UNDER

MANNERS
AND
ROMAN

LIFE

EMPIRE
EARLY
THE

-!

c.^,

Supplementary Volume,

the Notes
the

and

by

publishedin

omitted

(popular)German

seventh

translated

Excursuses

Mr.
910.

J. H.

containing
from

edition,

Freese, will be

ROMAN

LIFE

AND

MANNERS
THE

UNDER

EARLY

EMPIRE

By

FRIEDLANDER

LUDWIG

Translation

Authorized

Seventh

the

of

and Revised Edition of the

Enlarged
Roms
Sittengeschichte

by
MA.

J. H. FREESE,
(In Three

Volumes)
III

Volume

WITH

AN

TO

INDEX

(Camb.)

THE

THREE

VOLUMES

LONDON

ROUTLEDGE

GEORGE
NEW

YORK:

"

E.

P.

BUTTON

"r1

LIMITED

SONS,
"

CO.

It

h-^^o'iSS

CONTENTS
CHAP.

PAaB

Belles-Lettres

Poetry

Artistic

and

Prose.

Effects of the system of education.

aim eloquence. Care of the state and
consisted

of

reading

and

and

Roman

Greek

poets.
school

; in the

Reaction

poets

introduced

Aulus

Gellius.

Teachers

poets

into

of

the

the

Pronto.
the

of

old

second

the

poets.

poets.

Precocious

Improvisation.

Rhetorical

exercises.

mations.
Decla-

Controversiae.

Tyrants
subjects

mantic
Ro-

pirates

and

in

used

Magicians

Romanorum.

in

poetry
study

Suasoriae.
themes.

at

The

schools.

"written

Pupils'

These

the

read

poets

themselves

numerous.

schools.

course

of

literature.

Archaic

often

elucidation

modem

Effects

century.

first

century chieflyliving poets.

first

against

chief

communes

The

eloquence.

in

for instruction

Its

i-8j

in

jects.
sub-

as

the

Gesta

controversiae.

rhetorical

Greek
rhetorical

schools.

of

and

poetry,

decay
Attempts

purity.
Its
Augustan age.
importance.
and
spread of a poetical language.
classical
other
of
Virgil and

the

poetry.

Effects of

from

the

Imperial
Augustus.

Tiberius.

second

century.

Results

of

the

Rise

literature.
and

Foundation

revived

the

Titus.

court

in the

phenomenon.
importance of poetry

of the

book

public libraries.
V

poets.

of this

printing compared.
of

larity
Popu-

Disappearance

from

Reasons

tion
Crea-

empire.

Nero.

Hadrian.

poetical dilettantism

poetry

literature.

and

poetry

Maecenas.

to

Parallels

early

the

of

of

classical

of

monarchy.

the

in

interest

result

the

literature

Nerva.

Domitian.

and

of prose.

century.
Effectsof the classical

dilettantism

of

colouring

and

second

Poetical

the

of

rhetorical

education

its

restore

of

Effects

poetical colouring

the

in the

language

The

school

of

Decrease

schools.

trade.

Prices

ing
Writ-

of books.

Introduction.

vi

Contents
PAGB

CHAP.

of recitations.

increase

Great

in

their

1-83

num-

reciters

presented themselves.
approval. The younger
Pliny
Expressions
recitations.
on
Emperors present. Readings
ing
Crowntimes.
in the Middle
Ages and modem
the
of
Capitoline).
poets (especially
Maximus.
Poets
crowned
Quintus Sulpicius
ber.

How

the

of

in

Middle

the

Domitian's

Ages.
Precarious

competition.
Juvenal's description. Their
the

generosityof

rich

the

of

dependence

and

relations
than

more

Mutual

great.

poets.
generosity
Generosity of great men.
"mperors.
Horace.

with

'

on

things. Imperial
The
later
Augustus.

to

His

poets.

of

of this state

advantages

Alban

livelihood

'

clients

in

Later

poets no
their patrons.
The

of

Messalla

panegyrics on
position of poets

Maecenas.

and

Nero's

Worse

Piso.
time.

Martial's

to obtain

"fiorts

patrons at court, amongst the

aristocracy,amongst the knights. Patrons of
Statius.

attitude.

degraded
social

of

Poverty

dignified.
substitute

for

occasional
and

of

means

attitude

more

higher occasional
poetry a
journalism. Large output of
Occasional

Statius

Disagreement
Their

as

Statius's

poetry.

Martial

Martial's

poets.

Poetry

amusement.
The

both

mutual

the

on

between

subjects.

same

Statius

of

poems
and

Martial.

and

jealousy. Over-proenvy
duction
poeticalliterature. Preponderance
of (mythological) epos.
Influence
of Virgil.
Poetical
trifles. Poetry mostly reproduction.
of Virgil and
Imitation
CatuUus.
Poetical
dilettantism
of the younger
Pliny. Poetical
dilettantism
in
the
common
higher circles,
of

even

at

about

an

advanced

in Hadrian's

"sophisticand
Roman
and

its

world.
the

of Greek

literature

of

Importance
after

in

the

taken

by

generallyin the

Influence

the

of

sophistic on
second

poetry

the Renascence

brought

by sophistic. Greek

effects

Interest

Romans

Revolution

age.
time

Greek

the emperors

sophistic art.
the

century.
in

and

Roman

Apuleius.

general education
period.

Contents

vii

CHAP.

PAGE

II Religion
1.

84-214
The

Belief

in Gods

Difference

(Polytheism).

between

authorities.

literaryand

Literature

hitherto

monumental

almost

sively
exclu-

utilized.

Irreligioustendencies in the
earliest
Christian
pre-Christian and

latest
times.

Hatred

Lucretius.

Epicureans
of educated

views

circles.
between

belief

of

Belief

polytheism

lian).

Absolute

Reconciliation

and

denial
of

rare

occurrence.

and

gious
Sceptics. ReliRomans
outside philosophical
(Tacitus). Wavering
monotheism
(Quintiof the
gods (Pliny).

faith

and

Stoic

in

reason

of belief in the second

theology. Restoration
rity
century. Development and dogmatic authoPlutarch.
of the theory of demons.
Apuleius.
Maximus
General
of Tyre.
impression
and
Roman
Uterature
in
produced by Greek
the

second

century.

Lucian.

second

The

Characteristic

phenomena
century emperors.
life.
Aehan's
of the newly awakened
religious
of Aristides.
intolerant orthodoxy. Fanaticism
and
of the
Undiminished
strength
permanence
popular belief. Three
proofs of it. (i) Its
Adoption of elements
power of assimilation.
from
Oriental religions. Theocrasy a necessary
of the intercourse

effect

of nations.

The

variable.
superstition relative and
Theocrasy, only ridiculed by unbelievers, did
Plutarch's
not
give offence to believers.
and
for Greek
reverence
Egyptian gods ahke.
barbarian
Hellenization
of oriental and
gods.
soldiers.
menclature
NoSpread of barbarian cults by the
divinities dependent
of barbarian
idea

of

upon

the

were

extent

to which

countries

theism.
(2) Productivity of Poly-

romanized.
New

individual

divinities.

Annona.

Belief in

beings. The
genii. The deification of human
The
worship of the dead and
imperial cult.
Cult of kings under
livingin Greece as heroes.
the Diadochi.
{3)
Apotheosis of Antinous.
Power

of

influence

resistance
on

shown

Christians.

by polytheism. Its
Direct

evidence

of

viii

Contents
PAGE

CHAP.

II

vitalityof the popular belief.

miracles.
Appearance of the gods

the undiminished
belief in

The

in person.
in miracles

miracle

divine miracles.

Other

tween
struggle beChristianity. The same

paganism and
claimed
by

amongst

monest
com-

in

Prognostics

educated.

nouncement
an-

marvellous

the

in

the
the

in advance

belief

of the

in

Belief

both.

of the future

the

belief

the

strengthenedby

form

The

84-170

the

nius
Sueto-

Tacitus.
writings of the historians.
of the belief in
on
Augustus. Continuance
of prophecy. Haruspicina.
traditional methods
Astrology. Oracles. Their temporary decline
of
preponderating influence
owing to the
Italian

Greek

of dreams.
belief

in

dreams

dorus.

Diseases

tablets

of Minerva

proper
as

in the
with

The

science.

'

dreams.

The

mindful

the

divinities

'.

votive

Belief

outside

Belief

sphere of influence.

invocation

of the

gods of definite
influence, especiallyJupiter. Lack
information
and

the

to

as

indifferentists.

Cult

and

Atheists

its effects

of

ritual in Rome.

brethren'

Old

General

spheres of
of definite

of unbelievers
a

old

small

minority.
of belief.

forms

of

ritual of the

local cults

of

cation
Invo-

maintenance

very
The

Italy. Continuance
Continuance

the

on

Maintenance
and

number

of very

their

gods
tions
inscrip-

local divinities.

and

in

in the

giversof blessings. Prayer. Votive

and
other
religiousmonuments.
of national

the

of Artemi-

dreambook

by

cured

nificance
sig-

interpretationof

The

Providence.

efficacyof local

the

belief

Its connexion

Widespread

Abonuteichos.

of

oracle of Alexander

The

countries.

reputation outside

their

spread of

and

val
revi-

Their

of divination.

methods

in

other

'

cult
field-

parts of

old cults in Greece.

general participation in
religiousworship.
Piety shown
practically in the building of temples and
a

Sacrifices.

other
the

for cult purposes

endowments

and

their

(especially

gods
trinkets). Costly temple
presents. Military posts for their protection.
with

images

of the

clothes

and

adornment

Contents
'MS

-ijo

ix

CHAP.

II

PAGE

Provision

for priestsand
temple attendants.
Worship of images. The image identified with
the divinity. D esecration of the divine images
a
proof of the strength of the belief in the
of the gods
power

84-170

.....

and

Judaism

II.

Christianity.

theism.
polyJudaism and Christianitydifferently
related to polytheism. Dispersion of the Jews
in the ancient
world.
The Jewish emigration
Their settlements
commercial.
not especially
Contrast

in the

East

West

and

of the Jews.
Jews. Hatred
dom
Judaism. Religious freetime of Hadrian.
Christianity.

"small number

of

in the

Christian

tanism.

The

in

of

of

Christian

on

the

amongst

Spread
in the

and

little known

Heathen

century.

converts

Seneca

period from

The

century.
a

proof of

III

Philosophy
The

its
the

survived
AS

and

with

dates

from

up

to

of rank

third

the

before

the

supposed relations
Thd
apostle Paul.
tianity
to Justinian. Chris-

contempt

up

to the

third

long death-struggleof paganism

vitality. Pagan elements which
downfall
of paganism

Moral

connexion

religionand

the

Theodosius

treated

of Christianity

The

reign of Commodus.
between

Spread

Christianityrarely

of Commodus.

mentioned

of
first

of Christians

classes

upper

of affairs

state

Relation

general population.

time

the

of Callis-

career

the

communities.

centuries.

second

to the

Mon-

Refutation of all

in Rome)
Christianity (especially
and

elements

Sects.

the

of the

writers

of the

causes

communities.

account

Christian

tions
Persecu-

Comparatively

Christianity.Impure
author

His

the

Trajan.

martjrrs. Chief

of

rapid spread

Christians.

of the

zeal

after the time

tus.

of

social

of

to the

Missionary

Heresies.

rest

Civil and

North.

the

Attractiveness
up

in the

Africa, in Rome,

and

Italy,in the
position of

and

monotheism

between

the

Educator
of

ancient

morality

supposed dangerous

with

effect of

170-2

i4v

215-281

Contents
PAGE

CHAP.

III

example of the gods

for sin by
sophistic'.

The

anthropomorphism.

'

alleged

excuse

an

as

of ancient

Nature

as

to the

Relation

morality.

contrasted

with

deity and

Christian
mankind.

the
tion
foundaKnowledge
Resignation.
of happiness. Happiness.
Christians.
the
Pagan morality recognizedby
Clement
Spread of Greek
of Alexandria.
world.
Opposition
philosophy in the Roman
to philosophy. Antipathies due to the Roman
national
character.
Philosophy disliked by

Moral

the

philosophy.

after

Change

the

in favour

philosophers.

of

Persecutions

authorities.

sophy
Philo-

of Domitian.

death
under

and

Aurelius

Marcus

to
represent
Attempts
Septimius Severus.
the
harmless
to
government.
philosophy as
disliked
the masses.
Seneca.
by
Philosophy

Most

uneducated

regarded

it

as

and

educated

many

useless.

The

men

between

contrast

elder
philosophers. The
ArisLucian.
Seneca.
Quintilian. Fronto.
tides.
Opponents of philosophy appeal to the
immorality of its professors. Pseudo-philosophers
and
in Rome
Greece, especiallyunder
Aurelius.
The
Marcus
Cynics. Philosophy
as
a guide to
recognized amongst the Romans
Differences
of
opinion as to the
morahty.
of philosophical training required.
amount
Roman
sympathy for philosophy. The school
the
Sextii.
of
Spread of Stoicism, Epicureanism,
rhetoricians

and

and

other systems amongst

the Romans.

Philosophy usually begun in early youth.

The
Logic and Dialectic.
Phjrsics. Ethics.
and
teachers'
right
obligation to supervise
of Uf e.
Teachers
their pupils'manner
of philosophy
under
three
aspects, (i) As educators
advisers in distinguishedfamilies.
and spiritual
Lucian' s
description of their
treatment.
at
court.
As
heads
of public
(2)
Philosophers
schools.

Instruction

unsatisfactory.
part

Both

responsible for
and

in

philosophicalschools

pupils
the

and

teachers

in

failure.
for

Flowery
applause. (3)

language
eagerness
Philosophersas moral missionaries

and

popular

214-281

Contents

xi

CHAP.

PAGE

III

preachers
Peregrinus.

and

philosophy

Belief

in

of

decay

of

development
The

centuries.

early

of

morality

tion
assumpthis

during

unfounded.

period
IV

in the

general

the

by

between
Standard

Cynicism.

elevated

morality

Demonax.

resemblance

of

Points

Christianity

of

Demetrius.

(Cynics).

Immortality

the

Soul

the

of

Attitude
in

of

educated

the

in

Tacitus.

Quintilian.

of believers

The

on

"-i.mTnnrta.1itv.

of
the

belief
the

apparitioBxistence
Incantats

^n

'.

tion

in

tweentlhef
Greek
to

iS

PessJ

eemembered

by

ble^sm

.vosing
Index

the

if not

of the
that

in

dead.

nature

has

ideas
of

or

less

Belief

in

immortality,
'

Devo-

Christian

and

Connexion

dead
of

vast

more

beUef

unbroken
the

bein

dead.

posterity.

followed

ancients.

of the
the

in

ferryman

death.

between

cult

death,

the

immortality.
and

belief

by

of

after

Roman

be

view

Uving

id

in

spirits

l)ifierence

pagan

the

Popular

idea

of the

proof
of the

tions
representa-

of

masses.

Widespread

materia.

neo-

eclectics.

held

BeUef

dunderworld.

and

tive
representa-

educated

proof

trity amongst

in

Galen.

Figurative

This

im-

and

the

as

the

amongst

monuments

of

doubters.
Cicero

Seneca.

Stoics.

Belief

Platonism

The

Pythagoreanism.

Materiahs-

Denial

systems.

immortality.

of

proof

other

belief

the

Pliny.

Epicureanism.

epitaphs.

mortaUty

elder

The

immortality.

tic

towards

282-313

the

Desire
Christian

by resurrection,
Death

given

the
to

greatest
man.

,^
315

CHAPTER

I-

BELLES-LETTRES

POETRY
In

influence

the

times

Roman

than

in

the

poets, and

him

way

far

and

science,
the

the

all

of
was

in

creative

the

object

the

ideas

in

clear

most

suitable

In

at

in

of

the

artistic

present
'no

R.L.M.

one

"

III.

of

elegant

day,

when

was

works

did
were

since

not

exist

not

sidered
con-

The

ment
develop-

ity,
receptiv-

of

intended

not

to

but

knowledge,

linguistic

of

words

of

of

them.

in

simpler,

power

of

manner

facilitate,

far

perfect mastery

employment

the

to

regard

part

comprehensive
a

is to

youth

his

was

the

those

from

to

or

increased

great

youth,

of

schools

in

the

of

poetry.
in

manifold

taking

of

its task

forth

set

to

of

choice

the

phraseology.
language,

great

far

than

when,

without

the

power
power

more
'

'

represented

attained

the

condition,

persuasive

and

and

of

for

to

in

to

position

was

given

Education
of

world

poetry

general education.

necessary

prose

attitude

taught

view.

be

knowledge,

faculties, not

republican times,

the

isays,

of

acquisition

expression

his

capable

antiquity

part

excellences

special

to

human

now

far-reaching

resulting

artistic

understanding
him

later

instruction

modern

rudimentary

the

facilitate

defining

learning

forming

as

of

of

only

or

of

in

hand,

branches

the

render

to

other

of

his

in

entirely different

were

of

general

educated

instruction

which

show

and

the

world

the

branches

possible,

as

of

to

it will

the

latter,

educated

of

important

most

at

the

aim

the

in

of

substitution

by

The

to-day.

put

of

in

purpose

relation

the

of

methods

and

On

the

determined

aims

as

of

mission

relation

this

made

be

comprehensive

For

lastly the

measure

of

idea

will

education

on

more

days.

PROSE

attempt

an

poetry

much

was

an

poetry,
The

of

modern

obtain

to

ARTISTIC

following investigation

the

that

AND

knowledge
Tacitus

as

aid

of
B

elo-

Belles-Lettres

political

But
', this is easy to understand.
although
silence
after
the
to
reduced
downfall
eloquence was

quence

of
livelysusceptibility

republic,the
livingword
'

necessary

to

utterances

written

and

the

to

influence

certain

in all

under

the

spoken word,
other

they stand in the

language ',says Diodorus
barbarians,

the

man

one

be

can

'

Seneca,

elder

to

it

teachers,

the
it

education

only
duty
the

to

the
and

that

to

It is by the power
are

superiorto
by

this alone

It is easy ',says the

to all other arts and

it does

not

to itself '.

and, generally speaking, for aU

life.

The

and
the

who

best standard

of

imperialtimes, the best proof that

regarded as the most important element in

generally,is
branches

for the

the
of

fact that

it held

instruction,and

teachingof which

provide.

The

the first place in

long

the state

remained

considered

the

it its

first

pubUc professorships
founded
by
and endowed
with an ample salary
those of Greek
and
Roman
oratory.

in Rome

who

emperor,

'

indispensablenot only for advocates

for higher officers or functionaries,
for

(100,000 sesterces)were
The

of

to it in

then

government

spoken

inverse

was

those, whom

even

prominent positionin

different
one

many

and

importance

uneducated
'

the

relation

Greeks

'

equips

statesman,

even

was

also

attached

value

the

but

or

aspiredto

was

the

eloquence

specialreference

Eloquence
senator

to the

from

pass

their

as

world.

,"that

superior to

accomplishments ;
train with

modern

the educated

the

empire
far

to

life still rendered

public

cases

concerned,

were

in which
of

as

the

southerners

of ancient

extent

even

each

on

habits

all the

and

'

the

of

imposed

this burden

on

the

treasury and

'

Quintihan, the glory of the Roman

toga ',1to the
Roman
chair,and made him the chief controller of the unsteady
youth ',was
Vespasian,the economical
ruler,the inveterate
of
all
ideal
in
opponent
tendencies, whose eyes practicalneeds
were
ever5d:hing.Soon, not merely the large cities of Italy
least
about
the middle
of the second
(at
century),but even
smaller towns
and the provinces had their
many
professorsof
eloquence appointed by the communities
the largest no
;
summoned

'

doubt, like Rome,

An

way

had

unremittingand
for the

to
Referring

exclusive

teaching of

stammering lips of
1

chairs of both

his

the

practiceas

an

Greek

study

of

and

Latin.

poetry prepared

the

eloquence. The poet 'formed the

child
; reading and
elucidation of
'

advocate,when it.
was

necessary to

wear

the torn

Belles-Lettres
the

poets

almost

the

risinggeneration.

was

of music

the

and

only subjectof
the other

On

geometry

in

than

poetry

to its connexion

days. The

own

our

to

other

some

school

instruction for

hand, only

ledge
knowtrifling

recognizedas

was

in
desirable ; the former, instruction
limited to theory, seems
to have
owed
curriculum

which

necessary

or

frequently

was

its admission

into the

far closer
poetry, which was
youthful mind was also introduced by
with

of

branches

omy
learning geography,astron"

Latin
and
for
furnished
themes
(which in both Greek
poetical descriptions),philosophy,the history of literature,
in which

historyproper,

and

included.

adopt

At

assimilate

and

from

wisdom

the

the

Where

school of
with

higher

same

the

in

children

ally
gener-

were

to

morality and worldly

maxims
lected
were
probably colselections especially
adapted

numerous

aimed

was

Greek

were

intended

of

doctrines

education

included

well

at, the
Latin

instruction

at

It

began
course
approved by QuintUian ; for although
for a complete understanding of his
necessary

course

as

as

poets.
'

Homer,

riperyears

time

poets, whose

for this purpose

school
use.

for

legend and mythology

a
were

poetry, every

would

one

him

read

than

more

Of

'.

once

poeticalworks he mentions tragedies and lyricpoems

would
apparently only exclude those which might offend
recommends
scrupulous,for example, elegies
; he especially

other
he

the

Menander,

whose

pieces were

read

in

boys'

girls'schools

and

and
days of antiquityHomer
were' given to boys beginning Greek.
The
father
Menander
of the poet Statins kept a school at Naples, which, as his son
the neighnot merely by boys from
attended
bouring
assures
us, was
in Ovid's

Even

time.

towns,
school

Homer,

in the last

Apulia. At this
Hesiod, Theocritus, Pindar, Ibycus, Alcman,
but

also

from

Lucania

and

Callimachus,
Corinna,
Lycophron,
Stesichorus, Sappho,
such
read.
an
tended
exCertainly,
Sophron and other poets were
study of Greek poetry outside of Greek countries would
hardly have been possible,except in a city like Naples, where
still held their ground ; but
the Greek
language and manners
educated
that every
it may
probablj'
man,
fairlybe assumed
when

he

left

school, had

important Greek

poets.

some

This

Sabinus, who, to appear

which
the poets by heart from
Calvisius

acquaintance with
is shown

by

Seneca's

learned,made
he

was

fond

the

most

story of

his slaves learn

of

quoting ;

in

Belles-Lettres

4
addition

Hesiod, he mentions

and

Homer

to

the

lyric

nine

poets.
We
for

nothing further

know

periods;

at

those

read

the

main

him

to

beginning of

the schoolroom
a

extent

that

century

at the

Next

Greek.
the

to

the
not

were

the second
the

of the young
; and his poems
subjectof the Latin course,

the hands
the

second

what

know

do

we

beginningof
first century, Virgilwas

complete
In

or

of the Greek

poets

it varied

Latin
the

poets

same

as

ary
in the first ; a change due to the revolution in literartistic taste, which
began after the time of Nero and

and
was

but

in the

school

read

to the choice

instruction, whether

school
different

at

as

century.

poet put into

first Latin

the foundation

were

those of Homer

as

probably Horace

read

most

was

'.

Cornelius

; even

at

century their busts usually adorned

grammarian Quintus Caecilius Epirota,

The

themostmodern

first to introduce
in his

of the

the second

of Cicero's friend Atticus, is said to have

freedman

and

poets as

school, opened after the death

been

the

curricupart of the lum

his patron the poet

of

(died26B.C.) In this he read and commented

of Virgil(evidentlybefore the death of the latter
the poems
on
in 19 B.C.) and
other livingpoets, which
gained him from
Martial
of poets in swaddling clothes '.
the name
of
nurse
But
Caecilius probably only established
the rule what
had
as
Gallus

'

hitherto

the

been

exception ;

for

Horace,

in

satire written

years later,declares it is follyfor a poet to desire the

and to feel flattered at his poems
applause of the multitude
being

several

read

in second-rate

schools,where, to all appearance,

of the most
modern
livingpoets

after this

read
period the works
were
We
conclude
that
Lucan's epic was
by preference.
read
may
after
its
at school
immediately
publication from the fact that
in Vespasian'stime poeticalorpament
from the sanctuary of
'

Virgil,Horace,
Is further

of his

have

was

his

was

requfred

of the

orator

by the

of Suetonius
express statement
taken
by the booksellers in the

this
and

get-up

verses

the best proof

it
Persius
is
fine
a
poet.
says
thing for a poet to
dictated to a number
of curly-headed

boys

the statement

poems,

'

works, the sale of which, says Martial,was

that he

confirmed

Lucan

extraordinary care

the

and

and

which

of the

at that time

scholiast,that this refers

were

in

general

use

to Nero's

in schools

is in

Juvenal, vii,227. According to the scholiast,

however, the reference is to copies
of
*^

their works,

Belles-Lettres

6
the

latter the

his

review

Cato

of the

to read

the

old

he does

authors

standard

Gracchus.

or

is consecrated

to what

respectdue

admitted

he

However,

According

poets at school.

not

even

that

it

to

In
age.
mention

by

him,

proper

was

their works

certainlywell adapted to nourish and promote the

development of a boy's mind, although their strength lay rather
in their art ; but they were
in their truth
than
to nature
the copia verborum, tragedy
calculated
to increase
especially
by its seriousness and dignity,comedy by its elegance. Their
careful than
more
was
composition also, regarded artistically,
that of most of the moderns, who considered sententious
phrases
works.
the chief beauty of poetical
Consequently,it is in the
were

of the

works

older

moral

that

writers

vigour must be looked for, since the language of

and
has degenerated owing to its ultra-refinement

the

To

all appearance,
it
gained the upper hand.
Cato

to Cicero

bound

was

two

Antonines

control

under

was

Ennius

and

to

ensure

they

appear
and
Uterature

over

But

the members

even

exclusive

most

combined

with

in Pronto.
Aurelius
ancient

In
and

Lucius

; Horace
of Marcus, when

only to

that

there

nonentity

to

about,
passages
others.
archaists
who

ferred
pre-

and

his port,
supunder
the

almost

absolute

them

judge

from

the

Pronto, their most

as

party held divergentopinions;

absolute

veneration

for the

issue

is full of

ancients,

quotations from

of

Virgiland Livy will be

is mentioned
once.
Only after the
his
begging permissionto resume
names

teacher, does

then

Emperor,

Virgil,
gave

schools,

Verus, which

hterature, the

as

the

the

other

equal contempt for the moderns, is to be found

his correspondencewith his royal pupils,
Marcus

for in vain

duties

to

the

and

and

that

their supremacy
to have
obtained

of this

and

Hadrian

fact that

The

reputationenjoyed by such
extreme
representative.
the

Lucilius, Terence

Ennius, Accius, Pacuvius,

moderns

affectation.

