, when they
are called rarefactions.

Sound waves are often depicted in graphs like the one below, where the x-axis is time and the yaxis is pressure or the density of the medium through which the sound is travelling.

There are four main parts to a sound wave: wavelength, period, amplitude, and frequency. In this
section, we will discuss each one of these parts. Also, we will talk about pitch and its relation to
the frequency of a sound wave.

1.1 Wavelength and Period.

The wavelength is the horizontal distance between any two successive equivalent points on the
wave. That means that the wavelength is the horizontal length of one cycle of the wave. The period of a wave is the time required for one complete cycle of the wave to pass by a point. So, the
period is the amount of time it takes for a wave to travel a distance of one wavelength.

Amplitude.
The amplitude of a sound is represented by the height of the wave. When there is a loud sound,
the wave is high and the amplitude is large. Conversely, smaller amplitudes represent a softer
sound. A decibel is a scientific unit that measures the intensity of sounds. The softest sound that
a human can hear is the zero point. When the sound is twice as loud, the decibel level goes up
by six. Humans speak normally at 60 decibels.

Frequency.
Every cycle of sound has one condensation, a region of increased pressure, and one rarefaction,
a region where air pressure is slightly less than normal. The frequency of a sound wave is measured in hertz, named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894). Hertz (Hz) indicate
the number of cycles per second that pass a given location. If a speaker's diaphragm is vibrating
back and forth at a frequency of 900 Hz, then 900 condensations are generated every second,
each followed by a rarefaction, forming a sound wave whose frequency is 900 Hz.

Sound power is sound pressure multiplied by the area over which the sound pressure is measured.
Most sounds are a mix of different frequencies. These sounds are often referred to as broad-band

sounds. The graph below shows the intensity of the different frequencies of an air-compressor.

1.2 Pitch
How the brain interprets the frequency of an emitted sound is called the pitch. We already know
that the number of sound waves passing a point per second is the frequency. The faster the vibrations the emitted sound makes (or the higher the frequency), the higher the pitch. Therefore,
when the frequency is low, the sound is lower.
The Speed of Sound.
Sound travels at different speeds depending on what it is travelling through. Sound waves travel
the slowest through gases, faster through liquids, and fastest through solids. Temperature also
affects the speed of sound.
Gases.
The speed of sound depends upon the properties of the medium through which it is passing.
When we look at the properties of a gas, we see that only when molecules collide with each other
can the condensations and rarefactions of a sound wave move about. So, it makes sense that the
speed of sound has the same order of magnitude as the average molecular speed between collisions. In a gas, it is particularly important to know the temperature. This is because at lower temperatures, molecules collide more often; giving the sound wave more chances to move around
rapidly. At freezing (0 Celsius), sound travels through air at 331 metres per second (about 740
mph). But, at 20C, room temperature, sound travels at 343 metres per second (767 mph).
Liquids.
Sound travels faster in liquids than in gases because molecules are more tightly packed. In fresh
water, sound waves travel at 1,482 metres per second (about 3,315 mph). That's well over four
times faster than in air. Several ocean-dwelling animals rely upon sound waves to communicate
with other animals and to locate food and obstacles. The reason that they are able to effectively
use this method of communication over long distances is that sound travels so much faster in water.
Solids.
Sound travels fastest through solids. This is because molecules in a solid medium are much
closer together than those in a liquid or gas, allowing sound waves to travel more quickly through
it. In fact, sound waves travel over 17 times faster through steel than through air. The exact
speed of sound in steel is 5,960 metres per second (13,332 mph). This is only for the majority of
solids. The speed of sound in all solids is not faster than in all liquids.

Constructive and Destructive Interference of Sound Waves.

Let's set up a situation: two speakers are situated at the exact same distance (3 metres) away
from you, and each speaker is emitting the same sound. We'll say that the wavelength of the
sound is 1m. Finally, and most importantly, the speakers' diaphragms are vibrating synchronously
(moving outward and inward together).
Since the distance from the speakers to you is the same, the condensations of the wave coming
from one speaker are always meeting the condensations from the other at the same time. As a
result, the rarefactions are also always meeting rarefactions.
One principle of sound is linear superposition, which states that the combined pattern of the
waves is the sum of the individual wave patterns. So, the pressure fluctuations where the two

waves meet have twice the amplitude of the individual waves. An increase in amplitude results in
a louder sound. When this situation occurs, it is said to be "exactly in phase" and to exhibit "constructive interference".

But, if we slightly change one of the variables, the resulting sound is nearly the opposite of what it
was. Let's say we move one of the speakers 0.5m (1/2 of the wavelength) further away. We'll assume that the volume on this speaker is turned up so that the amplitude remains constant. This
movement causes the condensations from one speaker to meet the rarefactions from the other
sound wave and vice versa.
Again referring to the principle of linear superposition, the result is a cancellation of the two
waves. The rarefactions from one wave are offset by the condensation from the other wave producing constant air pressure. A constant air pressure means that you can hear no sound coming
from the speakers. This is called "destructive interference" where two waves are "exactly out of
phase".

1.3 Beats.
Now that we know what happens when two sound waves with the same frequency overlap, let's
explore what happens when two sound waves with different frequencies overlap. Two instrument
tuners are placed side by side, one set to emit a sound whose frequency is 440 Hz and the other
set to emit a sound whose frequency is 438 Hz. If the two tuners (which have the same amplitude) are turned on at the same time, you will not hear a constant sound. Instead, the loudness of
the combined sound rises and falls. Whenever a condensation meets a condensation or a rarefaction meets a rarefaction, there is constructive interference and the amplitude increases.
Whenever a condensation meets a rarefaction and vice versa, there is destructive interference,
and you can hear nothing. These periodic variations in loudness are called beats. In this situation
you will hear the loudness rise and fall 2 times per second because 440-438=2. So, there is a
beat frequency of 2 Hz. Musicians listen for beats to hear if their instruments are out of tune. The
musician will listen to a tuner that has the correct sound and plays the note on his instrument. If
the musician can hear beats, then he knows that the instrument is out of tune. When the beats
disappear, the musician knows the instrument is in tune.

Diffraction.
An obstacle is no match for a sound wave; the wave simply bends around it. For example, if a
stereo is playing in a room with the door open, the sound produced by the stereo will bend
around the walls surrounding the opening. This bending of a wave is called diffraction. All waves
exhibit diffraction, not just sound waves. Without diffraction, the sound from the stereo could only
be heard directly in front of the door. Instead, the air in the doorway is set into longitudinal vibration by the sound waves from the stereo. This means that each air molecule is a source of a
sound wave itself. This results in each molecule producing a sound wave and emitting it outward
in a spherical fashion. The final result is the diffraction of the sound wave around the doorway.

The sound outside the room has varying intensity, depending on where you stand. Directly in
front of the centre of the doorway, the intensity is a maximum. As you move further away from the
centre, the intensity decreases until it is at zero, then increases to a maximum, falls to zero, rises
to a maximum, and so on. Each maxima gets progressively softer further away from the centre.

Waves diffract differently depending on the object around which they are bending. If we let angle
x be the location of the first minimum intensity point on either side of the centre, W be the wavelength, and D be the width of the doorway, the equation

gives x in terms of the wavelength and the width of the doorway. For a circular opening, the equation is slightly different. Angle x, W for wavelength, and D for width are all still the same. The
equation looks like this:

So, looking at these two equations, you can tell that the extent of the diffraction depends on the
ratio of the wavelength to the size and shape of the opening. If the ratio of W/D is large, then x is
large. In this case, the waves are said to have a wide dispersion and the sound waves are spread
out wider through the opening. Conversely, if the ratio of W/D is small, then x is small and the
waves are said to have a narrow dispersion and the sound waves go through the opening without
spreading out very much. So, it makes sense that lower-frequency sounds typically have a wide
dispersion and sounds with small wavelengths have a narrow dispersion.

1.4 The Doppler Effect

As an ambulance speeds towards you, sirens blaring, the sound you hear is rather high in pitch.
This is because the sound waves in front of the vehicle are being squashed together by the moving ambulance. This causes more vibrations to reach your ear per second. As you know, more
vibrations per second results in a higher-pitched sound. When the ambulance passes you, the
sound becomes lower in pitch. Behind the ambulance there are fewer vibrations per second, and
a lower sound is heard. This change in pitch is known as the Doppler Effect. It was named for the
Austrian physicist Christian Doppler (1803-1853) who developed the idea in 1842. The application of the Doppler effect on sound waves was verified by C.D.H. Buys-Ballot in 1845.
When a vehicle travels faster than the speed of sound, about 330 metres per second, a sonic
boom can be heard. As the vehicle overtakes its own sound, the sound waves spread out behind
in a shockwave, or sonic boom.
The Intensity of Three-Dimensional Waves.
A two-dimensional sound wave looks like a series of concentric circles that get bigger as they
move further away from their origin. These circles are called wavefronts. In real life, sound waves
grow in three dimensions. Three-dimensional waves move out in all directions away from their
origin in wavefronts that are concentric spherical surfaces. The space between wavefronts is the
wavelength. Rays indicate the motion of a set of wavefronts. Rays are lines perpendicular to the
wavefronts that originate at the source of the sound and follow the wavefronts outward. If the
sound is emitted evenly in all directions, the energy at a distance r from the source will be uniform
on the spherical shell. If we let P equal the original power the sound has when emitted from the
source, the intensity per unit area (the surface area of a sphere is the denominator) at a distance
r from the source will be:

The intensity level of sound is measured in decibels (dB). Decibels are units of intensity that are
based upon a logarithmic scale. This means that a sound with an intensity of 20 dB is ten times
as loud as one with an intensity of 10 dB, 30 dB is ten times as intense as 20 dB, and so on. The

reason for this logarithmic scale is that humans hear intensity on a similar logarithmic scale. So,
while a 20 dB sound is ten times as intense as a 10 dB sound, we perceive it as only twice as
loud. The hearing threshold (level at which humans begin to perceive sound) is 0 dB. When a
sound reaches upwards of 120 dB, it is above the threshold of pain (point at which most people
begin feeling pain). Everything in between can be heard by a human with normal hearing.

But these levels aren't constants. What a human perceives as loud or soft depends on the frequency as well as the intensity of the sound. The graph below displays intensity levels compared
with the frequencies for sounds of equal loudness for humans. The bottom line is the threshold of
hearing. At a 1 kHz frequency, the hearing threshold is 0 dB, but at 60 Hz the decibel level is 50.
Only one percent of all human beings can hear sounds this low, so the lower line is mainly for
those with very good hearing. The next line up is the hearing threshold for the majority of people.
The top line is the pain threshold. Other than at one point, about 4 kHz, this line varies little. All of
the other lines also dip down at 4 kHz. We can gather from this graph that the human ear is most
sensitive at about 4 kHz.

The overall hearing range.

Besides having a threshold level of hearing, there is also a threshold level of pain. If the sound
level is too large, then it starts to hurt.
Sound Characteristics.
Instead of looking at a further study of sound waves, we will now look at the different characteristics of sound that are important to know when dealing with sound waves, because you will then
be able to comprehend the differences of different sound patterns, and why they differ. Frequency plays an important role in sound with frequency being the number of cycles a sound wave
completes in a given amount of time.
Pitch is also important because it is a property of sound that is perceived as higher and lower
tones. Frequency and pitch are directly related to each other. Pitch can also be given a musical
note on a musical scale. Pitches are actually a sound composed of many frequencies that vibrate
at multiples of fundamental tone.
The next characteristic of sound that we will discuss is tonal quality. This refers to the relationship
between pitches and usually to the specific system of pitch relationships that refer to a central
pitch or tone. Tonal quality is also the characteristic of sound that allows the ear to distinguish
between tones created by different kinds of sounds, even if the sound waves are identical in amplitude and frequency. Tones are sound waves that evoke a sensation of pitch while overtones
are the additional components in a wave that vibrate in simple multiples of one base frequency.

1.5 The Decibel (Db) and A-Weighting (Db(A)).

The name decibel honours the inventor of the telephone, Alexander Graham Bell, in recognition
of his work in acoustics. Sound intensity levels are frequently specified using decibels.
The human ear can detect sound levels ranging over a factor of a (US) trillion (1,000,000,000,000
= 1012).
The intensity in decibels is

Example: What is the Intensity in dB for a sound of intensity 4.0 10-5 W/m2?

To convert a sound in decibels to normal, we use

Adding sound levels.

The intensities of two sound levels can be added. However, the intensity of two sound levels expressed in dB cannot be added in dB.
To add sound levels in dB,

convert sounds levels in dB back to ordinary sound intensities;

add the sound intensities together;
convert the sound levels back to dB.

Example - suppose two sound levels of 84 dB and 92 dB are to be added together; what is the
intensity of the sound level in dB?

So I1 + I2 = 0.00158+0.00025=0.00183 W/m2

Pressure and decibels

Sometimes, the sound level is given in terms of a pressure difference.
However, the intensity of a sound wave is proportional to the square of the pressure difference. In
terms of pressure differences, we could write

where p0 = 20 10-6 Pa. (Pa = Pascal)

Adding and subtracting decibels graphically

Determine difference between two sound levels in dB. Then add the number read from the graph
to the higher sound level.
If the two sound levels are different by more than 10 dB, the weaker sound levels will hardly have
any effect.

1.6 What Does A Decibel Mean ?

1.7 What Are A-Weighted Decibels?

The sensitivity of the human ear to sound depends on the frequency or pitch of the sound. People
hear some frequencies better than others. If a person hears two sounds of the same sound pressure but different frequencies, one sound may appear louder than the other. This occurs because
people hear high frequency noise much better than low frequency noise.
Noise measurement readings can be adjusted to correspond to this peculiarity of human hearing.
An A-weighting filter which is built into the instrument de-emphasises low frequencies or pitches.
Decibels measured using this filter are A-weighted and are called dB(A). Legislation on workplace
noise normally gives exposure limits in dB(A). Table 2 lists examples of typical noise levels.
A-weighting serves two important purposes:
1. It gives a single number measure of noise level by integrating sound levels at all frequencies
2. It gives a scale for noise level as experienced or perceived by the human ear
Table 2
Typical Noise Levels
Noise Source

dB(A)

pneumatic chipper at 1 metre

115

hand-held circular saw at 1 metre

115

textile room

103

newspaper press

95

power lawn mower at 1 metre

92

diesel truck 50 km per hour at 20 metres

85

passenger car 60 km per hour at 20 metres 65

conversation at 1 metre

55

quiet room

40

What are the basic rules of working with decibel (dB) units?
The decibel [dB, and also dB(A)] is a logarithmic scale. For mathematical calculations using dB
units, we must use logarithmic mathematics. However, in our day-to-day work we do not need
such calculations.
The use of dB unit makes it easy to deal with the workplace noise level data, provided we use a
set of simple rules as summarised in Table 3.
Table 3
Decibel (dB) basics
Change in dB

Change in sound energy

3 dB increase

Sound energy doubled

3 dB decrease Sound energy halved

10 dB increase Sound energy increased by factor of 10
10 dB decrease Sound energy decreased by factor of 10
20 dB increase Sound energy increased by factor of 100
20 dB decrease Sound energy decreased by factor of 100
How are noise levels added?
Sound pressure levels in decibels (dB) or A-weighted decibels [dB(A)] are based on a logarithmic
scale. They cannot be added or subtracted in the usual arithmetical way. If one machine emits a
sound level of 90 dB, and a second identical machine is placed beside the first, the combined
sound level is 93 dB, not 180 dB.
Table 4 shows a simple way to add noise levels.
Table 4
Addition of Decibels
Numerical difference between two
noise levels [dB(A)]

Amount to be added to the higher of

the two noise levels [dB or dB(A)]

3.0

0.1 - 0.9

2.5

1.0 - 2.4

2.0

2.4 - 4.0

1.5

4.1 - 6.0

1.0

6.1 - 10

0.5

10

0.0

Step 1 : Determine the difference between the two levels and find the corresponding row in the left hand column.
Step 2 : Find the number [dB or dB(A)] corresponding to this difference in
the right hand column of the table.
Step 3 : Add this number to the higher of the two decibel levels.
For instance, using the example of two machines each emitting a noise level of 90 dB:
Step 1: The numerical difference between the two levels is 0 dB (90-90= 0), using the first row.
Step 2: The number corresponding to this difference of 0, taken from the right hand column, is 3.
Step 3: Add 3 to the highest level, in this case 90. Therefore, the resulting noise level is 93 dB.
When the difference between two noise levels is 10 dB(A) or more, the amount to be added to
the higher noise level is zero. In such cases, no adjustment factor is needed because adding in
the contribution of the lower in the total noise level makes no perceptible difference in what people can hear or measure. For example, if your workplace noise level is 95 dB(A) and you add another machine that produces 80 dB(A) noise, the workplace noise level will still be 95dB(A).

Sound Pressure Level Calculations.

Sound pressure level in decibels is defined in the following way:
dB = 20 log (Sound Pressure/Reference Pressure)
The "log" or logarithm of a number is a mathematical manipulation of the number, based on multiples of 10. It is the exponent that indicates the power to which the number 10 is raised to produce a given number. For example, the logarithm of 10 is 1 since 10 is multiplied by itself only
once to get 10. Similarly, the logarithm of 100 is 2 since 10 times 10 is 100. The logarithm of 1000
is 3 since 10 times 10 times 10 is 1000.
Therefore
log(1) = 0, since 10 to the exponent 0 = 1,
log(10) = 1, since 10 to the exponent 1 = 10,
log(100) = 2, since 10 to the exponent 2 = 100,
log(1000) = 3, since 10 to the exponent 3 = 1000
The logarithm scale simply compresses the large span of numbers into a manageable range. In
other words, the scale from 10 to 1000 is compressed, by using the logarithms, to a scale of 1 to
3.
The decibel scale for sound pressures uses, as the reference pressure, the lowest noise that the
healthy young person can hear (0.00002 Pa). It divides all other sound pressures by this amount
when calculating the decibel value. Sound pressures converted to the decibel scale are called
sound pressure levels, abbreviated Lp. So, the sound pressure level of the quietest noise the
healthy young person can hear is calculated in this way:
Lp = 20 log ( 0.00002/ 0.00002) = 20 log (1) = 20 X 0 = 0 dB
The sound pressure level or Lp in a very quiet room, where the sound pressure is 0.002 Pa, is
calculated:
Lp = 20 log (0.002/ 0.00002) = 20 log (100) = 20 X 2 = 40 dB
The sound pressure level of a typical petrol lawn mower, which has a sound pressure of 1 Pa, is
calculated
Lp = 20 log (1/0.00002) = 20 log (50 000) = 20 X 4.7 = 94 dB
Sound Power Level Calculations.
Sound power levels or Lw are determined by the following formula:
Lw = 10 log (Sound Power Level / Reference Power Level )
The reference power is one trillionth of a watt (0.000000000001 W). Therefore
Lw = 10 log (Sound Power Level / 0.000000000001)
Thus, the sound power level associated with an average whisper, which has a sound power of
0.0000001 W, is calculated
Lw = 10 log (0.0000001/ 0.000000000001) = 50 dB.

1.8 Noise Level Curves

We have different sensitivities to noise of different frequencies. Criteria have been developed to
quantify this, leading to a variety of Noise level curves. These are the Noise Criteria (NC), the
Preferred Noise Criteria (PNC) and Noise Rating (NR) curves.

The NR rating for a particular sound source is defined as for a particular sound source, deemed
to be the same as the lowest NR curve which is not exceeded at any frequency by the spectrum
of the source.
A more detailed NR curve
Suppose we have a sound source with the following intensity spectrum for the various octaves:
f (Hz)

dB

62.5

41

125

45

250

48

500

50

1000

46

2000

42

4000

40

8000

38

The NR value would be for the tabulated sound spectrum would be ??

What does an NR level mean?
Noise Rating

Perception

20-25

Very quiet

30-35

Quite

40-45

Moderately Noisy

50-55

Noisy

> 60

Very Noisy

The dBA and NR are both single digit estimates of the loudness of the background Noise.
The dBA is a weighted average over frequency.
The NR gives an upper limit to the spectrum.
Converting between NR and dBA is not the most rigorous procedure, because they both depend
on the shape of the spectrum. However, there are two approximate rules
dBA = NR + 10
NR = dBA - 5
Some recommend NR levels
NR curve

Activity or location

25

Concert halls, broadcasting and recording studios, churches

30

Private dwellings, hospitals, theatres, cinemas, conference rooms

35

Libraries, museums, court rooms, schools, hospitals operating

theatres and wards, flats, hotels, executive offices

40

Halls, corridors, cloakrooms, restaurants, night clubs, offices,

shops

45

Department stores, supermarkets, canteens, general offices

50

Typing pools, offices with business machines

60

Light engineering works

70

Foundries, heavy engineering works

2 Physiology of the Ear in Relation to the Mechanism of Hearing

Further reading
The human ear.

The ear can be regarded as a transducer, a device that translates pressure differences into electrical impulses (like a microphone).
Sound reaches the Tympanic membrane (the eardrum) and starts it vibrating.
Vibrations are transmitted by the ossciles (hammer, anvil and stirrup) to the inner part of the ear,
the cochlea.
Some 25,000 hair-like endings of the auditory nerve are then selectively stimulated (depends on
frequency) and nerves impulses are transmitted to the brain.

