Chap.

6: Network Layer
The network layer, or OSI Layer 3, provides services to allow end devices to
exchange data across the network. To accomplish this end-to-end transport, the
network layer uses four basic processes: IP addressing for end devices,
encapsulation, routing, and de-encapsulation.
The Internet is largely based on IPv4, which is still the most widely-used
network layer protocol. An IPv4 packet contains the IP header and the payload.
However, IPv4 has a limited number of unique public IP addresses available. This led
to the development of IP version 6 (IPv6). The IPv6 simplified header offers several
advantages over IPv4, including better routing efficiency, simplified extension
headers, and capability for per-flow processing. Plus, IPv6 addresses are based on
128-bit hierarchical addressing as opposed to IPv4 with 32 bits. This dramatically
increases the number of available IP addresses.
In addition to hierarchical addressing, the network layer is also responsible
for routing.
Hosts require a local routing table to ensure that packets are directed to the
correct destination network. The local table of a host typically contains the direct
connection, the local network route and the local default route. The local default
route is the route to the default gateway.
The default gateway is the IP address of a router interface connected to the
local network. When a host needs to forward a packet to a destination address that
is not on the same network as the host, the packet is sent to the default gateway for
further processing.
When a router, such as the default gateway, receives a packet, it examines
the destination IP address to determine the destination network. The routing table
of a router stores information about directly-connected routes and remote routes to
IP networks. If the router has an entry in its routing table for the destination
network, the router forwards the packet. If no routing entry exists, the router may
forward the packet to its own default route, if one is configured, or it will drop the
packet.
Routing table entries can be configured manually on each router to provide
static routing or the routers may communicate route information dynamically
between each other using a routing protocol.
In order for routers to be reachable, the router interface must be configured.
To enable a specific interface, enter interface configuration mode using the interface
type-and-number global configuration mode command.

Chap. 7: Transport Layer

The transport layer provides transport-related services by:

Dividing data received from an application into segments

Adding a header to identify and manage each segment
Using the header information to reassemble the segments back into
application data
Passing the assembled data to the correct application

UDP and TCP are common transport layer protocols.

UDP datagrams and TCP segments have headers added in front of the data
that include a source port number and destination port number. These port numbers
enable data to be directed to the correct application running on the destination
computer.
TCP does not pass any data to the network until it knows that the destination
is ready to receive it. TCP then manages the flow of the data and resends any data
segments that are not acknowledged as being received at the destination. TCP uses
mechanisms of handshaking, timers, acknowledgement messages, and dynamic
windowing to achieve reliability. The reliability process, however, imposes overhead

on the network in terms of much larger segment headers and more network traffic
between the source and destination.
If the application data needs to be delivered across the network quickly, or if
network bandwidth cannot support the overhead of control messages being
exchanged between the source and the destination systems, UDP would be the
developers preferred transport layer protocol. Because UDP does not track or
acknowledge the receipt of datagrams at the destination - it just passes received
datagrams to the application layer as they arrive - and does not resend lost
datagrams. However, this does not necessarily mean that the communication itself
is unreliable; there may be mechanisms in the application layer protocols and
services that process lost or delayed datagrams if the application has these
requirements.
The application developer decides the transport layer protocol that best
meets the requirements for the application. It is important to remember that the
other layers all play a part in data network communications and influences its
performance.

Chap. 8: IP Addressing

IP addresses are hierarchical with network, subnetwork, and host portions. An

IP address can represent a complete network, a specific host, or the broadcast
address of the network.
Understanding binary notation is important when determining if two hosts are
in the same network. The bits within the network portion of the IP address must be
identical for all devices that reside in the same network. The subnet mask or prefix
is used to determine the network portion of an IP address. IP addresses can be
assigned either statically or dynamically. DHCP enables the automatic assignment of
addressing information such as IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, and other
configuration information.
IPv4 hosts can communicate one of three different ways: unicast, broadcast,
and multicast. Also, blocks of addresses that are used in networks that require
limited or no Internet access are called private addresses. The private IPv4 address
blocks are: 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16.
The depletion of IPv4 address space is the motivating factor for moving to
IPv6. Each IPv6 address has 128 bits verses the 32 bits in an IPv4 address. IPv6
does not use the dotted-decimal subnet mask notation. The prefix length is used to
indicate the network portion of an IPv6 address using the following format: IPv6
address/prefix length.
There are three types of IPv6 addresses: unicast, multicast, and anycast. An
IPv6 link-local address enables a device to communicate with other IPv6-enabled
devices on the same link and only on that link (subnet). Packets with a source or
destination link-local address cannot be routed beyond the link from where the
packet originated. IPv6 link-local addresses are in the FE80::/10 range.
ICMP is available for both IPv4 and IPv6. ICMPv4 is the messaging protocol for
IPv4. ICMPv6 provides the same services for IPv6 but includes additional
functionality.
After it is implemented, an IP network needs to be tested to verify its
connectivity and operational performance.