Finally,Quintihan appeals to the example of Cicero

what
they were
great orators, who
certainlyknew
when
into their speeches so many
they introduced
from

internal

and

earnestness

most

he

mention

Seneca

and

looked
sion
acces-

former

Lucan,

and

serious

He
warning against both.
then
expresses, with indescribablycomic
apprehension, his
the subjectof a certain penchant for the
serious anxiety on
modern
exhibited by Marcus in one of his speeches. He allows
are

many

beauties

in Lucan,

but

'

little piecesof

Belles-Lettres
silver

to be found

are

for them.
such

works

Aulus
he

The

safest

altogether,for
of

is to abstain

thing

slipperyground

on

likes to

one

from
there

mage
rum-

reading
is always

tripping'.

GelUus,

thought

',if any

sewers

'

danger

more

in

even

the

on

whole, held the

it necessary

to

same

Seneca

mention

views

as

once,

in order

Fionto

to

He thinks it
strongly and decisively
against him.
pronounce
will be enough to quote the offensive criticisms of this insipid
'

and

'

insensate

fellow upon Ennius, Virgiland Cicero ; Lucan

mentions.
But
Gellius, although a great pedant,

he

never

was

by

than

no

without

means

Pronto

and

taste

less narrow-minded

was

; he admired

Virgilas much as Ennius.

Certainly,
he mentions
other poets of the Augustan age except Horace,
no
whom
he pays the honour
of citinga passage in support of the
of

name

wind.

Thus, in the
in

revolution

century

who

had

been

number

admiring, appears

of

ignored in
which

been

the

the two

small

; in

and

prose

imitated

and

complete

years,
place ; the

taken

admired

poets

to have

hundred

had

despised and

were

The

versa.

about

literarytaste

writers

verse

of

course

in the first

vice

and

second,

periods united in
addition
to Virgil,

whose

the archaists never

greatness even
contested, a special
favourite was
the
moderns
had
even
Catullus, for whom
Martial
imitated
before all others.
an
afiection, and whom

Juvenal is the last of

the

moderns

; he

tion
livelyrecollecepic poet of the party in

of how

Statins, the celebrated

the time of Domitian, delightedall Rome
that

he

would

read

his Thebaid

enchanted

; how

were

was

stamping of the audience.

completely forgotten,and

had

long

of the

moderns

announcement
to

collapsedfrom
a

in the

friends

the

all flocked

hear

him

the

zied
fren-

generationlater,Statius
time

in schools.

to be read
still had

But

and

of Hadrian

Lucan

Nevertheless, several
readers
; thus, Aelius

fond of Ovid and Martial (whom he called

especially
Virgil)who was one of the poets most frequentlyread to
the friends of this kind of
last days of antiquity. But

Verus
his

ceased

by

how

the seats

and

had

was

the

literature

cannot

have

century.

Ennius,

to

sufficient respectby

been

whom

very

in

numerous

Quintilianthought

allowinghim

in every one's
antiquity,was now
[Enneanistae]toured Italy,and

to pass as

mouth.
Aulus

the

he had

venerable

Reciters

GelUus

second
shown
relic of

of Ennius

tells how

one

Belles-Lettres

8
read

of them

the

had
(0i\dAoyot)

all

above

at

In

Ennius.

on

Marcus

pupil,the Emperor

his former

(writtenin i6i) to

letter

strong

be

to

Puteoli,
Grammarians

theatre

his audience.

applauseof

the enthusiastic

amidst

in

Ennius

of

Annals

to recruit,
days to Alsium
after his
Fronto
picturesthe emperor reading for amusement
fill of
from
Plautus, taking his
siesta, 'seeking refinement
of Lucretius, or firinghisimagmaAccius, enjoyingthe charm

Aurelius, who

with

tion

had

Ennius

for

gone

few

'.

It goes without
saying that the few poets of talent whom
authors.
the lines of the ancient
on
that age produced moved
and
Julius Paullus, friends of Gelhus,
poets Annianus
were
intimately acquainted with the ancient language and
of his
learned men
literature, the second being one of the most
well read
day ; another learned poet, a friend of Fronto, was
The

Ennius.

and

in Plautus

of archaistic
a

poetry

mendably free from exaggeration '.

Naturally this radical revolution
similar

change

specimen
epitaphof
municipal magistrate

chief

after

the
in

Latin, and

elegant old-fashioned

in

characteristic

preserved in the

been

by himself

written

Aeclanum,

Plautus

has

Pomponius Bassulus,

certain Marcus
of

short but very

style com-

; the modem

in the school curriculum

tolerated

entirelydisplacedby the ancient or at most

by their side. In QuintiUan'stime the old poets were
in many

Gellius
But

the

went

to

there

were

hours

spare
as

still

estimate

was

was

not

; it

the

the works

filled the memory

See

the

not

of

everywhere.

extra

upon

', an
an

as

study.

It

occupation for
amusement,
is

poets

and

of those
of

of kindred

culture, and

but

difi"cult

system of education, which

instrument

when

put into the hands of

learnt
by heart in school.

'

serious

the

probably

modern

were

an

looked

national

important

nourishment

elevated

for

eflEects of

of the

the most

and

read

was

poets who

time

subject

only

school, Ennius

that

at

with

concurrently

read, explained and

young,

Poetry

as

schools

poets were

either

read

about

brought

in taste

of

manner

as

to

regarded
peoples

almost

the

the

youthful intellect. It necessarily

poeticalturns and expressions ; roused
activityof the imagination by a wealth of
with

Mommsen
Carpus InscriptiotmmLatinarum,ix.,
in Hermes, iii. on
1164.
grounds considers Bassulus a near contemporary of Trajan ; Ritschl from
of style,
assignshim to the second (orperhaps the third)
century.'

torical
hissiderations
con-

Belles-Lettres
imagery
artistic

early developed

representation,and
minds.

have

lasted

of

sense

made

time

of

beauty

and

for

when

nature

lifetime.

quently)
(perhapsfre-

this, the professorssometimes

poets themselves, and thus were

to

were

form,

impressionable
printed
impressions,firmly imit is most
susceptible,

it second

efifectof these

mind, at

addition

In

The

the

on

must

the

able

to

suade,
per-

and

actuallydid persuade,their pupilsto try their hand

at poetry and
in their attempts. Learning
assisted them
and
not
than
poetry were
antagonistic at Rome, any more
ism
formerly at Alexandria and subsequently in the age of humanquitean ordinary thing for the same
; in both placesit was
and
the philological
poet ; among
person to be both savant
disdained
celebrities of Alexandria, Aristarchus, who
poetry,

prominent exception. Only a mind rendered fruitful

by a powerful stream of literature ',says the poet in Petronius,
is capable of conceiving and bringing forth a poeticalwork
'.
was

'

'

of the

One

'

learned

was

usual

most

in

', not

our

perfectknowledge of the
by the study of the best
Rome,
and

such

this

as

'

Cato, surnamed
of the

Ennius

probably

was

repubUc,

the

was

bestowed

titles of honour
of the

sense

forms

and

models.

Livius

and
often

The

the

poets,

were

Valerius

in later times.

case

siren ', who lived

considered
excellent
an

of

schoolmasters

Andronicus,

Latin

in the

last

teacher

days

dents
for stu-

'

not
who
merely expounded, but
poetry, a man,
intendent
poets '. Lucius Melissus, appointed by Augustus superalso a
of the hbrary in the porticusof Octavia, was

of

made

poet

and

invented

new

kind

comedy. The father

prizein poeticalcontests

of Latin

poet Statins had gained the

only in his native city Naples,but
of the burning of the Capitol in

of the
not

implying a
art, acquired

of the

oldest

poets

but

word,

rules

the

on

sung
intended

; he

also in Greece
the

civil

war

of

had

69, and

in 79
(which
eruption of Vesuvius
of
the
and Pompeii)
subject a poem ;
destroyed Herculaneum
his son enjoyed his advice and guidance in the composition of
his

make

to

the

Thebaid.

But

even

without

direct

encouragement,

lads

possessedof

to find in this
bound
gift for form were
intensive applicationto poetry at school a sufiicient incentive
to poetical
precocity
attempts of their own
; to all appearance
Catullus
had
rather the rule than the exception.
already
was
certain

taste

and

Belles-Lettres

to

written

'

his first

bestowed

was
toga viyilis)

still earher.
and

him,

mere

flowed

verses

(the

robe

white

pose
began to comtracted
secretly atboy, the Muse
his pen long before he
from

him

upon

When

first the

when

love-songs

Ovid

'.

public, when his beard

was
justbeginning to sprout '. Propertiusbegan his attempts
his
at poetry after assuming the
toga virilis. Virgilwrote
teen
he was
Culex when
sixteen ; Lucan
(a.D.39-65) was only fourfifteen when
he composed his Iliacon, the subject of
or
of age

was

which
It

; he

the

was

same

(Catachthonion)
he

was

prizeat

Pharsalia

the

Agon founded by the latter, and began the

later. The boyish productionsof Persius were

also when

possessed the
same

after his death

of

written
by the
poems
entered the rhetorical
lives

were

still extant
find

to
had

in the

and

good education,
of

school),which
and

Pius
time

of Cornu-

advice

that

by his poems

first Gordian

of Antoninus

the

the

on

shown

equally fond

was

age

had

boy

elements

(the

poem

year
; in his twenty-first
Nero
with
o
n
a
paneg5rric
competitor

year
by his mother

Nero

tus.

another

as

the

destroyed

well

period,as

underworld

the

on

unsuccessful

an

for the

at

till a late

in existence

was

of the Iliad.

books

of the last three

that

as

'

in

his first poem

read

Lucius

Verus

writing poetry.
(apparently before

included

Marcus

reputation of Serranus, who died young,

boyish poems which caused great thingsto

be

with

the

made

was

he

Antoninus)

Martial

glad

was

poeticaltrifles of his schoolboy days, which

forgottenhimself, for sale at the book shops ;

almost

The

Antoninias

an

Aurehus

of Constantine.

he

by

he

the
his

expected of him.
The
elder Statins excited universal admiration
by taking part
in a poetical
when
and
a boy,
competition
parents pointed him
out
to their children
as
an
example ; the rhetorician Publius
Annius
Florus, when a boy, competed for the Capitolinewreath
a

the

on

poem

Dacian

triumph,

Maximus
Quintus Sulpicius
the

thirteen

obtained
In

it

olden

Licinius

turns

Greek
of

Archias

and

Valerius

poets

Antioch

of Strabo.

Rome,

where

formulas

It
it

were

was
was

in which

Pudens
verdict

such

which

accompUshment

time
in

Lucius

eleven

improvised Greek

(in 106) by the unanimous

times

an

in the

year

old

with

and

as

year

hexameters;
of

Histonium

of the

judges.

Antipater of Sidon

famous

for

old

their

and

sation,
improvi-

at Tarsus
very common
probably also frequently
practised
facihtated
by the stereotyped

the

was

language of poetry abounded

Belles-Lettres
and

11

the

easily accessible store of metaphors and similes,

common
places,and mythological parallels
; again, it was
recommended
of acquiring a complete mastery
as
a
means
of expressionand metres.
Themimograph Pubhliusof
Syria
is said to have challengedthe dramatists
to a contest
in improvisati
subjects set by

on

of his native

art

his

land

he

each

defeated

side ; by his skill in the

all his competitors,including

important rival Laberius.

QuintiUan speaks
of improvisationas an art much
in
Lucan
practised his time.
improvised an Orpheus (inhexameters), the subjectapparently
time.
Martial, who
being set to several poets at the same
combined
in the treatment
with the
of form
a
ready facility
capacity of striking the most varied notes, no doubt improvised
considerable
of his epigrams, at banquets,
number
a
and
of Statius thrown
off
on
given subjects. The
poems
the spur of the moment
at least
on
on
specialoccasions, were
of the word.
ApolUnaris
improvisationsin the wider sense
in
Sidonius
addition to shorter improvisations,
also mentions
he competed with three friends at a
a
longer one, in which
theme
in different metres.
of the same
banquet in the treatment
Thus prepared,lads and young
cal
men
passed into the rhetorischools, where, partlyunder the guidance of the professors,
Here
also,
they studied prose instead of poeticalmodels.
the prevailingliterary
of course,
tendency exercised the same
most

influence

the

upon

choice

of authors

as

in the

boys' schools.
Livy and

beginners Quintilian recommended

Cicero (Sallustfor the
more
advanced), and found
to issue a warning against putting Gracchus
For

young

into the

of lads.

hands
these

Aurelius, and

and

authors
the

Fronto,

prince,who

entirely shared
the study of Horace
year,

his
and

the

other

like to

the

then

in his

was

master's

devoted

the

on

taste

himself

he

it

sary
neces-

and

hand,
young

Cato
mended
recom-

Marcus

twenty-second

early gave

exclusivelyto

up

Cato,

the
great edification
Cicero, however, although not exactly
speeches of Gracchus.
also recognized by the
after Fronto's
orator
heart, was
an
inferior
not
archaists as a model, and considered
by many
while

to

at

the

Gracchus,

to

second

century

schools

at

least

Instruction

time

same

the

in

annoyance

found

of Aulus

Gellius

; even

in the

place in the rhetorical

firmly as Virgilin the grammatical.
the rhetorical schools bonsisted
mainly of

he
as

he

in

maintained

his

Belles-Lettres

12

under

special exercises, gradually increasing in difficulty,

the
exercises, starting from
the teacher's
guidance. These
in
subjectsand ideas derived from the works of the poets
admirably
measure
in a
the
grammatical schools, were
incUnations which
adapted to foster and develop the poetical
on
first the
At
pupils wrote
been
had
already aroused.
which
narrating historical events, on
accustomed
to
first,they were
try their hand

given subjects.
had

they

to

In

excessivelydetailed descriptionsof every kind 'in

inteUigent teachers
of poetic Ucence
imitation
; however,
least showed
at
preferred these youthful vagaries, which
insert

'

abiUty, to
of
of

meagreness
examination

an

legends

credible

and

that

in his duel with

and

pecked
to

have

Remus

Numa's

Greek

aridity.
of the

types of

e.g.

sisted
con-

probabihty or improbabiUty

his

eyes ; the

serpent, which

of the

nature

and
begotten Scipio,or the wolf of Romulus
ancient
which
Egeria ; and similar themes

of
praiseor censure
dealingwith
commonplaces, especially

the

exercises

next

provided in abundance.
history in particular

Further

the

The

it was
legendary narratives : e.g. whether
crow
reaUy perched on the head of Valerius
latter's face
a Gaul, flapped his wings in the

out

is said

and

the

famous
the

men

fooUsh

so-called

and

vicious

(the adulterer, the gambler, the debauchee,

mankind

pimp, the parasite)or their varieties (theblind adulterer,

impoverished gambler, the old debauchee) ; comparisons,
of town
and
fessions,
country hfe, of the legaland mihtary proof

originsof

certain
armed

as

and

marriage
customs

by

cehbacy
and

investigation of the
Venus

ideas, e.g. why

the Lacedaemonians,

the

why

is represented

boy Cupid
with

bow,
wings
equipped
for
the
torch.
These
most
arrow
things
part readily
the
last named
to poetical treatment,
adapted themselves
for instance
being actually the subject of one of Propertius's
elegies,while the superioradvantages of a country hfe were
of the poets.
favourite theme
a
and
After these
similar preparations,the pupil began to
exercises, the so-called
declamations
'.
attempt oratorical
in
the
delivered
role
of
wellBeginners
monologues
some

was

conceived

eis

and

having

and

'

known

historical

personage,

against
important
(such monologues were
an

and

in

which

decisive

called

the

resolution

reasons
were

suasoriae). The

for
set

and
forth

characters

Belles-Lettres

14

by dressinghim in that
the right of ownership.
But

such

came

to

interesting.Criminal

cases

took

and

fictitious

questions of civil
part of the extant
of

historical

an

controversiae, and

of

collections

been

have

character

only

history form

and

real

for

substituted

were

cases

law

regarded as not sufSciently

putes,
the place of property dis-

be

soon

cases

practicallyrenounced

had

manner,

garbled

ones

very
even

those

produce

to

demanded
Certainly, sensible masters
resemble
reaUty as far as possible; but

their

appearance
clamoured

drastic

is shown
elder

thrillingand

for

and

Seneca

succeeding

effects, was

the

by

in
ones,

predominance

resistance

the

to

of the

which

of

Controversiae

(that of

the

of

time
well

as

all

to

ing
piquant situations,strong seasonw
ithout
result.
This
practically

first collection
the

prevailingtaste,

that

greater effect.
fiction should

small

more
Augustus) and even
by
by the repeated complaints of the

as

nonsensical

in

the

rhetorical

schools.

According to Petronius, the fault lay, not with the teachers,

who, if they did not wish to see their classes empty, were
obligedto do as others did, but in the vanity of the parents.
the exclusion
of all
incredible
Quintilian himself considered
and
of the word
too
poetical subjects in the proper sense
'

'

that

impracticable; it was
recreation
and
people some
the subjects although emotional

were

not

and

severe

young

foolish

and

controversiae

extent

both

if not

actually contrary

and

ridiculous.

or
possibility,

even

it.

school

for itself a fantastic

The

not

assumed

was

provided

persons

and

for

by

the

circumstances

occurred
imaginary ; it never
pictures of real life. It may
the

should

In

world

far

were

the
time

great

part, even
removed

have

at most

on

been

borderline
the

of

rhetorical

of its own,

separated

practicallife by a deep gulf which could not be bridged.

existence
of imaginary justice,of imaginary, even
possible,
imlaws

crime

overstepped

to

the most

reality,they

to

were

The

often

For

it ; they made
a rule of what
allowed
as
an
exception; they

from

provided
full of bombast,

and

were

from

created

the

ridiculous.

Unfortunately, the
tooUsh

allow

to
necessary
amusement,

last

periods

of

for
law

instance, ingratitude,or
was

admitted

of these
to

any

appear

as

fictions

one

actionable.
were

purely

to

as
regard them
strange that, during

imperial despotism, when

men's

minds

Belles-Lettres
bent

beneath,

last trace

hatred

these

tyrants,

their

fathers

the

to

except

',

after

issued
in

were

other

If

Caligula banished

declamation,

same

tyrants and

who

if Domitian

be remembered

extravagance,
for an
however
trifling,
and
exceptional,

affected the
Next

to

sometimes

'

of the

she

The

elopeswith

marriage of

the

father.

involved

were

between

in

The
As

"

the

home

to

son

slave should
In

be

civil war,

the

on

is himself

other

she

and

the

woman

on

one

latter.

He

'

Die

'

proposes
father

by

She

hangs

that

of three

excessive

dies, he will

the
sons,

herself

should

father

having

lost two

He

dreams

weeping.
recover

his door.

at

his

sight.

He

be

by death,

spurns

replies,
the

Whereupon
declared

insane.

"

becomes

that, if the
tells the dream

his

tribunes.

is killed ; the wife flees for refuge to her father, who

'
he
her ; on her asking, How
I to appease
am
you ?
'

slave

that

are

the

follows

imate
legit-

his

orders

appeals to

sides

conflicts

asks

man

diated
repu-

both

on

in his will he

of

The

proposed to the
and
to repudiate

actors

sick

crucified ; the slave

the father and brother

side, her husband

swears

her.

painfuland strenuous
obligations,
equally strong

feelingsand inclinations.
give him poison ; he refuses ;

him

is

consent

rule, the

letter

He

in
the

makes

most

equally sacred

ling
rat-

into

in

marries

and

refuses, and

son

bank

fallen

piratechief

of the

"

to

the

his father

wealthy orphan

the

upon

pirate'sdaughter.
by

way

favourite

the

her, if he gains his freedom.

with

son

caUs

in any

they

has

beseeches

vain

him, he returns

his

father, who
the

that

who

man,

young

daughter

oath to marry

an

these

lovely daughters, as

had

they

pirates,in

him.

ransom

take

evidence

no

capable

any excuse,
two
instances

'

following story.

hands

is

the

of such

choice

chains

to

there

for

Caligulawas
;

'.

for such

death

to

welcomed

of violence

act

death

to

Carinas

subjects.
fearful tyrants, brutal pirates were
the rhetorical
schools, standing on

subjectin
the

that Domitian

and

tyrant

that

execute

marionettes,
full classroom,

Maternus

put

'

as

Secundus

the rhetorican

of any

are

favourite

to

sons

harmless

pupils,in

their

put

it must

reason,

edicts, ordering

whose

declaimers

tyrannicide. But

extolled

reality as
'

'

coniroversiae,and

the

teacher,

the

oppressionand the
disappeared,tyrants were

fearful

most

speech had

in

of
"

of the

of

characters

breathed

one

yoke

of freedom

stock

the

the

third
to his

son

The

blind
son

wife.

Belles-Lettres

The
tells it to his son, who
immediately hangs himself.
putes
disfather recovers
his sight,but repudiates his wife, who
A husband
to do so.
his
repudiateshis wife for

who

right
their

adultery;

demands

son

ostensibly for
starving mother

of money,
reallyfor his
sum

repudiatesthe
The

"

the

support

of

he

what

father

his

from

has

and

done.

freelyintroduced.

were

mistress, but

finds it out

father

the

strikingcontrasts

most

receives

defends

who

son,

and

Stock

rich man,
and
the
the poor
mutually hostile
figures were
bees gather honey in the rich
(forinstance, the poor man's
man's
garden, who poisonsthe flowers, and so kills the bees);
on

hand, their children'are often fond lovers.

birth are sold for the brothel, dishonoured

of noble
are
or

given the choice between

marriage with him ; young
obtain

individuals

afflictions overtake

plague especiallywas
to the

oracle

maidens

; a

of noble

are

father.

the

Terrible

countries.

sacrifice of

only
stayed by
is
visited
by famine
country

and

pelled
com-

gladiator,
e.g.

subject,which

be

can

criminal

birth

whole

and

favourite

bury

to

maidens

of the

punishment

men

of money

advance

an

the

disgracefulprofessionof

the

enter

to

to

Maidens

the other

the

The

according
some

young
inhabitants

eatingthe corpses of the victims.

Bodily
of
and mental
afflictions
ness
an
exceptionalnature, such as blind(and its wonderful
cure) and insanity; miracles (a
woman
brings forth a negro child and is accused of adultery);
cruel punishments (hurlingfrom a rock) and torture ; murder
and
suicide, especiallyby hanging and poison (the cutting
of the rope and the pouring out of the poison were
stereotyped
such
and
horrible
crimes
the
tion
mutilaas
motifs);
parricide
are

reduced
finally

of

to

children, trained

to

beg by

who

one

lives

on

what

especiallyfamily horrors of all kinds (of

wicked
in tragedy'
than
even
course
'stepmothers, more
the favourite ingredients,,
are
frequent characters) such were
for the preparation of strongly eSective
contfoversiae,which
were
so
greatly in demand, and which always elicited thunders
of applause in the schools.
they

receive

but

"

It is remarkable

that

these

Seneca
ancient

widely

was

and

fictions
laid

authority
circulated

at

the

partook

under
in
in

time

same

of the

character

contribution
a

the

collection
middle

the

more

of

novels

clearest

proof

of

novels, that

than

other
any
anecdotes

and

ages, the Gesta Romanorum.

Belles-Lettres
enchanters

'

The

17

', who

subsequently played an important

part in these themes, were
perhaps only introduced later,
is the first to complain of them, while they are
for Quintilian
mentioned

in Seneca, Petronius
and Tacitus ; on
the
of Quinother hand, in the collection which
bears the name
tilian,
of hatred excited by a magic potion,
there is a case
not

astrological
prophecy, and

an

'

class,

this

the

enchanted

her

son, is visited

her

husband,

tomb

another

enchantment

unsuccessful tries
a

theme

in

In

Greek

the

exercises
'

The

magic.

rhetorical

differed

schools

the

the

spellover

brings a

the

plaint
com-

his
a

'.

of the

source

attempts

kill

to

by

wife, and

being
subject for

common

of the

end

tells

of ill-treatment

are

seduced

second

century.

schools, the subjectsof oratorical

in
essentially
'

cast

who

She

of

lost

has

dream.

score

suicide,is

towards

Greece

the

on

has

commit

to

'

magician
who

in

the wife then

; but

cease

againsther husband,
Perhaps the Greek rhetorical
stories of

mother, who

'.

nightly by the latter

who
gets a magician to

visitations

; the

tomb

reallyexcellent specimen

Certainlythere

character.

all appearance
themes
the same
on
; the magician,the tyrant,the tyrannicide,
and
the debauched
the poor man
are
occasionally
woman,
were

declamations

of controversiae and

to

typicalfigures.But the most difficult and

most
profitabletask for advanced
pupils and the masters
themselves
was
clearlynot controversiae,but persuasiveor
mentioned

as

dissuasive

after the

discourses

speechesin

defence

or

of the Latin

manner

suasoriae,

i.e.show
accusation, epideictic,

speeches,

spoken of later. This difference of method

had its originin the totally
of eloquence
different appreciation
looked
The
Romans
cipally
by Greeks and Romans.
upon it printo an
end, that of upholding one's own
jas a means
in a court
against all opposing interests, especially
intereslj
which

of

will be

justilce
; whereas

of forni
and

sufficient

miich

In R(bme,
of

the Greeks

the western
no

at least

also had

"

III.

beauty

doubt

countries,the greatmajority

attended

them
preferred
paid teachers of

ical
rhetor-

only the Latin

largetowns,
Greek
oratory, notably
and kept
by Hadrian

; most

Rome, Where the Athenaeum, founded

had a separate chair
up by his successors,
RX.M^

considered

accomplishment.

and
Italy,

educiated
persons

however

age

end, and skillin its manipulationa desirable

admired

schools,or

of that

of the

for this

subject.
c

Belles-Lettres

countries, Greel

in western

that

be assumed

Further, it may

system that prevailed

peted
school ; thus, according to Seneca, they comin the Latin
of the same
themes,
in the treatment
another
with one
in Rome,
his first appearance
that Isaeus, on
know
and
we
for his improvisations.Thus,
for controversial themes
asked

adapted

rhetoricians

this

system,
exercised

ever

of

'

at the

school-course

ended

pupilspassed at
the epiloguesof

'

the

once

the

with

rhetoricians

There

themes

extant

are

and

coniroversiae

both

Greek

assumed

and

Latin

of

and

acquired at

and

in

in

poetical

speeches in verse,

for

exercises

the

remained

rhetorical schools

tions
situa-

beginners),in fact,

To

verse.

most

in certain

by persons

exercise

suasoriae

antiquity the systems

had

they

also treated

were

examples

ethicae, an
{riOoTTouai,

poets

the realities of practical

into

of what

improvised,deUvered

commonly

the

this influence.

school,considerably increased
Further, rhetorical

cases

that

of the

fairytales
'

coniroversiae,
the character

studies, and

these

the

from

of

upon
fact that in most

; the

time

Ufe, there to test the value

form.