Structure of the human ear.

The ear has a relatively large area and opening in order to admit as much sound energy as possible. The pinna acts to increase sound entering ear by a factor of 2.
The shape of the auditory canal makes it particularly good for transmitting sound with frequencies
between 2000 5000 Hz. Sensitivity is increased by a factor of 2 for these frequencies.
The eardrum is 15 times as large as the area in the inner ear where sound is eventually transmitted. So sensitivity is increased by factor of 15.
The audible range.
The ear can typically detect sounds with frequencies between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz (20 kHz). The
ability to hear certain frequencies does change with frequency. The ear is most sensitive to
sounds with a frequency of about 4000 Hz.

2.1 So Why is Noise An Important Workplace Hazard?

As we mentioned at the beginning of this element, noise is one of the most common occupational
health hazards. In heavy industrial and manufacturing environments, as well as in farms and
cafeterias, permanent hearing loss is the main health concern. Annoyance, stress and interference with speech communication are the main concerns in noisy offices, schools and computer
rooms.
When considering hearing damage by noise, the concept of sound physics is quite sophisticated,
requiring knowledge of the noise dose (level and duration) required to produce a hearing damage
response over the range of susceptible individuals. Knowledge of the concepts of sound physics
is extremely important in the evaluation of occupational noise.
We hope the above has given you knowledge of the basic concepts of sound physics; we will
look at the effects of exposure next, followed by the evaluation of occupational noise and the controls.
Now time for a quick playnoise meter

2.2 Effects
The Effects of Noise.
Loss of hearing is certainly the most well-known adverse effect of noise, and probably the most
serious, but it is not the only one. Other detrimental effects include tinnitus (ringing in the ears),
interference with speech communication and with the perception of warning signals, disruption of
job performance, annoyance and extra-auditory effects. Under most circumstances, protecting
workers' hearing should protect against most other effects. This consideration provides additional

support for companies to implement good noise control and hearing conservation programmes.
Hearing impairment.
Noise-induced hearing impairment is very common, but it is often underrated because there are
no visible effects and, in most cases, no pain. There is only a gradual, progressive loss of communication with family and friends, and a loss of sensitivity to sounds in the environment, such as
birdsong and music. Unfortunately, good hearing is usually taken for granted until it is lost.
These losses may be so gradual that individuals do not realise what has happened until the impairment becomes handicapping. The first sign is usually that other people do not seem to speak
as clearly as they used to. The hearing-impaired person will have to ask others to repeat themselves, and he or she often becomes annoyed with their apparent lack of consideration. Family
and friends will often be told, "Don't shout at me. I can hear you, but I just can't understand what
you're saying."
As the hearing loss becomes worse, the individual will begin to withdraw from social situations.
Social occasions begin to lose their attraction and the individual will choose to stay at home. The
volume of the television becomes a source of contention within the family, and other family members are sometimes driven out of the room because the hearing-impaired person wants it so loud.
Presbycusis, the hearing loss that naturally accompanies the ageing process, adds to the hearing
handicap when the person with Noise-Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) becomes older. Eventually,
the loss may progress to such a severe stage that the individual can no longer communicate with
family or friends without great difficulty, and then he or she is indeed isolated. A hearing aid may
help in some cases, but the clarity of natural hearing will never be restored, as the clarity of vision
is with glasses.

2.3 Occupational Hearing Impairment

Noise-induced hearing impairment is usually considered an occupational disease or illness, rather
than an injury, because its progression is gradual.
On rare occasions, an employee may sustain immediate, permanent hearing loss from a very
loud event such as an explosion or a very noisy process, such as riveting on steel. In these circumstances, the hearing loss is sometimes referred to as an injury and is called "acoustic
trauma".
The usual circumstance, however, is a slow decrease in hearing ability over many years. The
amount of impairment will depend on the level of the noise, the duration of the exposure and the
susceptibility of the individual worker.
Unfortunately, there is no medical treatment for occupational hearing impairment; there is only
prevention.
The auditory effects of noise are well-documented and there is little controversy over the amount
of continuous noise that causes varying degrees of hearing loss (ISO 1990). That intermittent
noise causes hearing loss is also uncontested. But periods of noise that are interrupted by periods of quiet can offer the inner ear an opportunity to recover from temporary hearing loss and
may therefore be somewhat less hazardous than continuous noise. This is true mainly for outdoor
occupations, but not for inside settings such as factories, where the necessary intervals of quiet
are rare (Suter 1993).
Impulse noise, such as the noise from gunfire and metal stamping, also damages hearing. There
is some evidence that the hazard from impulse noise is more severe than that from other types of
noise (Dunn et al. 1991; Thiery and Meyer-Bisch 1988), but this is not always the case. The
amount of damage will depend mainly on the level and duration of the impulse, and it may be
worse when there is continuous noise in the background. There is also evidence that highfrequency sources of impulse noise are more damaging than those composed of lower frequen-

cies (Hamernik, Ahroon and Hsueh 1991; Price 1983).

Hearing loss due to noise is often temporary at first. During the course of a noisy day, the ear becomes fatigued and the worker will experience a reduction in hearing known as temporary
threshold shift (TTS).
Between the end of one work shift and the beginning of the next, the ear usually recovers from
much of the TTS, but often, some of the loss remains. After days, months and years of exposure,
the TTS leads to permanent effects and new amounts of TTS begin to build onto the now permanent losses. A good audiometric testing programme will attempt to identify these temporary hearing losses and provide for preventive measures before the losses become permanent.
Experimental evidence indicates that several industrial agents are toxic to the nervous system
and produce hearing loss in laboratory animals, especially when they occur in combination with
noise (Fechter 1989). These agents include (1) heavy metal hazards, such as lead compounds
and trimethyltin, (2) organic solvents, such as toluene, xylene and carbon disulphide, and (3) an
asphyxiant, carbon monoxide. Recent research on industrial workers (Morata 1989; Morata et al.
1991) suggests that certain of these substances (carbon disulphide and toluene) can increase the
damaging potential of noise. There is also evidence that certain drugs which are already toxic to
the ear can increase the damaging effects of noise (Boettcher et al. 1987).
Examples include certain antibiotics and cancer chemotherapy drugs. Those in charge of hearing
conservation programmes should be aware that workers exposed to these chemicals or using
these drugs may be more susceptible to hearing loss, especially when exposed to noise in addition.

2.4 Non-Occupational Hearing Impairment

It is important to understand that occupational noise is not the only cause of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) among workers, but hearing loss can also be caused by sources outside the
workplace. These sources of noise produce what is sometimes called "sociocusis", and their effects on hearing are impossible to differentiate from occupational hearing loss. They can only be
surmised by asking detailed questions about the worker's recreational and other noisy activities.
Examples of sociocusic sources could be woodworking tools, chain saws, unmuffled motorcycles
and loud music.
The importance of non-occupational noise exposure and the resulting sociocusis is that this hearing loss adds to the exposure that an individual might receive from occupational sources. For the
sake of workers' overall hearing health, they should be counselled to wear adequate hearing protection when they engage in noisy recreational activities.
Tinnitus.
Tinnitus is a condition that frequently accompanies both temporary and permanent hearing loss
from noise, as well as other types of sensorineural hearing loss. Often referred to as a "ringing in
the ears", tinnitus may range from mild in some cases to severe in others. Sometimes individuals
report that they are more bothered by their tinnitus than they are by their hearing impairment.
People with tinnitus are likely to notice it most in quiet conditions, such as when they are trying to
go to sleep at night, or when they are sitting in a sound-proof booth taking an audiometric test. It
is a sign that the sensory cells in the inner ear have been irritated. It is often a precursor to noiseinduced hearing loss and therefore an important warning signal.
Communication interference and safety.
The fact that noise can interfere with or "mask" speech communication and warning signals is
only common sense. Many industrial processes can be carried out very well with a minimum of
communication among workers. Other jobs, however, such as those performed by airline pilots,
railroad engineers, tank commanders and many others rely heavily on speech communication.
Some of these workers use electronic systems that suppress the noise and amplify the speech.

Nowadays, sophisticated communication systems are available, some with devices that cancel
unwanted acoustic signals so that communication can take place more easily.
In many cases, workers just have to make do, straining to understand communications above the
noise and shouting above it or signalling. Sometimes people may develop hoarseness or even
vocal nodules or other abnormalities on the vocal cords from excessive strain. These individuals
may need to be referred for medical care.
People have learned from experience that in noise levels above about 80 dB(A) they have to
speak very loudly, and in levels above 85 dB(A), they have to shout. In levels much above 95
dB(A) they have to move close together to communicate at all. Acoustical specialists have developed methods to predict the amount of communication that can take place in industrial situations.
The resulting predictions are dependent upon the acoustical characteristics of both the noise and
the speech (or other desired signal), as well as the distance between talker and listener.
It is generally known that noise can interfere with safety, but only a few studies have documented
this problem (e.g., Moll van Charante and Mulder 1990; Wilkins and Acton 1982). There have
been numerous reports, however, of workers who have got clothing or hands caught in machines
and have been seriously injured while their colleagues were oblivious to their cries for help. To
prevent communication breakdowns in noisy environments, some employers have installed visual
warning devices.
Another problem, recognised more by noise-exposed workers themselves than by professionals
in hearing conservation and occupational health, is that hearing protection devices may sometimes interfere with the perception of speech and warning signals. This appears to be true mainly
when the wearers already have hearing losses and the noise levels fall below 90 dBA (Suter
1992). In these cases, workers have a very legitimate concern about wearing hearing protection.
It is important to be attentive to their concerns and either to implement engineering noise controls
or to improve the kind of protection offered, such as protectors built into an electronic communication system. In addition, hearing protectors are now available with a flatter, more "high fidelity"
frequency response, which may improve workers' abilities to understand speech and warning
signals.

2.5 Effects on Job Performance

The effects of noise on job performance have been studied both in the laboratory and in actual
working conditions. The results have shown that noise usually has little effect on the performance
of repetitive, monotonous work, and in some cases can actually increase job performance when
the noise is low or moderate in level.
High levels of noise can degrade job performance, especially when the task is complicated or involves doing more than one thing at a time.
Intermittent noise tends to be more disruptive than continuous noise, particularly when the periods of noise are unpredictable and uncontrollable.
Some research indicates that people are less likely to help each other and more likely to exhibit
antisocial behaviour in noisy environments than in quiet ones.
Annoyance.
Although the term "annoyance" is more often connected with community noise problems, such as
airports or race-car tracks, industrial workers may also feel annoyed or irritated by the noise of
their workplace.
This annoyance may be related to the interference of speech communication and job performance described above, but it may also be due to the fact that many people have an aversion to
noise.
Sometimes the aversion to noise is so strong that a worker will look for employment elsewhere,

but that opportunity is not often feasible. After a period of adjustment, most will not appear to be
bothered as much, but they may still complain about fatigue, irritability and sleeplessness (the
adjustment will be more successful if young workers are properly fitted with hearing protectors
from the start, before they develop any hearing loss.)
Interestingly, this kind of information sometimes surfaces after a company starts a noise control
and hearing conservation programme because the workers would have become aware of the
contrast between earlier and subsequently improved conditions.
Extra-auditory effects.
As a biological stressor, noise can influence the entire physiological system. Noise acts in the
same way that other stressors do, causing the body to respond in ways that may be harmful in
the long run and lead to disorders known as the "stress diseases".
When facing danger in primitive times, the body would go through a series of biological changes,
preparing either to fight or to run away (the classic "fight or flight" response). There is evidence
that these changes still persist with exposure to loud noise, even though a person may feel "adjusted" to the noise.
Most of these effects appear to be transitory, but with continued exposure some adverse effects
have been shown to be chronic in laboratory animals.
What hearing loss sounds like:
http://www.hse.gov.uk/noise/audio/english.wma

2.6 Health Surveillance

The requirements for health surveillance are stated in the ILO Code of Practice: Ambient Factors in the Workplace section 9.4.
9.4. Health surveillance
9.4.1. Appropriate health surveillance should be conducted for all workers whose noise exposures reach a certain level prescribed by national laws and regulations or by national or internationally recognized standards above which health surveillance should be carried out.
9.4.2. Workers health surveillance may include:
(a) a pre-employment or pre-assignment medical examination to:
(i) determine any contraindication to exposure to noise;
(ii) detect any sensitivity to noise;
(iii) establish a baseline record useful for later medical surveillance;
(b) periodical medical examinations at intervals prescribed as a function of the magnitude of the
exposure hazards to:
(i) detect the first symptoms of occupational disease;
(ii) detect the appearance of any unusual sensitivity to noise and signs of stress
due to noisy working conditions;
(c) medical examinations prior to resumption of work after a period of extended sickness or in
case of conditions as may be specified in national legislation or internationally recognized standards;
(d) medical examinations performed on cessation of employment to provide a general picture of
the eventual effects of exposure to noise;
(e) supplementary and special medical examinations when an abnormality is found and it requires
further investigation.
9.4.3. The results of the medical examinations and of supplementary examinations and tests,
such as audiometric testing, of each individual should be recorded in a confidential medical file.

The worker should be informed of these results and their significance accordingly.

2.7.Health Surveillance
What is health surveillance?
Health surveillance is about putting in place systematic, regular and appropriate procedures to
detect early signs of work-related ill-health and acting upon the results. The aims are primarily to
safeguard the health of workers (including identifying and protecting individuals at increased risk),
but also to check the long-term effectiveness of measures to control risks to health.
Health surveillance for noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) usually means regular hearing checks
(audiometric testing) to measure the sensitivity of hearing over a range of sound frequencies. It
should include informing employees about the state of their hearing and the keeping of records.
When is health surveillance required?
You should provide health surveillance to workers regularly exposed above the upper exposure
action values. Where exposure is between the lower and upper exposure action values, or where
employees are only occasionally exposed above the upper exposure action values, health surveillance will only be required if information comes to light that an individual may be particularly
sensitive to NIHL. This may be from past medical history, audiometric test results from previous
jobs or other independent assessments. A few individuals may also indicate a family history of
becoming deaf early on in life. If this information is brought to the attention of the employer, then
those individuals should be provided with health surveillance.
When deciding which workers will require health surveillance, you should consider patterns of
work. You would not be expected to provide health surveillance, for example, to workers whose
noise exposure exceeds the upper exposure action values by a small margin, and only on one or
two days a week. However, if exposure is regularly above the upper exposure action values, then
health surveillance would be appropriate.

2.8 What Do I Actually Have to Do ?

Health surveillance for noise-induced hearing loss will involve a system of audiometric testing.
You will need to appoint a person or people to be in charge of the testing programme. These
people should be fully conversant with the technical and ethical aspects of the conduct of audiometry, and in particular be responsible for:
the quality of the service provided;
ensuring that appropriate standards are maintained during testing;
record-keeping;
referring individuals for further advice.
A suitable person might be an occupational physician or nurse with training in audiometry, an
audiological scientist or a trained audiometrician with access to a qualified occupational health
medical professional for advice and onward referral. The provision of health surveillance may be
contracted to an external occupational health service provider. Ultimately, you as the employer
have the responsibility for the proper conduct of health surveillance. The detailed arrangements
for further advice should be agreed between you and the person in charge of the testing programme.
The person performing the tests should have appropriate training so that testing is carried out in a
repeatable and accurate manner. A training syllabus for industrial audiometricians has been prepared by the British Society of Audiology (www.thebsa.org.uk), which has approved a number of
courses. The basic requirements for any person responsible for the testing programme are that

they should:
have a good understanding of the aims and objectives and technique of audiometry and how it
relates to hearing;
be able to carry out otoscopic examination of the ear to detect any major abnormality or the
presence of discharge or wax which might affect the results;
be competent to ensure an appropriate test environment, to operate and
maintain the testing equipment, and to carry out the test procedure;
understand and comply with the need for confidentiality of personal health information;
know how to assess and present results according to a defined system, and when and how to
seek medical assistance.
In addition, the tester should be familiar with the hearing protection used by the workers to discuss proper fitting, cleaning and maintenance.
The best programme would begin with a baseline audiogram, giving details of the condition of an
individual's hearing before exposure to noise. A baseline audiogram may be a pre-employment
test, or the first audiogram to be conducted on taking up employment or moving to a noisy job.
The benefits of a pre-employment test are that it precludes any exposure to noise within your
employment. A programme can, however, be introduced at any time for employees already exposed to noise. This would be followed by a regular series of tests, usually annually for the first
two years and then at three-yearly intervals, although testing may be more frequent where an abnormality in hearing is detected, or where the risk of hearing damage is high.
The person conducting the testing should explain the results of each test to the employee, including the condition of the individual's hearing, the significance of hearing damage, the importance of
following your noise-control and hearing-protection programmes and what happens next if any
abnormality in hearing is detected. If the test is not conducted by a doctor, then the employee
may need to be referred on to their GP if damage is found.
Analysis of the results of health surveillance for groups of workers can provide an insight into how
well your hearing conservation programme is working. You should use these results to provide
feedback to your risk assessment and your noise reduction, education and compliance programme. You should also make this information available to employee or safety representatives.
If the work is contracted out to an external provider, you should ensure they are competent and
agree the terms of the contract, including procedures for feedback of grouped results and recordkeeping. In these circumstances, more effort may be required to ensure you receive appropriate
feedback of results of testing.
So that your employees understand what health surveillance means to them, you should discuss
your programme with them and their representatives at an early stage. You should consult employee or safety representatives in good time about the development of the programme. The following issues should be covered in your consultation and discussions:
the aims and objectives of the programme;
how the programme fits with the more general aim of preventing hearing damage at work;
the procedures to ensure confidentiality of the results;
the methods to be followed, including those for medical referral;
how the programme will be monitored and evaluated.

2.9 What Types of Record Should I Keep ?

You should keep an up-to-date health record for each individual as long as they are under health
surveillance. These records should include:
identification details of the employee;
the employee's history of exposure to noise;
the outcome of previous health surveillance in terms of fitness for work, and any restrictions required.
Health records should not contain personal medical information, which must be kept in confidence in the medical record held by an occupational health professional in charge of the audiometric testing programme. If the person in charge of the programme is not medically qualified,
then the holding of medical information should be agreed between you, your employees and their
representatives at the set-up of the programme. This means that the person in charge of the testing programme should hold the results of testing independently from you and the personnel records, and abide by the principles of confidentiality normally expected of health professionals.
This person should forward the medical information to the GP or consultant where problems with
hearing are identified.
You will need to see anonymised grouped data on the hearing of the workforce. This should be
done in a way that does not reveal details of any particular individual's hearing threshold and
does not compromise confidentiality. Consent will not be required for this type of information to be
provided to you. It may be difficult to provide grouped anonymised data for small groups of workers.
However, ways should be devised to inform management of issues that need to be dealt with to
prevent hearing loss without compromising confidentiality.
The health record should be retained for at least as long as the employee remains in your employment. You may wish to retain it for longer, as enquiries regarding the state of an individual's
hearing may arise many years after they have left your employment or exposure to noise has
ceased. It is good practice to offer individual employees a copy of their health record when they
leave your employment. Inspectors from the enforcing authorities are entitled to ask to see your
health records as part of their checks that you are complying with these Regulations. If your business should cease trading, you may wish to pass the record to the individual concerned.
Interpretation of simple audiograms.
The results of the audiogram are plotted in such a way that compares the hearing of the patient
with that of the average person. The audiometer is calibrated to ISO (International Organization
for Standardization) threshold levels for air conduction. According to this standard, the absolute
intensity of sound in watts/m2 produces by the audiometer at each frequency is set in such a way
that when an intensity of 0dB is indicated, the average person will be at the threshold for hearing
at that frequency. Thus points plotted at 0dB are 'normal'. Points lying at + 5dB or greater indicate
a hearing deficit. Points lying at 5dB or -10 dB indicate better than normal average hearing.

2.10 The Role and Principles of Audiometry

Audiometric testing is a screening technique that is used to detect damage caused by exposure
to noise.

The procedure of standard air and bone conduction, using masking as necessary, allows for the
early detection of hearing problems. Preventative action can be identified, including medical referrals as necessary.

Under Regulation 5 of the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations (1999) employees (this includes those exposed to high noise levels) should be provided with appropriate
health surveillance in accordance with Guidance Note MS26, complying with standards EN26189
(1991) and ISO 6189-1983 (Previously BS 6655:1986), also the British Society of Audiology.
These International Standards lay down requirements and procedures for conducting pure tone
air Conduction Audiometry for hearing conservation purposes.
Audiometry can be undertaken onsite using a purpose-built Mobile Unit. The Unit contains a waiting area, consulting room and a sound-proof booth.