'

declamation
especiallythe
a most
important influence

education

Roman

the

to

themselves

; even

last

daj^s of

the

same

in

themes, which

belief and

constantly handled
worship, were
strictly
by Christian
pupils; evidently,opinions otherwise
tabooed
were
regarded as integrantelements of both rhetorical
and
grammatical instruction.
pagan

effects of this

The
educated

of instruction, common

clearlymanifest in the
superior and speciallykeen
are

persons,

period. Only
entirely avoid

method

to all

literature

intellects

of the

could

dangers, seductions and devious ways of

of teaching rhetoric.
In the case
this method
of the majority
of pupils,the continuous
striving after egect, the habit of
with phrases and working themselves
intoxicatingthemselves
up

into

up

to

kind

the

permanently
certain point to
a

of second

and

nature

affected, the

emotional
make

frame

of

mind,

was

bound

unreal
essentially
eloquence
the
it
ficial
so
more
as
was
;
just vjhBartidazzUng and surprising,ttie risky
an

assured
of the loudest
was
abnormal, which
ajoplause
Even
the greatest intellects of the time
could
not
.entirely
these
which
influences,
chieflyaffected the poetry of
escape
the first century, which, lacking all elasticity
of its own,
was
and

rarely able

to

rise above

the

pompous

stiffness of rhetoric

Belles-Lettres

19

Quintilian's
opinion,that Lucan, the greatestpoeticalgenius
of his time, was
more
deservingof imitation by orators than
by poets, was
certainlyjustified.But while poetry has a
rhetorical tinge,that of prose is poetical,
an
equallynecessary
result of the
made

the

their

The

in the world

estrange him

not

of

from

it.

grammatical school
poetry ; the rhetorical

The

themes

set, with

melodramatic

motive
and
situations, highly romantic
bound
to lend wings to imaginacharacters, were
tion,

adventurous
and

claim

to

of

poetry

Fuscus,

must

have

or

often

have

oversteppedit.

of Ovid's

one

like the

poeticalhandling ;

of treatment

manner

hne

at home

boy

did

school

of education.

system

tutors,

reached

The

fond

was

subject, the

of

the

border-

rhetorician

Arelhus

indulgingin

lutely
abso-

poeticaldescriptions(to judge from a specimen in

straightfrom
Seneca) and unblushinglyon occasion borrowed
of another
sentences
Ovid reproduced many
Virgil. Inversely,
word.

According

where

he

habits

rooted

speechesin

own

'

word

for

the school
' '

declaimer

were

into

was
probably
prose, which
up
These
other pupils similarly trained.

many
of the
'

Latro, almost

admirable

an

broken

verse

with

case

to Seneca, Ovid's

considered

was

nothing but
the

Porcius

teachers, the rhetorician

of his

school

necessarilyheld

their

ground

in

modernism

in

which

be

present time ', says the apologistof

the Dialogus of Tacitus,
poeticalbeauty,
from
the sanctuary of Virgil,Horace
derived

is

required of

practicalhfe.
must

and

Lucan,

present are

At

the

'

with gold and marble

glistening
freestone and
shapelessbricks
in Petronius

poet

that

orator

of the

to those

related

the

many

past
the

to

We

'.

who

it

embellished

eloquence;
well

'

was

an

As

with
it

sense

of

between

of

the

poetry and

mutual

of

with

beheve

tried their hand

poem

than

the

forms

the

at the

controversia
akin

was

to

'

prose,

among

of

and

the

prose

'

of the

'

most

matter

unpoeticalpeople in the world ever assumes

colouringand is proofin itself that its intimate
poetical
to poetry taught in school was
permanentlymaintained.
fact and

rough

speaking
the word,
eloquent (facundus)
and honourable
epithetof a poet.
relations and
points of contact

reckoned

extremely common
result

old erections

sparklingaphorisms. Poetry

was

in the widest

the

speeches of the
modern
temples

of rest, fooUshlythinking

bar, took
that

as

may

had

refuge in poetry as a haven

easier to put together
was

the

of

fresh

relation
The

Belles-Lettres

20

of

reaction

these

entirelysuppress
Lastly, it must

general in

more

merit

degrees military
the

opened

By

century.

business

of

the

among

classes

an

indispensablerequirement,

or

ridiculous.

these

ceased

the

or

is said

Augustus

both

For

upper

entered

romanized,

certain extent

Thus

highest orders.

two

a
only
ever
increasing numbers.

education

in

was

born

lowly

of the

of famihes

in

second

the

(and so frequentlyfor the

cendants
formerly confined to the deshigh positions,

to

to

not

education

school

knowledge
practical

and

for the

way

uneducated)

that

first than

the

could

but

influences.

observed

be

modify,

might

archaists

the

ant
triumph-

the

that

Apuleius shows

of

extremely poeticalprose

be

of it

have

to

school

reasons

to

lack

cials,
provin-

these orders

regarded as
disgraceful

as

recalled

consular

since he had
written
educated
a word
insufficiently
it was
as
ber
pronounced by the lower classes. Yet, as the numin
the
senate
of provincials
assume
increased,we may
that
fault was
more
frequentlyfound with persons of high
itself for bad pronunciationand even
errors
positionin Rome
of speech. During his quaestorship,Hadrian
was
laughed
when
he was
out
at for his accent
an
reading
imperialspeech.

legate as

When

Marcus

Latin,

none

AureUus

command

of his staff understood

did

officers

his

issued

themselves

not; know

field in

him, apparently because

educated

how

the

in

expressed

persons

torian
indeed, Bassaeus
Rufus, praefect of the Praeof no education, remarked
to the emperoi
guard, a man

the

that

was

had

he

addressed

man

the

Dio,
and

aged consul
to

become
In
the

by

him,

seems

rare

Rome

meaning

learned

of

men

knights
to

show
the

itself,about
of

the

and

he

pleaded

first classes.

the

middle

use

advocates.

the

decay

of

of

of

and

words
was
many
held different views

did

of

the

alarming.

doubtful
on

second

the
among
The

and

Greek

had

century
Latin
The

guage
lanfont

disputed

fundamental
the

in

stand
under-

not

of

knowledge

commencing

Philo-

in

loudly applauded

two

numerous
sufficiently

;
grammar
in the mouths
heard

illness whenevei

senators, who
a

read

not

statement

was

that

expressionsin

could

Adventus

sophist Hadrian

amongst

indications
were

and

the

even

Oclatinius

Cassius

According to

negotiations. The

transact
the

Greek.

no

speaker that

poor

so

stratus, that
Rome

knew

vulgar

riilei
wen

barbarisms, whici

Belles-Lettres

22

also the

so

that

of

the

Greeks

their followers.

models,
their

the

not

loudly

and

old

poets,

place, the understanding

in

depth

of Greek

form

Scipiosand

such

but

of

Greek

reproduced
quite a different

in

even

of Sulla

and

had

Cicero, whose

and

the

poraries
contem-

and

beauty

those

from

manner

second

gained infinitely

nobility

the

the

in

that

was

within

more

were

as

art

result

The

Augustus

of

selves
clearly professed themas
first place,they chose

Alexandrine

refinement.

and

in the

But

especiallythe

reach,

and

than

path

other

in any

to walk

poets refused

new

works

of the
have

must

appeared clumsy, formless and rough by the side of the new

standards
in all
forms
created
were
as
productions. Noble
of feeling and
representation;
departments for every mode
line
the
of
of
the
art
and
the structure
composition were
the
to the height demanded
elevated
by
knowledge of Greek
of language they did for
art ; but, above
all, in the matter
had
Cicero
done
for prose, and
this was
the
poetry what
greatest and most lasting creation of that period.
As

Cicero

culture,

was

the

the

of

founder

Augustan poets were

adapted

prose

the creators

to increased

of

poetical
language. They
expression
poetical
power
in a manner
of Latin
in all directions
formerly scarcely
dreamed
bestowed
it
of,
wealth, variety and fulness,
upon
beauty and grace, vigour and dignity. They thus exercised an
immense
literature
influence not merely on the prose and verse
of antiquity, but
that of
of the succeeding centuries
upon
all later times, an
influence which
tinue
they will probably conto exercise as long as
literature exists. These
poets
animated
were
by a true and genuine Roman,
patriotism;
desired
for
their
nation
the
to
secure
they
only possessionfor
To dispute with the Greeks
which
they still envied Greece.
for preeminence in the plastic arts or
astronomy appeared
of
the
than
other,
unworthy
great people which, more
any
had proved its skill in ruling others, in
sparingthe conquered
and vanquishing the proud
but
to
;
appropriate their poetical
artistic form
aim
and
a
was
worth
one
lofty
strivingfor.
so

developedthe

new

of

'

'

'

To

and

its native

poets of
as^such
In

the

secure

the
a

their

fame

of this achievement

language was
Augustan age

the

main

for the

object for which

earnestlystrove
thing was
possible,they succeeded.
efiorts they were
assisted by the
so

great people:

'

and

so

the

'

ipx
f

consGiou/'iness

Belles-Lettres

23

that

not working for a singlecountry and

they were
their works
race
people, but for the human
; that

single

would

form

been
Ennius
had
part of the literature of the world.
brought to write poetry for the rulers of Italy,Virgil and
his contemporaries knew
that they were
writing for mankind
mense
in general ; and
the outlook
indeed
upon an horizon so imthem
was
enough to make
prophecy
giddy. The
of Horace, that
the most
distant peoples would
one
day
know
his works ', is well-known.
It has been
filled,
literallyfullike that of Ovid, that the lamentations
uttered by him in
exile on the barren shores of the Euxine
would
one
day traverse
'

all lands

They
Ovid
that

and

lived

even

boast

could

and

seas,

to

would

be

their

see

heard

to West.

East

from

fulfilled.

predictionsin part

that the whole

world

read

him

Propertius,

his

reputation had penetrated to the inhabitants of the

shores of the wintry Borysthenes. In fact, the works
of the
teachers
Roman
living poets were
probably read wherever
found
The

their way.
most
exalted

idea

organizationof
political
of its
Roman

language cannot
the
rapidity with which
many

discordant

intercourse

and

magnificence of

the

all-conqueringinfluence

prevent
Romans

new

empire, the immensity

the world-wide

of the

and

resources

the

of

our

in

the

at

astonishment

succeeded

the

of

'

uniting

so

of
tongues by the bonds
twenty years had passed

barbarous

'.

than
Scarcely more
Velleius
when
since the complete subjugation of Pannonia,
Paterculus
his history; and
wrote
already an acquaintance
with the Roman
widespread in
language and writing was
countries
and barbarous
these rude, uncultivated
(the eastern
literature
part of Austria, especiallyHungary). Roman
had made
its way into the older provincesof the West, as early
the time of Augustus.
as
Livy began one of his later books
he had
that
with the declaration
already gained sufficient
reputation and only continued his work to satisfythe demands

of his restless mind

this

and

it is well known

beyond Italy,for
Spaniard to travel to Rome
of
once

works

Livy

returned
at

Rome

when

he

had

Even

were

sent
of his

purpose

on

home.

forth the first book

reputation at

then
to

the

the

that

to make

achieved
'

that

time

it caused
the

his purpose,
'
remainders

the world

with

ance
acquaint-

provinces. Horace

Epistlesto

tended
ex-

he
of

at
new

seijds

the pros-

Belles-Lettres

24
of

pect

serving

for

food

as

unread,

book-worms

being

of

or

and
thumbed
shipped off to Ilerda (Lerida)or Utica, when
handling. The best books, which brought
dirty by constant
also sent over
sea.
most
profitto the retailers,were

If then, the
lived

to

ambition

their

introduced
at

which

poems,

recited

were

introduced

once

with

accordance

in

the

into

schools,

There

recently

large audiences,

before

them

by

itself.
custom

sense

world, their

the

in Rome

completelysatisfied

most

was

certain

throughout

famous

themselves

find

in

of literature

master-minds

at

sung

or

the

were

theatres

finallya comprehensive
book-trade
and
active
promoted their sale and multiplied
their circulation.
Virgil,who died before the publicationof

to

applause of

the

his

thousands

been

Aeneid, had

and

with

successful

so

his earliest

poems

they were
frequentlysung on the stage;
in the
the actress
literary
Cytheris,frequently mentioned
of Mark
wards
circles of the period,the mistress
Antony and afterof the
Gallus
(who sang her charms
poet Cornelius
the sixth
under
the name
of Lycoris),
is said to have
sung
eclogue, in which Virgilextols the poeticalfame of his friend
that
(the Eclogues),

When

Gallus.
on

such

the

poet
was

the

occasion,

an

as

Virgilhappened

be

to

whole

audience

as Augustus
respectfully

as

rule reserved

present

in the
and

rose

fact, such

in

theatre

greeted
tion
distinc-

of the

for emperors
and members
the poet during his later

When
imperial household.
years,
in
which were
mostly spent
sou1;hernItaly(especially
Naples),
in
Rome
and
appeared
public,he was
occasionallyvisited
lowed
obliged to take refuge in a house from the crowd which fol-

him.

Certainly,the

fame

popularityof Virgilamong
posterity,and consequently the

and
of

his

poetry,

poet, and indeed

be compared
with
that the
of

His

unexampled.
In

Schiller's.

that

the

sublime, the ideal, and

repelUng or intimidating,as might

attracted
truth

the

is, that

the mind
the

greater than

were

masses

which

feeling that

nature,

than

even

feel

men

than

more
more

uphfts them
one

of any

Roman

justly

popularity may
of

case

the

its

dent
both, it is evi-

noble

have

temporaries
con-

influence

other

in art, instead

been

popular

gratitude, respect

anticipated,
forms.
and

The

love for

to itself and

is in them

there

for

his

and

which

impressesthem with
something akin to a higher
descends

to

their

leveL

Belles-Lettres
Virgil's
poetry

made

into all strata

of

its way

25

all educational

into

circles and

society; artisans and shopkeepershad his

verses
constantly on their lips and used them as mottoes.
Even
the most
ignorant could quote scraps from the Aeneid,
with
at banquets where
and
entertained
the guests were
tricks,imitations of animals' voices and farcical perjugglers'
formances
piecesfrom the Aeneid were recited, although,no
doubt, atrociously. Like the Bible in modern
times, the
works
of
Virgil were
opened in times of anxiety, and the
the eye
first passage
which
on
regarded as an
hghted was
of

oracle

this

destiny ;

in Renascence

method

of divination

times.

(October 15),was kept by

oracles (e.g.,
those of

In
a

circles

hterary

number

his

tised
prac-

birthday

ple
admirers, and the tem-

of
and

Praeneste

also

was

Patavium

late

as

as

century) gave their responses in the words of Virgil.

have
other poet, as we
ampled
unexremarked, attained such

third

the
No

that
popularity; but the walls of Pompeii show
tion
Here, in addiwidely known.
Propertiusand Ovid also were
to hnes from Virgil(some obviously written by schoolboys),
these

from

verses

and

other

poets

have

with

scrawled

been

partly parodies,especially
used
in the Basilica, which
as
a fashionable
was
promenade.
in reference to Schiller may
remark
explain
Jacob Grimm's
is pleased with the poetry
multitude
their popularity. The
the high level of modern
in style and
ideas reaches
which
the

stylus, partlyword

for word,

'

education

strange

to

old-fashioned

the

the

and

Even

is

ready

in ancient

times, the

was

The

influence
in

more

of the

modern

age far more

theatre, where

Augustan
The

astonished

past

initiated

be

enjoy
the

it with

into

all modern

the

vantages,
ad-

old '-

people of Italy were

at the end

seems

is affected

multitude, which

The
to

to

the

probably as

of the sixteenth

century,

taigne
rapidlybecame popular,and Monto hear
shepherdessessinging Ariosto.
ent
non-existschool, which was
practically

Jerusalem

Tasso's

'

to renounce

impressionableto poetry as
when

desires

people,which

standpointof the present '.

by a beautiful poem, desires

of

manner

so

times, must

widely

have

known

probably

poems

made

the

poetry of the

in the first two

were

often

centuries.

sung,
influence
joint

also

pended
deco-operated with the school ; and their
partly on the delightfelt by southerners in euphony
and
rhythm ; although at the present day the rapturous

Belles-Lettres

26
delight
euphony

sensuaUty.
and rhythm was

demanded

satisfaction

of

sense

of

welcome

the

professorof

Hadrianus,
Commodus.

Knights

be summoned

from

flocked

People

Greek.

modulated

the

But

apart

have

the

been
but

of

world

delivery ;

the

enormous.

voice, its cadence,

he

was

hstened

to with

nightingale.

tuneful

classical

they should

began his lectures,and

they did not understand

harmonious

all favourable

from

effects of the
educated

of his

rhythm

that

and

he

if

even

Aurelius

Marcus

directed

when

his

admired

"

under

senators

the theatre

delightas

much

as

and

more

in Philoe.g., by the mention

Phoenician
to the
in Rome

given
eloquence

Athenaeum,

the

to

in prose,
the
among

is shown,

euphony

mere

stratus

than

Greeks

the

among

developed, and
in a still higher degree
Their
Romans.
lively

far finer and

even

is-

feelingfor

the

times

in ancient

But

tinged with

poetry

national

in the

Italians

educated

of

even

poetry

circumstances, the
accessory
the
of the Augustan age on

period immediately succeeding must

This period was
essentiallyunproductive,

possessed the

delicate

sensitiveness

associated

with

At such
a
time, the production of numerous
high culture.
of standard
forms for
perfectworks of art, the estabhshment
its various
departments, but above all, the creation of a new
poeticallanguage, full of enchanting beauty and dazzling
brilUancy,was bound to call forth the instinct of assimilation

and
men

imitation
', says
of

strongly

most
'

Goethe,

works

of

have

art

an

but

and

in the

fullest extent.

taste
inexpressible
man

learns

for the

nothing

and

'

All

enjoyment
enjoys

desiringto produce sometiiinghimself.

of human
nature
This is the most
deep-seatedpeculiarity
; it
is no
itself'nature
exaggeration to say that it is human
ism
Thus, at every period of high culture, a wide-spreaddilettantnothing,without

is the

at

once

necessary

consequence

of

great and

abundant

development of art. This has been the experience of Germany,

of poetry. She has enjoyed a golden
in the domain
especially
which
guage.
lanparallel,
age of poetry without
gave her a poetical
But
succeeding generations displayed an excessive
eagerness to obtain assured possessionof ihe preciousheritage,
by unceasing use and abuse of it,and by continual reproduction.
Although we have no express testimony,we may assume
similar state of things for the post-Augustan
a
The
age.
temptations due to a cultivated language were as irresistible

Belles-Lettres
the illusions of the dilettanti

and

the

same

at

as

forced

the

of

literarymovement.

the

been

the

Many ', says

astray by poetry. As
its legs and
has drowned

words, he

thinks

In addition
connexion

he

has

soon

their productions

as

the

has

man

idea

set

in

have
verse

flood

of

of Hehcon

summit

'.

the intimate

promoted by

was

'

Petronius,

delicate

attained

this,dilettantism

to

of

consequentlyimpartialspectators

the

upon
'

led

upon

to the merits

as

present day, and

observations

same

27

of

poetry with the school, the inevitable result of

that poetical exercises were
which
was
less generally
or
more
the
of
without
the teacher, solely
or
practised.with
prompting
with
the object of obtaining more
complete mastery over
form and
of acquiring excellence in a florid and loftystyle.
Even
did not
share
the delusion
those who
of regarding
ginal
simple reminiscences, the result of study or imitation, as oritheir own
or
property, could not help being attracted by
the idea of securing for themselves
by constant practicethe
cleverness of form that they had been taught. But no doubt
of such poeticalexercises
deUght in the real or imaginary success
(which by the way were
chieflyresponsiblefor interpolations
in the texts of the poets most
frequently read) caused
to regard
many
of study. Even

of his

end

an

as

the

Odes

what

their form.

severe

whose

exercises

many

too

means
a

critic

is

only merit

Quintihan's judgment, was the

that the
only Roman
lyricpoet worth reading,we may assume
lyricpoetry of the post-Augustan age was above all a poetry
of

But

only have been

of Horace, almost

works, contain

own

should

in

if Horace,

schoolboys and dilettanti.

The
conditions
of the monarchy,
political

inchnations
with

of different rulers, courts

the influences

and

of school

the

interests

and

bined
court-circles,com-

and
the

classical

poetry

of

pations
Uterary inclinations, tastes, and occuuniversal
in the direction of poetry in particular.The
and
the decay of
succeeded
the battle of Actium
peace which
in with the monarchy, almost
Ufe which
entirely
came
political

the

Augustan

excluded

centuries

driven

and
out

of its natural

its attention
the

its intellectual

vigour.
to

field,which

force

had

on

which

for

displayed such

talent, vigour and activity,

turned
path by this revolution, now
mass

literarture.
under

domains

the two

peoplefrom

the Roman

so

many
richness

age to turn

the

of

But

even

repubhchad

here
been

those
most

portionsof
successfully

Belles-Lettres

28

cultivated, remained
only partiallyopen
was
curtailed,the writing of history,up

of

freedom

;
to

speech

of Nerva

the time

the rare
men
good fortune
Trajan, who bestowed
upon
that they might think what
they liked and say what they
under the tolerant rule of
full of danger, even
thought ', was
Augustus. Titus Labienus, one of the last of the republicans
order of things,when
and an irreconcilable opponent of the new
able
times, omitted considerhe publiclyread his history of modern
'

and

it with

portionsof
death
a

'.

Nevertheless,

its destruction

sepulchre.

Eleven

Cordus

mutius

the

this

of.

to

buried

ahve

death

trial for
'

last of the Romans

be read

after my
to be burnt,

refused

Labienus

after the

brought

can

condemned

weis

himself

had
years

was

'

andCassius

he

his work

unheard

hitherto

sentence

'

words,

the

of

in

to survive
the

family
Augustus, Cre-

having

called

in his Annales

Brutus
he anticipated

by starving himself to death ;

In such
his works
burnt.
also were
times, poetry ofiered a
refuge to peacefulspirits,who
sought an
doubly welcome
ideal support for life and
an
reaUty. But even
escape from
this refuge was
not absolutelysafe ; the souls of the mighty
choice of a subject,
were
easilyprovoked, sometimes
by the mere
and by real or seeming allusions to the present. Thus,
his certain condemnation

'

under

the

last

Tiberius, the
Scauri

death

brought

'

representativeof
upon

himself

the

noble

house

of

by his tragedy Atreus,

'

dured
follyof kings must be patientlyenconsidered
was
speciallydeserving of punishment.
Such
were
poets who
dangers, however, rarely threatened
and in no
prejudicedthe
reallycareful to avoid them
way
in his
of the age.
Tacitus
Dialogus
poetical tendencies
expressly says that the occupation of poetry is chieflyjustified
offence than oratory.
by the fact that it is less Ukely to cause
Thus
filled the great gap in the life of Rome
poetry especially
caused
a mere
by the fall of the republic; and it was by no means
result of human
caprice,as set forth by Horace in his epistle
to
Augustus, that the Roman
people displayed a zeal for
been strangers ; sons
they had hitherto
authorship to which

in which

line, The

the

'

and

austere

fathers

wreathed

ignoramuses everywhere
The
to

the

other

French

hterature

Roman

poets

took

of the

their

exhausted

savants

writing poetry.
first empire offers many

and

to

literature of that
'

brows, and

time.

their powers

Fontanes
in

laudations

parallels
and

many
to order

Belles-Lettres

30
'

tonius, he only took

he wrote

long hexameter

on

poem

ever,
How-

poetry '.
and
a
Sicily,
in

interest
superficial

small

He
epigrams, which he composed in the bath.
destroyeda tragedy (Afax)before it was finished : his A]'ax ',
had been
himself on the sponge
thrown
(i.e.,
he said, had
wiped out). This was certainlyenough poetry for a statesman
the heavy task was
whom
on
imposed of re-organizingthe
collection of

'

'

'

of the last-named,

The

poems
the
told, confirm

verses.
are

observation,

corrupt

everything

bombastic

and

attempts.

else of his, were

style ; Augustus ridiculed

curled' style '. Seneca
has

'

'

'

perfumed ringlets of his

man
preserveda specimen, in which this remarkable
the love of life with a cynicism worthy of Heine.
the

devoted

Tiberius, who
studies

for

necessary

we

apphes equally to

in the critic's own

poeticaltrifles,hke

in

written

according

which

wrote

to what

the

that

"

judgment of the works

against bad taste and affectation
Maecenas's

also

purest taste and the soundest

of others is not always a safeguard

of art,

branches

other

Maecenas

Messalla, and

Polho,

Asinius

world.

himself

with

the

general education,

school ; he had
erudition with which

Alexandrian

greatest zeal to the

was

an

specialfondness
adorned

they

describes

admirer
for the

of the

gical
mytholo-

their works.

In his

Euphorion, Rhianus and Parthenius ;

in Latin, an elegy on the death
also composed a lyricpoem
which
Lucius
event
an
Caesar,
brought him, at the age
the throne ; he also wrote
considerablynearer
forty-three,

Greek
he
of

poems

he imitated

"

of

A man
of a frivolous
kind.
so
gifted and ambitious
poems
would
to poetical
tantism
diletas Tiberius
hardly have condescended
had
age
for

Germanicus

poetry

His

his efforts to

thoroughly

as

noble

not

also

the

of

version

almost
possible,

as

amongst

during

other

Nero

was

not

as

an

ant

to

The

wrote

several

the
exercise

first and
or

last

amusement

prominent positionin

Latin

o( 'ornamental

dncinni
flourishes',

words

forced

he left

astronomical

learned

the

his strenuous

works

{Phaenomena) is still extant.

the study of oratory,in which
Claudius

assimilate

some

him

life found
Greek

comedies.
Aratus

himself

considerable
in prose.
who
studied

emperor
for idle hours, but

as

poeticalworld.

and calamistri (curling

(locks)
are
irons)

He
used

tj

skili

(s
poetij

works, but

the

The

leisure

by

poem
confined

attained

of the

to it.

didactic

Caligula
he

culture

clai
ne

T
fls

in tlie se V

If

Belles-Lettres
felt any

interest in serious and

temperament

own

mother

is said

and

to have

his

both

before

of the

and

the

to

made

was

'

to have

general astonishment
use

for

the

music, which

chisel and
he

as

fine arts.
he

We

and

sang

have

publicopinion,the bad

exercises.

large

the

was

of his dilettantism

his forte ; he

musical

dalUed

as
poems
instruments.

intended

of his fondness

to

with

the

enthusiastically
His
poetical
counterbalance,

eQect of his other less seemly artistic

It is doubtful

real talent for

much,

teenth
seven-

of

pubUc speecheswritten,

alreadyspoken

efiorts,according to Tacitus, were

in

in his

in the presence

stick,and wrote

played

His

to

manysidedness

considered

modeller's

him.

his

first emperor
who
his lack of scientific education

But
the

'

his

he

pen.

proportionatelyincreased
in

not

declamations

obhged

of another's

him

after his accession, when

year, he dehvered

audiences, he

entourage dissuaded

which

study philosophy,
ruler ; his tutor Seneca prevented
ation
admirliterature,so that the pupil's
master
though
might last the longer. Al-

to a future
prejudicial
him from reading ancient

works

from
learning,

sound

advised

as

for the

31

whether

poetry.

he

possessedany,

Tacitus

denies

how

or

it to him

gether.
alto-

'

himself
According to that historian, he surrounded
in writing verses,
possesseda certain facility
persons who

with
but

had

for themselves.
These
a name
yet made
persons
met, strung together the verses
they had brought with them
threw
or
o"" on the spot, and worked
up the emperor's chance
of
utterances
into a whole.
This is shown
by the character
these poems,
which possess neither vigour nor originahty,
nor
not

be confidentlyassumed, that
uniformity of style'. It may
of distinguished
of the poems
this was
the origin of many
after
dictated by them
the
little love-poems
dilettanti (e.g.,
,

'

their meals

on

'

couches

of citrus-

wood),

since in all branches

of

were
learningthe productionsof cUents, slaves and freedmen
property, which
regarded by persons of qualityas their own
of
they had a perfectright to make use of. In the poems
ILucius Verus, again, everythinggood was credited to his gifted

Viends.

It is true,

defends
'tlietonius
4

the

on

other

Nero, assertingthat he had

plumes, since verses

compositions,written by

nself in borrowed

^,;e.

Nero's

"[((idently
(if
may
we

neither
]j,4m)

nor

no

flowed

his

own

need
from

matter

to deck
him

hand,

with
were

had
Suetonius, who
inspected
but alloriginal,
judgingby
copies,

believe

imitations

in this

hand, that

Belles-Lettres

32
the

numerous

erasures,

and

of various

kinds

and

numerous

were

poems

Nero's

insertions.

corrections

little trifles (e.g.,

satires,lyricsto be sung to the

Poppaea's amber-hair '),
accompaniment of the cithara (includingprobably solos from
the chief hero
a
long epic called Troica, in which
tragedies),
defeated
all
was
revealing his identity,
Paris, who, without
'

on

includingHector himself, in a wrestling bout ; another

contemplated epic, containing a complete history of Rome

comers,

the

from

earliest times, does

Martial, who

as

merit

some

to his poems.
of the River
course

the

on

dexterity in
Musical
of

which

taken

apologistswere
to be

wanted

; the
his wish was

him

to be

certain

chief

the

held

item

Nero

by

in the

after

programme

Greek

five years, but

every

model,
to

seems

place on two occasions (in 6i and 65). Its

of opinion that the victories of orators
and

stimulate

poets would

to

formed

intended

only

have

finished.

versification.

contests

was

been

least show

Tigris,at

festival first instituted

the

to have

appear

nothing but abuse for Nero, concedes

Some
lines,accidentally
preserved,

rule has

not

the

talent.

But

only poeticaland

as

of fact Nero

matter

musical

star

in these

tests
con-

in them
participation

only intended

that

the

crown

was

At

awarded.

Troica.

the

reading of

of persons
of distinction at
to enhance
his reputation ; it was

poeticalrival
he had admitted
into his poetical
his throne. Lucan, whom
near
aroused
his jealousy; when
circle,soon
present at a reading
bade
and
by the poet, he ostentatiouslywithdrew
apparentlyforhim to recite again in public(end of 62 or beginningof 63).
into open
Lucan, carried away
hostilityto the court, joined
Piso in his conspiracy, and paid the penalty of death on
its
he gave

discovery. But,
Nero

to

to

of

one

however

for all who

who

had

foil for
knows

the

feelingproduced
of poetry. It was
one
this

by his enemies, that

from
enthusiastically,
for the

poeticart.

anything to

with

do

no

of

time

in the

advisable

"

even

him, to make

likingfor poetry, and as far as possible

Nero's
poetical efforts by their own.

and

sympathy

provide

No

allowed

dangerous it was
claim any reputationas a poet, it was

necessary,
show

He

festival

the second

historyof

that

period,can
in
activity

doubt

that

the domain
greatlyincreased
of the reproaches levelled against Seneca
he

wrote

the

time

verses

that

more

Nero

frequently and
showed

fondfless

Belles-Lettres

33

completechange took placeunder Vespasian,who, although

no
poet himself, liberally
encouraged talent of all kinds,
including poetical. Titus, who had lived at Nero's court as
a

boy, had

facile giftfor Latin

improvisation; amongst
in a splendidpoem
', as
under

as

Greek

for

poetry, even

other

things,he described a comet

the elder Pliny calls it ; he is also
poet by the younger Pliny. In many respects

'

mentioned

and

Domitian

the conditions

of the time

of Nero

were

peated
re-

men's minds felt the weight of an even

more
certainly,
terrible oppression,
but poeticalefforts were
honestlyfavoured
and
all by the Capitolinecompetition
encouraged, above
allowed
free scope.
On
(founded in 86) at which genius was
;

the

whole, this second Nero laid no claim, as emperor,

fame, although during his enforced leisure when
had

princehe
course,

to be

it too

pretended

at his court

zealous

devotion

to

poetical
only a
poetry. Of

to

his

declared
youthful poeticalefforts were
that
the gods considered
unsurpassable. Quintiliansays
paltry an honour for him to be merely the greatestpoet

therefore,they handed

over

to divert his attention

in order
doubtful

whether

he

to him

the

from

such

began

even

an

of the

care

universe,
It Is

occupation.

an

the

epic on

Jewish war,

Valerius

Flaccus, but it is certain that the fight

in
for the Capitolin December,
69, during which his life was

by

mentioned

the

peril,was

'

the

subjectof

heavenly poem

of the

themselves

amusing

age

to whose

even

and

means

him

expression borrowed from

had once
circle Nerva
belonged ;

him, written
during his

he

had
'

as

quite

the lord

with
last

all the

humility of

days, Domitian

as

the
'

of

TibuUus

by Nero,
epigrams

client,show

liked to be

of

one

writers

the

poem
Martial's

an

"

from

averse

Nerva

successor

amongst
trifles. Martial styleshim

wanton

'

our

Domitian's

Pliny mentions

no

'.

claimed

also

by

was

poeticalefforts,although
Martial does homage to him

; and

sisters nine

Poets

tions
by him ; Martial in 89 menCapitolinewar '. It would

of his

being reminded
given them up

on

poem
of the

therefore,that Domitian

seem,

of

that

considered

poet.
There
he

no

was

to

seems

have

the other hand, the most

on

occupied the
R.L.M.

poeticalfibre in Trajan's soldierlynature

drian
been absolutelyindifferent to poetry ; Ha-

"

III.

Roman

throne, wrote

versatile dilettante who

verse

ever

indecent
(including
D

Belles-Lettres

34
and

poems)

Even

preserved.

according
his poetry

of

specimen

average

an

whimsical

deathbed,

his

on

biographerare

flittingone,

clay,
"'

hie away,
rigid one, naked

wilt thou

Whither
Pallid
Never

one,

partner of my

and

his

to

he

ever,

as

"

',Soulof mine, pretty

Guest

been

of his trifles have

some

lines,which

famous

the

wrote

equally well

prose

one,
to play

"

one,
to play ?
"

again,

never

'

(C. Merivale.)
Hadrian's
his

to have

example seems
His
adopted

court.

son,

poetry the fashion

made

Aelius

versifier ; Lucius
was
Verus, who
Pius, also devoted
by Antoninus

Verus,

was

adopted

at

himself

at

skilled

his

suggestion
poetry in his

Marcus
Aurelius
also, at
early years, as already mentioned.
the age of twenty-two, had
written hexameters, of which he
not in danger, like his other
thought so highly that they were
to the flames.
attempts, of being committed
Here
this series of imperialpoets, almost without
a parallel
in history and
to an
literature,comes
end, and poetry for a
exile from
the court
of Rome.
The
next
an
long time was

is said to have

who

emperor

written

ander
(Greek)was Alexpoetical dilettantism

verses

education
and
Severus, whose
(likethat of Balbinus, the two elder Gordians, Gallienus and
in the third century the old ary
literNumerian) show that even
traditions
of the

some

and

intellectual

highestcircles,like

sympathies

still survived

islands amidst

the

in

ever-rising

of barbarism.

flood

During the period

before
princes,some
nearly

all
is

from
and

others

fact

that,from

find

no

very
the result

more

the Antonines

to

This

poetical amateurs.

undoubtedly

Hadrian, the ruling

after their accession, were

Augustus

to Alexander

menon
exceptionalphenoof chance

than

Severus,

we

do

the
not

singleimperialpoet, although the emperors during that

interval were
for the most
A more
part highly educated.
probable explanation is that both the later and the earlier
simply shared the prevailingtendencies and interests
emperors
of

their

time, and

the
essentially
Hence
of

we

may

same
assume

that

their

attitude

towards

that of their educated

as

with

poeticaldilettantism

in

poetry

was

contemporaries^

certainty a very general diffusion

the

cultured

circles of the

first

Belles-Lettres
century,and
the

equallystrikingdecline

an

towards

the middle

of

second.

fact,there is no

In
,

that in the time of

doubt

intellectual movement,
which
of the first century, obtained
of Roman
it

35

to about

poetry

was

up
if not

poor,

explanationof

the

arrested

the
100

was

this is not

rich in

as

in

absolutely barren,

new

poeticaltendencies
hand.
The
history

upper
a.d.

Hadrian,

later

names

as

times.

The

for in the

to be looked

ive
decay of creatregards as one of

Gibbon
or originalgenius, which
power
the characteristic
phenomena of the second

century ; the
poets of the age immediately succeeding the Augustan were
nothing but highly educated and gifteddilettanti (inthe best
of the word) : and even
in later times there was
sense
by no
of poets. Undoubtedly, the decline of poetical
means
a dearth

aspirationswas
quarianism over
could

not

effort

as

in

due

measure

the

to

domination

of anti-

literature,since the study of ancient

ofier the

stimulus

same

authors

originalor reproductive

to

which

poets. Consequently the influence

to poetry (although
the applicationof the emperors

simply

the result

that

and

upon the
with it an

But

the chief

of modern

cised
prevailingtendency of the age) exerupper classes by force of example, disappeared,
to poeticaldilettantism.
important inducement

of the

for the decline is to be looked

reason

for in the

great impressionproduced by the highly artistic prose of the

had

sophists,which
admiration
the

Greek

originon

its

provoked

the

many

imitators

Lastly,it must

be

amongst
forgotten

and

held out

and

of the Romans

soil ; it

found

never
impressionable.
introduced
rian,
that, chiefly
by Hadowing to the new organization
the empire was
graduallydeveloped into a military and

more

bureaucratic

its functionaries

to

; the

career

attention

the

was

claimed

that

the

talent and

study

the

end, and in

different manner

especiallyphilology,which was
now
reviving jurisprudence,were

The

new

generallyon

turned

ambition

law.
rather

as

than

means

specialbranches

of learning,

closely connected
also

their

military service,
ever,
Eloquence, how-

general to
of

their official

prospects in

brilliant

belles-lettres in
and

greater powers

still generallycultivated, but

was
an

more

result

from

administration

as

state, which

with

eagerlystudied.

importance acquired by poetry and

of the monarchy
the establishment

literature
is shown

Belles-Lettres

36
in
chiefly
trade

three

things :

the

foundation

and

publicreadings of
of

establishment
of

the

trade

institutions go back as
Cicero was
when
a young
have

must

is known
first person who
and sale of books on

the

poets

"

of

elements

friend

His

in Rome.

undertaken

have

to
a

the

man,

in existence

been

of

crown

reignsof Nero and Domitian

far as Augustus.

the

other

Even

the

from

institution

; the

for

honour

entirelynew

an

book-

extensive

an

the
(recitationes)
; and, lastly,

works

recent

last dates

The

gold.

development of
of publiclibraries

the

largescale,had

book-

Atticus,

the multiplication

rivals.

numerous

in Rome
was
a
Augustus at the latest, the book-trade
and soon
after in the provinces. The retail
business by itself,
shops, situated in the UveUest quarters of the capital,had
Under

their

and
pillars

of books

for

with

decorated

entrances

sale,and

in modern

formed, as
place for the friends of literature,who
books

to have

or

able to furnish

was

large

chat.

scale.

the

same

did

not

much

Since

two

book,

who

in

hours

enough

complete copy
Uttle

of

modern

the

was

more

could

employ
produce an

copies
meeting-

inspectthe

the

for

was

chief fault

of

down

of his

epigrams could

than

seventeen

fiftyscribes

Even

at

if they
factory
unsatis-

very
ancient

books.

Martial's second
been

have

hours

at

on

dictation

press.

result

taking

new

try
labour, this indus-

promptly, cheaply,and

longer time,

was

came

to slave

wares

time, did the work

and

Rome,
to

of scribes, writing from

; incorrectness

out

Thanks
its

Hundreds

take

notices

bookseller,

turned

consequently
edition
of 1,000
able to
copiescomfortably in a
mention
The
of such an
edition of a pamphlet of
month.
entirelypersonal and ephemeral interest, published at the
in assuming that big bookwriter's own
sellers
us
expense, justifies
have
ite
must
brought out much largereditions of favourand
superiorworks.
In our
incUned
to underestimate
the
days we are too much
productive power of writing, as compared with that of the
press.
not

Yet

print

is less than
La

it has

been shown

necessary,

was

is

that

on

various

the

Burgos's two-sheet

were

distributed

memorandum

was

occasions, when

diSerence

generallyimagined.

Pucelle

once,

About
in

to

between

copiesof

2,000

Paris

Ferdinand

in

copy

the

month.

VII

1826),5,000 copiesaie said to have been circulated

On the second day after A. Oppermann
had received

two

taire's
VolOf

(January,
in

Spain.

the first

Belles-Lettres

38
at the end

(about 6d.). Spoiltpaper found its way

the boys utiUzed the clean backs of the

ases

where

exercises, and

into

also had

everybody

works

into the

lo

schools,
for their

sheets

and

incense,

it

for wrapping

or

salt fish.

up
But

wound,

was

provisionshops, where

grocery and
bags for pepper

the

making

for

used

was

the roll

which

stick, round

of the

Greek

both

in

free

Caesar's

JuUus

Latin.

and

collections of

to

access

hterary
plan

of

frustrated by his death ;

was
founding publiclibraries in Rome
Rome
debted
incarried out by Asinius PoUio, to whom
but it was
was
for its first publiclibrary(Greekand Latin). Augustus
added
two more
(one on the Palatine, the other in the portico
of Octavia), and
later emperors
(especially
Vespasian and
increased the number, so that in the fourth
Trajan) continually

century

fewer

no

than
were

also used

Asinius

Pollio

the libraries

of literature.
rooms

for

before

unknown.

rendering homage
Their

(such as those we
crowned
with ivy,

feet

'

manner

at their

or
Sophoclesand others),

gold and silver,adorned

Pollio's libraryVarro's
was

Asinius

In

in

of books

boxes

of the

reward

first to utiHze the

the

hterarycelebrities

statues, with

possess of
the

also

was

to

ally,
Natur-

meeting placesfor the friends

as

of

others

and

in existence.

twenty-eightwere

of bronze

poet ',some
the

halls and

the

only

busts

porticoes.

hkeness

of

livingcelebrity; but the honour appears to have soon become

very general. Sidonius ApolUnaris in the fifth century could
boast

that his statue

to be seen

was

among

ary
those of other liter-

in

Trajan'slibrary.
Nevertheless, the generalaccessibiUtyto
older)works in the publiclibraries,and
men

book

trade, which
of the most

and

did

recent

its

utmost

books,

not

were

standard

ably
(prefer-

activityof the
tion
to promote the circulaenough to bring authors
the

Ufe was
literary
extremely
and
and
and
rich
a general
animated,
livelyinterest was taken
in hterature.
The
still so accustomed
to viva
public was

publictogether,at

time when

became
recitation, that reading never
so
general as in
modern
times, since,without punctuation or the separationof
words, frequentabbreviations, bad writingand incorrect texts
voce

nearlyalways made it a trouble

(especially
lyric)lost most by
intended
least

for

either
a

to be sung

musical

to

recital

or

instead

of

pleasure. Poetry

being heard ; since it was

musical
accompaniment, or at
something like it. Euphony

not

Belles-Lettres
and

its most
essential characteristics,and
rhythm were
generallyand keenly appreciated; hence poems,

most

read

were

instead

prose, when

even

extent.

same

of

of

being recited,

simply read, lost

When

reading of the Thebaid

hear the pleasantvoice

that

and

the

part of the
period also, the works of poets
for

public

by

the

reaUty

the announcement

its author

by

favourite

crowds

drew

it is clear

poem,

In the hellenistic

attraction.

historians

and

to the

intended

were

Asinius

private reading.

PoUio,

of recitations

works
(i.e.,
readings of new
large
speciallyinvited audiences), undoubtedly
The
generally felt want.
ever-increasing public,\

took

the Uvehest

of Uterature,
in

for

which

and

which

than

introduction

before
met

rather

lack

to

that

us

of Statins

the voice formed

seemed

were

its effect,though not

tells

Juvenal

to

39

interest

became

in the

most

acquainted with

productionsr

recent

at first hand

them

and

time satisfied
indisputablyauthentic form, and at the same
its natural
curiosityas to the personahty of the author.
Of course, literary
and poets were
men
equallypleasedto make
of
their bow
to the public in person, to convince
themselves
the effect produced by their works, to profitby the
criticism
an

of the learned, but

the

extent

Owing

approval of

to the
of

fresh chance
and
their
and

above

crowd

favour

which

of

their spare

to read
'

of Martial

most

satisfaction

all the

expected from

others

the

you

my

epigrams, Celer
don't

You

want

such
as
dilettanti,
beautiful weather,

?
to

Phny

'

You

hear, but to recite

the

younger,
of

tired

never

rapid
'

epigram

an

runs

of

indulgence

lavishes upon itself,the

institution was
unavoidable.

new

every

of dilettanti

dilettantism

I won't.

While

yourself'.
during,the

time, the number

sought above

course

degeneration of this
me

fullest

contemporaries.
idlers,who were
delightedat

poetasters,who
of

enjoy to the

to

their

filUngup

vanity and

want

all,to be able

even

attending

day and lavishing their applause,it was

every
from
this ever-increasing
poets who suffered most

recitations
the

real

for

mania
his

frenzy ;

the bars
unlearned
fast and

The

'

he

rages

of his cage
to

flight;

puts him

Horace's
hke

; the

when

to death

greatestterror

poet

in

managed to break
and
reciter puts the learned

bear, who

savage
he has

with

the

was

has

caught

his

man,

reading,hke

he holds
a

him

leech which

its fill of blood '.

let go the skin until it has sucked
'
historical
reciter ', says Seneca,
brings an enormous

will not
'

reading.

Belles-Lettres

40
written

work,

read

has

considerable

if

part
Immediately

like ".

you
read ! "

struck

dumb

Petronian

on

the
is

romance

old

an

is

"

to

in face of death

now,

Read

of

mania

him

see

characters

possessedby

man,

stop

of

reallylike

of the

One

I will

shout

would

'.

spot

says,

there

his hearers, who

from

"

of it, he

after he

together;

small, tightlyfolded

very

the
for

sinkingship
and to write them
on
a huge sheet
continues
to bawl out verses
In all frequented places porticoes,baths,
of parchment.
he at once
theatres
begins to recite, although everywhere
The poet with his manuscript,says Martial,
peltedwith stones.
who
improvisingand reciting,

on

"

"

is

fearful and

more

fast in the

victim

study,

his

poisonous snake

the

young,

and

him

him.

Martial

the

reasons

cius

since

not

; in an

to spare

the

Wherever

he shows

sungod turned away

tude
by Thyestes, and soli-

him

is also of

opinion that

the

amphitheatre satisfied the ears even

pubHc ; for as long as they lasted,the

outburst

of comic

of the

recite. One

not

the paper,

which

their hearers
often

had

by frequent and
to

recourse

in the efiort to exhibit

favourable

others

with

swarming
vanity of poets led

the

despair,he

The

light.

aU

how

describes

for his

for this torture, decided

revenge

place was

While

too

bath, to table,to

whch, according to Juvenal, drove his friend Umbrifrom

lapse
Rome, in addition to the continual fires and colof houses, was
the recitations of the poets in the month

himself, to obtain

part

his

the

as

the eyes of the

amongst the spectators could

August

he

sleep.

holds

He

scorpion.
into the

table

set before

than

poets

his

meal

imperialspectaclesin

of

from

of her

tigressrobbed

the

the

or

his luxurious

disgust from the

reigns around

more

than

street,follows him

wakes

shun

himself, men
in

feared

more

were

sure

spoil,

to

poets.

patienceof
lengthy recitations,they only
them

kinds

themselves

to test the

of theatrical

and

their work

great importance attached

afEectation,
in the
to

most
a

fine

gesticulationand other externalities was

structio
for this. QuintUian gives detailed into account
for the oratorical debutant
the trainingand
on
:
of the voice, the compass
of which
qualities
ought

delivery,suitable
sufficient

necessary
to include
and
warns

the

the whole
extremes

him

fault of

scale of sounds

of treble

and

; how

bass

at

to

the

avoid

monotony

same

time.

He

againstthe sing-songdeUvery which was the great

the orators of the day, and treats in equal detail of

Belles-Lettres
gesticulationand
for which
but

dumb

show, dress and

he recommends

also from

instruction
Of

actor.

an

41
outward

all these

course

appearance,
a musician

only from

not

and

similar rules

the younger
equally applicableto the reciter. When
Pliny discovered that he read poetry badly,he decided to have
his poems
read before an
audience
of friends by one
of his
were

freedmen
behave

as

he

disinterested

in

was

opinion by murmurs,
he thought he was
as
at
as poor
to help him
begged Suetonius
Persius

he

ought

to

spectator,or Uke many others express

gesticulation,or facial play ; but

his

advice.

whether

doubt, however,

describes

the

dumb-show
of

out

the

reading,he

at

as

difficultyby

his

affectation of reciters who, in

white

hoUday toga,with weU-curled hair and a huge

ring on their finger,took their seat on a high chair ;
then, with languishinglooks, their neck rocking backwards
and forwards, they began to recite in melting tones, the result
of long practicein solfaing. Sometimes
a woollen
they wore
a

snowy
diamond

hoarse ;
neckcloth, to spare their voice or show that they were
of fact, thinks
matter
that
a
as
Martial, this only showed

they

were

The

too

in

manner

before

the

of silence.

incapableof speech as

as

which

readers

themselves

presented

miniscent
reapplause of their hearers were
of the theatre.
dience,
Although the majority of the aufriends or, at least,
invited personallyor by letter,were
if they
politenot to be lavish of their applause,especially

pubUc

themselves

were

and

the

at their

the

and

authors

looked

careful to

to

perhaps most,

recitals,many,

own

forward

similar

ment
treat-

readers

with

of hired

poet's patrons

lent

were

a reserve
claqueurs.
provide themselves
also amongst
common
Trajan's time, the practice was
have
advocates
that the pernicious
custom
may
; it is possible
crept into the law-courts owing to the widespread influence of

In

the

recitations.
of

at

burst
the

of

was

the

shouts

audience

in return
which

from

into

(such were

freedmen,

at
places,especially

sign

present

of the

loud-voiced

some

in suitable

One

itself

'

of
were

leader

the

of

who

ends
the

posted
of

the

chorus

enUsted

for

the

for

dinner),or the offer of

paid quite openly in the
a

themselves

benches, and

(mesochorus)
persons

in

by

the

purpose

cloak, the promise of

called laudiceni, those who
gave
a

vices
ser-

applause. Sometimes,

old

an

'

the

him

good

their
sum

of

basilicas.

dinner

applause
money,

Pliny

Belles-Lettres

42

been
thus
youngest slaves had
engaged for three denarii apiece ; the rate of pay no doubt
varied according to the abilityof the claqueur,specialimportance
voice.
of
the
modulation
Thus,
to the
being attached
of
the
the
ence,
audithe recitations
part
were
accompanied, on
of all kinds, and
by clapping of hands, acclamations
their admiration
to express
gestures of deUght ; people rose

relates

that

reader, and

of the
But

not

the

greatest desire

the

audience

of

from

whose
knew

refused
there

we

an
were

This

the

year

whole

have

It is

of

at the continual
annoyance
often lasted whole
days, even

the

and

(July

year

round

bounds,

and

never

but

the

Certainly
Uterary profession

He

the

himself

tired

got
invitation to a reading
disquietingsymptoms.
no

in

August).

for literature

enthusiasm

and

prevent the majority of

civil could

be

to

best intentions

showing

months

Pliny,

'

liveliest interest, the

recitations, which

hottest

to him.

their hands

kissed

the

even

his

of

two

he

and

rarely

admitted

writes

that

follows

as

(97)has produced a plentiful

crop of poets ; during
month
of April scarcely a day has passed on which
with

entertained

been

not

pleasureto find

that

the

recital of

poem.
still

politeliterature

for

taste

some

and
make
forward
genius do come
themselves
known, notwithstanding the lazy attendance
they
in
sit
get for their pains. The greater part of the audience

exists, and

that

of

men

their time
there and are
lounging-places,gossip away
perpetuallysending to inquirewhether the author has made
his entrance
yet, whether he has got through the preface,or
at length
he has almost
finished the piece. Then
whether

the

they
do

in

saunter

they

with

condescend

to

it is over, some
and
perfectfreedom

before

the

appointment
he

would

not

ever

not

having lost
lost it.

this

so

come
a

So

encouragement
in their

unconcern.

of the

attendance

studies

day,

idlest

and

man

Were

for

other

no

the

more

applause,who
to

apathy or arrogance
moth's
translation).

read
on

one

to

bespeak

livingand remind him of the

ever
so
long beforehand, either

often, or
at all,or if he did would

much
and

greatest indifierence, nor

stay through the recital,but go out
others again with
slilyand stealthily,
air of the

an

out

the

but

reason

do

those
have

about

grumble

he

had

deserve

our

because

authors

resolution

to

persevere

compositionsin spiteof
(Melpart of their audience

their

'

Belles-Lettres
On

another

that

occasion, Pliny indignantly writes

recently,while

three

of the

and

dumb.