Why Audiometry?
Since January 1992, The Management of Health and Safety at Work regulations have required
hearing tests to be undertaken if a noise hazard exists.
Noise costs people their hearing; it can also cost employers money through absenteeism, reduced productivity, medical costs and increasing compensation claims. In fact, noise ranks only
second to physical injury as an occupational health hazard.
Today, large amounts of money are being lost yearly in out of court settlements. Cases in the civil
court are a regular occurrence; the cost of a good Screening Programme is soon recovered if a
few spurious claims are avoided.
The only way to assess whether your hearing protection is working is Audiometry.
The Full Screening Programme.
The consultation begins with a questionnaire which the employee completes prior to the consultation. It is a record of their previous employment, personal information and relevant medical history.
The questionnaire helps the Audiologist to identify any problems that can be discussed with the
employee.
Introduction - the Audiologist will explain the aim of Health Surveillance as a check to ensure
hearing protection measures are effective and give instruction for the test procedure.
Aural Examinations - binaural otoscopic examination of the ear and the Tympanic membrane (the
eardrum) is carried out, to detect any abnormality or the presence of wax.
Manual Pure Tone Air Conduction Test. The Employee sits in a specially-constructed Sound
Proof Booth. Sounds of fixed frequencies and varying intensities are presented to each ear in turn
though earphones contained within Amplivox Acoustic Cups. The test results are presented in
Audiogram format.
Advice regarding test results. The Audiologist will discuss the test results with the Employee. An
advice slip will be given if the hearing is outside normal limits, or if a medical condition suggests
referral to the GP. The Audiologist will also advise on the fitting, hygiene and maintenance of
hearing protection and the importance of wearing it to protect their hearing from high levels of
noise exposure.

2.11 The Role and Principles of Audiometry. (Cont'd)

Testing Procedure.

All employees to be noise free for 15 minutes prior testing.

All employees to complete Medical Questionnaire.
Otoscopic examination of the ear, any abnormality referred to G.P.
Any employee falling below average hearing to be informed with written information and a
copy to be attached to audiogram.
Any employee with excessive wax to be referred to their G.P. for removal and tested again
on next available date.

Testing Equipment.

Testing to be carried out subject to MS26 Regulation EN 26189 Protocol.

Also subject to the British Society of Audiology Protocol.
Pure Air Tone manual testing with masking and bone conduction.
Testing equipment Audiometer.
With noise reducing audio cups.

Surveillance for employees means:

Regular hearing checks in controlled conditions to measure the sensitivity of hearing over
a range of sound frequencies.
Informing them about the results of their hearing checks.
Keeping records.
Encouraging them to seek further advice from a doctor where hearing damage is suspected.

How to decide when it is needed.

High levels of noise at work can cause hearing loss. It can take many years to become serious.
The young can be damaged as easily as the old.
Evidence suggests 12,000 people in England and Wales suffer work-related deafness. Once ears
have been damaged by noise, there is no cure.
High-pitched sounds are most affected so everything sounds muffled.
Noise can be a problem in many different types of job. There might be a problem in your workplace if

you have to shout to be heard by someone two metres away;

your ears are still ringing after leaving the workplace;
people use tools causing loud explosives noises such as cartridge operated tools or guns.

Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 - Health Surveillance.

There is a specific requirement under the Management of Health & Safety at Work Regulations
1999 for you to provide adequate health surveillance.
The Approved Code of Practice to the Management Regulations sets out the criteria for determining when health surveillance should be introduced.
These Criteria are met when there is a significant risk of hearing loss from exposure to loud noise
at work. The appropriate technique for noise health surveillance is Audiometry.
Advice to Employers.
When arranging hearing checks you should consider

The competence of the person in charge of the programme. They should understand the
technical and medical aspects of carrying out checks and be aware of relevant British and

International Standards. They are responsible for consistent testing, record keeping and
for referring individuals for further medical opinion.
The competence of the technician carrying out the tests. The person should have had appropriate training to test consistently and accurately.
Frequency of testing. The best programme would begin with a baseline audiogram - the
print out - giving details of the condition of an individual's hearing etc. - before exposure to
noise (although a programme can be introduced effectively at any time for employees already exposed to noise). This is followed by a regular series of audiograms, usually annually for the first two years of employment and then at three-yearly intervals (although this
may alter where an abnormality is detected or where the risk of hearing damage is high).
You may of course decide to continue annual checks to give you more information about
how well your hearing conservation programme is working and whether the advice you
have given to employees about noise affected their attitudes and behaviour.

2.12 Limitations
Technical.
How accurately can either the frequency or the hearing level be determined?
Learning Effect.
Individual becomes more proficient at detecting and indicating threshold as test progresses.
Can actually be quite confusing and claustrophobic in sound booth.
Headphone Fit.
Position of headphones can influence threshold.
Previous exposure to high noise levels close to the test.
May produce TTS.
Co-operation of test-subject.
If uncooperative false readings.

2.13 Summary
Noise exposure can either be acute or chronic, it can be either perceived (and as such may well
better reflect noise annoyance than noise experienced) or be objectively measured (i.e. in controlled environments so that subjects are in either high or low noise groups), and from any one (or
more) of a huge number of sources (e.g. machinery, other people, vehicles).
Acute and chronic effects of exposure to high noise levels include:
Acute:

Temporary threshold shift.

Physical damage to inner ear.

Chronic:

Noise-induced hearing loss.

Sleep disturbance.
Irritation.

Tinnitus.

Main effects of exposure to high noise doses:

Auditory Effects:

Hearing loss.
Tinnitus.
Threshold Shift.
Presbycusis.
Noise-Induced Hearing Loss.

Non-Auditory Effects.

Psychological, cardiovascular, digestive etc.

Noise-induced deafness summary.

Numbers of new cases of noise-induced deafness qualifying for Industrial Injuries Scheme disablement benefit fell steadily from the mid-eighties, with the single exception of an increase in
1999 from the mid 1980s, until they reached 225 in 2000. Since 2000, there has been fluctuation
in the number of new cases, ranging from 265 in 2001 to 325 in 2004. There appears to be no
clear trend up or down.
The estimated number of cases of hearing loss seen for the first time in 2004 by Audiologicalists
and Occupational Physicians in the OPRA/OSSA reporting schemes was 291, a decrease from
488 in 2003.
Estimates from the Self-reported Work-related Illness (SWI) surveys: the SWI survey in 2004/05
estimated that 74,000 people employed in Great Britain were suffering from work-related hearing
problems in this year.
The industry groups with the highest average annual incidence rates of new cases qualifying for
benefit (based on 2002-04 figures) were extraction energy and water supply, manufacturing and
construction.
Occupations with high incidence rates based on OSSA reports in 2002-04 included NCOs and
other ranks in the armed forces and other labourers in making and processing and machine tool
operatives.
A Medical Research Council survey in 1997-98 gave a prevalence estimate of 509,000 people in
Great Britain suffering from hearing difficulties as a result of exposure to noise at work.
Further information on statisics

3 Measurement and Assessment of Noise Exposure

In this section, we will look at:

The Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005.

Types of Instrumentation meters and dosemeters.
Calibration.
Methodology.
Calculations (Leq and LEP,d).
Frequency Analysis.
Background Noise.
Noise Surveys and noise assessments.

3.1 Noise Risk Assessment - Ilo Cop Ambient Factors in the Workplace
Factors to be considered when conducting a noise risk assessment as stated in section 9.2 of the
ILO code of Practice `Ambient Factors in the Workplace
9.2. Assessment
9.2.1. The level of noise and/or duration of exposure should not exceed the limits established by
the competent authority or other internationally recognized standards. The assessment should, as
appropriate, consider:
(a) the risk of hearing impairment;
(b) the degree of interference to speech communications essential for safety purposes;
(c) the risk of nervous fatigue, with due consideration to the mental and physical workload and
other non-auditory hazards or effects.
9.2.2. For the prevention of adverse effects of noise on workers, employers should:
(a) identify the sources of noise and the tasks which give rise to exposure;
(b) seek the advice of the competent authority and/or the occupational health service about exposure limits and other standards to be applied;
(c) seek the advice of the supplier of processes and equipment about expected noise emission;
(d) if this advice is incomplete or otherwise of doubtful value, arrange for measurements by persons competent to undertake these in accordance with current national and/or internationally recognized standards.
9.2.3. Noise measurements should be used to:
(a) quantify the level and duration of exposure of workers and compare it with exposure limits as
established by the competent authority or internationally recognized standards to be applied (see
also section 9 of the annex);
(b) identify and characterize the sources of noise and the exposed workers;
(c) create a noise map for the determination of risk areas;
(d) assess the need both for engineering noise prevention and control and for other appropriate
measures and for their effective implementation;
(e) evaluate the effectiveness of existing noise prevention and control measures.
9.2.4. Based on the assessment of the exposure to noise in the working environment, the employer should establish a noise prevention programme with the aim of eliminating the hazard or
risk or reducing them to the lowest practicable level by all appropriate means.

3.2 The Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005

The Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 came into force on 6 April 2006. The new
regulations implement the European Union's Physical Agents (Noise) Directive within Great
Britain.
The new regulations bring significant changes to the actions which were required by employers
and employees under the previous Noise at Work Regulations 1989. Employers now have extra
responsibilities, and noise exposures and level limits are lower.
The Regulations cover not only the obviously noisy industrial premises and construction sites, but
virtually all workplaces with few exceptions, including workplaces where the risk of the noise may
not be immediately obvious. So they apply for example, to motorcycle couriers, and to call centre
workers who are exposed to noise (including speech) through headphones.
The regulations also cover the self-employed, as employers and employees.
An outline of the regulations is given below.

The previous Noise at Work Regulations 1989 now no longer apply to the entertainment industry;
the transition period has now ended.
Action Values and Limit Values
The Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 specify action values and exposure limit values
for daily personal noise exposure (or weekly personal noise exposure) and peak sound level.
Daily personal noise exposure (LEP,d) is a measure of the total noise received by an employee
over the working day. Daily personal noise exposures depend both on noise levels experienced at work and on the time spent in the noise. A high level noise for a short time will give the
same noise exposure as a lower level noise for a longer time, if the total sound energies of the
two noises are the same. For an eight-hour working day, the average noise level over the eight
hours is numerically equal to the daily personal noise exposure. For example, an employee working for 8 hours in a noise level of 75 dB(A) will have a noise exposure of 75 dB(A) LEP,d. However,
if the time spent is less than 8 hours, the noise exposure will be less than 75 dB(A) LEP,d and if the
time is longer than eight hours, the noise exposure will be more than 75 dB(A) LEP,d. (International
standards use the symbol LEX,8h in place of LEP,d.)
Weekly personal noise exposure (LEP,w) is a measure of the total noise received by an employee during a working week. It is similar to the daily noise exposure but is calculated for a 40hour week (five 8-hour days) instead of an 8-hour day. (International standards use the symbol
LEX,8h in place of LEP,w)
Peak sound pressure level (LCpeak) is the instantaneous C-weighted peak sound pressure level
occurring at any time during the working day.
The lower exposure action values are

80 dB(A) LEP,d or 80 dB(A) LEP,w - ie a daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 80 dB(A)
135 dB(C) LCpeak - i.e. a peak sound pressure level of 135 dB(C).

The upper exposure action values are

85 dB(A) LEP,d or 85 dB(A) LEP,w - i.e. a daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 85
dB(A)
137 dB(C) LCpeak - i.e. a peak sound pressure of 137 dB(C).

The exposure limit values are

87 dB(A) LEP,d or 87 dB(A) LEP,w - i.e. a daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 87dB
(A); ie
140 dB(C) LCpeak - i.e. a peak sound pressure of 140 dB(C).

The exposure action values are ambient noise levels in the workplace at the worker's location
and do not take into account the effect of any hearing protection. The exposure limit values however, do take the effect of hearing protection into account.

3.3 The Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 (Cont'd).

Actions required.
General - assessment of risk.
Employers must ensure that risk from the exposure of his employees to noise is either eliminated
at source or, where this is not reasonably practicable, reduced to as low a level as is reasonably
practicable.
If one of the lower exposure action values is likely to be exceeded, an employer needs to carry

out a risk assessment to assess whether any employees are likely to be exposed to noise at or
above a lower exposure action value, an upper exposure action value, or an exposure limit value.
The risk assessment should consider:(a) the level, type and duration of exposure, including any exposure to peak sound pressure;
(b) the effects of exposure to noise on employees whose health is at particular risk from such exposure;
(c) any effects on the health and safety resulting from the interaction between noise and the use
of toxic substances at work, or between noise and vibration;
(d) any effects of noise on audible warning signals or other sounds that need to be audible for
safety, or in order to reduce risk at work;
(e) any information provided by the manufacturers of work equipment;
(f) the availability of alternative equipment designed to reduce the emission of noise;
(g) any extension of exposure to noise at the workplace beyond normal working hours, including
exposure in rest facilities;
( h) appropriate information obtained following health surveillance, including, where possible,
published information; and
(i) the availability of personal hearing protectors with adequate attenuation characteristics.
At and above a lower exposure action value.
Where noise exposures exceed the lower exposure action value, the employer must make suitable hearing protection available to any employee who wants to use it, though employees do not
have to wear it. The employer must also provide information and training on:
(a) the nature of risks from exposure to noise;
(b) the organisational and technical measures taken in order to reduce noise exposures;
(c) the exposure limit values and upper and lower exposure action values;
(d) the significant findings of the risk assessment;
(e) the availability and provision of personal hearing protectors and their correct use;
(f) why and how to detect and report signs of hearing damage;
(g) the entitlement to health surveillance and its purposes;
( h) safe working practices to minimise exposure to noise; and
(i) the collective results of any health surveillance undertaken.
At or above an upper exposure action value.
If any employee is likely to be exposed to noise at or above an upper exposure action value, the
employer must reduce exposure to as low a level as is reasonably practicable by establishing and
implementing:
a programme of organisational and technical measures, excluding the provision of personal hearing protectors, which is appropriate to the activity.
(a) other working methods which reduce exposure to noise;
(b) choice of appropriate work equipment emitting the least possible noise, taking account of the
work to be done;
(c) the design and layout of workplaces, work stations and rest facilities;
(d) suitable and sufficient information and training for employees, such that work equipment may
be used correctly, in order to minimise their exposure to noise;
(e) reduction of noise by technical means;
(f) appropriate maintenance programmes for work equipment, the workplace and workplace sys-

tems;
(g) limitation of the duration and intensity of exposure to noise; and
( h) appropriate work schedules with adequate rest periods.
The provision of hearing protectors is a last resort, to be used where the preferred methods of
reducing noise exposures are not reasonably practicable. Hearing protection zones must be
marked and employees must wear the protection provided when in the zones.
It is likely that the recommendations will be interpreted so that health surveillance, including
audiometric testing, should be provided for employees if daily exposures regularly exceed the
upper action values. Health surveillance is likely to be required even if hearing protection is worn,
to provide a check on the effectiveness of the protection.
At or above an exposure limit value.
The exposure limit values must never be exceeded. If a limit value is exceeded, the employer
must identify the reason and take steps to ensure that it cannot happen again.
Actions required
General - assessment of risk

3.4 The Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 (Cont'd).

Changes from earlier regulations
The Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 differ from the earlier Noise at Work Regulations
1989 in force in many ways. For example:

the threshold for providing hearing protection and training on noise and hearing is lowered
from 85 dB(A) LEP,d to 80 dB(A) LEP,d ;
the thresholds for introducing noise control is reduced from 90 dB(A) LEP,d to 85 dB(A)
LEP,d, and from 140 dB Lpeak to 137 dB(C) LCpeak
an exposure limit value for daily noise exposure is introduced (The Peak Action Level of
the Noise at Work Regulations was effectively a limit value);
weekly averaging of noise exposure is permitted when noise exposures vary from day to
day (previously an HSE derogation was needed);
more emphasis is placed on consultation between employers and employees and their
representatives;
there is a specific requirement for health surveillance and hearing testing where a risk is
identified;
the new regulations will apply in aircraft in flight over British soil.

The Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 provide more detail than given above and the
HSE has published detailed guidance on the regulations.

3.5 Measuring Noise Exposure in the Workplace

What should be measured?
When making measurements to estimate the noise exposure of a person at work, you need to
ascertain the equivalent continuous A-weighted sound pressure level ( L Aeq ) that represents the
noise to which the person is exposed during the working day. You also need to ascertain the
maximum C-weighted peak sound pressure level or levels to which the person is exposed.
The L Aeq is combined with the duration of exposure during a working day to ascertain the daily

personal noise exposure, L EP,d , using the formula defined in Schedule 1, Part 1, paragraph 1 to
the Noise Regulations.
In practice, it is common to break the working day into a number of discrete jobs or tasks and to
make sample measurements to determine a representative L Aeq for the job or task. The L Aeq for
each job or task is then combined with its duration during the working day to ascertain the L EP,d ,
using the formula defined in Schedule 1, Part 1, paragraph 2 to the Noise Regulations.
Electronic spreadsheets are available on the HSE website
(http://www.hse.gov.uk/noise/calculator.htm) which allow the calculation to be performed. A simple 'ready-reckoner' method for determining daily personal noise exposure using these measurement parameters is described in Part 2 to the Noise Regulations.

Alternatively: the "ready reckoner"

This uses the points system, described in L108.

You may also wish to make other types of measurements, such as the equivalent continuous Cweighted sound pressure level ( L Ceq ) or the L eq in octave frequency bands, for a job or task to
perform calculations to predict the performance of personal hearing protection.

3.6 Instruments
What do I use to measure noise?
The basic instrument for measuring noise is a sound level meter. A dosemeter (personal sound
exposure meter) worn by the employee can also be used. Dual-purpose instruments are also
available which can operate as both a sound level meter and a dosemeter. A calibrator to check
the meter and a windshield to protect the microphone against air movement and dirt are essential
accessories.
Other, more sophisticated, equipment such as data recorders, frequency analysers and sound
intensity analysers can be used for a more detailed assessment.

Sound level meters.

A Sound Level Meter will be able to display the instantaneous Sound Level in dB. This is usually
called SPL or Sound Level. This type of instrument can be used to perform simple checks but is
not sufficient to carry out a Noise at Work assessment or survey.
A basic sound level meter is suitable for the measurement of continuous or intermittent periods of
steady noise this type of meter is convenient for making spot checks or in order to see if a noise
problem exists.
Sound level meters measure sound pressure level and are commonly used in noise pollution
studies for the quantification of almost any noise, but especially for industrial, environmental and
aircraft noise. However, the reading given by a sound level meter does not correlate well to human-perceived loudness; for this, a loudness meter is needed. The current International standard
for sound level meter performance is IEC 61672:2003 and this requires the inclusion of an Afrequency-weighting filter and also describes other frequency weightings of C and Z (zero) frequency weightings. The older B and D frequency-weightings are now obsolete and are no longer
described in the standard.
In almost all countries, the use of A-frequency-weighting is required to be used for the protection

of workers against noise-induced deafness. The A-frequency curve was based on the historical
equal-loudness contours and while arguably, A-frequency-weighting is no longer the ideal frequency weighting on purely scientific grounds, it is nonetheless the legally-required standard for
almost all such measurements and has the huge practical advantage that old data can be compared with new measurements. It is for these reasons that A-frequency-weighting is the only
weighting mandated by the international standard, the frequency weightings 'C' and 'Z' being optional fitments.
Originally, the A-frequency-weighting was only meant for quiet sounds in the region of 40 dB
sound pressure level (SPL), but is now required for all levels. C-frequency-weighting however is
still used in the measurement of the peak value of a noise in some legislation, but B-frequencyweighting - a half-way house between 'A' and 'C' has almost no practical use. D-frequencyweighting was designed for use in measuring aircraft noise, when non-bypass jets were being
measured and after the demise of Concord, these are all military types. For all civil aircraft noise
measurements A-frequency-weighting is used as is mandated by the ISO and ICOA standards.
The standard sound level meter is more correctly called an exponentially averaging sound level
meter as the AC signal from the microphone is converted to DC by a root-mean-square (RMS)
circuit and thus it must have a time-constant of integration; today referred to as time-weighting.
Three of these time-weightings have been standardised, 'S' (1s) originally called Slow, 'F' (125
ms) originally called Fast and 'I' (35 ms) originally called Impulse. Their names were changed in
the 1980s to be the same in any language. I-time-weighting is no longer in the body of the standard because it has little real correlation with the impulsive character of noise events.
The output of the RMS circuit is linear in voltage and is passed through a logarithmic circuit to
give a readout linear in decibels (dB). This is 20 times the base 10 logarithm of the ratio of a
given root-mean-square sound pressure to the reference sound pressure. Root-mean-square
sound pressure being obtained with a standard frequency weighting and standard time weighting.
The reference pressure is set by International agreement to be 20 micropascals for airborne
sound. It follows that the decibel is in a sense not a unit, it is simply a dimensionless ratio-in this
case the ratio of two pressures.
An exponentially integrating sound level meter, giving as it does a snapshot of the current noise
level, is of limited use for hearing damage risk measurements and an integrating or integratingaveraging meter is usually mandated. An integrating meter simply integrates - or in other words
'sums' - the frequency-weighted noise to give sound exposure and the metric used is pressure
squared times time, often Pas, but Pah is also used. However, because sound was historically
described in decibels, the exposure is most often described in terms of sound exposure level
(SEL), the logarithmic conversion of sound exposure into decibels.
Sound exposure level - in decibel - is not much used in industrial noise measurement. Instead,
the time-averaged value is used. This is the time average sound level or, as it is usually called,
the 'equivalent continuous sound level' has the formal symbol LAT as described in paragraph 3,9
"Definitions" of IEC 61672 -1 where many correct formal symbols and their common abbreviations are given. These mainly, follow the formal ISO acoustic definitions qv. However, for mainly
historical reasons, LAT is commonly referred to as Leq.
Formally, LAT is 20 times the base 10 logarithm of the ratio of a root-mean-square A-weighted
sound pressure during a stated time interval to the reference sound pressure and there is no time
constant involved. To measure LAT, an integrating-averaging meter is needed; this in concept
takes the sound exposure, divides it by time and then takes the logarithm of the result.
An important variant of overall LAT is "short Leq", where very short Leq values are taken in succession, say at 1/8 second intervals, each being stored in a digital memory. These data elements
can either be transmitted to another unit or be recovered from the memory and re-constituted into
almost any conventional metric, long after the data has been acquired. This can be done using
either dedicated programs or standard spreadsheets. Short Leq has the advantage that as regulations change, old data can be re-processed to check if a new regulation is met. It also permits
data to be converted from one metric to another in some cases. Today, almost all fixed airport
noise monitoring systems, which are in concept just complex sound level meters, use short Leq

as their metric, as a steady stream of the digital one second Leq values can be transmitted via
telephone lines or the Internet to a central display and processing unit. Short Leq is a feature of
most commercial integrating sound level meters - although some manufacturers give it many different names.
Short Leq is a very valuable method for acoustic data storage; initially, a concept of the French
Government's Laboratoire National d'Essais (ref 1), it has now become the most common method
of storing and displaying a true Time History of the noise in professional commercial sound level
meters. The alternative method which is to generate a Time History by storing and displaying
samples of exponential sound level has too many artifacts of the sound level meter to be as valuable and such sampled data cannot be readily combined to form an overall set of data.
Until 2003, there were separate standards for exponential and linear integrating sound level meters, (IEC 60651 and IEC 60804-both now withdrawn), but since then, the combined standard
IEC 61672 has described both types of meter. For short Leq to be valuable the manufacturer
must ensure that each separate Leq element fully complies with IEC 61672.
A common variant of the sound level meter is a noise dosemeter (dosimeter in American English). However, this is now formally known as a personal sound exposure meter (PSEM) and has
its own International standard IEC 61252:1993.