43

excellent work

an

audience
What

to

being read,
if they were

was

sat in their

friend

two

or

deaf
placesas
what
impertinence! what
to spend the whole
day in

laziness !

indecency ! indeed, what madness

insultinga man, and to leave an enemy instead of a friend !
Certainly, Epictetus'srule, not to accept invitations
sary
unnecesreadingswithout due consideration,was by no means
but if one

did attend, he

to maintain

ought

an

to

attitude

of

and
avoid giving offence.
dignity and reserve
Pliny was
model
of punctiliouscourtesy. He
a
relates how, after a
to the youthful poet, embraced
recitation, he went
him,
up
him, and encouraged him to persevere
heaped praises upon
in his profession. The
and
brother of
family the mother
'

"

the young
also
were
man
then joyful,had
excited

brother, at first anxious

the

present ;
general

deep and
livelyinterest in the performance. Then Pliny also congratulated
them
of
his
after
wrote
one
and,
reaching home,
elegant
this
of
notes on
event, which spread abroad the news
trifling
the young poet'ssuccess
event which
'. Such a reading was
an
the subject of conversation
in literarycircles during
formed
the next few days ; then the poem
taken
sellers,
was
up by the bookattention

pushed its circulation.

Consideringthe great importance

by

his

who

life of Rome,
honoured

it may
them

reader

assumed

with

set the

alreadymentioned,
had

be

that

their

example

recite

to

ary
of recitations in the liter-

his

the

presence.
;

emperors

Augustus,

Claudius, after his

as

sion,
acces-

Nero,

works.

numerous

quently
fre-

recited his poems

himself in
emperor,
giving
the theatre ; this caused
such delight,
that a festival of thanksordained
and the poems,
inscribed in letters of gold,
was
after

soon

he

became

Jupiterin his temple on the Capitol. Domitian, while prince,also recited in public. Dating from the
second
to have
chieflytaken place in
century, readings seem
of an
the Athenaeum,
where
a
theatre
amphispace in the form
dedicated

were

was

day

of

his

to

reserved

murder,

poeticalrecitation
of the

one

rhetoricians
In

the middle

had

at

to

be

lectures

and

on

present

Severus

Alexander
the

Pertinax,

purpose.

intended

; and

audience
and

for the

the very

there

at

frequentlyformed

recitations

of Greek

poets.
ages, also, even

after the invention

of

print-

Belles-Lettres

44

known

by
Cambrensis
Thus
Giraldus
recitations.
(Giraldde Barri)in
Ireland
the year
after his return from
publiclyread his
izoo
The
Rederijkkamers
Topography of the island at Oxford.
the
Italian
and
Academies
(poeticalguildsof the Netherlands)
often

ing,poets and literarymen

of the
be

and

fifteenth,sixteenth

Orlando

their works

seventeenth

with

the

old

Roman

innamorato

at

the

court

compared

made

centuries

recitations.
of Ferrara,

also

may
Boiardo

read

Madame

de

and

Sevigne speaks of readingsof Racine and other classical authors.

of the
Greek
of regularly
custom
Lastly, the introduction
recurring poeticalcompetitions at Rome
opened up to poets
the alluring
before
prospect of being crowned, an honour never
heard

thus

of, and

ambition.

For

gave

an

entirelynew

stimulus

to

poetical

Greek

poetry there already existed such a

competition in the Augustalia at Naples, founded in honour
of Augustus (a.d.2) and held every
four years, which
was
the
of
Greek
world
the
brilliant
considered
most
one
and
by
of
its
famous
festivals
Here
kind.
Claudius, who appeared in
Greek
dress for the occasion, ordered
Greek
a
comedy to be
performed,written by his brother Germanicus, whose memory
he

in every possibleway.
awarded
the
He
always honoured
with the decision of the judges.
prize to it in accordance
of ears
of corn) at
Statins also once
received a prize (a crown
that instithe first poeticalcontest
tuted
was
Naples. At Rome
by Nero, which, as already remarked, was only intended
for his own
and
exercised little or no influence
glorification,
on

Roman

poetry.

The

in 86, and held

Capitolineagon, instituted by Domitian
four
importance. The
every
years, acquired all the more
competition for the prize in Greek and Latin eloquence (a
stock subjectbeing the praiseof the CapitolineJupiter),
which
at first formed
discontinued.
part of the proceedings,was soon
On the other hand, the prizefor Greek
and Latin poetry,which
of
to be the highest aim
was
unique of its kind, continued
poeticalambition throughout the empire ; and the hope of
festations
receivingthe wreath of oak leaves, amidst the liveliest maniof sympathy, from the hand of the emperor
himself,
after the judges had delivered their verdict,induced
the most
from
distant provincesto cross
the seas to Rome.
giftedpoets
If

unsuccessful, they could

that

no

provincialwas

console
ever

themselves
allowed

with

to obtain

tion
the reflec-

prizesat

Belles-Lettres

46

in accordance
their crowns,
Alexandrian
custom, also displayed
that

house, similarlyattired,except
hellenistic and

with
the

of the

image

priestlycollegestook

Later, the

emperor.

competitions,under the presidencyof

the
The
brilliancy and solemnity of this festal
emperor.
gathering,the presence of the highestpersonages of the court
and
by
dignitariesof the empire, the bestowal of the crown
historical
world-wide
the emperor
importance of
himself, the
it in turns

the

to direct

place all combined

something unique of its
the
the

middle

and

ages,

Italy from

of

custom
the

honour

the

The

kind.

the

end

the

make

to

"

of coronation

of it survived till
memory
revived in the cities of
was

thirteenth

Padua

At

century.

crowned
before Petrarch, and
Prato, poets were
Dante,
when
in the chapel of St.
in exile,hoped to receive the honour
Petrarch, in his retirement at Vaucluse,
John at Florence.
and

when

simultaneouslyinvited

the senate
decided
of

to receive

of Rome

in favour

of

antiquity were

1341, he
the

he

buried

'.

the

poet

in

humbly depositedthe

Paris

of laurel

crown

in

and

public,

great poets
Sunday, April 8,

Easter

on

Ursus

went

universityof

the ashes of the

On

crowned

senate, by the senator

ceremony,

the

where

Rome,

'

solemnly

was

the

by

Capitol,in

the

the hall of

after the conclusion

of the

procession to St. Peter's, where

laurel

the altar of the chief of the

on

apostles.
the

Besides

Capitoline,Domitian

March

yearly on

19,

festival of

another

held

competition
objectof special

Minerva, the

of the members
One
country seat near Alba.
of a collegefounded
by the emperor, elected by lot to preside,
superintended the arrangements ; in addition to theatrical
of wild beasts, there
and magnificent combats
representations

worship

oratorical

were

Statins

for his
of

at his

course

poeticalcompetitions. It was here that

of olive
(beforethe year 94) received the golden crown
and
Dacian
campaigns a prize
poems on the German
of
the Capitolinecrown
not so highly esteemed
as
"

natural

oak

tian's

death.

leaves.

competitions
the

Neronian

other
number
a

and

cities
was

poet and

No

Nothing
in the

later

doubt

the festival ceased

definite

days

of

is known

Rome,

III and
by Gordian
and the provinces; but we
considerable.
Eumolpus

agon

no

mean

'

one,

at

of

other

poetical
of

poetical agones in

assume
may
in Petronius

least,if the

Domi-

of the revival

nor

the

with

crown

that their

says he is
is worth any-

Belles-Lettres
thing,although certainlyit
those

upon

who

Beneventum
'

Latin

late

not

is described

poet, crowned
the end

as

do

is sometimes
it '.

deserve
in the

at the

of the fourth

47
bestowed
A

Roman

by favour
knight of

on
inscription

his grave as a
festival in his native town '. As

century, poets, as

well

as

athletes

and

musicians, took part in the Pythian agon at Carthage,as

is shown
of his own
coronation
as
a
by Augustine's mention
poet by the proconsul.
During the^e two centuries,then, poets had ample opportunity
of

heard

being

and

becoming famous, and obtained

honour, reputationand public sympathy, to an
than

greater extent
poetry did

not

secure

since the booksellers

time

when

the idea

plause,
apeven

at any other
On
time.
the other hand,
material
advantages, such as an income,
of
of

paid no fees or royalties,at a

unknown, and
literaryownership was
course

in any way
they nor the author were
legallyprotected.
The exemption from
joyed
public duties and charges, enby teachers and physicians,did not extend to poets
(according to a rescriptof the Emperor Philip). A wealthy
with fame, like Lucan,
poet might certainly remain content
in
who
with marble, or
rested on his laurels
gardens adorned
the consul Silius Italicus,who devoted
only the evening of his
life to poetry, in his villas magnificently
decorated
with numerous
the delightfulcoast of Campania.
and busts, on
statues

when

neither

Otherwise, it
assured

who
had no
for a man
extremely hazardous
of existence to make
poetry the serious business

was

means

of his life.

Nevertheless, the number

of those whom

confidence

(realor imaginary)led to adopt it as their profession,

evidently very large; indeed, it could not be

in their talents
was

otherwise, consideringthe unusual

number

of

ments
powerfulinduce-

cessful,
suctemptations to poetry. Few, however, were
and those who despisedthis art which failed to provide
matter-of-fact
bread and cheese, practical,
individuals, were
of the majority of
condition
able to appeal to the miserable
complaints. Ovid refused to give up
poets and their own
to abandon
an
poetry, in spite of his father's exhortations
Homer
left
occupation which was so unprofitablethat even
fortune ; but, although he had
no
enough to live on, he
nevertheless
complained of the poet'slot. Formerly, in the

and

good

old

days of Ennius, the

respected,and

wealth

was

name

of

poet

his in abundance

was

honoured

; now

and

poetry has

Belles-Lettres

48
fallen into

the service of the Muse

and
disrepute,

Is reviled

as

idleness.
.

If this

at the

be made

complaint could

brilliant

most

period

poetry by one of its most celebrated representatives,

at all times regarded
it is evident that poetry and poets were
of the old stamp. In
with widespread contempt by Romans
of poetry is chiefly
the Dialogus of Tacitus, also, this view
insisted upon
to the
; little is said in its praise. In addition
of Roman

fame

that

bring,it is reckoned
poet'slife that, far removed

it may

of the

stress, the crime

of the

bustle

and

of the chief blessings

one

from

world, he

the

cares

and

pass his life

of nature, in the solitude of forests and

in seclusion in the midst

can

take
can
groves, while his mind
and
innocence, on consecrated
what

although
poetry
made

ought

man

he

does

its

as

refugein the haunts of purity

ground. But this was
just
Tacitus's
view
to
of
do, according
life,

not to

show

not

pronounced

so

regularopponent

to say that

and

poems

aversion

an

from

in the

dialogue. The latter is

confer no dignityupon their

verses

any lastingadvantage ; all that he obtains is the

brief satisfaction of idle and useless praise. Even
if he has

author,
taken

nor

whole

year, working
he has further to

singlepoem,
people to condescend
without

done

to

reading-room,

benches

hire

to

and

has

night,to complete a
everjrwhere,
begging

about

run

come

He

money.

and

day

hear

to rent
and

it.
a

Nor

this be

can

house, to prepare

send

invitations.

round

his
reading is successful beyond his expectations,
reward
only lasts a day or two ; all that he gets by it is vague
pleasure.
applause, empty words, and a brief, momentary
Even

if the

Even

the fame

of the

readers, the

best

no

poet is worth
but

little ; mediocrities

The

few.

fame

of

have

reading very

throughout the

rarelyextends
Very

provinces,such

few

city,to say nothing of the provinces.

Rome
from
who
distant
to
come

of those

as

Spain

and

Asia

Minor, visit the

most

brated
cele-

poets in person ; or, if they do, they are satisfied with

in all respects,
is the
a passing acquaintance. How
different,
positionof an eminent orator, who acquires wealth, honour,
influence and
who
asked
reason

which

world-wide

boasts

of

being

why

he

is

'

has

Martial

so

reputation.Eumolpus

poet whose merits

badly dressed, answers
a

also

nothing to

advises

offer

are

in

recognized,when
'

For

friend to abandon

except

loud

but

Petronius,
that

very

Helicon,-

empty applause.

Belles-Lettres
and

to turn

the chink

his attention

to the

49
'

forum

there is to be heard

of

chairs
ready money ; but round our unprofitable
and platforms,nothing but the sound of kisses thrown
by the
audience '. If you meet
people in threadbare cloaks in the
streets of Rome, you
that they are
the Ovids
be sure
may
and
Virgilsof the time ; the upright,the learned, and the
amiable walk about shivering
in a brown
hood, simply because
they are guiltyof the crime of being poets ; if a son writes
his father makes
haste to repudiatehim.
verses,
detailed account
The most
of the miseries of a poet'slife is
to be found in Juvenal. Before the emperor
(Hadrian)looked
favourably upon the sorrowing Muses, things had reached
such a pitchat Rome
that even
well-known
and famous
poets
had to try the lowest means
of gettinga bare subsistence,such
at Gabii, a bakery at Rome, or actingas
as
hiringa bathroom
criers at auctions.

The

praises. If

went

poet

patron, he was
acknowledged

told

antiquity. The
they always had
nothing left for
most
they would
and

rich

barred, with

the

But

of the

what

lend

him

walls

covered

an

platform or

it meant

have had

nothing to eat,if he

Agave

to

Paris.^

And

of his

reason

for their luxuries ;

money
a

tame

even

brilliant

good was
nothing

yet

the

reputationto
the

Even

else ?

superiorby

to pay for the

the money
the hire of the seats and benches.

give him

not

of

lion,but there was

At
the larger maw.
if he had
empty house, long since bolted
with mildew, to hold a reading

to feed

poet, as

his

as

wanted

never

enough

in,but they would

erection

he

alone

lavish

were

to

that

Homer

nothing but their

pay his respects to a wealthy
himself and
was
writing verses

rich

had
the

celebrated

poor

poet, if

Statius

would

disposedof his unacted

pestilentitch for writing is
not

and lasts till old age, though their heart

in many,
sublime
verses
be sick with waiting ; poets still compose
in their garret,by the lightof a solitary
lamp, on the chance of

incurable

seeing their lean

portrait-bust. But
while the

features

immortalized

how

the mind

can

starvingbody

satisfaction of its needs

The

get a blanket

how

even

imagination would
Virgil's

mind

of

ivy-crowned

an

asm,
poeticenthusiday and nightfor the

soar

calls aloud

know

he is to

in

to

man

who

"

III.

not

feel the divine afflatus ;

have been paralyzed,if he

cannot

1 A famous
pantomime and dancer. Agava 'tore her son Pentheus
festival of Dionysus on Mount
Cithaeron,as described in the Bacchae of

R.L.M.

does

to pieces at

Euripides.
B

Belles-Lettres

50
had

had

not

How

absurd

to wait

slave

to ask

him

on

Rubrenus

tolerable

and

Lappa

quarters.

to rise to the level of

he has been

obligedto pawn his

dishes and his cloak, before he could write his tragedy Atreus.
Only a mind free from all earthly anxieties,filled with longing
the buskin

of the ancients,when

for the solitude of the

the

Muses,

woods, the grottoes and

to the ranks

gain admission

can

the fountains of

of true

poets. Thus

to agriculture
been
devoted
or
years that should have
the
in
fruitless
are
service in the army
efiorts
or
peissed
navy,
;
and
old
and
destitute
the
a needy
poet curses
age approaches,
himself and his profession,
although men
speak well of him.

the

it

Formerly

Fabii

Cottas, and
and

remain

to

different

was

it

regarded as an
especiallypoets, as

was

But

apart
his

at

time

of

the

Maecenases,

an

attribute
his

as

beard

from

the

to learned men,
necessary
the philosopher; when
to

fact that

is by
description

poverty and want

lot of the poet, unless he
work

the

ill,says Martial, he began to write

looked

Oppian

in

to look pale,
advantage to many
Then
during the Saturnalia.
paleness

was

sober

no

has

in
Certainly,

trade.

Juvenal everjrwhere exaggerates,

correct,since he represents

means

the

as

verses.

unavoidable

privatemeans
this case,

as

and
or

is

exclusive-

willingto

at all times

when

be made
literaryproduction cannot
immediately profitable,
entirelydependent upon the favour and generosity
poets were
of the wealthy and influential,
which, however, they probably
then
For

Roman

enjoyed
it

was

world

to

the

greater

extent

general opinion

that

wealth, rank

than

any other time.

throughout the Greek and
at

and

positionimposed great
the
possessionof a large
proportionateexpenditure

obligations,and especiallythat
fortune
required not merely a
in the publicservice,but also a generous
distribution of superfluous
wealth
amongst the poor.
Princely generositywas
of Rome
at a
; and
especiallyexpected from the great men
this
time
when
interest in poetry was
keen and general,
so
to be particularlyadvantageous to the poet.
bound
was
not practisedon
so
large a scale as
Certainly,charity was
the younger
formerly. Even
Pliny laments that the good
of rewarding poets for their eulogieswith a sum
old custom
ever,
had graduallyfallen into disuse ; he himself, howof money,
still kept it up, and thought it his duty to pay Martial's
in return for a very flattering
travelling
poem.
expenses home

Belles-Lettres
Martial

had

number

of

other

Juvenal's complaints of the

was
always considered to
to assist

On
who

were

the

better able

favour

with

to bestow

the

than

favoured

the adornment

the

looked

men

most

future

of their

one

important

who

and

age ;

existence

But

this

those

the
was

during

even

for

guidance,

event.
lacked

as

idea

The

something

poetry, was widespread and

entirelydisappeared, although it gradually became
In

in the

regarded as

poet ?
poetry

to

fame

and

were

of that

men

glorifyingevery

the

even

without

extent

interest,for honour

them

Ufetime, great

elevating and
that

certain

that

that

present and immortality in

highest of blessingsby the
their

rich show

satisfac
neglectto do so excited disin literary
circles and brought them into disrepute.
other hand, it was
the poets alone
by no means
benefited by this state of things; they might even

the

return

poets, and

patrons. Even

generous
of the
stinginess

it

duties

51

of

never

rare.

highly placed felt the need of the

interest,to lay him
quite ready, in their own
poet and were
his devotion.
to secure
under obligations
Naturally,of course,
of poets who
the number
sought favour and generositywas
always incomparably greater than that of the great men
who
desired to purchase the poets'praise.
In this,too, the emperors
set the example. They of course
from contemporary poets the glorification
expected and demanded
sense

most

achievements, of their person and

family, of their buildingsand other undertakings, of their
festivals and shows, and, like Augustus, directlycalled for it.
of their rule

Certainly,during
exclusively
after

and

every reign there

its
to
devoted

Trajan's accession,
with

contrasted

the

we

read

effeminate

existed

ture
poeticallitera-

glorification.Two
of

'

serious

panegjrrics

on

years
'

(as
Domitian), in
poems

of
Indeed, the glorification
praises were
sung.
the emperor
was
so
generallyregarded as the most natural
task of poetry, that prominent (especially
epic) poets, who
other subjects,chieflymythological,as least
as
a rule chose
or explanations
compromising, found it necessary to make excuses
not
or
yet capable,
quite incapable,
they were
: that
make
the
would
of so loftya task ; that they
attempt when
better ^quipped. In fact. Statins, who
expresses
they were

which

his

himself
and

his

to this effect at the commencement

AcMlleis, had

already

written

of both

poems,

his Thebats

presumably

Belles-Lettres

52
short

ones,

Daclan

and

German

Domltian's

on

As

wars.

to provide such
early as the Augustan age, poets felt bound
explanations. Virgilin his Georgics declares his intention,
after he has finished it, of girdinghimself to sing of raging

battles, and
would

sing of

Philippi,the
the^triumph

fame

proclaiming Caesar's

of

the

to

posterity.I
of Mutina,
Propertius,

of Caesar, says
Perusian, Sicilian and Alexandrian
wars

and

wars,

capable of it. And three

the
at
hundred
beginning of his
years
on
hunting) promises that he
Cynegetica (a didactic poem
will one
day sing of the triumphs of the sons of Carus with
a more
competent lyre'. Again, Julia?the Apostate in his
panegyricon the emperor Constantius Sjays that all who have
anything to do with literature extol Mgi in both verse and
that it is especiallypasy'lEor
prose, and
poets to praisehis
Actium, if I were
later, Nemesianus

at

'

1/

deeds.
But

apart from the fame

which

they expected,the emperors

rule evidentlyrecognizeda|
as
certain obligation
a
to show
their practicalinterest in poetry by the pa5rment of grants
and
fees to prominent poets. They were
regarded as the
natural and the highestpatrons and protectorsof poetry
most
and
poets, who accordinglyaddressed their dedications and
before all. In addition, it is worth
homage to the emperors
notice, that
and

while

rhetoricians

were

elevated

often

to lucrative

singleinstance is known
poet being so promoted. It is most probable that he
usuallyrewarded by considerable giftsof money.
influential offices,no

declares

Horace
to

time

when

devoting himself
a

livelihood

without

at

this

that every

once

looked

assurance,

hint

could

we

form

in the

by the decided interest shown

related
revival of poetry. An anecdote
the

time

importunity
with

him

presented

and

not

the Greek

and

was

was

him
Even

of the tensions
prepoeticalworld at

idea

by Augustus
by Macrobius
the

dedications.

poets who
A

Greek

in the
shows
barded
bomhad

him, for several

to

leavingthe palace,some
did

outspokenness of

homage

an

confidently

to

'and expectationsaroused
that

forward

Augustus that any one

poetry would be enough to secure
and
encouragement to continue.

mere

to

one

of

seem

was

days in suocession, as he was

flatteries i\ verse
Augustrifling
; but tus

that
to pay any attention.
When
he saw
going to repeat the attempt, Augustus himself

Belles-Lettres

54

celebrated

in

world, all peoples

whole

The

of the herdsmen.

the amoebaeans

and

Faunus

throne, is praisedby the god

the

him, the Gk)ds love him, with his reign another golden
from
heaven in the
he is a god sent down
age has commenced,
adore

form

and

of man,

Another

forth.

so

describes

poem

'

'

in the

given by the youthfulgod

spectacle,
amphitheatre (constructedin the year 57).
trustworthy

but

incidental

Many

statements

ficent
magni-

(wooden)

prove that
to them
to

dedicated
did not allow
the poems
emperors
the Knight
Tiberius handsomely rewarded
pass unrewarded.
Priscus
for a universallypraised elegy on
Lutorius
Gains
the

When

of Germanicus.

death

the

Tiberius's

ill in the year

21, the poet, in the
in case
this prince died, composed
he

ladies ;
senate

was

An

epigram

on

the

'

the

modern

Greek

reward

elegy, which

number

of

'

poet livingin

given

he

distinguished

to death

by

the

have

been

liberal

lamented

his

death.

also must

poets

Nero

second

fell

another

condemned

lise-majesU. Claudius

for

poets, since

Had

before
and

denounced

to

'

to read

enough

foolish

was

of

hope

Drusus

son

Rome

runs

as

follows

ready money,
Muses, daughters of Zeus !
me,
gone
liberal in his support of eminent
Vespasian was
poets ; the
needy Saleius Bassus received a present of 500,000 sesterces.
Juvenal greets the emperor Hadrian, who had justsucceeded
to the throne, as the only hope of the poets ; he alone protects
time
when
at
the sorrowing Muses,
a
they can expect
neither favour
nor
support from other quarters ; he will
for his bread
in the
to work
not suffer a poet to be reduced
not

it would

emperor

ill with

have

future

in

favour, which
to
spur
to have

some

'

unworthy

manner

me

the look

of him;

may

his grace

and

for

act as a
worthy objects,
The
Greek
youthful talent !
poet Oppian is said
the emperor
Marcus
received a piece of gold from

Aurelius

on

are

for every

out

read

in his

the best intentions

in the

line of his poems

which

he

presence.
to the

Next
world

could

Rome

only satisfya

addressed

entreaties

to

with

who

emperors,

small

them,

it

and
part of the petitions
of
from the great men
was

ance.
poets expected and received protectionand assistto
Of all these patrons of poetry there was
none

that

compare
statesman

with
and

Maecenas.

co-founder

His

importance

of the

new

as

order

of

diplomatist,
things was

Belles-Lettres
eclipsedin

the

55

next

generation by the glory of having been

to Mercury
protector of those dedicated
[in
his capacity of patron god of learned men
and poets]. The
the

noblest

fact that

'

'

Maecenas,

Tacitus, he

at

retained

rather

than

retirement

from

sometimes

before

advanced

an

the

age, when, according to

of the imperial confidence

appearance

real power,
public affairs to

had

any

leisure after his

more

exhibit

his

literarysympathies,
have
further contributed
to this reputation,
may
and
independently of the unanimous
enthusiastic praisesof
contemporary poets.
With
admirable
judgment he recognized genuine talent,
when

poeticaldilettantism

still

more

was

difficult after it
of

means

title of

have

him

to

way

the

was

alone

regard
he knew

or

more

to

did

how

to

house

in

another.

except his brains

and

about
could

all else.

honest

The

twenty-six
only

stammer

time.

thirtyyears,
Maecenas

the

it

the

and

so

till the

gave

the

a
rifeeded,
positionfree

was

words

purer

was

his

place and

not

gain
Philippi had

of

by poverty
by Virgil

brief ; the

valued

poet, then
that

embarrassed

his affairs

thought

poet

from

of both

himself

as

almost

much

anxiety

and
and

he

Maecenas,

already

later,he was invited to an

lasted uninterruptedly for

death

no

to

easy

friendshiphe

about

Horace

education

and

Maecenas

whose

old,

few

was

to

associates

advantages, but

emboldened

was

eyes

rapidly,

more

Horace,

battle

was

years

own

disturbingelements

had

one

first audience

than

says

souls

rule, said very little.

forgotten,when, nine months
with Maecenas, which
as

Rome,

recommended

was

verses,

Varius, those

above

a,nd

after

who

and

talent

sordid

Hence

no

write

assumed

his friends and

iiitrigue
; every

oust

The

man.

in their

consider

keep

Horace,

to

view,

external

or

not

admission.
resources

in

verses,

chose

birth, rank

No

time

less

or

he

free from

tried

of this great

this end

Maecenas

to

time

distance.

favour

chief recommendation

else.

same

at

man

whose

one

any
without
the

was

capacity of writing more

than

at

to

recourse

at

must
have been
justification,
importunate vulgar thought it necessary
this expedient, and
forced their
men

more

the

even

task

easy

rendered
rampant, and one
recognized that poeticaltalent

was

who, with

poet with

large,since

itself,no

gaining the

of those

number

to

it revealed

at the
more

little

macy
intimore
same

than

he

property

Belles-Lettres

56
with

garden,

the

Sabine

fountain, his

and

wood

mountains

the

Maecenas

inclined

was

retreat
delightful

what

he

later

years

his

In

greatest delicacy.
martyr to Insomnia,

and

"

gave,

to exact

much

too

he

with
gave
chronic invalid,

fits of

subject to

and

in

'

from

despondency,
Horace, whose

indispensable. Nevertheless, the

poet's tact and affection enabled him to decline franklyhis
friend's invitations, without
Maecenas,
rousing his anger.
in his will,besought Augustus to
remember
Horatius
Flaccus
he

society

almost

found

'

myself

as

I'
he

Evidently
other

any
him

poet of

the

day

he

all whom

; but

works, but

of

terms

equalitywith

Italy in modern
in this respect above

gatheredround

times
those

of

men

been

have

intellect.

of all other

nations.

exceptionallyfitted to be the centre of a

by the highest intellectual aristocracyof his
so
as

on

and
the

been

have

palaces may

brilliant

the house

in later

to

an

of Maecenas,

great

Thus

he

circle formed
time.