Personal sound exposure meters (Dosemeters)

Where a person is highly mobile or working in places where access for the measurement is difficult, a dosemeter is an alternative means of measuring a person's noise exposure.
Dosemeters indicate the total noise dose received over the measurement period. Modern dosemeters commonly indicate the L Acq over the measurement period. Some meters indicate the
dose in units of Pascal squared hours (Pa 2.h)* or as a percentage of a given L EP,d (usually 85
or 90 dB). Meters are required to provide a means of converting the reading to Pa2.h if this is not
directly indicated on the meter.
In the case where the meter indicates the dose as a percentage of an L EP,d there may be an
assumption that the measurement period corresponds to the whole working day, or there may be
the ability to key in a value for the length of day so that the instrument can make the calculation.
You should make sure you understand how the L EP,d shown by the meter is calculated.
Many dosemeters have additional features. Those which record how the sound pressure level
varies with time throughout the measurement (a logging dosemeter) can be useful to show when
and where high noise exposures occur.
All dosemeter measurements should be made with a 3 dB exchange rate (sometimes called the
doubling rate).
People wearing dosemeters should be instructed not to interfere with the instrument or microphone during the course of the measurements. They should also be instructed not to speak more
than is necessary during the course of the measurement, since a person's own voice should not
be included in an assessment of their daily personal noise exposure.
The dosemeter should, as has been mentioned above, meet the requirements of IEC
61252:1993. Dosemeters have no type or class number.
Personal noise meters (dosimeters) are used for when the operator is mobile, and will measure
the operator noise exposure over the working day. The equipment consists of small amplification
and recording unit attached to a pocket and a microphone attached to the operators collar. More
sophisticated meters can have data downloaded so that the time of noise exposure occurance
can be monitored and examined.
This is normally intended to be a body-worn instrument and thus has a relaxed technical requirement, as a body-worn instrument - because of the presence of the body - has a poorer overall
acoustic performance. A PSEM gives a read-out based on sound exposure, usually Pah, and

the older 'classic' dosimeters giving the metric of 'percentage dose' are no longer used in most
countries. The problem with "%dose" is that is relates to the political situation and thus any device
can become obsolete if the "100%" value is changed by local laws. Today, one of the most common devices in use is a miniature PSEM called by many manufacturers a 'dosebadge', or some
similar name, as it is so small and light that it somewhat resembles a radiation badge. These tiny
devices have the three advantages that not only do they not affect the sound field, but they are so
small that they do not interfere with the worker in any way and his work pattern does not change;
as well, having no microphone cable, they should have a lower risk of failure, by the cable catching on machinery.
Most national regulations also call for the absolute peak value to be measured to protect workers
hearing against sudden large pressure peaks, using either 'C' or 'Z' frequency weighting. 'Peak
sound pressure level' should not be confused with 'MAX sound pressure level'. 'Max sound pressure level' is simply the highest reading a conventional sound level meter gives over a stated period and can be many decibel less than the peak value. In the European Union the maximum
permitted value of the peak sound level is 140 dB(C) and this equates to 200 Pa pressure. The
symbol for the A-frequency and S-time weighted maximum sound level is LASmax. For the Cfrequency weighted peak it is LCpk.
Sound level meters are divided into two classes-what were called 'types' in previous standards.
The two classes have the same design centre goals but the tolerances differ. Class 1 instruments
have a wider frequency range and a tighter tolerance than a similar, lower cost, Class 2 unit. This
applies to both the sound level meter itself as well as the associated calibrator. Most national
standards permit the use of "at least a Class 2 instrument" and for many measurements, there is
little practical point in using a Class 1 unit; these are best employed for research and law enforcement. New in the standard IEC 61672 is a minimum 60 dB linear span requirement and Zfrequency-weighting, with a general tightening of limit tolerances, as well as the inclusion of
measurement uncertainty in the testing regime. This makes is unlikely that a sound level meter
designed to the older 60651 and 60804 standards will meet the requirements of IEC 61672 :
2003.
The following International standards define sound level meters, PSEM and associated devices.
Most countries National standards-except of course those of the USA-follow these very closely. In
many cases the equivalent European standard, agreed by the EU, is designated for example EN
61672 and the UK national standard then becomes BS. EN 61672.
IEC 61672 : 2003 "Electroacoustics - sound level meters"
IEC 61252 : 1993 "Electroacoustics - specifications for personal sound exposure meters"
IEC 60942 : 2003 "Electroacoustics - sound calibrators"
These International Standards were prepared by IEC technical committee 29:Electroacoustics, in
cooperation with the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML).
Also see
IEC 61260 : 1996 Octave and fractional Octave filters
IEC 61094 : 2000. Measurement microphones
Until 2003 there were separate standards for exponential and linear integrating sound level meters, but since then IEC 61672 has described both types. The classic exponential meter was
originally described in IEC 123 for 'industrial' meters followed by IEC 179 for 'precision' meters.
Both of these were replaced by IEC 651, later re-named IEC 60651, while the linear integrating
meters were initially described by IEC 804, later renamed IEC60804. Both IEC 60651 and 60804
included four accuracy classes, called "types". In IEC 61672 these were reduced to just two accuracy classes 1 and 2. These 'withdrawn' standards should no longer be used, especially for any
official purchasing requirements, as they have significantly poorer accuracy requirements than
IEC 61672.
The sound level meter should be an integrating sound level meter capable of measuring the basic
parameters described in paragraph 1 and, optionally, the parameters described in paragraph 5 to
the Noise Regulations.

This type of Sound Level Meter is sufficient to carry out a Noise at Work assessment provided the
instrument can also measure Peak levels. Peak is the maximum value reached by the sound
pressure at any instant during a measurement period in dB with 'C' frequency weighting.
Some Sound Level Meters may also have a Maximum Sound Level function. This is not the same
as Peak(C) and must not be used as an alternative.
Integrating sound level meter is a more sophisticated meter, capable of measuring varying noise
levels and adding them together (integrating) to give an average value for the measurement period. These meters can be set to `A weighting i.e. adjusted to the sensitivity of the human ear.
These measurements are called Leq and from the Leqs the Lep'd can be calculated which is the
daily exposure level over 8 hours and is the parameter used in the Noise at work Regulations for
determining operator exposure to noise. Another important feature is the Peak action level i.e. the
impulse sound and the meters can measure L peak.
These meters are used for more detailed surveys and are classified according to their accuracy,
with 0 being laboratory class and 3 being for field checks only. For noise surveys a class 1 or 2 is
usually used. For assessment of the noise level close to an individual the meter should be held
approximately 100cm from the operators ear.
More sophisticated instrument may provide other functions such as L EP,d , Octave Bands or Data
Logging.
An octave band integrating sound level meter is an integrated sound level meter capable of
measuring sound levels over different frequencies. This is important when looking at choosing ear
defenders which perform differently over the differing frequencies. Also, for when choosing proofing materials for noise enclosures/refuges.
Basic Principles of Operation.
A sound level meter is an instrument designed to respond to sound in approximately the same
way as the human ear and to give objective, reproducible measurements of sound pressure level.
There are many different sound measuring systems available. Although different in detail, each
system consists of a microphone, an processing section and a read-out unit.
The microphone converts the sound signal to an equivalent electrical signal. The most suitable
type of microphone for sound level meters is the condenser microphone, which combines precision with stability and reliability.
The electrical signal produced by the microphone is quite small and so it is amplified by a preamplifier before being processed.
Several different types of processing may be performed on the signal. The signal may pass
through a weighting network. It is relatively simple to build an electronic circuit whose sensitivity
varies with frequency in the same way as the human ear, thus simulating the equal loudness contours. This has resulted in three different internationally standardised characteristics termed the
"A", "B" and "C" weightings.
The "A" weighting network weights a signal in a manner which approximates to an inverted equal
loudness contour at low SPLs,
the "B" network corresponds to a contour at medium SPLs and
the "C" network to an equal loudness contour at high SPLs.
A specialised characteristic, the "D" weighting, has also been standardised for aircraft noise
measurements.

3.7 Calibrators

A sound calibrator should be used to check the meter each day, before and after making any
measurements. Calibrators give a tone at a specified sound pressure level and frequency for a
specified microphone type, using an appropriate adaptor. Make sure you have the right calibrator
with the right adaptor for your microphone.
Some meters have an internal electronic calibration. The internal calibration only checks the instrument's electronics and does not provide a check of the microphone. However, it can be a useful cross-check of the meter and calibrator.
Your calibrator should meet at least Class 2 of BS EN 60942:2003

Sound level meters should be calibrated in order to provide precise and accurate results. This is
best done by placing a portable acoustic calibrator, such as a sound level calibrator or a pistonphone, directly over the microphone. These calibrators provide a precisely defined sound pressure level to which the sound level meter can be adjusted. It is good measurement practice to
calibrate sound level meters immediately before and after each measurement session. If recordings are to be made of noise measurements, then the calibration signal should also be recorded to provide a reference level on playback.
Recalibration of the Sound Level Meter & Acoustic Calibrator.
The Sound Level Meter and Acoustic Calibrator must be returned to the manufacturer, or a suitable calibration laboratory, at least every 2 years to verify that they still meet the standards to
which they were designed.

3.8 Peak Sound Pressure Level

Peak sound pressure should be measured with a C-weighting applied. You should ensure when
measuring peak sound pressure that the correct frequency (weighting) is applied. Some sound
level meters include a T (impulse) response. This should not be used for any measurements relating to the requirements of these Regulations.
Periodic testing of instruments.
Both your meter and calibrator need to have been tested in the previous two years to ensure they
still meet the required standards. If your equipment is more than two years old, check you have a
test certificate confirming the performance of your meter and calibrator before you start your assessment.
Where should I measure and how should the measurements be made?
Where?
When measuring to estimate a person's noise exposure, make measurements at every location in
which they work or through which they pass during the working day, and note the time spent at
each location. It is generally not necessary to record exposures to sound pressure levels below
75 dB, since such exposures are unlikely to be significant in relation to the daily noise exposure
action levels.
Measurements should be made at the position occupied by the person's head, preferably with the
person not present. Operators may need to be present while the measurements are made, e.g. to
control a machine or process. Measurements should be made with the microphone positioned
close enough to the operator's head to obtain a reliable measure of the noise to which they are
exposed, but preferably not so close that reflections cause errors. The results are unlikely to be
significantly affected by reflected sound if the microphone is kept at least 15 cm away from an
operator. The microphone should be placed on the side of the head where the noise levels are

higher.

Making measurements with a level

meter

Recommended position for a handheld sound dosemeter microphone

To avoid making large numbers of measurements, e.g. where the sound pressure level is changing, or if the person is moving within a noisy area, you may wish to assume the worst case and
measure at the noisiest location, or during the loudest periods. Alternatively, carrying out a spatial-average measurement by following the movement of the worker may provide a representative
measure of the noise exposure.
If you are using a dosemeter to measure a person's noise exposure, position the microphone on
the shoulder (ideally on the shoulder joint) and prevent it touching the neck, rubbing on or being
covered by clothing or protective equipment. If the dosemeter body is connected to the microphone by a flexible cable, place the meter securely in a pocket or on a belt where it can be safe
from damage during the measurement.

3.9 How Long to Measure?

The noise level to which an individual employee is exposed will normally change throughout the
day because, for example, different jobs might be done and different machines or materials might
be used at different times. You must take enough noise measurements to account for all these
changes, recording the sound level and the person's exposure duration at each noise level.
With a sound level meter, you need to measure at each position or during each job or task, long
enough to obtain a representative measurement of the level to which the person is exposed. You
may need to measure the L Aeq for the entire period but a shorter measurement can be sufficient.
In general:

if the noise is steady, a short sample L Aeq measurement may be enough;

if the noise is changing, wait for the L Aeq reading to settle to within 1 dB;
if the noise is from a cyclic operation measure the L Aeq over a whole number of cycles.

(Steady noise)

(Cyclic noise)

(Random noise)

The above shows representative measurement durations for different types of noise
The time required depends on the nature of the work and the characteristics of the noise. You
should ensure, by observation of the work, that your measurement covers all significant noise
during the job or task. In particular, it is important to make sure that any short-duration, high-level
noise exposures are included in the measurement, since these can have a significant impact on
the true L Aeq .
Noise dosemeters are designed to operate for long periods. They are ideal for measurements
over an entire shift, or for a period of several hours during a shift. If you measure over part of a
shift, make sure the period of your measurement covers all significant noise exposure, so as to
be typical of the working day, so that you can reliably predict the full daily exposure. Avoid very
short measurements which can be inaccurate due to the limited resolution of the dosemeter's
display. Also, make sure that the dose reading relates to actual true noise exposure, not false input from unrepresentative noise sources when the meter is not supervised, e.g. artificial bangs,

whistling, blowing and tampering with the microphone.

Sample measurements for a group.
If several workers work in the same area, you may be able to estimate the exposure for them all
from measurements in selected locations. When making the measurements, choose the locations
and times spent in each place so that you determine the highest exposure that someone is likely
to receive.
Mobile workers and highly variable daily exposures.
For some jobs (such as maintenance), the work and the noise exposure will vary from day to day
so there is no typical daily exposure. For people in these jobs, measurements need to be made of
the range of activities undertaken, possibly over several days. From these measurements, the
likely daily exposure for a nominal day or days should be estimated.
Measurements close to the ear.
Measurements of noise very close to the ear, such as sound from a communication headset, or
under a motorcycle helmet, require specialist equipment and procedures.

3.10 Sources of Error and Other Factors Influencing the Measurement Result

Sources of error should, as far as possible, be avoided. To reduce errors, it is important to distinguish between sources of error and natural variables. The major factors influencing the result are
listed in Table 3.1.
Factor

Treatment

Impacts on microphone/cable

Error

Wind-induced noise

Error

Reflection from body to microphone Error

Noise from PA systems, radio etc

Include in measurement

Speech (subject's own)

Aim to exclude from measurement

Speech (other people)

Include in measurement

Variations in local sound level

Natural variable

Noise from hand-held tools

Natural variable

Close-to-ear noise level

Natural variable

Duration of each operation

Natural variable

Table 3.1 Factors contributing to the measurement result

The relevant variables should be revealed during an analysis of the work under consideration and
during measurements. If significant contribution from sources of error is detected, the measurements should be rejected or corrected.
The measured noise exposure and the uncertainty in the result depend on the measurement
method used. A dosemeter tends to increase the potential false contributions to measurements
and thereby the measured sound pressure level.
However, using a hand-held sound-level meter may lead to an underestimation of the worker's
noise exposure. This is particularly connected to the difficulty in assessing the contribution from
close-to-ear sound levels and noise from hand-held tools.

3.11 Using the Results From Dosemeter Readings

As described in paragraphs 11-12, noise dosemeters may give results in terms of Pa2.h, or as a
percentage dose where 100% can correspond to an L EP,d of 85 or 90 dB.
Some dosemeters will give a result simply as an estimate of L EP,d. This result will assume that the
measurement period corresponds to the full working day; if this is not the case for your measurements, you will need to obtain the result from the dosemeter in terms of Pa2. h, percentage dose
or L Aeq to determine your L EP,d.
If the dose is given in Pa2.h, multiply the dose by 100 to obtain the 'noise exposure points' (see
Part 2 to the Noise Regulations ) for that dose.
If the dose is given as a percentage, then:
if 100% corresponds to an L EP,d of 85 dB, the 'noise exposure points' is the same as the percentage dose value;
if 100% corresponds to an L EP,d of 90 dB, multiply the percentage dose by 3.2 to obtain the
'noise exposure points' for that dose.

If the measurement period covers only part of the working day or of the exposure to noise, but is
representative of the whole day or exposure, you can apply a multiplying factor to the exposure
points calculated above to obtain the points for the exposure. The multiplying factor is:
Duration of exposure
______________________
Duration of measurement

Using results of dosemeter measurements - Worked example

An employee wears a dosemeter for 2 hours between breaks and the recorded dose is 1.3
Pa2.h.
The noise during the measurement period was typical for that work, but the employee is normally
exposed to this noise for 6 hours per day.
Step 1 Multiply Pa2. h value by 100 to obtain noise exposure points for that dose:
1.3 x 100 = 130 points.
Step 2 To obtain noise exposure points for the normal duration of exposure, multiply by exposure
duration/measurement duration (6/2):
130 x 6/ = 312 points.
Result This task contributes 312 points to daily personal noise exposure.

3.12 Accounting For the Contribution of Peak Noises to Daily Exposure

Where events such as impacts or impulses occur during the normal working day as part of the
typical noise emission from a machine or process, they will contribute to a measurement of L Aeq ,
as long as they have not been specifically excluded and the instrumentation used has sufficient
dynamic range. There may be circumstances when it is necessary or desirable to assess, separately, the contribution of these events to a person's daily exposure. This can be achieved in two
ways: measuring the sound exposure level ( L AE ) for a single or known number of events or
measuring the L Aeq over a known period which contains a single or known number of events.
It is important to ensure, if assessing the noise in this way, that you do not inadvertently account
for the contribution from these events twice. You should make sure that the general assessment
of noise exposure excludes the contribution from the events.
Assessing the contribution of events from sound exposure level ( L AE ) measurements
The contribution to daily personal noise exposure from events such as impacts and impulses may
be determined from a measurement of L AE containing a known number of events, as long as the
likely number of events per day is known.
The following equation may be used to determine the number of exposure points (EP) resulting
from the events.

where:
n is the number of events during the day; and
m is the number of events during the measurement.

Worked example of L AE calculation

Proof firings are carried out of four shotgun cartridges. The sound exposure level L AE is 122 dB.
The operator would fire 20 cartridges per day.
Step 1 Substitute the following values into the equation:
n = 20
m=4
L AE = 122
Step 2 Calculate the exposure points

Result The 20 firings contribute 87 points to the daily personal noise exposure of the operator.
Add these noise exposure points to those from other noise exposures during day and determine
total exposure as described in Part 2 to the Noise Regulations .
Assessing contribution of events from L Aeq measurement

The contribution to daily personal noise exposure from events such as impacts and impulses may
be determined from a measurement of LAcq over a known period containing a known number of
events, provided the likely number of events per day is known.
The following equation may be used to determine the number of exposure points (EP) resulting
from the events.
where:
T e is the duration of the measurement, in seconds; n is the number of events during the day; and
m is the number of events during the measurement.

Worked example of L Aeq calculation

A gamekeeper was exposed to noise when firing his rifle. Measurements were made at the side
of his head with a sound level meter. The L Aeq measured over a 30 second period when 3 shots
were fired was 111 dB. During a day he would normally fire up to 25 shots.
Step 1 Substitute the following values into the equation:
n = 25
m=3
L Aeq = 111
Te = 30
Step 2 Calculate exposure points

Result The 25 firings contribute 345 points to the daily personal noise exposure of the gamekeeper. Add these noise exposure points to those from other noise exposures during day, and
determine total exposure as described in Part 2 to the Noise Regulations .