Many

times, but

poets
assembly again, none

open

The

equally distinguished

was

saw

with

not

of

ever

than

Horace

merely by his intellect and refined

and
his lively and
stimulatinginterest in their
almost as much
skill in associating
by his consummate

manners,

men

with

intimate

more

fascinated

were

on

was

ever

was

so

none

pitable
hos-

loftyand imposing building

heights of the Esquilinein the midst of a large park

gardens, with an extensive view of the bustlingcity,
Campagna and the mountains, Tibur, Aesula and Tuscu-

the

lum

from

the

grave

its upper
floors.
and
of Maecenas

Later, the mound

that

of Horace

that

beside

marked

it

rose

on

the

spot. After the death of Maecenas, garden and palace

the burning
became
the property of the emperor
(Nero watched
of Rome
from its windows
in the year 64),and later of Fronto.
Later, the relation of poets to their distinguishedprotectors
was

this

was

Roman

as

of client to patron.
of the
the brilliancy

rule that

partly that, as
poetry gradually faded, the

great measure

self-estimation

they

to

blame, since

lacked

value, the self-reliance of

such

as

the
distinguished

with

the confident

[men
poor

'

son

who

of

reason

golden age of
noble
appreciationof
terized
society,which charac-

poetic genius in the higher circles of

it,also disappeared. But the poets
also in

The

had

themselves

all their

exaggerated

feelingof
seen

the

of the freedman

were

their

own

republic\
of Venusia

Belles-Lettres
in the presence

57

of his

ant
powerful benefactor, the descendof an Etruscan
in Horace's
princelyfamily. Even
time,
mediocre
and
needy poets lacked this feeling
; this is clearly
shown
the
by
panegyric on Messalla, a miserable
anonymous
with
patchwork of phrases, overloaded
mythological and
even

other

scholastic

erudition

of taste almost

want

has been
of poems
Messalla

in certain

results in

nonsense.

thought worthy

which

bears

to take

the

the
will

of inclusion

yet

of TibuUus.

name

for the

deed

he

The

of the defects
;

of

aware

of his

reduced

now,

this production

poet begs

is well

He

of his powers
and
formerly been well-to-do

the

in the collection

the feebleness
has

in which

passages,
And

poetry.
poverty,

to

he

puts himself entirelyat his patron'sdisposal; if Messalla

will only take a little interest in him, he will prizethe favour
much
the gold of Lydia or the reputation of Homer.
as
as
Even if his verses
only rarely fall from the lipsof his honoured
from
patron, destiny will never
singing his
prevent him
he
is
for him,
to brave
more
praises; nay,
ready to do even
the dangers of the sea, face a squadron of cavalry, or trust his
"

body

the

to

About
and

the

of which
caused

verses
a

middle

head

of

of

the

the

the

first

century, the

great families

of Rome

on

his death

throne,

the

but

brilliant

most

that

was

the

conspiracy against Nero,

to set Ilim

was

which

of

object
reality

in

His

to
(in 65).
princelyliberality
appears
He
himself was
to poets.
a
chieflyshown
poet,
flowed readilyfrom his pen, he played the cithara like

been

'

master,

his house

performances
was

of Aetna.

distinguishedof

Piso, the

have

flames

the rule.

resounded

of its inmates
The

poet endeavoured

mediocre
to obtain

uninterestingspecimen

of

'

throughout
; devotion

poem,
an
'

with

to

clients

science

stillyouthful

Piso, is

to

poetry

varied

the
and

art

which

introduction
'

with

'.

After

not

brating
cele-

able
family,he speaks of the admirhis
qualitiesof its present representative(especially
eloquence)and the honour of the consulshipalready bestowed
his generosity
upon him ; praiseshis noble presence, his sincerity,
and poetical
and
his education, his musical
affability,
talents, his skill in sword
exercise, tennis and
draughts
a
descriptionwhich
essentiallyagrees with that given by
the

renown

of Piso's

"

Tacitus.
asks

At

is that

the
Piso

conclusion
will

deign to

the

poet declares

admit

him

that

into his

all

he

house, for

Belles-Lettres

58
he is not

influenced

of fame.

Piso and

worthy of them
and

Maecenas

to

of

his

fame

the

poets

house

will listen to his prayers,

verse

as

down

of the

kind.

the

the

his

protection,

in their old age.

will sing of him in

poet

since

and

swimmer,

which

without

unknown

Under

Horace.

his humble

him

draw

birth

he

If Piso

polished

feels

Piso

something great, if only

to do
to

to

path of glory
haps
great things. Per-

capable of handing
posterity,if indeed one may promise anything
He feels that he has courage
and strength

his Maecenas
name

the

to him
will do

starvation

fear

to

pass his
in verses

with
Maecenas, not content
alone, also laid the foundation

and

Varius

the desire

and

him

to

his virtues

remained

have

protect him

had

never

describe

to

he
obscurity,

from

of

gold,but solelyby
happy if he may

will open

if Piso

Virgilwould

even

opening

himself

attempt

him

rescue

thirst for

think

will

He

life with

by

and

will stretch
of

out

poverty

the

have

his hand

out

retirement

thrust

into

him.

His

are
greater than one might imagine from the number
powers
is only beginning to cover
of his years, since the first down
his cheeks
and he has not yet ^passedhis twentieth summer.

After
that

of the

for the

and
with it
positionof the aristocracy,
a
change
poets dependent upon it, underwent
selves
Many of the great families had ruined them-

Nero, the
worse.

by luxury and extravagance ; others had fallen victims

hatred or cupidityof the imperialdespotism.
to the suspicion,
from the
The
new
men
reign of Vespasian brought to Rome
who retained their old habits,
cities of Italy and the provinces,
contracted

under

restricted

more

conditions

of

life,while

; under
example of economy
had to guard against arousing
Domitian, distinguishedmen
suspicionby too lavish a displayof generosityor too numerous
a clientele. Thus, the poets of that time
certainlyhad reason
of the good old days of Maecenas, and
to wish for the return

the

himself

emperor

set

the

Martial, then a young man,

about
the year 63, the hall of the Pisos,filled
to Rome
came
of his countrymen the
with ancestral busts, and the houses
three Senecas
Junius Gallio, and Annaeus
(the philosopher,
even

Mela

of Seneca

the

father

in the years

the
was

and

of

65 and

Piso.

Lucan)

When

were

66 ; and

open
towards

to

him.

the end

All
of the

perished
century

of the great Seneca family

only survivingrepresentative
Lucan's
wife
PoUa
Argentaria,Martial's patroness,

Belles-Lettres
addressed

by him

'

late

59

96. Under Domitian

patrons of literature as Piso, Seneca, Vibius Crispus
and
Memmius
Regulus no longer existed ; at least, the two
most
prominent poets. Martial
and
Statius, strove to gain
as

queen

as

as

such

the favour

of

enough

to

procure

he

occasionallyhonoured

largenumber

of persons, without

being able to
obtain what had formerlybeen granted by a singleindividual.
Martial had certainlybeen connected
with the court during
the reign of Titus, who had bestowed
upon him the privileges
of a father of three children {justrium liberorum),
confirmed
by Domitian, and perhaps raised him to the status of a knight
by creating him titular tribune.
His recommendation
was
was

table ; but
a

have

request

returns

never

been

the

for
citizenship
with

an

several

claimants, and

invitation

perial
im-

the

to

the emperor
refused, although not ungraciously,
for a few thousand
the
sesterces.
As
poet

thanks

indebted

for

giftsreceived,

to him

for any

he

does

not

to

seem

real

improvement in his
position,although
continually begged for it, without
not even
timidityor embarrassment
; he was
permitted to
he

'

'

his

connect

This

is the

poems

ventured

also

country
not

to make

unwearying

freedmen

and

town

as
striking,

more

had

or

house

with

Domitian

this been

the Marcian
was

aqueduct.
fond of reading his

the case. Martial

frequentreferences to his

in his efforts to win

other

persons

would

not

approval.

the favour

at court, sometimes

have
He

is

of influential

by

the most

degrading flattery
; he
generally and flatters
praises them
them
individually Parthenius, the chamberlain, Entellus
master
of petitions,
Euphemus the superintendentof the table,
Earinus
the cup-bearer, Crispinus the imperial favourite,
"the father (alreadyretired)
of Etruscus, and a certain Sextus,
who appears to have been
the director of the imperialstudies.
During a twenty years' stay in Rome, however, Martial
had been brought into frequentrelations with members
of the
which he sought to keep up and enlarge by honourable
aristocracy,
mention
of them
in his poems,
which
(ashe himself says)
bestowed
fame, although he gained nothing
lastilng
upon them
himself by such homage.
with
His long-standingconnexion
Seneca
obtained
him the friendshipof Quintus Ovidius, who
had accompanied Caesonius
(orCaesennius)Maximus, a friend
of Seneca the philosopher,
into exile in Sicily. The largenumber
of men
of senatorial
rank
Martial offers homage
to whom
"

Belles-Lettres

6o

for favours
in his epithanks
he begs or
whom
grams
flattery,
his
in
twelve
the
last
Rome
years'of stay
(writtenduring
or
from 86 to 98, and
in Spain up to loi
102) includes the
: the
poet Silius Italicus (consul68) and his
followingnames
sons
; the wealthy orator Marcus
; Nerva, afterwards
emperor
in cases
of lisean
accuser
as
Aquilius Regulus, notorious
or

majesiS ; the enormously rich brothers Domitius

Avitus
Lucanus
Domitius
; the poet Stertinius
who
the

in 94 had
well-known

the second

the

portraitof Martial

author

time

TuUus

(consul92,
library)
;

in his

set up

Julius Frontinus

Sextus

and

(consul for

98, for the third time

100) ; the younger Pliny

Stella (consul101) ; Lucius

(consul 100) ; the poet Arruntius

of Lucius
Antonius
Appius Maximus,
conqueror
Saturninus
jan's
consul) ; Licinius Sura (consul 102), Tra(irwice
most
Antonius
of
Primus
powerful friend ; Marcus
others.
Tolosa, Vespasian's former
partisan; and
many
Naturally, Martial sought and found patrons amongst the
knights. Amongst them may have been the elegant Atedius
Norbanus

Melior, who
and

garden on
praiseshe most
who
not

such

gave

the

dinners

excellent

Mons

Caelius.

One

in his beautiful house

of the

friends whose

frequentlysingsis a centurion, Aulus

Pudens,

of primipilaris,
reached
the rank
but
to have
appears
the summit
to the equestrian
of his ambition, admission
He

order.

also

of other

enjoyed

highly appreciatedthe

and

centurions, to judge from his honourable

in his poems.
Statius to some
extent

ship
friendmention

of them

also endeavoured

and

moved

to win

above

all of the emperor

; he
'
appealingto his divinity
and

homage

in the

the
never

Yet

same

favour

circles

of the

as

same

Martial

patrons,

out
publishedanything withhis repeated and obsequious
'

laughably exaggerated

flatteries

seem

to

have

but an invitation to table

nothing from Domitian
supply of water from a publio aqueduct for his house

gained him
and

Alba.

near

freedmen

eunuch

Like

Martial, Statius

Some

of

Martial's

and
Argentaria the wife of Lucan
also Statius 's. Many senators, whose
Melior) were
found
in his poems,
attended
his frequentreadings
are
the aged consular and city praefect,
Rutilius Gallicus,

Arruntius

names

the

and
his father and the
; besides Etruscus
of the
Earinus, he especially
sang the praises

Secretary Abascantus.
Atedius

imperial
youthful
imperial
patrons (Lucius

flattered

Stella, Polla

Belles-Lettres

62
Martial

general and his patrons

in

his readers

only reminds

not

all things;
above
naoney
particular,that a poet wants
for a toga,a cloak and the like.
he is continuallybegging, even
occasion to Regulus, that he is so pressed
He writes on
one

in

that

for money

something

Regulus buy
who

one

in

one

his

that

frankness,

will be

he

sell his

obliged to
He

declares

even

at

poeticalgifts

are

'
A
likes to pay for them
:
of my
pretends he
poems,

presents ; will

cynical
disposalof any

the
whom

man

I have

nothing ;

me

owes

with

praised
he has

epigrams the emperor is supposed

he has gained from conferringimmortalityon
to ask, what
is : nothing,but it amuses
in his poems
? his answer
so many
not of the same
me.
opinionas the younger
Probably all were
Pliny, who
thought it his duty to pay Martial's travelling
since no giftscould be
of praise,
in return for a poem
expenses
taken

in '.

me

greater than

In

of his

one

those

by the poet,

bestowed

'

fame, praise and

of those
who
were
immortality '. Yet
praised by
many
Martial
certainly paid for the honour, although not always
as

he expected.
as
liberally
he mainly turned
But
his

and

witty

were

best
much

as

blame

him

such
written
since

But

readers
Martial

in social

conversation

adapted
as by his
as
as

the

and

most

for

talents to account

circles,for which

such

on

occasions

he

cringingflatteries.

writing poems

indeed

they

degraded them

We

order

cannot
certainly

jects,
given subthe Xenia, which
to all appearance
were
ally
originfor
in
labels
Saturnalia presents
wealthy houses.

jovialguests

at

to

the

or

on

Saturnalia

generally relished nothing

in this

in intellectual

so

respect also accommodated

carousals

much

and

indecency,

as

himself

to the taste

of the

public. The ideas of decency at that time allowed the

poet any obscenities,if disguised in elegant language ; the
of indecent
disproportionately
epigrams shows
large number
how ready Martial]was
the grossesttastes of the majorto satisfy
ity,
and the

manner

conscious

was

In

of

of his

excuses

it clear that he himself

makes

having overstepped

the

bounds

spite of his brilliant talents, Martial

Saturnalia

poems
of old times, who

reminds
invited

us

somewhat

themselves

of

with

of the

propriety.
his merry

strollingpoets

banquets, where they

treated
somewhat
were
welcome, but were
contemptuously.
Statius was
saved from a similar humiliation
by the nature of
his talents,
which
always had in view the patheticand solemn ;
to

Belles-Lettres
also he had

dignitythan Martial and a

higher idea of poetry. His minor poems give us an idea of the
originof the higher occasional poetry of the age and its usual
on
births,
subjects. Of the three chief classes of such poems
Statius's forte was
the last ; the four
marriages and deaths
of his collection are selected from a large
consolatory poems
more

of his

63

sense

own

"

"

'

'

number.
who

He

has

often soothed

so

of fathers

he

the

so

had

poets

tears and

to write

freedmen,

two,

one

and

of animals

even

of Atedius

of

his voice

made

distinguishedfamilies
poets. The

client

Gallicus from

celebrated

was

Celer's

on

journey

services of

to his

varied

and

numerous

the

by

the recovery
Domitian's
teenth
seven-

on
illness,

severe

cluded
in-

choly
melan-

joyful or

of Statius

poems

has

Statins

rule, every

of favourite

Melior's green talking

to pieces in the arena

lion torn

As

consulship,on Maecius
Sjrriaare examples of the

in

often

so

at their

sons

for the funerals

them

the death

on

in

event

of Rutilius

affectionate

'

and

and

the stillbleedingwounds

pain of

many

parrot, the other on that

by another wild animal.
house

gentle consoler of the afflicted,

by departingspirits.This clearlyshows
such poems.
Rich people also
produced many

commissioned
slaves

the

mothers, comforted

and

father's grave, dried

heard beside the tomb
that

'

calls himself

garrison

subjects

especially
the inauguraat the celebration of festivals,
tion
requisitioned
of important buildingsor artistic undertakings. The day

of occasional

after the colossal

the

Forum,

But

poems.

the

of Domitian

equestrianstatue

Statius

was

ordered

poets

to

let the

were

was

emperor

set up
have

in
a

it.
upon
these solemnities,occasional

poem

poetry suppliedthe place of

modern
journalism. Rich people gladly availed themselves
of it, to secure
publicityfor eulogisticdescriptionsof their
beautiful villas and
gardens, baths, splendid buildings,art
never
valuables, and probably there was
collections and
any
You
their wishes.
praise the
lack of poets ready to meet
At

'

baths

but

of Ponticus, who
gives such
'
',says Martial ; you
verses

to dine '.

But

it, the majority

were

even

when
anxious

good dinners, in
don't reallywant

there
that

was

famous

no

three

dred
hun-

to

bathe,

specialreason

for

poets should

sing

praises,and frequentlydirectlyinvited them to do so.

distinguishedthe family, the more
The
larger and more
numerous
probably were the poets who were eager to bestow
their

64

Belles-Lettres

poetical consecration
the

life of its

to

"

whether

members,

passionategrieffor

all the

on

her

important incidents in
joyfulor melancholy. In her
most

Octavia

Marcellus

son

refused

to listen

'. At a marriage
composed to glorifyhis memory
poems
Gallienus all the
of the emperor
festival in the house
and
Latin
days
poets recited nuptial songs for many

the

Greek

together; but
prize from a
'

the

emperor

with

poets '.

hundred

Of

carried

verses

ofE the

the number

course

100

is

in modern

times, less than

than
eight days after the birth of the King of Rome, more
2,000 odes, hymns and other poeticalexpressionsof homage
reached
the Tuileries,for which
Napoleon paid 100,000 francs
not

here

to be

; but
literally

few

taken

Although poets, of

of honoraria.
way
most
frequentlyin the

by

palace, they appear

houses

course,

participated
imperial

of festivals in the
glorification
have

to

where
generally,

done

the
with

in accordance

in

same

Roman

aristocratic

people
amused
themselves
by listeningto the numerous
productions
of the wedding of Stella
offered
On
the occasion
to them.
the whole
and Violentilla,Statius
summons
troop of poets,
especiallythe elegiacpoets, the singersof love, to contend
in various modes
',each according to his mastery of the l}?re.
number
of poems,
Of the
in which
certainly considerable
the contemporary poets of Rome,
in response
to this appeal,
of the wedding of their distinguishedcolleague,only
sang
those of Statius and Martial have been preserved.
But as in this case, so on other and quite different occasions
the two
for the same
themes
poets wrote pieceson the same
lamented
of Atedius
the death
Both
patrons and friends.
and of the aged father of Claudius
Melior's favourite freedman
celebrated
the sumptuous
Etruscus
bath constructed
; both
ing
by the latter and the bronze statuette by Lysippus,belongwith
Vindex
Lucan's
both
widow
to Novius
;
presented
taste

'

'

'

some

on
poems
eunuch
Flavins

hair and

to the

his desire

Martial
of the
often

box

temple

composed

five short

time, with
and

celebration

of her

birthday; and

when

the

of

cup-bearer, cut off his

with precious stones togetherwith
Aesculapiusat Pergamus, Statius

lengthy poem

Earinus, Domitian's

sent it in

his mirror
at

the

ones.

whose

set

Now, since
occasional

we

on

find the

pieces

we

the

event

and

only two poets

are

acquainted,

we
deliberately
dealingwith the same
subjects,
that on extraordinaryoccasions also as a
'may fairlyassume
so

Belles-Lettres
rule

crowd

of

there

was

kinds

of metres.

poets

perfectdownpour

Statins

Athough

houses, that each

neither

success,

in

lavish

seized

was

and

praiseof
did

they

been

mentions

the

witness

the

same

of the other's

other, while both are

dently
numerous
poeticalcolleagues.Evione
another, as indeed was hardly to

their
love

not

and
that
inspiration,
long and short,in all

frequentlyvisited

so

often

have

of them

with

of poems,

Martial

must

65

be

expected,consideringthe profound contrast of their natures

if the Spanish poet, now
even
growing old, had been able to
refrain from vexation and jealousyat the fame of the itan,
Neapol"

which

threatened

eclipsehis

to

expressed a contemptuous
although he does not

opinionof
mention

'

frequently

long mythologicalepopees,
the

Thebaid

of Statius.

praisesand admires them, but

Epics contain nothing but monstrous
my epigrams are read.
abortions of the imagination ; whereas my epigrams touch real
be read by any one
who wishes to
life to the quick,and must
'

Certainly',he says,

he

But

own.

himself

understand

or

figures

swellingdress with
tragic and

those

the

the

free from

ridiculous,

and

the

I will

over-

highly
season

with the modest

trumpet

attacks,made

of his

clay ; my

austere

be content

surpass

face of these

the last books

he read

in which

in

struts

midnight
mythology

with wit, and

In

are

of Greek

loftythemes

others.'

little books

oil,handle

poems
shepherd'sflute,since its tones
many

of

Let

who

one

legendsis

giants,but

never

train.
the

burn

genuine Roman
so

My

Muse

long

serious people, who

are

they live.

bombast, my

and

fustian

fables and

with

deals

Any

their character

mistakes
trifles,

figuresof epopees

small, but

are

he lives.

the age in which

regards epigrams as mere

in realitythe poet who
trifler. The

one

every

in the
and

Thebais

blasts

of

years

the

first

applauseof a largeaudience, Statius

criticize epigrams unfavourably. He

of his Achilleis to the loud

never

condescended
his

characterizes

to

short

own

poems,

thrown
trifles,
', as insignificant
; he

moment

kind, but he

At

their

heaped
envy

easilywounded

R.L.M.

"

III.

opinionthat

conclusion

of mist,
all times

blamed

been
of

was

the

At

clouds

had

'

written
off

as

on

sort of

the spur

grams
epi-

of the

publishinganything of the
even
badinage might be justified.

for

of his Thebaid

he

complains

of

the

by envy to obscure its brilliancy.

jealousy amongst poets arise from
vanity, their exaggerated self-esteem

up
and

Belles-Lettres

66

period with which we are

concerned, their dependent position,their rival efforts to
their
and
win
the favour
approval of the great, on whom
the
existence
only too likelyto arouse
depended, were
very
ugly passions of ignoble natures, and often led to irritation,
persecution and calumny, intrigue and cabal of all kinds.
thirst for

and

was

as

rule

anything but

envious

of his

epigrams ;

literary
Many
indecency

benevolent.
the

of those

number

the

but

able
unfavour-

of the

Martial)blamed

motives, says

(from

and

criticism

The

kinds.

critics of various
circles of Rome

enemies, envious

from

much

suSered

Martial

In the

but

glory ;

who

declined

to

recognize living poets and praised only those of the past,

In general,Martial
was
probably larger,as is always the case.
of poets as rather a proof of the universally
regarded the censure

good reception accorded to his works, and justlypreferred

the
his
than
to see
approved by
guests
by the
poems

in the

poet, who
plundered
if

had

he

because

could

ready

were

burst

to

secured

modest

he

with

competence,

pointed

was

him

'

envy

as

was

guest,

Jewish

his poems,
but all the same
always criticizing
them.
However, it did not trouble Martial much

was

difierence

one

'

read

plagiarists
gave

the

who

his poems,
because
welcomed
streets,because many

all Rome

because
out

those

of

One

cooks.

out

between

and

read

their

help noticing the

far

verses

their own,

as

since

productionswas so great that no

He
theft.
frequentlycomplains,

prejudicialto his reputation

a
as
poet and his position generally; anonymous
poets,
could
be
not
whose
broadcast
traced,
published
identity
virulent
and
abuse
under
his name
vulgar insults directed
and
of rank.
This treachery was
all
women
against men
the more
likelyto injurehim with his patrons, since in any
there was
case
always the danger that persons, whose favour
of great importance to him, might think his sarcasm
was
however,

"

of what

his

was

more

was

intended

for

themselves

that

he

has

any

never

In addition
of

the

doings

hence

his

repeated assertion

particularindividual

to these and
at these

similar

in view.

glimpsesin

meetings in the

'

Martial's poems
school of the poets '

porticoof the temple of Quirinus,they furnish other

information
concerning the literaryinterests and tendencies
or

the

of

the
In

time.

the epigrams of Martial, the

particular,

poems

of Statius

Belles-Lettres
(90-96)
which

and

letters of

directlyconnected

are

relation

the

67
Pliny (97-108/9),

the

younger

with

both, acquaint us

with

the

of educated

societyto poetry in the time of Domitian,

Nerva, and the beginning of Trajan's reign. Yet the phenomena
disclosed,though characteristic of this relation and of

literature

in

general, are

not

exactly confined

alone, but

be
considered
may
time
from
Augustus to

whole

the

to

The

period

essentiallyapplicableto the
Hadrian.
They also confirm

poetry at that time was

importance and exercised a greater influence upon
in general than
at the present day.
observation,

this

that

first

impressionis that of
throughout the domain

excessive

of

greater

education

industry and

ductivity
pro-

of

poetical literature,the
field of which
cultivated
was
by rival poets and dilettanti.
Juvenal, in a despairing outburst against perpetual

whole

Thus

recitations,mentions

of the most

poems
listen

varied

kinds, which
reads a Theseis,

daily; one
another
Roman
comedies, a third elegies; a Telephus ^,
and a never-ending Orestes take up a whole day ; the columns
and
plane-trees of a peristyleused by the reciters resound
of the combats
of the Centaurs,
unceasingly with descriptions
of the judgment of the dead, of the carryingoff of the golden
A
certain
Varro
fleece.
was
according to Martial
equally
distinguishedas a writer of tragedies and mimes, lyricsand
of Gades
been
to have
Rufus
no
elegies; Canius
appears
and epic poems,
Manilius
less versatile.
Vopiscus wrote l5rric
Pollius
Felix hexameters, epodes or
satires and
epistles
;

one

compelled

was

distichs and

to

iambics.

In

to

addition

of

poetry, others less common

Aristophaniccomedy and the
Greek.

the

the

best

mentioned,

are

number

mimiambus

known
such

kinds
as

the

composed in
Martial, Statius and Pliny only tell us the
course
few contemporary poets ; according to Quintilian,
considerable.
of satirists and Isrric
poets was

Of
of

names

to

many

ite
mythological,was probably the favourespecially
been
of the period have
preserved,
; long epic poems
of Silius Italicus,
all of which, with the exceptionof the Punica
Flaccus,
are
mythological the Argonautica of Valerius
remarks
on
the Thebais
and
Achilleis of Statius.
Juvenal's
Its
jects
subrecitations
also indicate a preponderance of epos.
But

epos,

"

the most

were
1

harmless

Telephus, King

of

Mysia, a

the

poet

favourite

who

set Aeneas

subject of tragedy.

and

Belles-Lettres

68

fightingmight feel
nobody could complain of a
added
Hylas. To this was

Turnus

of

certain

giving offence

never

Achilles

wounded

or

drowning

authority of Virgil,whose
form
was
thought the easiest to reproduce. Accordingly,
the school of necessitydirected its poeticalefforts to the field
facilitated
of Greek
legend. Its wealth of poetic material
to Virgil numerous
execution
(and especially
; in addition
Alexandrine) models, ready to hand, supplied the want of
of

and

invention,

the

to

power

create

new

Again,

poems.

development of all the

a less gifteddilettante might approexcellences, which even
priate,
such as beauty of language, irreproachableversification,
rhetorical pathos, and
above
liveliness.
all, descriptive
Horace
speaks of descriptionsof nature, which could be
used
of long
as
purple patches to conceal the nakedness
and altar of Diana, a stream
a grove
:
winding through
poems
offered

epos

the

widest

for the

scope

'

'

'

the
smiling fields,
mentions

Juvenal

of Vulcan
The

house.
out

one

knows

has

not

the

end

of

golden age

to

his

the

'

the

legends

are

poetical
the

his

own

to strike

hackneyed. Every

his

world.

own

Who

expedition of the Argonauts, the Trojan

of Niobe

of the house

and

the desertion

third

his

He

'.

to

all '.

intention

number

in the

enumerates

'

the

Virgil'sEclogues and Georgics,as

Columella
frequently imitated.
subjectof a poem, simply because
deserving of the highest reverence

as

chose

of

duction
introdoning
aban-

number

of

great poets have

legends

we

well

'

of

old

Further,

Similarly,

Nemesianus

century,

track

of Atreus, the

of Ariadne

Cynegeticaannounces

beaten

known

than

Seneca

knows

one

every

too

are

better

mythologicalsubjects,adding,
already anticipated all these
times

'.

such

among

that

declares

old

of Cadmus,

adventures
at

; the

sung of the
the misfortunes

war,

sunset

rainbow

better than
grove of Mars
of Aetna declares that he intends

author

the

the

the

and

path

new

Rhine,

and

sunrise

Aetna,

commonplaces.
cave

of the

course

may
his

of

former

that

assume

Aeneid,

horticulture

the divine

as

were

the

Maro, the poet

', had

expressly called
to treat this department of agriculture
his successors
upon
poetically. Martial's friend, JuliusCerealis,besides a Giganrural poems,
inferior only to those
tomachia, composed some
of the immortal
Virgil'. The Georgicacomposed by Clodius
'

Albinus, the rival of the emperor

Severus,was

also

poem.

Belles-Lettres

70
duction

were

certain

extent

substitute

held

industry and study

originality.This

for

Augustan poetry,
unexampled frequency
reminiscences

and

considered

were

There

kind.

of every

of all

which

post-

is the

echoes
repetitions,

and

imitations

of

of

to

adequate

an

especiallytrue

is

characteristic

chief

the

allowable, and

legitimateand

be

to

were

even

'

Ovidian

'

'

Virgilian poets,who apparentlyemployed only Ovidian

and
Virgilianturns, phrases and verses.
later poetry, especially
The
influence
of Virgilon
enormous
has
been
and
As Ennius
already mentioned.
Virgil
epos,
had
later epic poets wrote
imitated
under
so
the
Homer,
the whole
spell which
Virgil exercised over
period. Silius
'

and

than that of any other

picture more
celebrated
his birthday more
conscientiously
and
his
tomb
if
it had been a
as
approached
his

Italicus reverenced

great
than

man,

his own,

its

immortality,adds

Aeneis

at

the

that

he

is content

to

tread

the successful imitation

of

friend of the younger

whose
ancients generally,

PauUus,
of the

of his

end

Thebais

for

craves

to follow

the

divine

in

footstepswith holy
the highest
branches, also, poetS obtained

other

praisefor

and

distance

In

awe.

at

Statins, who

temple.

gteat-model. Passennus

Pliny,was

imitator

copied and reproduced,

whose
family he

he

pOems

zealous

especiallythose of Propertius, to
imitator he was
; his
belonged, and whose most successfijl
'.
written
elegies were
entirelyin the house of Propertius
Later, he turned his attention to lyricpoetry, and reproduced
'

Horace

with

For

the

fidelity.

same

who

of those

most

trifles,epigrams
ends, Catullus,

as

in

to

the
most

of him.

full of reminiscences

Silius,as the gentle Catullus

his lament

on

This

was

poem

the
the

death

been
to have
appears
Martial
flatters Stella by

has

shown

himself

as

may

the

was

and
model

epigrams of a poet like

originalof later writers,

He

sends

have

his little poems

to send
ventured

to the great Virgil.

sparrow
model
for all similar subjects

imitated

times

saying that in
far superiorto

Unicus
a
larger than
sparrow.
love poems,
such
of Martial, wrote
is

age,

posing
com-

of the

inevitable

and

he

Augustan
even

aspirations
by
odds
of poetical

all kinds

of the

Martial, certainly one

are

and

the

generally followed

most

satisfied their

the
as

number.

without

(dove)

his Columba
Catullus

as

Spaniard, a
those

dove

relative

of Catullus

to

Belles-Lettres
Lesbia

of

or

Saturninus,
'

verses

Ovid

or

passion;
with

tempered
Catullus
adds

their

'.

Pliny, to

Pliny also

another

tenderness

and

wrote

playfulness was

severity,this too

It would

admire

listened with

historian,also

and

ness
Calvus, full of grace, sweetness, bitter-

certain

Calvus

or

Pliny's friend, Pompeius

distinguishedorator

like Catullus

and

Corinna.

to

71

be

him

in the

in the

highest degree

less because

he

greatestpleasureand

the

of

manner

just,
un-

is still alive.
tion
admira-

even

Augurinus, who had recited

his little poems
for three days running.
There was
a good
deal of writing in the lightand graceful,
the lofty,the gay,
the tender, the sweet
and the satirical vein.
I am
of opinion
there has not for these many
years appeared anything more
to

friend, Sentius

'

finished of the

kind, if indeed

the

bestows

praiseshe

For

he had

Calvus,
them

me

Pliny, who

all his

upon

sing in modest
the poets of old.

said

and

what

But

also writes

formerlyCatullus,

as

verses,

verslets,is

need

to

more

to

mention
than

me

predecessors'.

The

example

paths

'

great affection for him and

do not bias my
judgment '.

my

of

of Catullus

Pliny,who
'

until he

did
had

begin

not

attained

'

in the

to walk

and

rank

consular

of age, and who relates in great detail

the historyof the origin of this ' late spring of song ', shows
than

more

was

most

fortyyears

clearlyhow

at that

time

the

keen

the most
necessarilyattracted even
had
to poetry. He
poeticalnatures

attempts
was

as

already

only natural

was

and

matter-of-fact

at a

time

un-

several

made

culture

when

self
poeticalelements, and since he himalways aspired to literary distinction. He writes

saturated

so

had
as

at verse,

interest in literature

follows to

with

friend

'

You

have

read, you say, my

hendeca-

and
what
first induced
a man
desirous to know
are
syllables,
in
truth
of my gravity (as you are pleased to call me, though
To
I am
to write verses.
only not a trifler)
go back, then,
earliest years, I had
to my
always an inclination to poetry,
I was
insomuch
that when
fourteen years of age, I composed

tragedy in Greek.
really don't know ;
a

What

sort

all I remember

of

one

do

ask

you

of it is that it

was

called

the
from
return
time
after this, on
tragedy. Some
my
being detained in the island of Icaria by contrary
army,
the self-same island and
Latin elegies
on
winds, I wrote some
a

sea.

I have

since made

some

attempts in the heroic kind

Belles-Lettres

72

I have
hendecasyllabics

but these

are

and

followingincident

the

of Asinius
which
and

he

the first

Gallus

read

was

to

me

citfes an

at

his

his

treatise

Laurentum, in
father and Cicero,

day

one

comparison between
epigram of TuUy's on

draws

The

birth.

them

gave

composed

ever

favourite

own

Tiro.

retiringto take
time) and not being

afternoon's
summer
nap (forit was
my
able to sleep, I began to reflect that

the

have

Upon

greatest orators

despisedit

means

do

in this way
things of this
than

which

hexameters,
determined
and

sort, I wrote

he

lured
me,

of this kind.
to
of

them.

in the

how

on

(Melmoth).

I added

On

my

of

some

the

others to the number

return

to

Rome

friends, who

my

I
were

The

example
utterlyprosaic

restraint,are

facilitywith

the

Cicero's

afforded
a

an

even

pedant itches

From
this I turned
easy '.
I executed
with the same

by

do

time

following lines upon

explains

no

I could

shorter

'

'

by

what

much

'

attempt the free and

he continues, which

yielded to

in

first hint'

all

and

long disused myself to

hendecasyllabicsprobably
when
example of the result

to

thus

the

me

abandon

to

the

poetry

therefore

his

terrible

being

down,

Imagined,

gave
in which

him

heavy,

more

I had

though

have

of

I tried

art.

an

; and

could

subject

as

fond

been

which

to
ease

the

elegy',
;

and

Muses

of my

productions
showed
ances
my performpleased to approve

I had
Afterwards, whenever
ticularly
spare time, and parI travelled, I made
several
when
other attempts

lengthI determined, after the example

of many
of these poems,
others,to publish a separate volume
and
I have
resolution.
to repent of my
no
reason
They
much
are
inquiredafter,and are in everybody'shands ; they
have
even
tempted the Greeks to learn our language,who
sing them to their harps and Ijrres. But why am I boasting
? though poets, remember,
of raving.
so
possess the privilege
not giving you
own
Still,I am
judgment, but that of
my
I am
others, which, be it right or wrong,
exceedinglypleased
with ; and
have
only to wish that posteritytoo may be
of thinking
of the same
right or wrong
(Melmoth).
way
Later, Pliny published,or at least prepared for publication,
poeticalline.

At

'

in various
the
At
metres.
poems
of his hearers, the recital lasted two
days, for Pliny

collection

request

of

smaller

did not, ' like others, omit a portion and take credit for doing
to improve everyso
; he read
everything,since he wanted

Belles-Lettres
thing ;

and

how

he to do

was

73

this,if he only submitted

select

to the criticism of his friends ? '

This shows
how
passages
the dilettanti of the time, incited to poeticalefforts by the

of

want

intellectual

occupation for their hours

imitation, extensive reading, knack

an

the

spiritof
writing,the example
in everything, soon
as
vain, as
they were
At

that

of rank

time

it

to

on

to any

young

crowd

well-born

to

time

poetry

brilliant

themselves
rich

and

as

was

much
at

even

of

success

of

it

man,

was

which

remark

record

pleasureto

more

poets,who

of the upper

of
be

verse-

perfect

poets, when

as

advanced

an

daily for

have

can

age.

in

that

for

it

elegiac
gives him
as

one

it

was

of noble

comparatively few of the

months
together,belonged

particularthat

had

In

Piso's

Calpurnius

achievement
that

men

occupied, to devote

it,since, creditable

rare

shows

recited

classes

to

leisure,

Pliny.
evidentlynothing exceptionalfor

distinguishedfamilies, and

to

desire

the constellations,Pliny observes

poems
all the

birth ;

the

fancy

to

whose
position,

or

the

others, and

came

was

their leisure hours

reference

of

of

little time

the dilettanti
inclination

or

for

considerable

poeticalundertakings. Amongst the consulars

of that time, in addition to Pliny and Silius Italicus,Stertinius
Stella and the aged Arrius Antoninus
Avitus, Arruntius
were
poetical dilettanti ; Rutilius Gallicus also,praefect of the city
had
a
(died 91-92) was
poet. Vestricius Spurinna, who
filled the highest offices (the consulshiptwo
three times)
or
and had been honoured
(probablyby Nerva) with a statue in
time
some
triumphal dress, when
77 years of age, devoted
his walk and his bath to the compositionof lyric
daily between
in
poems
excellent.

Greek

Latin, which

and

according

Pliny were
filledthe extremely
to

knight Titinius Capito,who

Domitlan, Nerva,
onerous
post of imperial secretary under
also one
of the chief supporters of literature,
and Trajan, was
the recitations
the patron of poets and literary
men
; he attended
of

great

on

The

men.

chamberlain,

Nerva,
Muses

was

'

The

of

influence

whose

according
who

drank

Unfortunately, he
the

himself, and wrote remarkable

poems
Domitian's
head
freedman
Parthenius,

others, recited

examples

Aeclanum,

to Martial

of Pollius

Caninius

favourite

freelyfrom

more

had

still considerable

was

not

their

Apollo and the

spring than he ?

of

sufficient leisure for

Felix
Rufus

of

under

poetry.

From

Puteoli, Pomponfus Bassulus

of Comum,

we

may

assume

that

'

Belles-Lettres

74

higher classes
not merely one
At that time it was
of immature
intellectual purification
generalamongst

was
poetical dilettantism
of Italy.
in the towns

of the

of the

symptoms

the

youth, or of morbid development ; poetry continued to be the

of educated
It
men.
life-longcompanion of a large number
intellectwas
practised not merely to ennoble and adorn the ual
life,but also since it
culture

as

class

the

Since
proof of superior education.
represented by Petronius's Trimalchio
them

on

it

that

was

fame, sometimes
At

the

produce

brought up,

well

how

to

we

can

clever

found

beginning of

of
garded
re-

of

men

even

incumbent

appear

skill in

hence

prizedas an essential element

also
managing poeticalform was
was

thought

it

to
of their own,
so
as
poems
stand
all the more
easilyunder-

poets, who

purchasers for
the second

to

preferredmoney
their

verses.

century, poetry

was

so

portant
im-

prosaicnatures like
Pliny'scould not escape its influence ; the reignof Hadrian saw
sudden
a great and
change, whereby prose regainedits former
ascendancy to such an extent that poetry graduallyceased
efiorts of dilettanti and artists,
to be the chief field of the literary
and even
like Apuleiusdevoted themselves
of poeticalgifts
men
of this change, as
The
chief cause
by preferenceto prose.
'.
Greek
already observed, was the new
sophistic
called
art of Greek
were
This new
elocution,whose professors
of sophists,
by the old name
began to develop after the end
it acquired,the
of the first century. The importance which
it attracted, and the general,
of able men
whom
large number
it called
which
passionateand almost incredible admiration
factor

in education

that

even

'

the

in

forth

Greek

correspond completely to
a

keenly felt

the

of

educated

art, survived
but

with

undiminished

the sound

and

nation

which

during the centuries

was

formed

in all

art of the

degeneratetaste

The
and

insatiable
an

of the

merely

also filled

that satisfied

manner

craving for

to
impressionability

vigour

unadulterated

departments by

magnificent creations,no
The

men.

not

of the age, but

lifein

intellectual amusement

new

some

in intellectual

want

majority

the taste

did

it

that

world, prove

in

the

taste

intellectual
the marvellous

declining

for real art,

prime

of Greece

abundance

of

with

the

longer existed.

so
sophists,
completely in harmony
of later centuries,
and
apparently in

all

essen-

Belles-Lettres

75

tials a revival of the Asiatic mannerism, was

a
created forms
difficult to manage,
hard and

rules,

to the least

'

details,for

spuriousart.
fast and

It

trifling

of

kind

style,every
thought, construction and rhythm ; great importance
also attached
was
it was
which
to correctness
of expression,
sought to obtain by study and frequentlyperverse and pedantic
imitation of ancient models, especially
Attic.
The chief
excellence of the sophists,
like that of the Meistersingers,
sisted
coneven

form

'

to

Polemo

the

turned

the technical

period,he

how

easy

rules of the

the

educated

increased

and

of

technical

smile, to show

amongst

in the

great extent

surmounted

every

of

difficulties

with

ease

their

of

which
art

he found

it '.

they
'

when

of it with

the last member

uttered

knowledge of

The

art of prose,

graduallyspreading
public,sharpened the understanding
new

the admiration

specialadmiration

apparent

of the

audience.

But

the

object

improvisation,which,
however, was
acquired by
sophists; one of the
greatestof them, Herodes Atticus, is said to have prizedit more
highly than his consular rank and his descent from a consular
family. In addition to this there was a studied declamation,
which
only too often, like the orator's attitude, facial play
and
or closely resembled
gesture,verged upon the theatrical,
a musical
performance.
But
all this,even
combined
with the stillinsatiable impressionabilit
the

was

of

art

all the

not

of the

Greek

ear

of oratorical

to the charm

art, is

of these
perhaps insufficient to explain the astonishingsuccess
show speeches',whose pretentiousartificiality
of form always
repelsus by the absence of real meaning, while their mawkish
'

stilted unnaturalness, turgidityand bombast

affectation,
only
ioned
result in a disagreeable
caricature of the magnificent old-fasheloquence,which they claim to revive and reproduce. The

enthusiasm

for the

in demonstrations
studious

their
their

such

of honour
men

young

to the

their

works, which

of every

kind

cities,where

showed

the

itself

crowding of

they settled down

as

held, which

justified
playing the part of censors, advisers and peacemakers ;
almost
frenzied idea of the importance and effect of
own
been
have
impossible,at least to
activity all would
an
extent, had not sophisticoffered the national vanity

teachers
their

sophistsand

of the
without.

; the

esteem

in which

they

were

"

Greeks
The

new

Greeks

satisfaction
'

long been
fancy themselves the great

which

stilltried to

they

had

Belles-Lettres

76
nation

',and

teachers

produced

now

set

what

especiallywon

of

the

the

Greek

in

fashion

world,

form

brUliant

and

new

again

latter themselves

by the

of the Romans

been

pride at having

in their

confirmed

were

of

the

; Greece

culture,and

had
once

of literature.

the

But
department
for sophisticthe passionate sympathy
fact that its chief task

the

was

the

was

of the great past of Greece

glorification
; the decaying nation
knew no greaterjoy than to see itselfmirrored in these reminiscences.
The
favourite
subjectsfor improvisation with both

sophists and
'

The

and

their

of their

deeds

be

could

occasions

hearers

forefathers

celebrated.
not

were

possibleto suggest what

that

have

might

occasions
Some

when

they

of these themes

of Chaeronea

the accusation
Persian
the

been

be

must

did

not

have

they

would

all,if

at

did

that he

had

have

they

e.g., Demosthenes
Demosthenes
defend

of Demades,

been

returned

said, on

had

spoken.

himself

against

bribed

by the

Greeks
all
;

the

after

trophies

tion
consulta-

Spartiatae

should
Sphacteriawithout their arms
be allowed to enter the country again ; whether
Sparta,which
intended
was
by the constitution of Lycurgus to be without
walls, should be protectedby a wall on the approach of the
Persians. ..."
Most of these and similar themes were
general
favourites, and
produced keen competition amongst the
of them were
so highly thought of as the
sophists. But none
Median

so-called

Xerxes

home

whether

answers

after the battle

with

to decide

the

said, and

were,

of the Lacedaemonians,
who

speak

history.
by history,

down

speeches on numerous
Consequently, it was

down.
; what

made

Greek

fiftytalents ? a speech to the

of the Peloponnesian war, declaring that
destroyed,since it was reallya civil war

King

end

how

their

they might

from

handed

were

But

handed

so

taken

were

from

or

Attic themes.

In

the former

introduced, utteringtheir barbarian

were

Darius

boasts

and

against

the Greeks
Salamis

and
; in the latter the deeds and heroes of Marathon
celebrated.
This is wittilyset forth by Lucian,
were
'

in the ironical advice

Above
given by him to a rhetorician.
all do
and
not
forget to speak of Marathon
Cynaegirus^
for this is indispensable
Athos
; of the navigation of mount
and
the crossing of the Hellespont ; of the sun
darkened
by
the

arrows

Brother

of the Persians

of

; of Xerxes

Aeschylus,distinguishedfor

his valour

in

flight;

let Leonidas

at the battle of Marathon.

Belles-Lettres

78
large

towns

home

for

of the

one

The

enhanced

who

loaded

by

services

their

secure

of

tutors

as

Greek

these

was

professors

by the emperors,
presents ; were
eager

and

distinctions

with

them

at Rome

of them

taken

notice

the

their

distinctions.

reputation of

and

importance

other

made

they sometimes
of Greek
oratory

chair

coveted

most

was

to

The

while.

and

west, where

the

in

Rome

to

tours
professional

latter also made

The

the

heirs

presumptive;

the Greek
high offices (especially
ment
departpromoted
and
submitted
of the
with
imperial secretariate)
;
politeness,indulgence and patience to their ridiculous and
them

entire
in

us

pretentiousness.On

insolent

even

to

of the

attitude

assuming

that

in the educated
this

shared

towards

emperors
their

the other

works

were

hand, also, the

the

sophistsjustifies
spected
highly and widely re-

circles of Rome,

and

that the emperors

opinion.

Hadrian, the greatest admirer of the Greeks and the most

ardent
also a particularfriend of the
was
literarydilettante,

sophists;

he

best fitted

by

is

praisedby

the

of all the

nature

biographer Philostratus
earlier emperors

as

the

to understand

distinguishedtalent. Trajan had bestowed

encourage
Polemo
the celebrated
immunity from dues and taxes
upon
extended
the
during all his journeysby land and sea ; Hadrian
and

privilegeto his descendants, elected him to

(Museum) of Alexandria,^and voluntarilypaid a
denarii for him, if we

may

statements, however,

are

the

Academy

debt of 250,000
of whose

believe Philostratus,many

obviouslyinsipidinventions

or

lous
ridicu-

exaggerations. But it is clear, from the childish way in

which
the sophistsexaggerated their
importance and their
that such
stories were
relation to the emperors,
generally
It is related

credited.

ejected Antoninus

Pius,

proconsul of Asia,
protect

Polemo

declared
he

had

to

the
The

While

that

from

Hadrian's
his

biographiesof

Where

one

successor,

house

in his will that

throne, bestowed

on

at

occasion

and

Sm3rrna.

rudely

at that

time'

Hadrian, to

against Antoninus's

adopted Antoninus,

Marcus

Polemo

Aurelius

learned

men

who

pressly
possiblevengeance, exit was
by Polemo 's advice that
accordingly,on his accession

all kinds

of honours

Philostratus
was

were

are

Polemo.
upon
full of such
stories.

staying at Smyrna,
supported at

the expense

the

of the State,

sophjgt^

Belles-Lettres
Aristides
his

waited

for the emperor

respects,and

made

the

to
excuse

79
him, before paying

summon

that he did not

wish

to

troyed
interrupthis studies. When
Smyrna was
subsequently desover
by an earthquake,Aristides' Lament
Smyrna (still
of
induced
the emperor
a
mere
extant,
string
exclamations)
to rebuild
the city. The
beautiful
The
evening
passage,
blow
winds
moved
wilderness'
is said to have
a
only over
Marcus
Aurelius to tears.
Although it is impossibleto decide
'

what

is false and

is
Philostratus,how much
misrepresentation,exaggeration or pure imagination, it is
perors
impossibleto doubt the extraordinary affabilityof the emthe
second
of
the
the
to
sophistsduring
(and part
third)
century, or the interest taken by them in their art ; this alone

be

would

interest
which
One

what

sufficient

to

is true

justifyus

in

in

assuming

that

the

same

world
of Rome,
by the entire educated
is confirmed
beyond suspicionby further evidence.
of the founders of the new
Isaeus, made
art, the Ass5nrian

shown

was

his appearance

shortly before

in Rome

the

year

100.

The

impressionproduced by his powerful flow of language is shown

The
by the descriptionof the younger
Pliny.
great fame
of Isaeus had
He
the
already preceded him here.
possesses
of language.
utmost
readiness, copiousness,and abundance
'

He

always speaks extempore, and his lectures are as finished as

tion.
though he had spent a long time over their written composiHis
His style is Greek, or rather the genuine Attic.
exordiums
are
occasionally
terse, elegant, attractive, and
impressive and majestic. He suggests several subjects for
even
discussion,allows his audience their choice, sometimes
to

name

begins.

which

At

side he

once

he

shall take, rises,arranges

has

ever3rthingalmost

himself

equally at

and
mand.
com-

are
suggested to you,
meanings of words
and
and
words
^what words
they are, exquisitelychosen
polished I These extempore speechesof his show the wideness
of his reading,and how
much
tion.
practicehe has had in composiHis preface is to the point, his narrative
lucid, his
imposing. In
summing-up forcible,his rhetorical ornament
His reflections
affects you.
a word, he teaches,entertains and

Recondite
"

(enthymemes)
condensed

way

back

and

what

missing a

frequent,his syllogismsalso are frequent,

carefullyflnished. He repeats from a long
out
he had previouslydelivered extempore, withThis marvellous
facultyhe has
singleword.

are

Belles-Lettres

8o

acquired by dint of great applicationand practice,for night

and day he does nothing, hears
nothing, says nothing else.
He has passed his sixtieth year and is stillonly a rhetorician
(Melmoth). After this descriptionwe may literallybelieve
of Philostratus, that the enmity of the two
the statements
was
kept up by the fact that
sophistsFavorinus and Polemo
'

and

consuls

consuls'

knew

who

of
on

the

knights and

him,

those

even

Greek.

no

literature

in

the

second

clearly
enough that the great effects
rhetoric,promoted energetically
by the lectures
sophistical
the Greek
not without
influence
professorsat Rome, were
efiort
in
the
educated
world.
Roman
literary
Perhaps the

century after
of

that

to hear

scanty fragments of Roman

The

quarrel ; that

admiration

into the Athenaeum

crowded

senators

such

excited

sophist Hadrianus

sides in the

took

sons

in Greek

write

to

first

of the works

of the Greek

of the

most

unmistakable

Greek

sophistson

included

prose,

Marcus

were

Aurelius

the result of his

as

philosophersin the

study

original
; but

one

the

of three

works

these, Aulus
than

more

of Arelate

the most

amongst

nothing
his

language

tongue but in Greek

in their mother

possess
One of

Greek

new

and Claudius Aelianus

(Aries)
(or Praeneste)equally desired to shine as stylists

Rome

not

of the

symptoms of the influence of the

world
the literarycircles of the Roman
is

the fact that Favorinus

of

fragments is that many

of in Latin.

instead

the

undoubtedly chose

charm

the

by

dazzled

Romans,
led

of these

of the scantiness

reason

very

show

Hadrian

in fact

they are
prominent Greek sophists. We only
Roman
prose writers of this period.

Gellius,who
a

; and

collection

was

to ofler the

content

of learned

and

public

cellanea,
amusing mis-

although
man,
hardly deserves to be called a literary
in
shows
that he
studied
elegance, especially narrative,

imitated

Greek

contemporary

models.