3.13 Measurements of Noise Very Close to the Ear

When a person is receiving significant noise exposure from sources close to the ear, such as
communication headsets or earpieces, or they are wearing helmets, which cover the ear such as
shot-blasting helmets or motorcycle helmets, special measurement techniques are required. The
methods used are very different from those elsewhere in this unit where a measurement is made
sufficiently far from the head of the exposed person to avoid the disturbed sound field. Measurements very close to the ear are complex and should only be carried out by those with the necessary expertise.
There are two techniques for measurements at the ear, a microphone in real ear technique
(MIRE) and a manikin technique. MIRE measurements should be performed according to BS EN
ISO 11904-1:2002. Measurements using the manikin technique should be performed according
to BS EN ISO 11904-2:2004.23
MIRE technique.
This technique is suitable where the sound source itself is not in or near to the ear canal. A miniature or probe microphone is positioned at (or near to) the entrance to the ear canal of the exposed person. During the measurement, the sound source should not be displaced from its normal position by the microphone or any measurement accessories. Care also needs to be taken
fixing the microphone so it remains in the intended position throughout the measurement and
does not come into direct contact with the sound source.
BS EN ISO 11904-1:2002 also describes measurements at the eardrum. This guidance does not
recommend insertion of a microphone or probe beyond the ear canal entrance.
To assess the exposure using criteria applicable to the undisturbed sound field, the level measured at the ear is converted to the equivalent free or diffuse field level. This procedure requires
analysis of the sound level at the ear into third octave frequency bands; the third octave band
levels are then corrected for the frequency response of the microphone and the measurement
position. BS EN ISO 11904-1:2002 gives the frequency response of selected measurement positions and also a method for measurement of the microphone and measurement position frequency response. Use of a frequency response from the standard is recommended when the
measurement is made at the ear canal entrance.
Manikin technique.
This technique uses a manikin (sometimes called a head and torso simulator or HATS) fitted with
a standard realistic artificial ear. The sound level is measured at the position of the eardrum on
the artificial ear. This method allows measurement of sources inserted into the ear canal such as
earphones. Care is required with this method to ensure that the source makes contact with the
manikin pinna in the same way as on a real ear. Manikin measurements are most suited to laboratory measurements or work activities involving passive listening.
The manikin should meet the requirements of clauses 3.4 and 4 in IEC/TR 60959:1990 or the
equivalent US standard ANSI S3.36:1985 .25 As with the MIRE technique, the sound level in the
ear is measured in one-third octave bands or narrower bands, and corrected for the manikin frequency response to give the equivalent diffuse or free field level.
To obtain the equivalent A-weighted level in a free or diffuse sound field, the corrected third octave band levels must be weighted and summed. If un-weighted fractional octave band levels
have been measured, calculate the A-weighted level in each band by adding the corresponding
A-weighting factors. The A-weighted third octave band levels are then summed to give the overall
level.

3.14 Standards For the Performance and Testing of Noise Measurement Instruments
The performance of sound level meters, noise dosemeters and sound calibrators is specified by

British, European and International standards. Current standards have been produced through
the International Electrotechnical Commission and then adopted as European and British Standards. The standards organisations each publish the same standards with the letters BS EN, EN,
or IEC prefixing the number according to the publishing organisation. The date following the
standard number is when the edition of the standard was adopted by the organisation.
New instruments used for noise measurements should meet the current BS EN standards. Instrument standards are subject to review and change, so when you buy new instruments, you
should ensure they comply with the latest standard. The standards for sound level meters, dosemeters and sound calibrators current at the time of writing are in column 2 of Table 3.2.
Older instruments are not invalidated when standards are superseded. Older instruments that
meet the superseded standards in column 3 of Table 3.2 are also suitable for workplace noise
measurements. Instruments meeting a current standard listed in Table 3.2 may also be used for
measurements after the standard is superseded.
Sound level meters and sound calibrators are specified to different grades of accuracy. The lower
the grading class or type number, the tighter the tolerances placed on the meter's specifications.
To maintain the specified tolerances of a sound level meter, the sound calibrator class number
should be equal to, or numerically lower than, the class or type number of the meter. All grades of
sound level meter are suitable for workplace noise measurements except for Type 3.
Periodic verification.
The standard procedures for periodic verification of instruments originally manufactured to the
instrument standards listed in Table 3.2 are as follows:
Sound level meters meeting BS EN 61672-1:2003.
Sound level meters meeting BS EN 60804. Test to BS 7580:1997 parts 1 or 2 as appropriate.
Dosemeters. Procedure included in BS EN 61252:1997.20
Calibrators. Verification procedures are included in all versions of BS EN 60942.21
Using the standard verification procedures, meters and sound calibrators must be tested at least
every two years and after any repair likely to affect the performance, to ensure they still meet the
standards.
Table 3.2 Current and superseded standards specifying sound level meters, dosemeters and
sound calibrators
Instrument type

Current standards

Superseded standards

BS EN 60804:2001
Integrating sound level me- BS EN 61672-1:2003
ter
Also published as IEC 61672- BS 6698:1986
1:2002
IEC 804:1985
Dosemeter

BS EN 61252:1997
Also published as IEC
61252:1993
(Previously numbered as IEC
1252:1993 and BS 6402:1994)

Sound calibrator

BS EN 60942:2003

BS EN 60942:1998

Also published as IEC

60942:2003

IEC 60942:1997

3.15 Use of Frequency Analysis

Apart from measuring the total dose of noise, it is possible to measure the contribution of each
frequency. This requires an attachment to the meter that effectively filters out the required frequency. A noise assessment under the Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 does not require frequency analysis. However, the identification of the frequency composition of a noise is
important in the selection of hearing protection (e.g. some hearing protectors are more effective
at high frequencies) and in identifying noise control measures, e.g. the structural materials used
in a noise enclosure.
Frequency analysis is typically done for so-called octave band centre frequencies - 63.5, 125,
250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000 Hz. It is then called Octave band analysis).Note: increasing by
an octave = doubling the frequency each time.

3.16 Background Noise

The calculations we have described for combining sound levels have a particular practical application when trying to estimate noise levels from specific plant, or equipment located in a generally
noisy environment. The total noise level existing in any location will be made up of noise from a
number of different sources, including noise from plant and process equipment as well as background noise that may continue to be generated even when specific items of plant are turned off.
Thus any noise measurements carried out with plant operating will include any background noise.
If the background noise level is similar to the plant noise level, this will enhance the plant noise
measurements by approximately 3 dB. However, if the background noise level is >10 dB below
the plant noise level, the measured level will be solely due to the plant and there will be no significant measurable contribution from background noise.
In practice the measurements that we are able to make are the total noise level in the workplace
and the background noise level when plant and equipment is turned off. The method of using this
data to estimate the noise generated by the plant and equipment only is shown in the following
example.
Total noise level (plant plus background noise) = 85 dB Background noise (plant turned off) = 81
dB
If the plant noise level was the same as the background noise level, the total noise level measured would be:
81 + 3 = 84 dB (add 3 dB for a doubling of noise level).
Consequently, the plant noise level must be slightly higher than the background and a reasonable
first estimate might be, say, 83 dB.
If this figure is used in the calculation for addition of noise levels, we obtain:
Background noise level (measured) = 81 dB
Plant noise level (estimated) = 83 dB
Addition (using figures in the Addition of Sound Levels table earlier) of 81 and 83 (2 difference,
therefore add 2 to higher level) gives 83 + 2 = 85.
This corresponds with the measured value for the total noise level, confirming our original estimate for plant noise level of 83 dB.

3.17 Noise Surveys

The noise survey is an essential component of the assessment that is required by the Control of
Noise at Work Regulations 2005 and brings together much of the methodology that we have al-

ready considered.
Some Basic Rules.
Let us look at some basic rules to follow when making sound measurements using a portable
sound level meter.
1. Check applicable standards and rules for the proper measuring equipment and techniques.
2. Check that the batteries for the measuring instruments and the calibrator are sufficiently
charged and take along extra sets of good quality batteries. If instruments are to be stored for a
long time, the batteries should be removed.

3. Make sure that the instrument is properly calibrated. Use of an acoustic calibrator at the start
and end of each measurement session is recommended.
4. Make a sketch of the area and perform some orientation measurements before noting actual
values. Determine the kind of sound field you are working with and find the correct measuring positions.

5. If you are not sure about the exact source of sound being measured, the use of a set of headphones connected to the output of the sound level meter will help you identify the sound. This is
of course only possible if the SLM has an AC output.
6. If measuring in a free-field environment, point a free-field microphone (IEC) directly towards the
source. If using a random incidence microphone (ANSI) orient the microphone 70 - 80 from the
source.

7. If the sound comes from more than one direction, it is important to choose a microphone and
mounting which gives the best possible omnidirectional characteristics.
8. Decide which weighting network should be used. Normally this would be the "A" network, but
may depend on the standards you are using.

9. Select the correct detector response, "F" or "S" to get an accurate reading. If the sound is impulsive, an "Impulse Sound Level Meter" with "I" response should be used. If required, energy
measurements such as Leq and SEL should also be made.
10. When making sound measurements, hold the sound level meter at arms length or use a remote micro-phone. This will help to avoid both reflections from your body and also blocking of
sound from some directions.

11. During the measurement, remember to:

a. Keep away from reflecting surfaces.
b. Measure at a suitable distance from the noise source.
c. Check the background noise level.
d. Make sure that nothing obstructs the noise source.
e. Use a windshield.
f. Be careful not to accept readings if the meter is overloaded.

12. Keep a well-documented measurement report.

3.18 The Measurement Report

A very important part of sound measurements is careful documentation of the measurements and
results. A good measurement report should contain at least the following information:
1. A sketch of the measurement site showing applicable dimensions (e.g. size of room, machine
dimensions), the location of the microphone and object being measured.

2. Standard(s) to which measurements are made.

3. Type and serial number of instruments) used.
4. Method of calibration.
5. Weighting networks and detector responses used.
6. Description of type of sound (e.g. impulsive, continuous, tones etc.)
7. Background noise level.
8. Environmental conditions (e.g. type of sound field, atmospheric conditions).
9. Data on object being measured (e.g. machine type, load, speed etc.)
10. Date when measurements were performed.
With a carefully written report, future comparisons will be more accurate and reliable.
Noise Mapping

One of the first steps in a noise abatement programme will usually be to make a noise map. A
reasonably accurate sketch showing the relative positions of all machines and other items of interest is drawn. Sound level measurements are obtained at several positions around the area being investigated, and the positions are plotted on the sketch. Connecting lines are drawn between
points with equal sound levels, thus producing noise contours which indicate the sound distribution pattern; the more measurements, the more accurate the noise map.
A map of this kind will immediately show in which areas the noise levels are too high. This provides a starting point for planning the steps to be taken to protect the workers. When the necessary sound reduction measures have been made, new measurements will give a clear picture as
to what extent the noise patterns have been changed. A noise map could also be used to indicate
areas where the wearing of ear protection is obligatory.

3.19 Video: Noise Measurement

By kind permission of Cirrus research.
http://www.sheilds-elearning.co.uk/file.php/4/videos/EN%20WPSLM%20Assy%20v3.flv

4 Controls

Noise control - overview.

The control of noise to acceptable levels broadly follows the principles of the "hierarchy of control", the purpose of which is to reduce the noise exposure to acceptable levels.
Avoidance or elimination.
Whenever possible, the purchase of noisy or intrusive equipment must be avoided. Older equipment that generates unacceptable noise levels that cannot be reduced or controlled by other
means should be taken out of service.
Reduction by mechanical control.
Where noise from equipment is unavoidable then it should be possible to reduce it to acceptable
levels by:

correctly maintaining and setting equipment, which will substantially reduce noise levels;
enclosure of the equipment or parts thereof;
attenuation, damping and baffling applied to the area where equipment is located.

Personal protective equipment may still be required if engineering controls fail to reduce noise
levels.
Reduction of exposure by isolation.
For example siting noisy equipment in less-used or enclosed rooms or space. (Have caution;
some "solutions" may lead to other problems (e.g. siting a centrifuge or enclosing a noisy piece of
equipment may cause over-heating problems)).
Reduction of exposure by out of hours use.
One option for reducing exposure is to use noise-generating equipment out of hours. Consideration will need to be given to contracted workers such as cleaners who may work outside the normal hours.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).
Should an assessment establish that noise levels reach the first action level (as defined in the
Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005), then suitable PPE must be provided.
The requirement is to provide ear protectors at the first action level. The selection and use of
suitable PPE must be established by assessing accurately the potential risks from a particular
source of noise. Equipment suppliers will be able to provide information on the wavelengths of
noise emitted by their equipment.
When selecting PPE it should be realised that ear protection devices are frequently designed to
attenuate specific wavelengths and are thus not suitable for all situations.
Guidance should be sought from suppliers prior to purchase. This is particularly important when
selecting ear protection for ultrasonic equipment.
Finally, ear protectors are personal items and must not be shared
Information and training.
Where noise is assessed as a potential risk, then those who could be affected should be informed of that risk and any steps that have been, or may be, taken to control either the level of
physical noise or their exposure time to the noise.
The use of warning posters is one way to increase awareness.
Those whose work will entail the use of physically noisy equipment should be trained in the precautions needed.
Monitoring.
Noise levels from equipment can change without individuals being aware that this has happened.
It is also important to be aware that exposure levels to noise can increase not only by an increase

in the physical noise emitted by a source but also by changes in working or experimental practices, resulting in greater exposure levels for the same physical output.
For this reason, it is important that all equipment identified as potential physical noise sources
and /or activities involving exposure to a constant noise source should be regularly monitored for
changes (increases) in either physical noise levels or time of exposure to constant levels of noise.

4.1 The Principles of Noise Reduction

The principles of noise reduction include:

transmission,
reflection,
absorption,
damping,
diffusion,
sound reduction indices,
sound absorption coefficients,
design specifications.

4.2 Transmission (Reduce the Transmission of Noise Before it Reaches the Worker).
The first step in the noise control process should be to attempt some form of source treatment. In
effect, source modification addresses the root cause of a noise problem, whereas control of the
sound transmission path with barriers and enclosures only treats the symptoms of noise.
Enclosure.
Placing a sound-proof cover over the source of noise.
Noisy machines can be enclosed fully, or a partial enclosure or an acoustic cover can be placed
around a noisy part of a machine. The diagram below outlines the features required of a typical
machine enclosure.

An efficient noise enclosure will provide:

a good-quality dense insulating barrier to stop the noise from escaping (steel, brick etc);
sound-absorbing material on the inside to reduce the reflections and therefore reduce the
build-up of noise in the enclosure;
double-glazed viewing windows;
good seals around openings - small leaks can dramatically reduce the effectiveness of the
enclosure;
self-closing devices on any doors;
absorbent-lined cooling ducts;
absorbent-lined inlets and outlets for materials and services.

CAUTION: Enclosing machinery is likely to increase the temperature of the air inside the enclosure. Always provide adequate ventilation and cooling.

4.3 Screens and Barriers

Placing an obstacle between the noise source and the people.

An alternative sound transmission path treatment is to use an acoustic barrier to block or shield
the receiver (the worker at risk of the noise hazard) from the direct sound path. An acoustic barrier is a high transmission loss material, such as a solid partition or wall, inserted between the
noise source and the receiver. By blocking the direct line-of-sight path to the source, the barrier
causes the sound waves to reach the receiver by reflection off various surfaces in the room, and
by diffraction at the edges of the barrier. As a result, the overall noise level is reduced at the receiver's location.
The effectiveness of a barrier is a function of its location relative to the noise source or receivers,
and of its overall dimensions. To maximize the potential noise reduction, the barrier should be
located as closely as practical to either the source or receiver.
Screens, barriers or walls can be placed between the source of the noise and the people to stop
or reduce the direct sound. Barriers should be constructed from a dense material, e.g. brick or
sheet steel, although chipboard and plasterboard can be used.

Moveable acoustic screen in an engineering workshop

Screens and barriers work best when they are placed close to the noise source, or close to the
people you are trying to protect. The higher and wider they are, the more effective they are likely
to be. They work best in rooms with either high or sound-absorbent ceilings.
Covering the barrier or screen with noise-absorbing material on the side facing the noise source
will have the added advantage of reducing the sound reflected back into that area containing the
noise source. Those workplaces which have already been treated with sound-absorbing material
will help to create conditions which will allow the screen or barrier to perform to its maximum potential, since in these cases the direct noise is likely to be the dominant source.

Example of construction of a hanging, flexible acoustic barrier

CAUTION: Be aware of the following when using screens or barriers:

Screens and barriers may not work well for low frequencies.
They are best at reducing the direct noise, and may not affect reflected noise.
Always place the screen or barrier as close to the noise source or employee position as
possible.
The screen or barrier should be made of a dense material, and should be lined with absorptive material facing the noise source.
Always consider other health and safety risks, such as safe movement of people and vehicles, when placing barriers in the workplace.

4.4 Refuges
Noise-reduced enclosures for people.
Noise refuges can be a practical solution in situations where noise control is very difficult, or
where only occasional attendance in noisy areas is necessary. The design of refuges will be similar to that of acoustic enclosures, although since the purpose is to keep noise out rather than in,
lining the inner surfaces with acoustic absorbent material will not be necessary.
If machine controls are brought into the refuge, and thought is given to allowing remote monitoring or viewing of machinery and processes, it should be possible to minimise the amount of time
that workers have to spend outside the refuge - so maximising the benefit of having the refuge.

For example, a refuge that is used for only half a shift will achieve no more than 3 dB reduction in
noise exposure.
Refuges must be acceptable to employees. This means they must be of a reasonable size, well-lit
and ventilated and have good ergonomic seating.

A noise refuge and control room.

CAUTION: Check your refuge design for:

adequate ventilation;
good door and window seals;
self-closing doors;
dense construction materials, with plenty of acoustically double-glazed windows;
isolation from the floor to reduce structure vibrations;
size - is it large enough?

4.5 Transmission Loss (Tl).

This is a figure which rates the ability of a material to block sound. It is usually measured in 1/3
octave band intervals. Mathematically, it is defined as the ratio of the sound energy transmitted
through a material to the sound energy incident on the material.
The Transmission Loss (TL) of a material is measured by mounting a sample of the material in an
opening of a wall separating two reverberant test rooms. Broadband noise is played in one room
(source). The difference between the sound levels in the source room and the other (receiving)
room is defined as the Noise Reduction (NR). As the frequency and/or density increases, the
Transmission Loss also increases. The density of the material is directly related to Transmission
Loss.

4.6 Reflection
When a wall is struck by sound, only a small portion of the sound is transmitted through the wall,
while most of it is reflected. The wall's ability to block transmission is indicated by its transmission
loss (TL).

Part of the sound that strikes a wall is reflected, part is absorbed, and part is transmitted
Sound-absorbing material (next topic) reduces the reflections and therefore reduces the build-up
of noise reflecting.
The closer to reflecting surfaces a sound source is placed, the greater the noise it will radiate to a
given distance. The worst placement is in corners near three surfaces. The best placement is
away from the walls.
Example:
In an industrial shop, machines are placed in four rows with three aisles between them. This arrangement increases the noise from the machines in the two outermost rows.

Control measure:
The machines are placed together, two by two, away from the walls and new aisles are set up
along the walls.

4.7 Absorption
Sound is absorbed when it strikes a porous material. Commercial sound-absorbing materials
usually absorb 70 percent or more of the sound that strikes them.
Thick, porous layers absorb both high and low frequency sound.
Porous material through which air can be pressed often makes a good sound absorbent. Examples of such materials include felt, foam rubber, foamed plastic, textile fibres and a number of sintered metals and ceramic materials. If the pores are closed, the absorption is slight. Thin porous
absorbent materials handle high tones. For good effects below 100 Hz, the thickness required
may become impractical. Low frequency absorption is improved with the aid of an air gap behind
the absorbant.
Principle.

Example:
A workshop with intense low-frequency noise is provided with absorbants that are effective for
low tones. One part of the shop contains space for hanging absorption baffles, which provide
good low-frequency absorption and are easily installed. A traverse leaves no room for baffles in
the other part of the shop. Instead, horizontal absorbant panels are installed above the traverse,
8 inches from the ceiling, to improve the low-frequency absorption.

4.8 Cover Layers With Large Perforations May Be Used Without Reducing Absorption
For a variety of reasons, a covering material may be needed to protect a porous absorbant. This
can be done without reducing the effectiveness of the absorbant if the cover material has a sufficient number of openings. The thicker the cover layer, the larger the number of perforations that
will be required.
Principle:

Example:
Sound-absorbing material is required on many wall and ceiling surfaces in a building. To provide
a more attractive environment, it is desirable to have many absorbants with different appearances.
Control measure:

One material is used on all surfaces with varying thicknesses. Different covering materials provide the desired variation in appearance.

4.9 Panels on Studs Absorb Low Frequencies

Thin panels, fastened to a system of studs, absorb low frequencies. The absorption is effective in
a narrow frequency range. This range is determined by the stiffness of the panels and the distance between the fastenings. If the panels are fastened to studs on a wall, the distance from the
wall also has an effect. A panel with large internal damping absorbs in a larger frequency range.
If a porous absorbing material is used at these low frequencies, it must be very thick.
Principle:

Example:
Low frequency resonance in an engine room produced a very loud hum near the walls and in the
centre of the room. When the revolution speed was significantly changed, the hum disappeared
completely.

Control measure:
The walls were coated with panels on studs to provide the greatest absorption in the range of the
loudest tone. In order for the absorbant to continue to function even in the case of slight deviations from the normal rotation speed, a layer with good internal damping was used, which provided a more extensive range with good sound absorption. As a result, the resonance and the
loud hum disappeared.

Sound shields may be combined with sound-absorbing ceilings

High frequency noise can be reduced by using a shield. The shield is more effective the taller it is,
and the closer it is placed to the source. The effect of a shield is considerably reduced if the ceiling is not sound-absorbent.
Principle:

4.10 Absorption Mufflers Are Effective Over A Broad Range of Frequencies

The simplest form of absorption muffler is a duct with sound-absorbing material on the walls. The
thicker the material, the lower the frequency that can be reduced. For higher frequencies, the
space between the absorbing walls must be made smaller. A large duct must therefore be subdivided into many smaller ones.

Principle

Example
If a very large frequency range is to be reduced, it is generally necessary to employ absorption
mufflers with thick and thin baffles.

Unused areas can be absorption chambers

The absorption chamber is a simple muffler. One section of the duct is made up of a room whose
walls are covered with a sound-absorbing material. When the sound is reflected against the
chamber walls, sound energy is absorbed. To prevent the direct passage of high frequency directed sound, the inlet and the outlet should not be located opposite one another. The greater the
chamber volume and the thicker the absorbant used, the lower the frequency at which the muffler
is effective.
Principle

Example
The shape of the absorption chamber is of little significance. Unused rooms can be simple converted to absorption chambers.

4.11 Damping
Adding material to reduce vibration and noise.
Damping involves adding material to reduce vibrations and the tendency of machine parts to
'ring'.
Vibrations in a machine may affect objects that are connected to it, which in turn vibrate and give
out noise. An example of this is where light steel panels are used to box in dangerous moving
parts. These panels are excited by vibrations in the machine, which in turn cause noise to be radiated. The flexibility of the panel should be assessed, and from that, a judgement can be made
as to whether adding damping materials to the vibrating panels might reduce the noise.
Different ways of applying damping include:

applying treatments to sheet metal, such as spray-on or magnetic surface coatings or

bonding two sheets together (e.g. a sheet of rubber bonded to a sheet of steel);
using materials such as sound-deadened steel with high damping capacity in the construction of machine casings;
attaching damping plates with bolts or spot welds to increase friction damping;
using secondary sheets of material (or lamination) to provide a degree of damping;
adding stiffness in the form of strengthening ribs to panels;
buying circular saw blades with a 'sandwich' damping layer, or having slots professionally
laser-cut into blades to reduce the vibrations.

Damping material applied to transport chutes in the food industry

Damping compound being applied to metal decking

CAUTION:

Check at regular intervals that the damping material is not becoming detached from the
machine.
Check if the damping material is deteriorating. If so, replace it.
Damping may only be effective for a limited range of noise frequencies.
Check you are using enough damping material.

Damping will only be effective if the following points are observed:

4.12 Diffusion.

This involves reflecting sound waves off convex or uneven surfaces.

It helps evenly distribute sound and so blends it.
It can eliminate sharp echoes.

4.13 Sound Reduction Indices (Sri).

In practice, trying to describe soundproofing and what the difference between the sound you hear
pre- and post-soundproofing is difficult, so it can be thought of using a different scale; this is
known as the sound reduction index scale. So looking at the table below, you might determine
where you are now on the scale. For example, you might be able to distinguish loud speech from
next door in your living room and this would equate to possibly -35db on the scale. Then by adding wall solution 1 to this, you might improve the situation by 13db, taking you to nearer 50db privacy level. Now loud speech or shouting could be heard with great difficulty.
Throughout this element, we talk in terms of noise control, which is not to be confused with a figure which is often quoted as the total overall soundproofing of the entire structure, postsoundproofing. In the soundproofing world, a new term, SRI, is used to describe the quality of
soundproofing materials. The greater the SRI, the greater the acoustic privacy that is achieved.
The chart below demonstrates how this acoustic privacy works in layman's terms.

So some wall solutions aim to increase the SRI number by 13db+ (depending on the thickness of
the board) on top of the original level of insulation (40-50 db), while some floor and ceiling solutions aim to increase SRI by around 17-20db on top of the original level of insulation (35 db).

4.14 Sound Absorption Coefficients

Sound-absorbing materials are used within rooms and enclosed working areas to reduce reflected sound and thereby to reduce the noise levels in the room, reduce or control reverberation,
and improve listening environments for speech and music. Common-sound absorbing materials

include acoustic ceiling tiles and soft furnishings and screens in offices and call centres. These
and/or more specialist sound-absorbing materials are used in cinemas, theatres, sound recording
and broadcast studios, factories, workshops, firing ranges, vehicles, etc.
The sound absorption properties of a material are quantified by its sound absorption coefficient.
The sound absorption coefficient of a material can have a value between 0 and 1, with 0 representing no absorption and total reflection, and 1 representing total absorption of all the incident
sound. The sound absorption coefficient varies with the frequency of sound.
The sound absorption properties of objects such as chairs or padded screens are quantified by
the equivalent sound absorption area. This is the area of a perfectly absorbing surface which
would absorb the same amount of incident sound as the real object.
There are two main ways of measuring sound absorption. One method involves the use of a reverberation room and is suitable for large objects, furniture, panels, etc. The other method involves the use of an impedance tube and is suitable for small samples.
Using a reverberation room to measure sound absorption.
The test method is defined in BS EN ISO 354:2003 Acoustics - Measurement of sound absorption
in a reverberation room. The method is used for testing plane absorbers i.e. flat areas of soundabsorptive material such as carpeting or acoustic tiling, or for testing discrete sound absorbers,
i.e. pads, baffles, chairs or free-standing screens.
The method requires a diffuse reverberant sound field in a reverberation room. The reverberation
time is measured in the empty room when the sound is switched off. The reverberation time is the
time taken for the sound level in the room to decay by 60 dB after the sound source has stopped.
The test specimen or test items are then placed in the room and the reverberation time is measured again. Because of the sound absorption, the reverberation time is now shorter. From these
two reverberation times, the equivalent sound absorption area of the test specimen, AT, is calculated by using Sabine's equation.
In the case of a test specimen that uniformly covers a surface (a plane absorber or a specified
array of test objects), the sound absorption coefficient is obtained by dividing AT by the treated
surface area S.
When the test specimen comprises several identical objects, the equivalent sound absorption
area Aobj of an individual object is found by dividing AT by the number of objects, n; Aobj = AT/n
Plane absorbers.
The specimen supplied for testing should have an area between 14.5 m2 and 17.4 m2. The test
specimen should be rectangular with a ratio of width to length of between 0.7 and 1. No part of
the tests specimen should be closer than 1 metre to any edge of the room and preferably with the
edges of the specimen not parallel to the edges of the room.
The test specimen is placed directly against a room surface, usually the floor. The perimeter edge
of the test specimen is sealed or covered to prevent the edges from absorbing sound. If the
edges of the test specimen are exposed when the material is normally installed in an actual application, then the edges of the test specimen are left uncovered. The perimeter edges of the test
specimen may be sealed with an acoustically reflective frame made of steel, gypsum board or
wood. The frame is tightly butted to the specimen to ensure there is no air gap between it and the
test specimen. If two or more pieces of material are butted together to form the test specimen, it
may be necessary to cover the joints between the adjacent pieces with tape, caulking compound,
or other material that is not absorbing. This will prevent the side edges from absorbing sound.
Discrete sound absorbers.
Discrete objects (e.g. chairs, free-standing screens or persons) are installed for the test in the
same manner as they are installed in practice. A test specimen comprises a sufficient number of
individual objects (in general, at least three) to provide a measurable change in the equivalent
sound absorption area of the room. Objects normally treated as individual objects are arranged
randomly, spaced at least 2 metres apart and at least 1 metre from any room edge.

The two-microphone transfer-function (impedance tube) method.

The two-microphone transfer-function (impedance tube) method is described in BS EN ISO
10534-2:2001 Acoustics. Determination of sound absorption coefficient and impedance in impedance tubes. Transfer-function method and in ASTM E1050-98 Standard Test Method for Impedance and Absorption of Acoustical Materials Using a Tube, Two Microphones, and a Digital Frequency Analysis System
This method is designed for measurements of absorption coefficient and specific acoustic impedance of small samples of circular-cut sound absorbing materials, normally in the frequency range
150 Hz to 6000 Hz.
A loudspeaker is mounted at one end of an impedance tube and a small sample of the material is
placed at the other end. The loudspeaker generates broadband, stationary random sound waves.
These propagate as plane waves in the tube, hit the sample and are reflected resulting in a
standing wave interference pattern. The sound pressure at two or more locations is measured
and the complex transfer function calculated. It is then possible to determine the complex reflection coefficient, the sound absorption coefficient and the normal acoustic impedance of the material.
Two different diameter tubes are used to cover the full frequency range. A 100 mm diameter tube
is used to cover measurements over the frequency range 150 Hz to 1600 Hz, and a 30 mm diameter tube is used to cover measurements in the frequency range 1200 Hz to 6000 Hz.

4.15 Design Specifications

Low-noise machines
Selection of low-noise tools and machinery through a positive purchasing and hire policy can
avoid the need to apply retrofit noise control. This could be the single most cost-effective, longterm measure you can take to reduce noise at work.
Your positive noise-reduction purchasing policy could involve:

preparing a machine specification. Draw your suppliers' attention to the requirements of

the Supply of Machinery (Safety) Regulations 1992 (as amended) (see Part 4).
introduce your own company noise limit, i.e. a realistic low-noise emission level that you
are prepared to accept from incoming plant and equipment given your circumstances and
planned machine use;
comparing the noise information declared by the manufacturer to identify low-noise machines;
requiring a statement from all companies who are tendering or supplying, saying if their
machinery will meet your company noise limit specification;
discussing noise issues with the supplier of the machine. This may influence the design of
future low-noise machines;
where it is necessary to purchase noisy machinery, keeping a record of the reasons for
decisions made to help with the preparation of future machine
specifications with information on where improvements are necessary;
design an agreed format for the presentation of results by suppliers;
discussing your machinery needs and noise emission levels with your safety or employee
representatives(s).

4.16 Machine design

Change the total or partial design of a machine, component or process.

Machines and processes can be re-designed to generate less noise. This is something you could
consider for existing machinery; new machinery should already be designed to produce as little
noise as possible. Changes to the design of machines are likely to require some specialist advice
from noise control engineers.
Air turbulence noise.
When any rotating part such as a fan blade or a woodworking cutter block passes close to a stationary part of the machine, noise is produced. If the distance between the rotating part and the
stationary part is increased, the noise level will be reduced. Also, if cutter blocks are fitted which
have helical blades, the smooth transition of the curved cutting edge next to the stationary table
instead of the abrupt impact of a normal blade will reduce the noise considerably.
CAUTION: Gaps between stationary and rotating parts of machinery are dangerous. You should
not alter gaps without ensuring that the machinery can be used without risks to safety.
When air flows past an object or over sharp edges, turbulence is caused, which produces noise.
Also, when air flows over cavities or voids, a noise tone can be produced (similar to blowing over
a milk bottle). Making edges as smooth as possible and removing voids or rounding the edges
can reduce the level of noise created. Similarly, air flowing smoothly through ducts and pipes will
produce less noise.

Slotted table lips on a planer reduce Reduced-noise cutter block

air turbulence and noise

4.17 Avoiding Impacts

Noise generated by impacts, including components falling into chutes, bins and hoppers, and impacts generated by tooling can be considerable. Try to reduce the speed and/or height of falling
objects and avoid impacts, or make arrangements to cushion them, e.g.:

fit buffers on stops and rubber or plastic surface coatings on chutes, to avoid metal-tometal impacts;
apply a progressive cutting edge to punch tooling on power presses to reduce the impact
noise;
use conveyor systems, designed to prevent the components being transported from impacting against each other.

Try to limit or reduce the 'drop heights' of components. For example, components which are produced by pressings and are ejected and then dropped into a collecting bin can cause high noise
levels. Reducing the force of the impact can reduce the noise levels.

Reduced drop heights and cushioned impacts reduce noise.

Lining of a bowl feeder with rubber for reduced impact noise.

4.18 Noise Control Recap

Noise paths found in a workplace. The quiet area is subjected to reflected noise from a machine
somewhere else in the building

The correct use of absorption in the roof will reduce the reflected noise reaching the quiet area.

Segregation of the noisy operation will benefit the whole workplace.

4.19 Source/Path/Receiver Model.

Source/Path/Receiver Model
The sketches and descriptions below illustrate in more detail the most basic treatment strategies
using engineering controls. "Typical" noise reductions associated with each strategy are listed
below.
SOURCE CONTROL

DIRECT PATH CONTROL

INDIRECT PATH CONTROL

RECEIVER CONTROL

6 to 8 dB

10 to 25 dB & up

4 to 6 dB

10 to 25 dB & up

By distance

If a small sound source produces a sound level of 90 dB at a distance of 1 metre, the sound level
at a 2 metre distance is 84 dB, at 4 metres 78 dB, etc.

4.20 Hearing Protection

Providing personal hearing protection should be one of your first considerations on discovering a
risk to the health of your employees due to noise. It should not be used as an alternative to controlling noise by technical and organisational means, but for tackling the immediate risk while
other control measures are being developed. In the longer term, it should be used where there is
a need to provide additional protection beyond what has been achieved through noise control.
Where personal hearing protection is needed, it is important that you select the right type of protection, and make sure that it is used and looked after.
Much of the information here is based on British Standard BS EN 458:2004
Hearing protectors. Recommendations for selection, use, care and maintenance. Guidance
document, which you may wish to consult for more detailed guidance.
Hearing protectors are available in many forms. They are all capable of providing a reduction in
noise exposure and will be provided with information to allow you to decide whether they provide
adequate noise reduction for your work situation. Whichever type of protector is used, it will provide its best protection only if it is in good condition, is the correct size and is worn properly.

All hearing protection should carry the CE mark. This is an indication that it meets a set of essential requirements, in accordance with the Personal Protective Equipment Regulations 2002
What to consider when selecting hearing protection.
The following factors are likely to influence your selection of hearing protection:

Types of protector, and suitability for the work being carried out.
Noise reduction (attenuation) offered by the protector.
Compatibility with other safety equipment.
Pattern of the noise exposure.
The need to communicate and hear warning sounds.
Environmental factors such as heat, humidity, dust and dirt.
Cost of maintenance or replacement.
Comfort and user preference.
Medical disorders suffered by the wearer.

Your choice of protectors may also be influenced by factors relating to intrinsic safety and electromagnetic compatibility.

4.21 Types of Hearing Protector, Advantages, Disadvantages, Care and Maintenance

Type

Description

Advantages

Notes on suitability
and use

Earmuffs Hard plastic cups

Easy to fit and Headband can prevent
which fit over and sur- use. Clearly use of a hard hat. Headround the ears and are visible, there- band can be worn besealed to the head by fore easily
hind the neck or under
cushion seals filled
monitored.
the chin if an under-hat
with a soft plastic foam
support strap is proor a viscous liquid.
vided. However, the proTension to assist the
tection offered may be
seal is provided by a
reduced. May not be
headband. The inner
suited for use with safety
surfaces of the cups
glasses and other forms
are covered with a
of personal protective
sound-absorbing maequipment (check comterial, usually a soft
patibility). May be unplastic foam. Available
comfortable in warm
in a range of sizes.
conditions. Long hair,
beards and jewellery
may interfere with seals
and reduce protection.
Helmet- Individual cups atCan overmounted tached to safety head- come the difearmuffs gear such as a visor or ficulties with
a hard hat, usually by compatibility
adjustable arms. Noise with hard
protection information hats.
should be obtained for
the specific combination of earmuff and

Care and maintenance

Check seals for cleanliness, hardening, tearing
and misshape. Check cup
condition for cracks,
holes, damage and unofficial modifications. Avoid
over-bending or twisting
headband, which may
degrade performance.
Check tension of headband (compare with a
new earmuff). Store in a
clean environment. Follow manufacturer's instructions.

May not be suited for

As for earmuffs. Ensure
use with safety glasses the seals do not sit on the
and other forms of pro- side of the helmet for long
tective equipment (check periods as this can damcompatibility). May be
age them and affect their
uncomfortable in warm performance.
conditions. Long hair,
beards and jewellery
may interfere with seals

helmet.

and reduce protection.

Earplugs Earplugs fit into the

Suited for use
ear or cover the ear
with safety
canal to form a seal. glasses and
They sometimes have other forms of
a cord or a neckband personal proto prevent loss. Some tective
plugs are reusable and equipment.
others are designed to
be disposed of after
one use - check manufacturer's instructions.
Available in different
forms (pre-shaped,
user-formable, semiinsert).

Custom- Earplugs made from a

moulded material such as siliplugs
cone rubber, individually moulded to fit a
person's ears.

Can be hard to fit - will Clean reusable plugs

only be effective when regularly and ensure they
fitted properly so correct are not damaged or defitting is essential. See graded - follow manufacmanufacturer's instruc- turer's instructions. Distions and provide train- posable earplugs should
ing. Difficult to check cor- only be used once.
rect fit by observation.
Hands should be clean
Can work loose over
when fitting earplugs.
time, so allow for refitting Reusable plugs should be
in a quiet environment issued to an individual
every hour. May not be and not shared. Ensure
suitable where the hear- adequate supplies of dising protection is likely to posable earplugs. Follow
be removed often, par- manufacturer's instructicularly in dusty or dirty tions.
environments. May not
be suitable for certain
individuals due to medical conditions.

As for earplugs.
For some
Poor performance if
wearers they manufacturing and initial
may be easier fitting are not done
to fit than
properly. Ensure fit tests
other types of are done before plugs
earplug and are put into use.
therefore
more likely to
get good protection.
Comfortable.

4.22 Special Types of Protector Level-Dependent Protectors

Level-dependent (or amplitude-sensitive) hearing protectors are designed to protect against hazardous noise while permitting good communication when it is quieter. They are most suited to
situations where the noise exposure is intermittent and there is a need to communicate during
quieter intervals.
Sound-restoration, level-dependent hearing protectors are available, incorporating an electronic
sound-reproduction system. At low sound pressure levels, the sound detected by an external microphone is relayed to the inside of the hearing protector. As the external sound level increases,
the electronics gradually reduce the transmission of sound.
Level-dependent devices based on non-electronic methods are also available. These use the
acoustic properties of carefully-designed air ducts to give different protection at different noise
levels. These types of protector are designed to be effective against very high single-impulse
noises, such as firearms, rather than the continuous noise or repetitive impulses found in most
industrial situations.
Flat or tailored frequency response protectors.
Whereas most hearing protectors provide greater reduction of noise at high frequencies than they

do at low frequencies, this type of protector, by its design, gives a similar reduction across a wide
frequency range (i.e. a flat frequency response). This can assist effective communication, and
can be useful in circumstances where it is important to be able to hear the high-frequency sound
at the correct level relative to the low-frequency sounds, e.g. musicians during rehearsal and
practising.
Similarly, hearing protection is available which is designed to reduce low- and high-frequency
noise in particular, potentially allowing a greater degree of spoken communication.
Active noise-reduction protectors.
Active noise-reduction (ANR) hearing protectors incorporate an electronic sound cancelling system to achieve additional noise reduction. ANR can be effective at low frequencies (50-500 Hz)
where ordinary protectors can be less effective. ANR protectors are usually based on an earmuff
type protector.
Protectors with communication facilities.
These devices make use of wired or aerial systems to relay signals, alarms, messages or entertainment programmes to the wearer. These protectors should be designed so that the level of the
relayed signal is not too loud. Where the devices are used to receive spoken messages, the microphone should, where possible, be switched off when not in use, to avoid the reproduction at
the ear of spurious background noise.
When considering these devices, check to ensure it is possible to hear necessary warning
sounds (e.g. speech and safety alarms)* above the sounds reproduced at the ear. Safety alarms
should not normally be relayed through the communication system because of the risk of system
failure.
Standard methods are available for selecting suitable auditory warning signals - BS ISO
7731:2003 Ergonomics. Danger signals for public and work areas. Auditory danger signals.
Care and maintenance.
Hearing protection must be monitored for wear and damage and replaced when necessary. If
hearing protectors are to be effective, and provide the expected protection, they must be in good
condition. You are responsible for ensuring that hearing protection is well-maintained, while employees are responsible for reporting any defects (see regulation 8). With experience, simple
checks can be made by visual inspection and feel. It is good practice to keep a set of new protectors on display, to provide a basis for comparison.

4.23 Likely Noise Reduction

Reduction of noise exposure.
The Noise Regulations require that hearing protection is selected to eliminate the risk to hearing,
or reduce the risk to the lowest level reasonably practicable and that the selection process takes
account of consultation with employees or their representatives. You should aim to provide protection that at least reduces the A-weighted sound pressure level at the wearer's ear to below 85
dB.
For impulsive noise, you should aim to provide protection sufficient to reduce the C-weighted
peak sound pressure level at the ear to below the upper peak exposure action value of 137 dB.
The noise reduction can be estimated using the method given in Appendix 2.
For workers with variable exposures, you should make sure that your employees have protectors
adequate for the worst situation likely to be encountered and that they know when and where to
use them.
'Real world' protection.
It is very likely that under conditions of real use, hearing protectors will give lower protection than

predicted by manufacturers' data, which are obtained from standardised tests.

The difference between manufacturers' data and 'real-world' protection is due to factors such as
poor fitting and wearing of spectacles or other personal protective equipment. You should account for this 'real world' protection by 'derating' the protector by 4 dB.
This means an assumption that the level at the ear when hearing protection is worn will be 4 dB
higher than would be predicted by the method. In this way, you will get a better indication of the
protection that users are most likely to get, and can select appropriate hearing protection accordingly.
The derating does not apply to the assessment of hearing protector performance against peak
noise.
The 4 dB derating is regarded as an appropriate factor to bridge the gap between manufacturers'
data and real-world factors, without introducing further complexity to the prediction of hearing protector performance. You will still be able to select an appropriate hearing protection device for the
character of the noise, and hearing protectors that show better repeatability in standardised tests
will still be distinguishable.
The use of a derating factor will not necessarily mean that you will need to select a protector with
a higher rating than one you currently use. By following all the guidance within this unit, you
should be able to ensure that even if wearers get better protection than that predicted by these
methods, the protected level at the ear will be within the recommended range.
You may wish to demonstrate, by means other than relying on manufacturers' data and the
methods outlined in this unit, that the hearing protection you supply meets the requirement to reduce the noise level at the ear to the appropriate level, e.g. by measurement of noise levels underneath hearing protection devices in conditions of real use.
Over-protection.
Protectors that reduce the level at the ear to below 70 dB should be avoided, since this overprotection may cause difficulties with communication and hearing warning signals. Users may
become isolated from their environment, leading to safety risks, and generally may have a tendency to remove the hearing protection and therefore risk damage to their hearing.
The table below gives an indication of the protector factor that is likely to be suitable for different
levels of noise. It based on the single number rating (SNR) value provided with a hearing protection device.
The information is intended as a guide rather than a substitute for using other control measures,
and in particular will not be appropriate if there are significant low- frequency components to the
noise in question. Examples of noise environments which may contain significant low-frequency
components, and for which this table is not suitable, include press shops, generators and generator test bays, plant rooms, boiler houses, concrete shaker tables, moulding presses and punch
presses. Indication of protector factors
A-weighted noise level (dB)

Select a protector with an SNR of. . .

85-90

20 or less

90-95

20-30

95-100

25-35

100-105

30 or more

Dual protection.
People working in extreme noise conditions may require more protection than that provided by
earmuffs or earplugs alone. This problem is likely where the daily noise exposure is above 110
dB or the peak sound pressure level exceeds 150 dB, especially if there is substantial noise at

frequencies less than about 500 Hz.

Improved protection can be obtained by wearing a combination of earmuffs and earplugs. The
amount of protection will depend on the particular earmuff and plug combination. In general, the
most useful combination is a high performance plug with a moderate-performance earmuff (a
high-performance earmuff adds a little extra protection but is likely to be less comfortable).
If dual protection is used, test data should be obtained for the particular combination of plug and
earmuff (and helmet, if used). In practice, the increase in attenuation you can expect from dual
protection will be no more than 6 dB over that of the better of the individual protectors.

4.24 Other Factors Influencing Selection Wearer Comfort and Preference

Individuals differ in what they find comfortable. Some people prefer earplugs in hot environments,
but others find any earplug extremely uncomfortable and prefer earmuffs. Wherever possible, you
should make more than one type of protector available (making sure that each is suitable for the
noise and the jobs to be done) to allow the user a personal choice.
All protectors are likely to be somewhat uncomfortable, especially in hot, humid conditions.
Therefore, choose hearing protection that is sufficient to control the risk, does not over protect
and is reasonably comfortable to wear.
One of the factors affecting the comfort of earmuffs is the pressure of the seals on the head. This
can be kept low by using resilient seals, which only need a low headband force. A high contact
area between seal and head also helps reduce the contact pressure, but in hot conditions can
cause the skin to sweat (liners which fit between the seal and the head can absorb sweat, but
may reduce protection by a small amount, typically 2 to 4 dB). In these conditions, earplugs may
be preferred. Other important factors affecting comfort include the weight of the earmuffs (the
lighter the better) and the size of the cup (the cups must be large enough to fit right over the
user's ear).
Pattern of noise exposure.
Where patterns of noise exposure are likely to be repeated and short-term, earmuffs and semiaural/semi-insert earplugs may be preferred because they are quick and easy to fit and remove,
and therefore more likely to be fitted when exposure occurs.
Warning signals and speech communication.
Where it is important that certain sounds within the workplace are heard clearly and distinctly,
such as with speech communication, warning signals and other informative sounds, hearing protectors with a flat frequency response may be preferred.
There is some evidence that the wearing of hearing protectors can increase speech intelligibility
against a background of noise. You should not discount the use of hearing protection simply because there is a need for speech communication.
Location of a sound source.
Hearing protectors can impair the wearer's ability to identify the location of a sound source. If this
ability is necessary or important for your work activity, then earplugs may be preferred since with
earplugs, the impairment is less than with earmuffs.
Compatibility with other safety equipment.
When selecting hearing protectors, you should take account of any other personal protective
equipment that the user must wear which may impair the performance of the hearing protectors
you have selected. Particular examples are the use of safety glasses or goggles, the frame or
band of which may interfere with earmuff seals and reduce the protection offered. Where there is
a need to wear hearing protectors in combination with helmets or face-shields, space may be limited and earplugs or low-mass earmuffs may be preferred.

Medical disorders.
Part of the selection process for hearing protectors includes finding out whether the user has any
medical disorder that could influence the selection. Medical disorders can mean any type of earache, irritation of the ear canal, discharge, hearing loss, or any type of ear disease or skin disorder. Where you have employees who have any such medical disorders, you should seek medical
advice as to the suitability of hearing protection.

4.25 Advice on Issuing Hearing Protection

When issuing hearing protectors, you will need to consider regulations 7 (hearing protection), 8
(Maintenance and use of equipment) and 10 (Information, instruction and training) of the Noise
Regulations (see Part 1), and take account of the points below.
Information.
You should provide your employees with information on:

why you are issuing hearing protectors;

where they must be used;
how they can obtain replacements or new protectors; and
how they should wear them properly and look after them.

Ready availability.
You should ensure that employees can readily obtain hearing protectors and replacements when
they need them. This might include personal issue to individual employees. Alternatively, you
might wish to install dispensers from which employees can take disposable hearing protectors as
they need them. Locate the dispensers at or near to the entrances to areas where hearing protectors are required, in a place where your employees can conveniently use them. Make sure you
keep the dispensers topped up.
Personal issue and visitors.
People should not pass earplugs to one another. Preferably, a set of earmuffs should be used by
one individual only. Where earmuffs are kept for the use of visitors, they should be hygienically
cleaned for each new wearer. Alternatively, disposable covers may be used.
Training and effective use.
Hearing protection will only provide good protection when used properly and fitted correctly. Users must be instructed in its correct fitting and use, including:

how to avoid the potential interference of long hair, spectacles and earrings on the effectiveness of their hearing protection;
how to wear their hearing protection in combination with other personal protection;
the importance of wearing their hearing protection at all times in a noisy environment (removing it for only a few minutes in a shift will lower the protection to the wearer considerably);
how to store their hearing protection correctly;
how to care for and to check their hearing protection at frequent intervals;
where to report damage to their hearing protection.

This training may be provided by a suitably trained supervisor.

Some people tend to remove hearing protectors when speaking to others in noisy environments.
You should advise them not to do this and explain to them that once they are used to the situation, they will be able to communicate more easily with protectors than without them. Advise them
to speak 'to the protector', i.e. to speak with the mouth close to the ear of the person to whom

they are talking.

Some people tend to speak quietly when they are wearing hearing protectors in noisy areas because they can hear their own voice more clearly. This can cause communication problems, so
you should advise users to speak up when wearing protectors.
Maximising performance of protectors through full use.
There are many reasons why hearing protectors give less noise reduction than would be predicted. One of the most common reasons is that protectors are not used all of the time in noisy
areas. If the protectors are removed in noisy areas, even for short periods, the amount of protection provided will be severely limited. Employers should ensure, through training and proper supervision, that employees wear their hearing protectors at all times when they are required. Employees have a duty to make full use of hearing protectors which have been provided to them.
The chart below shows the how the effectiveness of a hearing protector is reduced if it is not worn
all the time. It shows the effective protection offered by three different hearing protectors against
the percentage of time worn. When the protectors are worn for 100% of the time that the user is
exposed to the noise, they give the expected protection. As wear time is decreased, the effective
protection offered decreases. A significant reduction in protection is found, even if the wear time
is 90%. If the protectors are worn for 50% of the required time, the protection offered is only about
3 dB.

Effectiveness of hearing protection in relation to time worn.

4.26 Summary - Solving A Typical Noise Problem

Noise control techniques to remedy specific problems:

control at source (e.g. relocation, redesign, maintenance)

along transmission path (e.g. isolation, barriers, enclosure)
at receiver - acoustic havens, ear protection (passive and active).

A typical noise source will comprise a combination of airborne and structure borne noise. In this
example, a person is working next to a generator and is suffering from the high levels of noise
that it produces.

In order to try to reduce the noise, a de-coupling system is used to isolate the generator from the
floor. This can be in the form of a mechanical isolation such as a spring, or a visco-elastic material.

In the next stage, an enclosure is built around the generator to contain the noise. Unfortunately,
the highly-reflective walls of the enclosure cause sound to build up inside.

The noise that then escapes through vents, gaps and other open areas can actually cause an
even worse noise problem than before.

By lining the enclosure with a suitable acoustic absorbing material, the noise level within the enclosure is significantly reduced and a noticeable reduction will be achieved.

4.27 Noise Summary

Physics.
Sound is the sensation in the brain when pressure variations in the air are detected by the ear.
The source of the pressure variations is vibration.
The amount of energy emitted (flow of energy) is measured in joules (3) per second, i.e. watts
(W). The concentration of intensity of the surface energy is expressed as watts per unit area; the
decibel (dB) is used to measure sound intensity.
Sound is considered to travel out in all directions from a point source.
The calculation and measurement of the intensity level of combined sounds is not straightforward:
Sound intensity levels from two or more sources measured in decibels cannot be simply added
together, but a formula used in the calculation.
The rule that is used when combining two noise sources of equal value does not apply when
combining two dissimilar sound pressure levels.
Effects.
The ear is divided into:

The outer ear and auditory canal.

The middle ear.
The inner ear.

Sound waves are transmitted to the eardrum, and a mechanical system then transmits vibrations
from the eardrum to the cochlea. The cochlea uses mechanical vibrations to transmit impulses to
the auditory centres of the brain.
The damaging effect of noise relates to the total amount of energy or "dose" that the ear receives.
Hearing loss is either:

conductive (physical breakdown of the conducting mechanism of the ear) or

sensorineural (damage to the cochlea).

Tinnitus, threshold shift, presbycusis and noise-induced hearing loss all involve loss of hearing.
The measurement of hearing performance is necessary in order to detect actual noise-induced
hearing loss. A common use of audiometric testing at the pre-employment stages is to establish a
baseline against which any deterioration due to poor noise control arrangement can be measured. It is also used to detect any existing noise-induced hearing loss to safeguard the employer
against false accusations that hearing loss is due to this employment.

Measurement.
Instruments used to measure sound, including fluctuating sound levels, must be able to measure
the intensity of the noise of specific frequencies or a weighted sound intensity, and the duration of
the exposure if a dose measurement is required. Appropriate instruments are:

Simple sound level meters.

Integrating sound level meters.
Personal sound exposure meters (dosimeters).

The evaluation of results obtained from the use of sound level meters is affected by the different
situations being measured, such as:

Exposure to a continuous noise level.

Exposure to one significant level of noise during the working day.
Exposure to more than one significant level of noise during the working day.

Noise assessment practically involves:

surveying the workplace to gather data;

analysing the results and comparing with action levels;
deciding if you need to do any more to control noise;
planning what more you need to do and doing it;
recording findings;
reviewing the assessment as necessary.

Planning a noise survey includes the following:

deciding who should be assessed;

getting the equipment together;
deciding what parameters should be measured;
choosing the locations;
deciding on the measurement duration;
deciding if you can group sample;
taking account of mobile workers and highly-variable exposures;
taking account of very short duration noise;
deciding on the need for a second, more detailed survey.

Controls.
Materials may reflect, absorb or transmit sound, depending on the composition of the material
and the frequency of the sound. The extent to which each effect predominates depends on the
reflection, absorption and transmission coefficients, which are a property of the material in question.
Noise exposure controls consist of noise reduction at source, achieved by substituting plant and
equipment; attenuation in transmission, achieved by isolating the noise source, or moving workers away from the noise; and personal protection, consisting of earplugs or ear defenders.

Page 1.
The _____ of a sound wave is measured in Hertz (Hz).
Multiple Choice (HP)

Answer 1:

wavelength

Response 1:
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Answer 2:

period

Response 2:
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Answer 3:

frequency

Response 3:
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Answer 4:

amplitude

Response 4:
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Page 2.
If one machine emits a sound level of 90 dB, and a second identical machine is placed beside the
first, the combined sound level is _____.
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1:

80 dB

Response 1:
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Answer 2:

93 dB

Response 2:
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Answer 3:

135 dB

Response 3:
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Answer 4:

180 dB

Response 4:
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Page 3.
Where noise is caused by turbulent air or liquid flow in ductwork or at air exhausts or jets _____
can be an effective control measure.
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1:

Silencers

Response 1:
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Answer 2:

Sound insulation

Response 2:

Jump 2:

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Answer 3:

Absorption materials

Response 3:
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Answer 4:

Damping

Response 4:
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Page 4.
Daily personal noise exposure is represented by _____.
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1:

LEQ

Response 1:
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Answer 2:

LEP,D

Response 2:
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Answer 3:

dB(C)

Response 3:
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Answer 4:

LEP,W

Response 4:
Jump 4:

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5 Vibration.
We shall now move on to consider the ways that vibration in the workplace can cause ill-health
effects by direct contact either to the hands or to the body.
We shall begin by reviewing the characteristics of vibration before moving on to look at the illhealth effects arising from both hand-transmitted and whole body vibration, and the occupational
circumstances where these effects might occur. Having considered measurement and quantification of vibration, we shall review the control options that are available in work environments where
vibration poses an occupational health risk.
The term `Vibration is defined in the ILO C148, Working Environment Convention 1977 article 3
as:
(c) the term vibration covers any vibration which is transmitted to the human body through solid
structures and is harmful to health or otherwise dangerous.
Physics.
Vibration is the term given to an oscillatory motion involving an object moving back and forth. During this motion, the object starts from rest at a position of maximum displacement, begins to accelerate towards the equilibrium position from which it has been displaced, overshoots this equilibrium position at its maximum velocity and begins to decelerate due to some restraining force,

until it comes to rest at maximum displacement in the opposite direction. The restraining force
then begins to propel the object towards the equilibrium position and the process is repeated.
The following figure shows the change with time and also the relationship between acceleration,
velocity and displacement.
In simple terms:

At the equilibrium position (displacement = 0): velocity is greatest and acceleration zero.
At maximum displacement: velocity is zero and acceleration is greatest.

The key terms to consider are:

Vibration Amplitude.
Amplitude is the extent of vibration from the point of rest. In other words, it is the distance on a
sinusoidal wave from 0 to the top (peak) of a wave in either direction.
As the amplitude only considers the vibration in one direction, the magnitude of the vibration,
considering the vibration in both directions, is a more useful indicator.
Vibration Magnitude.
During the oscillation of the vibrating object, it alternately has a velocity in one direction and then
a velocity in the opposite direction. This change in velocity means that the object is constantly
accelerating (acceleration is defined as rate of change of velocity), first in one direction then in the
other (see earlier figure). Consequently the magnitude of the vibration can be quantified either by
its displacement, its velocity or its acceleration. For practical convenience, the magnitude of vibration is usually expressed in terms of acceleration and measured using an accelerometer. (The
units of acceleration are metres per second per second, i.e. m/s2).
The magnitude of an oscillation can be expressed as the distance between the extremities
reached by the motion (the peak-to-peak value) or the distance from some central point to the
maximum deviation (the peak value). Often, the magnitude of vibration is expressed in terms of
an average measure of the acceleration of the oscillatory motion, usually the root-mean-square
value (r.m.s.). For a single frequency (sinusoidal) motion, the r.m.s. value is the peak value divided by the square root of 2.

Vibration Frequency.
The frequency of vibration is expressed in cycles per second or hertz (Hz), as used for noise
measurement. The relationship between the displacement of an object and its acceleration depends on the frequency. For a given displacement, the acceleration will increase as the frequency increases.
Vibration Direction.
With complex vibrating objects, there may be displacement in all three dimensions. Vibration is
usually measured at the interface between the body and the vibrating surface.
For a hand-held vibrating tool, the vibration may be along the axis of the shaft or at each orthogonal (right-angled) axis (see next figure (a)).
For whole-body vibration affecting a seated person, the vibration directions are fore-and-aft, sideto-side (lateral) and up-and-down (vertical) (see next figure (b)).

5.1 Vibration and Infrasound (Cont.).

Vibration Duration.
Some effects of vibration depend on the total duration of exposure. Consequently, the occupational exposure standard used to set action levels for vibration control is based on the concept of
vibration dose (an equivalent time weighted value) in a similar manner to that used for noise.

Axes of Vibration for Hand-Transmitted and Whole-Body Vibration.

Discomfort Effects.
The lower frequency vibrations tend to cause physical discomfort. The phenomenon of infrasound
is one such example. Infrasound is the frequency of 18.9/19Hz and has been shown to produce
hyperventilation, feelings of anxiety and dread and minute vibration of the eye and surrounding
tissue, causing hallucinations at the periphery of vision. Vic Tandy, in his paper 'Ghost in the Machine' speculates, with good evidence, that infrasound may be the underlying cause of many alleged 'hauntings'. The symptoms are certainly very similar. It has even been suggested that infrasound may have a part to play in Sick Building syndrome, as fans and cooling equipment show a
tendency to vibrate at 19Hz.

6 Effects of vibration on the individual

We can categorise exposure to vibration as:
Segmental Vibration, that affects organs, parts or 'segments' of the body. The most common type
is Hand-Arm Vibration (also known as Hand-transmitted vibration), that affects the body through
the hands and is caused by processes in industry, agriculture, mining and construction where vibrating tools or work pieces are grasped by the hands.
Whole-body vibration, which can be felt when the body is supported on a vibrating surface, (e.g.
seat or floor) and occurs in transport employment or near heavy machinery use.
The ill-health effects of exposure to both types of vibration are described below.
Hand-Transmitted Vibration.
Exposure of the fingers or hand to regular and prolonged vibration can result in the following
range of disorders:

Circulatory disorders (blanching of the fingers).

Neurological disorders (numbness, tingling).
Muscular effects (difficulty with grip, reduced dexterity).
Articular effects (bone and joint problems).

The two most important effects are carpel tunnel syndrome and hand-arm vibration syndrome
(HAVS). HAVS covers a range of conditions including that known as vibration white finger.
Vibration-Induced White Finger.
Vibration-induced white finger (VWF) is produced at work by exposure to vibrations from handheld tools. It was first reported in 1911 in Rome by Professor Giovanni Loriga but the link between it and vibrating hand tools was only discovered by Alice Hamilton in 1918. For many years,
it was described as Raynaud's Disease, named after Maurice Raynaud (1834-1881) or Vibration
Syndrome. In 1970, the Industrial Injuries Advisory Council suggested the condition be called vibration-induced white finger.
The frequency range over which injury from vibration can occur is believed to be between 5 Hz

and 2000 Hz, but it is at lower frequencies, i.e. 5 Hz to 150 Hz, that the risk is considered to be at
its greatest. Apart from frequency variation, amplitude of the vibration is also a contributory factor.
Increase in amplitude increases the potential risk.
Symptoms.
In the early stages of the condition, vibration causes slight tingling and numbness in the fingers.
Little or no notice is taken of the effect and often no relationship between vibration and the condition is appreciated. With further exposure, the tips of one or more fingers suffer blanching. Cold
conditions will often bring on an attack, and the early morning is a common time for it to develop.
With continued exposure, blanching will extend to the base of the fingers.
At this stage, the condition will occur for about an hour. When the condition abates, the fingers
take on a flushed appearance accompanied by considerable pain. During the attack, the fingers
have reduced sensitivity to temperature (i.e. hot and cold), pressure and pain. Reduced manipulative ability from loss of muscle control causes clumsiness in handling small objects or doing
simple tasks like fastening up buttons.
With continued and prolonged use of vibrating tools, the condition of white finger degenerates to
the development of a cyanotic condition where the finger takes on a blue/black appearance,
which may become a permanent condition. Following the cyanotic stage, the possibility of gangrene becomes a real threat.

6.1 Pathology.
There is no absolute understanding of how vibration causes VWF. It is obviously related to a lack
of blood flow to the fingers, which must be caused by abnormal conditions in the small arteries.
Microscopic examination of affected finger tissue has shown that small arteries had become
blocked. Their inner walls had thickened and there was enlargement of muscle cell structure.
Muscle enlargement is a typical response to work, e.g. as in body-building by weight training.
The increased muscle tissue in these cases may have resulted from an over-response by the
body to the problem of keeping a good blood flow while the flesh was under fluctuating compressive stress during exposure to vibration.
The reduction in finger sensitivity during an attack of VWF indicates that changes must occur in
the nerve endings. It has also been reported that neural activity is reduced in the whole of the
arm subjected to vibration, nerve conduction velocity being reduced.
Bones and joints have also shown deformities when X-ray examination has been carried out.
There is little evidence to indicate that recovery from VWF occurs when exposure to vibration
ceases. Reports indicate recovery is only slight and very slow.
As an attack can be brought on by cold and damp conditions, those affected have often had to
give up outdoor activities in an effort to reduce the painful discomfort that occurs. Those in certain
jobs conducted outdoors may have to give up their jobs for the same reasons.
Standardised Diagnostic Tests for HAVS (including Vibration White Finger).
Several tests are available for quantifying the severity (by comparison with 'normal' data). They
can be used in conjunction with reported symptoms in clinical diagnosis by a doctor and to track
the progression of the condition.
Vascular (Blood Flow) Tests.
Both these use a cold challenge to the hands (immersion in cold water):

Finger re-warming times after cold provocation test (CPT).

Finger systolic blood pressure test (FSBP).

Sensorineural Tests (for Assessing Nerve Damage).

Vibrotactile perception threshold (VPT) based on perception of vibrations applied to the

finger.
Thermal (temperature) perception threshold (TPT) based on subjective judgements on
perception of 'hot' and 'cold' with the finger.

6.2 Video: Hand Arm Vibration Syndrome

Hand Arm Vibration Syndrome
http://www.sheilds-elearning.co.uk/file.php/4/videos/HAVS.flv

6.3 Classification of Severity of Havs (Including Vwf).

A number of scales have been devised to classify the severity of VWF. The ones in common use
are the Stockholm Workshop Scale and the Griffin Scale.
The Stockholm Scale is sub-divided into two components (the grading is made separately for
each hand): vascular (which considers changes in blood flow) and sensorineural (which considers
changes in perception of touch, cold, heat, etc.).
Stockholm Workshop Scale: Vascular Component
Stage

Grade

Description

No attacks

Mild

Occasional attacks affecting only the tips

of one or more fingers

Moderate

Occasional attacks affecting tips and middle (rarely also parts closest to palm) of
one or more fingers

Severe

Frequent attacks affecting all parts of most

fingers

Very severe

As in stage 3, with degenerate skin

changes in the fingertips

Stockholm Workshop Scale: Sensorineural component

Stage

Symptoms

OSN

Exposed to vibration but no symptoms

1 SN

Intermittent numbness with or without tingling

2SN

Intermittent or persistent numbness, reduced sensory perception

3SN

Intermittent or persistent numbness, reduced tactile discrimination and/or manipulative dexterity

The Griffin Method only looks at the vascular component (blood-flow, i.e. blanching). Blanching

for each part of each finger is given a weighted score. The total score for each hand is then
added up for blanched parts of fingers. It is a useful numerical scoring system for monitoring progression of the condition.

Griffin Method

Blanched fingers
Tools and Processes Associated with VWF:
There are many tools and processes which have been associated with VWF including the following:

Concrete breakers, concrete pokers.

Sanders, grinders, disc cutters.
Hammer drills.
Chipping hammers.
Chainsaws, brush cutters, hedge trimmers.
Powered mowers.
Scabblers or needle guns.

6.4 Whole-Body Vibration

Exposure to this type of vibration can affect health, comfort and work performance. The principal
health problems directly attributable to whole-body vibration are back disorders (back pain, disc
trouble, osteoarthritis). However, in some cases these problems may also arise from poor posture.
Other problems alleged to arise from exposure to whole-body vibration include:

Abdominal pain.
Digestive disorders.
Urinary problems.
Balance, headaches and visual problems.

However, a causal link has not been confirmed.

Whole-body vibration can also affect work performance by interfering with:

Visual processes and the ability to assimilate visual information.

Hand or foot movements and the ability to control equipment.

Workers at Risk - Hand-Transmitted Vibration Hazards.

Vulnerable Groups.
Certain groups of employees are more vulnerable to continued vibration exposure. These include
persons suffering from:

Existing hand-arm vibration syndrome.

Raynaud's Disease.
Peripheral vascular disease.
Trapped nerves in the hand or arm.

Neurological disorders.
Past history of injuries or malformation of the hand-arm system.
Exposure to toxic agents or medication that affects peripheral blood circulation.

Typical Work Activities Associated With Hand-Transmitted Vibration.

The tools and processes associated with hazardous vibration are:
Percussive metalworking tools, which include:
(i) Riveting.
(ii) Chipping hammers.
(iii) Fettling tools (used to remove excess metal from castings).
(iv) Impact wrenches (used to tighten nuts and bolts).
(v) Hammer drills.
(vi) Percussive chisels.
Often, these tools are driven by compressed air which can cool the hands and aggravate the
condition. They produce high levels of vibration with RMS values ranging from 3 m/s2 to 30 m/s2.
Rotary tools and grinders, which include:
(i) Rotating abrasive wheels (hand-held angle grinders).
(ii) Rotating tool bits.
(iii) Work pieces held against pedestal grinders.
(iv) Dental tools.
Vibration can be generated by the hand-held tool or transmitted through a work piece held
against a fixed abrasive wheel. The usual vibration range is between 3 m/s2 and 10 m/s2.
Percussive hammers and drills, which are used to break up rocks in mining, quarrying and road
construction. High vibration levels are generated by this equipment but the prevalence of vibration white finger is not as high as might be expected, due to the intermittent pattern of work and
the lower grip forces needed.
Chain saws. The more recent design of chain saw fitted with vibration isolation and heated handles has reduced the incidence of vibration white finger associated with this type of equipment.
Older, non anti-vibration chain saws can generate levels of vibration of between 10 m/s2 and 30
m/s2 which accounts for significant prevalence of vibration white finger previously occurring with
this type of equipment.
Whole-Body Vibration Hazards.
Whole-body vibration is more difficult to specify as an occupational problem because the health
effects tend to be non-specific and indistinguishable from other causes. However, vulnerable
groups would include those with degenerative disorders of the spine.
The typical work activities which can cause whole-body vibration tend to be less well-defined than
those associated with hand-transmitted vibration but generally include:

Drivers of heavy vehicles (tractors, earth-moving vehicles).

Drivers of forklift trucks.
Operators of heavy machines (power presses).
Aircraft personnel.

7 Measurement

You may be able to obtain vibration data from the equipment manufacturer, trade association, or
'typical values' measured by the HSE, etc. but make sure the data are relevant to how you use
that equipment. In any case, such data can at least help give an initial estimate of the likely exposure. In many cases, actual measurements may not be necessary to adequately assess the vibration risk but sometimes, you may have no alternative but to measure.
The Accelerometer

Vibration is measured using an accelerometer with three electronic sensors that measure the acceleration caused by the vibration in each of the three planes X, Y and Z. The monitoring device
is attached to the hand, and the signals measured by each sensor are combined to an overall
frequency-weighted acceleration. Laboratory studies suggest that the hand-arm system behaves
differently at different frequencies, similar to the way that the ear responds to sound at different
frequencies. Vibration within the 5-20 Hz-frequency range is more harmful than other frequencies.
To take account of this, a weighting system is applied to measurements of vibration acceleration
in each of the three axes of vibration, at the point of entry of vibration to the hand. From this, an
equivalent value over time is calculated which is standardised over eight hours to give an equivalent daily exposure. This represents the eight hour frequency-weighted root mean square acceleration entering the hand-arm system. The unit of measurement is in metres per second2 (m/s2).
As with noise, the harm from vibration depends on the duration and magnitude. Different exposures are compared using an eight-hour average called the A(8) value, which is analogous to the
LEP,d used in noise assessments.
Exposure Standards for Vibration - Hand-Transmitted Vibration.
Regulation 4(1) of the Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2005 specifies exposure limit values and action values for hand-arm vibration:
The daily exposure limit value is 5 m/s2 A(8)
The daily exposure action value is 2.5 m/s2 A(8)
The daily exposure to vibration is ascertained on the basis of Schedule 1, Part 1, which gives the
formula:

where: ahv is the vibration magnitude in metres per second squared (m/s2)
T is the duration of exposure to the vibration magnitude ahv
T0is the reference duration of 8 hours (28,800 seconds).
The daily exposure is expressed in m/s2 A(8).
The vibration magnitude ahv is derived using the formula:

where: ahwx, ahwy and ahwz are the root-mean-square acceleration magnitudes in m/s2 as
measured in three orthogonal directions, x, y and z, at the vibrating surface in contact with the
hand, and frequency-weighted using the weighting Wh.
The frequency weighting Wh is defined in British Standard BS EN ISO 5349-1: 2001.
Where both hands are exposed to vibration, the greater of the two magnitudes ahv is used to ascertain the daily exposure.
If the total daily exposure consists of two or more operations with different vibration magnitudes,
the daily exposure A(8) for the combined operations is ascertained using the formula:

where: n is the number of individual operations within the working day

ahvi is the vibration magnitude for operation i
Ti is the duration of operation.
Part 2 of Schedule 1 defines exposure to vibration averaged over one week as A(8)week and is
the total exposure occurring within a period of seven consecutive days, normalised to a reference
duration of five 8-hour days (40 hours). It is calculated using the formula:

where: A (8)j is the daily exposure for day j.

The vibration exposure averaged over one week is used only where exposure may vary over time
from below the action value to exceeding the limit value.
We can see how this concept is similar to the dose equivalence used to establish action levels for
noise exposure.

7.1 Assessment
Factors to be considered when conducting a vibration risk assessment as stated in the ILO CoP
`Ambient Factors in the Workplace Section 10.2 Vibration risk assessment.
10.2. Assessment
10.2.1. If workers or others are frequently exposed to hand-transmitted or wholebody vibration,
and obvious steps do not eliminate the exposure, employers should assess the hazard and risk to
safety and health from the conditions, and the prevention and control measures to remove the
hazards or risks or to reduce them to the lowest practicable level by all appropriate means.
10.2.2. For the prevention of adverse effects of vibration on workers, employers should:
(a) consider the sources of vibration and the tasks which give rise to exposure;
(b) seek the advice of the competent authority about exposure limits and other standards to be
applied;
(c) seek the advice of the supplier of vehicles and equipment about their vibration emission;
(d) if this advice is incomplete or otherwise of doubtful value, arrange for measurements by a
technically competent person, to be carried out in accordance with currently available national
and international knowledge.
10.2.3. Vibration measurements should be used to:
(a) quantify the level and duration of exposure of workers and compare it with exposure limits as
established by the competent authority or other standards to be applied;
(b) identify and characterize the sources of vibration and the exposed workers;
(c) assess the need both for engineering vibration control and for other appropriate measures and
for their effective implementation;
(d) evaluate the effectiveness of particular vibration prevention and control measures.
10.2.4. The assessment should identify the ways in which vibrating tools are used, and determine
in particular whether:
(a) high-risk uses can be eliminated;
(b) workers have been appropriately trained in the use of the tools;

(c) their use can be improved by supports.

10.2.5. With a view to establishing appropriate prevention and control measures, the assessment
should take into account:
(a) exposure to cold at the workplace which can bring on symptoms of vibration white finger
(Raynauds phenomenon) in those exposed to vibration;
(b) vibration of the head or eyes as well as vibration of the displays themselves which can affect
the perception of displays;
(c) body or limb vibration which can affect manipulation of controls.

7.2 Whole-Body Vibration

The units of measurement for whole-body vibration are similar to those of hand-transmitted vibration, with the magnitude measured as acceleration in m/s2 and frequency in Hz. Different parts of
the body have different natural vibration frequencies and exposure at these "resonant" frequencies will have the greatest effect. A human body standing on a vertically vibrating platform will
show resonance of particular body systems and organs at certain frequencies:
Whole body (head to toe) 5 Hz
Whole body (side to side) 1-2 Hz
Chest 60 Hz
Head 25 Hz
Legs 2-20 Hz
The effects of varying levels of vertical whole-body vibration in the frequency range 1 to 100 Hz
are as follows:
0.01 m/s2 level of perception
0.1 m/s2 easily noticeable
1 m/s2 uncomfortable
10 m/s2 dangerous
The exact value depends on vibration frequency and exposure duration.
Regulation 4(1) of the Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2005 also specifies exposure limit
values and action values for whole-body vibration:
The daily exposure limit value is 1.15 m/s2 A(8)
The daily exposure action value is 0.5 m/s2 A(8)
The daily exposure to vibration A(8) of a person is ascertained on the basis of Schedule 2, Part 1,
which gives the formula:

where: awis the vibration magnitude (root-mean-squared frequency-weighted acceleration magnitude) in one of three orthogonal directions, x, y and z, at the supporting surface.
T is the duration of exposure to the vibration magnitude aw.
T0is the reference duration of 8 hours (28,800 seconds).
k is a multiplying factor.
The daily exposure is expressed in m/s2 A(8).
Daily exposure to vibration A(8) is evaluated separately for the x, y and z directions of vibration.
Using the definitions for frequency weightings given in International Standard ISO 2631- 1: 1997,
for x and y direction horizontal vibration, k= 1.4 and awis obtained using the wdfrequency weighting. For z direction vertical vibration, k = 1.0 and aw is derived using the wk frequency weighting.

If the work is such that the total daily exposure consists of two or more operations with different
vibration magnitudes, the daily exposure A(8) for the combination of operations is obtained using
the formula:

where: n is the number of individual operations within the working day,

aw, is the vibration magnitude for operation i,
Tiis the duration of operation.
Part 2 of Schedule 2 defines exposure to vibration averaged over one week as A(8) weekand is
the total exposure occurring within a period of seven consecutive days, normalised to a reference
duration of five 8-hour days (40 hours). It is calculated using the formula:

where: A(8)j is the daily exposure for day j.

The vibration exposure averaged over one week is used only where exposure may vary over time
from below the action value to exceeding the limit value.
The HSE provide a number of useful tools to perform all these calculations. They provide both a
spreadsheet calculator and a ready-reckoner points system. These can be found on the HSE vibration website: www.hse.gov.uk/vibration.
An Accelerometer User's Manual can be found here:http://www.vibrametrics.com/index.aspx?go=resources&focus=Users%20Manual.htm

8 Controls - Risks Arising From Exposure to Vibration.

The risk arising from exposure to vibration depends on:

The magnitude of the measured average acceleration (m/s 2 ).

The exposure time.
Individual susceptibility.

Strategy for a Risk Assessment.

Practically, you need to cover the following steps to assess the vibration risk:
Identify where there is likely to be a significant vibration risk (hand-arm and whole body).
Therefore, consider which tools/processes expose employees (typical ones discussed earlier);
look at manufacturer handbooks, etc. which may warn of vibration risks; look at ill-health symptoms/records; discuss with employees/safety reps.
Identify who is at risk.
Decide on the level of risk.
Look at vibration information available for the tools/processes identified (remember that you may
not need to actually measure it in many cases); consider the duration of exposure (remember this
means the actual 'contact' or 'trigger' time); compare your findings with the Exposure Action Value
(EAV) and Exposure Limit Value (ELV).
Decide what more needs to be done to eliminate or control the risk (including the need for health
surveillance).
To help prioritise your risk assessment workload, the HSE suggest:

For Hand-Arm Vibration.

High Risk (above the ELV) would generally be employees regularly operating:

Hammer action tools > 1 hour per day.

Some rotary (and other) action tools for > 2 hours per day.

Medium risk (above EAV) would generally be employees regularly operating:

Hammer action tools > 15 mins per day.

Some rotary (and other) action tools for > 1 hour per day.

For Whole-Body Vibration.

Most machine and vehicle activities produce WBV below the ELV in normal use.
Some off-road machinery used for long periods may exceed the ELV.
Risk Control Measures.
Regulation 6(1) of the Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2005 requires that the employer
shall ensure that his employees' risk from vibration exposure is either eliminated at source or,
where not reasonably practicable, reduced to as low a level as is reasonably practicable.
Regulation 6(2) states that where it is not reasonably practicable to eliminate risk at source and
an exposure action value is likely to be reached or exceeded, the employer shall reduce exposure to as low a level as is reasonably practicable by establishing and implementing a programme of organisational and technical measures which is appropriate to the activity.
The measures for reducing occupational exposure to hand-transmitted vibration follow the hierarchy of control measures that we have encountered elsewhere.
Elimination.
Remote control or automated systems to avoid the need to handle vibration tools.
Substitution.
Flame cutting instead of percussive metalworking tools.
Shot blasting instead of hand-held grinding.
Welding instead of riveting.
Machining for metal removal rather than grinders or pneumatic chisels.
Reduction of Vibration Transmission to Hands.
Use of low-vibration tools (however, more force may be required with longer exposure times).
Improve ergonomics of the operation by better grip design, lower-weight tools.
Use of anti-vibration handles (anti-vibration gloves have little effect on the reduction of vibration
transmission). On chain saws, there are flexible inserts in the joints to reduce the transmission of
vibration through the chain saw structure; the handle is also padded. Mounting work pieces in a
solid structure also helps reduce overall vibration.
Maintenance.
Replacement of worn parts and correction of unbalanced equipment can reduce vibration levels.
Anti-vibration devices need to be maintained.
Sharpened tools will reduce the duration of the job and therefore the exposure time.
Reduced Time Exposure.
Job rotation and rest breaks can reduce exposure time. (However, a large reduction in exposure
time is necessary before any significant effect on vibration magnitude is achieved.) To date, there
are no absolute standards for controlling exposure time. From studies of persons suffering from
VWF, guidelines have been drawn up whereby total exposure to vibrations between 5-2000 Hz is
limited to 400 minutes over an eight-hour period. Any exposure, however short, up to 150 min-

utes, is to count as a 150-minute exposure.

Information, Instruction and Training.
Information on the risks of the use of vibrating equipment and the associated health conditions
should be provided.
Instruction on the control measures to minimise the risk should be given (maintain good blood
circulation, keep hands warm whilst working, ensure equipment is properly maintained). Keeping
the hands warm during exposure to vibration helps to stimulate circulation of the blood to the extremities of the fingers; the expanded arterioles are then less likely to become subject to spasm
or fibrotic repair reactions that would cause blockages to occur. Chain saws circulate hot air from
the motor over the hands.
A similar approach can be taken with whole-body vibration, acknowledging the fact that elimination is unlikely to be an option for control, given the nature of the source of vibration. Workers
susceptible to whole body vibration include drivers, farmers and construction workers. The most
useful approach is to concentrate on reduction of vibration at source by using control options
such as:

Isolation (suspension systems for seats, cabs, vehicle body and tyres designed to reduce
vibration transmission).
Reduction in exposure time by breaks or job rotation.
Maintenance to eliminate unnecessary vibration.
Specification of new equipment to achieve low vibration standards.
Training in operating vehicles in a way that minimises vibration caused by terrain or driving techniques.

Health Surveillance.
Under Regulation 7 of the Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2005, there is a requirement
upon the employer to place under appropriate health surveillance those employees whom the risk
assessment indicates are at risk from, or liable to be exposed to, vibration; and those employees
who are likely to be exposed to vibration at or above an exposure action value. The purpose is to
prevent or diagnose any vibration exposure health effects. Records must be kept and made
available as required.
Where employees have been found to have an identifiable vibration-caused disease or adverse
health effect, the employee must be assigned to alternative work where there is no further risk of
vibration exposure, and the risk assessment must be reviewed.

8.1 Summary
Vibration is the term given to an oscillatory motion involving an object moving back and forth. Illhealth effects that can arise from exposure to vibration are:

Segmental vibration, the main form is Hand-Arm Vibration (or Hand-transmitted vibration);
this relates to hand-held vibrating tools and work pieces and occurs in processes in industry, agriculture, mining and construction. Regular and prolonged vibration can lead to circulatory and neurological disorders, and muscular and articular effects. Vibration-induced
white finger is one of the most common hand-transmitted vibration disorders.
Whole-body vibration, which occurs when the body is supported on a vibrating surface
and is associated with the transport industry or the use of heavy machinery. The principal
health problems associated with it relate to back disorders.

Exposure to vibration may be measured using an accelerometer.

The hierarchy of control measures for vibration range from elimination and substitution to reduc-

tion of vibration transmission, maintenance, reduced time exposure and information, instruction
and training.

Page 5.
Loss of control and feeling in fingers and hands, numbness or tingling in the fingers is a symptom
of
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1:

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

Response 1:
Jump 1:

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Answer 2:

Raynaud's Syndrome (white finger)

Response 2:
Jump 2:

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Answer 3:

Tendinitis

Response 3:
Jump 3:

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Answer 4:

All of these

Response 4:
Jump 4:

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