His

great friend

quence
eloGreek
famous
for his gracefulintellect and
Herodes,
collections.
Fronto,
',had publishedsimilar learned
of Polemo, tried his hand
at several of the forms
the admirer
'

in which

such

as

written

the
a

in his

of persons
his extant
and

sophists were
mincing narrative
own

name,

of the most
letters

Idleness

are

an

are

accustomed

style,and
others

different
in Greek.

display their art,

letters,some
especially

in the

to

name

and

character

positionand class. Some of

His eulogies'
of dust, smoke

attempt to discuss injurious,

contemptible

Belles-Lettres
and

8i

useless

in the paradoxicalmanner
of
thingsand qualities
the sophists.
Lastly,Apuleius, who, as he himself says, had thoroughly

familiarized

himself

with

Greek

life'stask to do for Latin

Greek.

The

which

culture

Athens, made

at

it his

had done for

prose what the sophists
of philosophy and
eloquence,to

combination

he

owed
his reputationamong
and
chiefly
contemporaries
not uncommon
in the Greek
posterity,was
sophists. Like
them, he journeyed from place to place,deliveringlectures
elaborated collection of brilliant
prepared in advance {a carefully
like them,
passages and introductions has been preserved);

he made

of his art in the courts.

use

The

Metamorphoses or
show-piece; for

the

Golden

his chief work, the

Ass, is nothing but a sophistical

sophistsalso

Even

made

of this

use

form, in

display the advantages of the art of treatingvarious

subjectsin prose.
Similarly,in the Metamorphoses,the exposition
of the art was
the end, the subject was
only the means.
Like the Greek
that of Apuleius consists only of a
romances,
and adventures
of all kinds,
series of scenes
loosely-connected

order

to

which

the author

afford

in comic

now

opportunityof exhibitinghis art,

tragic,indecent

or

descriptionsof

an

from

scenes

nature

or

and

horrible

stories,now

in

of art, now

in

of works

dialoguesand

speeches.
attempt of Apuleiusto transplantthe art of the Greek
literature is the most
striking
sophistsinto the soil of Roman
The

proof of
art

the

extraordinaryinfluence

the

over

educated

western

world

exercised
; but

by the
at

the

new

same

Greek
time

ascendancy of this form lessened

will dispute that
the previous importance of poetry. No one
Apuleius possessed natural poetical giftsto a higher degree
than
the majority of the post-Augustan poets whose
works
The
choice of a popular story (Cupid and
to us.
known
are
Psyche) as a subject and the affection with which he handles
it show
an
appreciation,
certainlyrare at the time, of the wild
flowers of poetry, which the poeticalhorticulturists and their
in their arrogance
admirers
pretended to ignore. Certainly,
tried
his
hand
at poems
of all kinds
lyrics,
epics,
Apuleiusalso
all his works

show

how

the

"

riddles ; but he sought and

or
fifty
acquired his reputation in prose alone. A hundred
most
probably have been distinguished
years earlier he would
satires and
comedies, tragedies,

as

poet

R.L.M.

"

;
in.

but

as

the

prevailingtendency

of

former
G

times

Belles-Lettres

82

strongenough to entice even sober pedants like Pliny

the art of prose that
it was
into the paths of poetry, so now
succeeded
in detachingit
attracted
talent and even
irresistibly
from
the sphere which suited it so admirably. Nevertheless,
himself unusually successful in maintaining
Apuleius showed
the double part of a poeticalrhetorician and a rhetorical poet.
had

been

With

the

culture, the poetry of the

of ancient

renascence

post-Augustan age regained the high esteem

it had enjoyed in antiquity. While
Homer, Pindar, Aeschylus,
for centuries to be little
continued
Sophocles and Theocritus
and

Augustan

known

and

over

result
to

Virgil,Horace, Ovid

and

But
generally reckoned as the highestmodels.
restoration of the authority and influence of Roman
poetry
education
in general reintroduced
phenomena, the
many

Juvenal
the

understood,

still less

were

of the attitude

connexion

educated

first humanism

At

poetry.

of the

world

of later

re-established

antiquity

the

intimate

of

poetry with science and learning; its study

regarded as an important, nay, an indispensablemeans
of its forms and
education, and skill in the management
the finest flower

as

and

says

No

judgment
who

Melanchthon, in

enemies.
'

have

noble education

justicecalled simply

with

were

of

who

one

has not

'

poets

letter

to

'

by

humanists

and

acquired,like

of
pressions
ex-

human; the ists

both friends

Micyllus (1526),

practisedpoetry can

form

in any department of science ; and

prose
flavour
of
the
no
poeticart,are wanting in

The

was

correct

writers,

vigour'.

poetry as an art that could be learnt

any other, by industry and practice. At the

considered

poetry resumed its mission of adorning the life of the

with a
privilegedand of investingall its important moments
to be a regularsubject
greater solemnity. Poetry continued
same

time

of instruction

at the

companion,
those who

had

universities,and
decorous

received

was

amusement

frequentlythe
and

superioreducation.

long
life-

recreation, of
Even

occasional

maintained
an
importance
poetry, both officialand non-official,
not
It was
which
at the present day.
is hardly intelligible
till after the middle of the eighteenthcentury that the great
intellectual revolution took place,which set before poetry (and
art in

sombre
caused

general)as

the release

of the human

soul from

passion. This mighty movement,

and
powerful a reaction from artificiality

empire
so

its aim
of

the

which
conven-

Belles-Lettres

tionallsm
the

has

rendered

Shakespeare

and

of

Greeks,

form

of

consequence
educated

the

world

estimate

of

amongst

the

the

poetry,

Roman

Romance

popular

poets,
as

poetry
of

amongst

not

understanding

of

capable

change

complete

towards

us

83

it

so

pronounced,
Germanic

also,
of

attitude

the

created

the

has

less

favourable

however,

peoples.

in

the

II

CHAPTER

RELIGION
BELIEF

I THE
We

IN

GODS

(POLYTHEISM).

possess two different and in many

authorities for the state of

and

religionin

of the Christian

during the firstcenturies

world

respectseven

dictory
contra-

the

era

ancient

literature

ture
(especially
inscriptional
stones). The literawas
or
chieflythe work of unbelievers or indifferentists,
to spiritualize,
of those who
strove
purify,or transform the
The monuments,
popular beliefs by reflection and interpretation.
monuments

the other hand, to

on

great extent

at

least,had

their

societywhich were littleaffected by

literature and its prevailingtendencies, and felt no need, or
not capable,of expressingtheir convictions
indeed were
on
such matters
nesses
wit; thus, in the majority of cases, they are
belief in a system of polytheism,of a faith
of a positive
originin those

doubt

is free from

that

Should

considered.

of

classes

the

should

ancient, and

and
modern

future

as

quite

different

from

our

world

perishlike

ever

from
of

of modern

remains

illthe

to form

generations attempt

of our time
religion
fragmentary as those

idea of the

and

subtlety alike, naive

an

tion
civiliza-

antiquity,they would obtain

pression
imrespects contradictory)

(and in some
literaryremains

from

than

gravestones,
If,then,

votive

tablets, and

it would
classes

mately
only be possiblein our case to arrive at an approxicorrect idea by utilizing
two mutually complementary
of evidence, this is equallytrue of the periodof antiquity

under

consideration.

glimpse of

the

heart

of
the

centuries

was

the

other

ecclesiastical monuments.

While

activityof

paganism
monuments

able

to

its heathen
the

literature

forces which

were

itself for its dissolution

breathe

spiritof

resist all destructive

84

affords

us

working in
and

position,
decom-

belief which
influences.

for

But

86

Religion

doubt

virtue in
them

the

to

as

youthful minds

from

of

existence

rob

and

gods destroy the

the

of what

many

under

Further, statesmen

crime.

speciallyemphatic

those

declaring that

in

seeds of

has preserved

the

empire were

who

despisedthe

respectedno one else.

Such a confession undoubtedly impliedthat a largenumber
of educated
men
thought there was no need of popular belief
in its traditional form, of which, as a matter
of fact,they
frequently spoke with indifierence, frivolityor contempt.
fortune
was
Certainly,this free-thinking
ofign"only a mask ; misor
face, who then
danger tore it from the scofier'|s
gods

people who

were

turned

eagerly

uncommon

religion for assistance.

to

for absolute

occurrence

It

also

was

unbelievers

to

no

cling the

obstinatelyto an isolated superstition

; e.g. Sulla, who
plundered the temple at Delphi,always carried about with
him a little image of Apollo,yjfaichhe frgyiiMLtlyJgssgd,
and
more

to

which

Of

course

even

he addressed

educated

many

the

expresses

fervent

in moments

prayers

men

were

of

believers, and

opinionthat in his time

there

danger.

Juvenal
no

was

man

who

despised the gods.

Yet
also find (in Lucretius)a passionateexpression
of
we
hatred
of religion.To him
it appeared a giganticspectre,
whose
towering from earth to heaven, beneath
heavy foot
human
life lay prostrateon earth, while its hideous face looked
down

threateninglyfrom

into the

penetratedfar beyond

overthrown

doctrine

causes

as

but
religion,
it not

Let
leads

be

unholy

acts.

sacrificed liis own

threw

Greek

the

(Epicurus)
of
portals

open
flaming walls of the universe

victory has exalted us to

thought that the acceptanceof this

more

by

his

godlessness;

on

the

contrary,it is

frequentlygiven birth

to

godless

The

how
us
Agamemnon
poet reminds
daughter Iphigeniato appease the wrath

touching descriptionof the

So great
with the exclamation
death of the innocent maiden
:
the evils to which
religioncould prompt !
But
the school of Epicurus, to say nothing of the philosophical
educated
was
so hostile to
generally,
by no means
No
popular religionas Lucretius.
system taught atheism,
of the

gods, and

the

at last

to sin and

religionitself that has

and

He

But

ledge
brought back the knowconqueror
of all existence to mankind.
Thus he has

infinite,and

of the

heaven.

high.

defied the terror.

boldly
nature,

on

concludes

his

'

'

Religion
the

advocates

of which

hardly

were

87
Scepticism
divinitycould

ever

numerous.

only disputed that the existence of the

be proved ; Epicureanism taught the existence of countless
and eternal gods, livingin a state of
and only
felicity,
supreme
denied
no

their solicitude for the world

abstained

more

The

deity

from

needs

worship on

adoration

no

Philodemus, but it is natural

chieflyby loftyideas, but

of

custom

fathers.

our

of

for

also

In

humanity ; but they

than the sceptics.
principle
ours,
says the Epicurean
and

him

to render

us

by following in

accordance

with

this

every

custom,

homage,
case

the

says

the

sceptic Sextus, we affirm that there are gods who exercise

affairs,and we pay them reverence.
supervisionover human
The
majority of educated men, who belonged to no definite
school, but were
directlyor indirectlyaffected by philosophical
of the popular beliefs,
less tolerant
influences,were
more
or
have
held
monotheistic,
although they might themselves
a
pantheisticor fatalistic opinions,embraced
purifiedpolytheism,
or

able

been

Outside

entire
an

another

to

between

absolute

the religiousviews
proper,
world of the first century a.d.

belief in the existence

agents (although the

the

were

been

the

and

to

contempt of

carried

the

out

directlyinterfered

gods on the
point of view,

the future
class
habit
energy
nor

and
to

define

unalterable
the

course

ship
hereditarywor-

believed

He

of

laws

that

nature,

they
but

not
also

announced

of events, and

but

need

he

elder

the

with

its convictions

'

of

doing.
the god, who
so

',thrust belief in the

apparently in
The

gods.

the

omens.

nature, of

former

The

other.

ous
Quintilianwas one of that very numerwhich
combined
views, the result of
polytheistic
the
education, with monotheistic, neither possessing

by

feelingthe

the world

hand, and

one

In
e.g. of Tacitus.
decided
expresses the most

the

with

the

rejected)on

was

of these

negation

to have

they

popular gods

of the

he
discussingthe Jewish religion,
antipathy to all that tended to neglect of

only

having

replaceit.

Roman

providenceof which
legendary tradition

appears

belief without

traditional

philosophicalcircles

fluctuated
a

find

to

the

in the educated

current

and

abandoned

'

Pliny is

the

most

his

is the

immortal

firmly believed

predictionof

In

in

the future

decided

case

the

idea

and

father

gods

precision,

and

clearness

'

of animated

creator

of

ground
into the back-

Providence,

and

also

by oracles and signs.

in his

negation of

the

Religion

88

popular belief. Thinking that he ought not to pass over, in

the
his descriptionof the Cosmos,
incessantlydiscussed
'

question

of the

and

is concerned, God
'

nature

the

as

herself to

the

chieflydue.

But

the

leads

reason

and

sacred, boundless
'

time

same

the

guiding principleof

and

'

eternal

the

and
world

the

being

exists outside

dwell, he must
foolish to

all

be

such
qualities,

has splitup
infirmity,
worship that aspect of
Hence

find the

we

and
the

It is

of which

him

he

even

honour

more

and
of

each

mency
cle-

its

man

stands
chiefly

own

may
in need.

different

gods worshipped under

same

he may

deify human

to

that

divinity,so

the

divinitymay

conscious

weary,

quently
Conse-

wherever

strength, all mind.

weak

mankind,

nature),and

gods and
concord, chastity,hope,

as

; the soul

inquireinto

in innumerable

believe

are

divinity

sun.

the

to

is at the
'

herself

only weakness that makes men

form
of the divinity. Whoever
one

reveals

progress

which

Cosmos,

nature

regards

the real

it is

image and
be (ifindeed

he

tempted

and

regard as

to

be

might

one

the

he himself

as

often

so

discoveries
us

of nature

work

So far

things ', who

whom

deity to

recorded

inseparable;

are

chance, which

in

man

has

time.

at the

nature

of all

mother

designate as
'

given

commonly

most

answers

divinity', he

of the

essence

names

of gods
peoples, and an infinite number
diseases and evils,such as
peoples,even
amongst the same
fear. Now
fever and
orphanage, being worshipped from
since in addition there exists a belief in tutelary gods and
difierent

among

goddesses
to

be

of all individual

gods than

more

but childish
to

drivel

men

human

it is the

gods adultery,strife

the

crime.

divinities of theft and

in

working

man

for

and

would

there

women,

seem

beings. Mythology is nothing

heightof impudence to attribute
and

hatred, and

Revelation

humanity,

and

to

believe in

sists
divinityconis the path of

of the
this

formerly
walked, and in which, followingin the footstepsof the divinity,
Vespasian and his sons still walk, lending aid to the exhausted
eternal

world.

It is

are

As

borrowed

celestial

whatever

very

the

ancient

heroes

of

custom

ancient

to show

Rome

gratitudeto

the

rank

of

humanity by elevatingthem to
of the gods, like those
rule the names

of

benefactors

gods.

in which

glory

from

men

for how

it be believed

could

there

of the stars,

be

list of

that the supreme power,

afiairs ? would it not
it be, takes thought for human

names

Can

the

Religion
be

degraded by

can

decide

we

to hold

race

heed

of

and

melancholy

whether

it be

this belief

of the

slaves

so

complicateda task
profitablefor the

more

not, when

or

89

we

gods, while others live in

?
disgracefulsuperstition

divinitystill more
intermediate

To

make
has

human

take

some

of them

awe

uncertain, mankind

between

that

see

How

or

no

the

are

idea of the

the

invented

power

oppositeconceptionsof it. This is

Fortune, the ever-shifting,
wandering, inconstant, uncertain,
changing, generallyregarded as blind, the patroness of the
as
a
unworthy; consequently, chance ^ itself is honoured
Others
all
and
this principle,
goddess.
reject even
assign
their

events

to

of

divinity are

the

view

has

of

by

Hence

two

constellations,and

for all. This

irrevocably once
gain ground, and is eagerly approved

begun to
large number

of persons,

belief in countless

both

learned

that

that is

more

time

man.

Other

nature

of itself

arrogant and at the

know

creatures

society,
infallibly
punished, even
upon

created
the
a
so

next

brutes.

to
But

specialcomfort

as

for

desired,he cannot

blessingthat

nature

to the

to be

man

cannot
in his

inflict death
has

bestowed

cannot

degraded

But

by

tardily,owing

in order
God

affairs

man

kindly

which

that

that

even

those

the conviction

and

deity ;
God

if

than
pitiable

more

of human

exists

creature

no

of death.

think

never

also

but

wants

guidance

is beneficial to

the

same

no

supplies,and

belief in the

unlearned.

and

prived
mankind, deportents embarrasses
future, and the only thing certain

insight into the

is, that there is nothing certain, and

claims

decrees

the

issued

of

are

that

believe

; he

has

to be that

which

we

gods

the

evil deeds
numerous

have

to the

been

level of

everything ; herein lies

do

imperfectstate.

if he

himself, the greatest

upon
upon

Even

the many
immortality,or recall
man

amidst

evils of life ; he cannot

grant mortals
the dead to life ; he cannot
bring it to pass that one who
who
has filled offices has
lived has not lived, or that one
filled them

doubtedly
un-

has
not

the past except

generally over
tion)
to cause
it to be forgotten ; and
(to use a less serious illustrathe like.
he cannot
make
twice ten not twenty, and
Hence the might of nature is indisputably
proved,and is shown
If the
or

no

power

call God.

Such

are

the

opinionsof Pliny.

rectly
negation of the popular belief in most cases was diof
philosophicalinfluences,there
indirectlyan effect
^

Reading Fors for Sors,

Religion

go

which
tendencies with
philosophical
merely completely reconcilable,but which even
support it. Stoicism, which perhaps exercised
also

were

than

other

any

served
a

wider

theology,and

to

the
scientifically
by distinguishing
popularreligion

God,

the

and

creator

considered

divine power
countless manifestations
'

was

time, endeavoured

at that

philosophyin its

reconcile faith and

the

system

it

'

demons

as

beings

of

autocrat
as

subordinate

unitypervadingthe

not
to

fluence
into

justify
highest

gods, the

All,from their

and further assumed

their effects,
intermediate
between
gods and men.
and

is full of gods and demons.

The
Everything, says Epictetus,
ofiensive
of
removed
tradition
were
legendary
aspects
by
In
Stoic
theology
ingeniousallegorical
interpretations. addition.

recognizedcontinuous

revelations of the divine powers

of oracles,portentsand the like ; it may
therefore

in the form
be assumed
adhered

more

educated
world

that
or

men

without

offered

less

to
strictly

like Marcus

the traditional

Aurelius, who

belief,and that

would

this school to all

gods,preferred

solution

of the followers of the Stoa

largenumber

not

others,since it

faith and

of the conflict between

live in

reason.

had
first century, those who
Consequently,even
hostile
not altogether
received a philosophical
education were
to the popular religion. And
although the literature of the
by
period,like that of the eighteenthcentury, is dominated

in the

tendencies

hostile to

belief,they did

beyond the century. The tide of

of the eighteenthcentury, after

retain

their influence

the anti-Christian tendencies

it had

risen to its

greatest

height,sank rapidlyand was succeeded by a powerfulebb,

which
carried along with it a great part of the
irresistibly
in the Graeco-Roman
educated
world.
world, we
Similarly,
find the

of the literature of the first

tendencies
predominating

century succeeded

by a strong
positivebelief,which gained the

reaction

in the

direction of

upper hand and afiected the

generated
time, belief itself frequentlyde-

circles ; at the same

in many
respectsinto

same

for the
The

miraculous,

pietism and

development of

the

a yearning
superstition,

crass

fanaticism.

theory

of

'

demons

',also adopted

eminently characteristic of the religious

tury,
tendencies of the period,
by the Platonists after the firstcenis the most
strikingproof of the need of bringin?^'"me
popular belief into harmony with a purer theology a tneed

by

the

Stoics and

"

Religion
deeply

more

and

before.

generallyfelt by

The

idea

of

this

the

91
educated

classes

than

'intermediate

.kingdom' of
demons, founded upon the old Orphico-Pythagorean tradition,
was
that philosopherswho
lieved
bedeveloped in such a manner
the
substitution
for popular gods,
of demons
accepted
in all cases
in which anything was
asserted of the latter which
ever

'

was

considered

not

desirous

Although

irreconcilable with

the pure idea of God, while

of absolutelydenying it on
that account'.

this ofiered the widest

imagination,the
Platonists of the second
century are completely in agreement
upon all the essential pointsof demonology .which they regarded
with marked
favour ; evidentlythe theory had already gained
kind of dogmatic authority amongst the believers of the
a
educated

world.

the existence

gods

and

between

of

Plutarch
a

of

race

says

Those

who

have

discovered

demons, beingsintermediate

men,

who

unite

them,

have

solved

this doctrine

to

scope

both

and

keep

and

more

between

the

up

connexion

greater difficulties by

(whether it originates from

the

school

of

aster,
Zoro-

from

Orpheus, from Egypt or Phrygia)than Plato by his

theory of matter.
According to Plutarch's view, any of the
three lower classes of intelligent
beings,in proportionas they
attain perfection,
rise to the next higher,and finally
can
to
the highest class ; the souls of the best men
become
can
heroes, the heroes
Isis and

Osiris)gods.

the

are

For

and

and

individual

in the

agents of Providence

highestpower
creator

demons,

of the

(such

tripleorder

the

is the intellect and

orderer

demons

of powers
last.
come

demons

will of the

universe

from

as

that
The

originaldivinity,
beginning; next

the

to

him, the gods of heaven, the general directors of human

affairs ; and, lastly,
the demons, special guardians and overseers
Differingfrom other Platonists, Plutarch regardsthe
'

'

demons

necessarilyimmortal

not

as

fact,personallyvouched
how

by

the

of the

news

his fellow-demons

men

Pan,

at

the

the

son

the

of

Hermes

traditional

the

of
sufferings

relates

and

great Pan

menial

Isis and

was

lamentations

;
as

The

Penelope.

an

doubted
un-

the

received

learned

referringto
demons

are

also liable to be affected

stories of abduction,
and

as

rity,
trustworthyautho-

interpretedthis

dislikes,and

banishment

gods

loud

of Tiberius

likes and

capable of
evil ;

court

by

of the

death

with

for

he

wandering,

service that
Osiris and

the

are

by

cealment,
con-

told of the

like,in reality

Religion

92
do

refer to the

not

called
and

by the
thus

are

retained

gods with

of the

name

with

confounded

their

real

to the

gods, but

The

name.

demons.
whom

The

they

latter

are

associated,
them
however, have
; some,
evil and malignant demons

rites, and
rejoicein gloomy, mournful
them they abstain from further mischief

if these
; the

are

are

good

accorded

and

kindly,

already taught, act as messengers and interpreters,

and
who
wishes of
carry upwards to the gods the prayers
to earth oracles and divine blessings.
mankind, and bring down
often descend
from the regions of
Consequently the demons
the moon
to administer
oracles, to take part in the celebration
of the highest mysteries, to punish crimes, to bring deliverance
in war
and perils
selves
by sea ; if in so doing they allow themto be influenced
or
by anger, partiality
jealousy,they
hurled
down
to
earth
are
ferred
again and transpunished by being
as

Plato

has

to

bodies.

human

of Tyre
sense
Quite in the same
Apuleius and Maximus
between
mediators
the world of gods
as
represent the demons
and
men.
According to the former, their bodies are neither
the two.
earthy nor purely ethereal, but something between
Hence
and of their own
it is only exceptionally
will that they
are

visible to men,

like the

Homeric

poets truly represent these

demons

Minerva
as

to Achilles.

lovers

and

The

haters

of

they favour or injure. Hence

they feel pity,
and are
subject to all human
indignation, joy and sorrow,
emotions
generally,all of which are quite incompatiblewith
the eternallyunchangeable tranquillity
of the gods of heaven.
Apuleius also explains differences of cult and sacrifice by
of
differences
sensual
impressionability.In accordance
with their nature, they delightin daily or nightly,publicor
rites ; thus
the
secret, cheerful or gloomy sacrifices and
Egyptian demons take pleasurein dirges,the Greek in dances,
the great diversity
the barbarian
in noisy music.
Hence
in
the forms of religious
worship in difierent lands : processions,
mysteries,sacerdotal acts, prayers of those offeringsacrifice,
images and attributes of the gods, position and usages of
temples,blood and colour of the victims. All these have their
of each country, and we
importance according to the custom
often learn by dreams, propheciesand oracles that the deities
(i.e.the demons) are wrath if anything in their worship is
or
neglected through carelessness
arrogance.
men,

whom

'

'

"

Religion

94
orthodox.

In

this roundabout

seemed

to

and, according to
and

the

female

large number

of educated

legends and marvellous stories

have
been finallydisposed of by criticism,
Strabo, were
only necessary for the masses
to the

people returned
which

way
'

for and

search

The

sex.

discoveryof

such

rational
popular religionand a more
theology presupposes a widespread,indestructible attachment
to the gods amongst the philosophically
educated, an earnest
the
find
to
satisfaction in
longing
positivebelief of former

compromise between

times

which

This

by

is

the

abstraction, however

no

fullyconfirmed

Greek

and

by

sublime, could afford.

the

general impressionproduced
literature in the second century,in which

Roman

the

religiousstandpoint of the educated

writers,Juvenal and the
Amongst Roman

to have

followed

the

world

is

Pliny seem

younger
both
in
closely,

Stoics most

reflected.

general and
in particular
; Pliny'sstrong belief in

in their

views
religious
dreams
and prognostics
corroborates
this. We
also know
that
both took part in religiousworship ; Juvenal, in fulfilment of
a

offered

vow,

dedication

in his native

to

Ceres

Helvina, who

was

shipped
wor-

a
Aquinum ; Pliny
temple
struggledagainst grievous doubts, although
from
entirely broke
(as already .noticed)he never
away
childish faith in portents and
religiousbelief. Suetonius'

built.

had

town

Tacitus

"

miracles

leaves
In

gods.

the

be

least

and

ill

prayed

received

those

considered

tradition in the matter

was

from

as

of his belief in the

judge from

of his teachers

probable

that

he

his
in

lectual
general intel-

Greece, it may

strictlyadhered

to

of belief ; Fronto, who

when
Faustina
morning to the gods and asked and

every
them
in dreams

suggestionsfor curingthe gout,

Aureof Marcus
Self-Contemplations
of genuine piety ; the writingsof Apuleius
lius breathe a spirit
bliss ; Aelian endeavoured
are
pervaded by a mystic religious
works to propagate his orthodoxy and infatuation
by his own
combined
for miracles, with which
of
was
a passionatehatred

undoubtedly

did

firmness

to the

of Gellius, to

case

tendencies
at

doubt

no

so.

The

unbelief.
the

But

than

the Roman,

conditions
life.

Greek

were

Amongst
of

literature of the
bears the

stamp

characterized
the Greek

Lucian, only

by

of
a

second
a

century, far

periodwhose

newly awakened

more

intellectual

religious

writers of this time, with the exception

Galen, with his pantheism founded
on

Religion
Stole

ideas,stands

says

for

each

individual

aloof

from

the

95

popular belief

love, lie

affection, and is not

purely human
littleyouthfuldemon
with burning torches.
Dio of Prusa
is far nearer
to the popular belief with his undoubting faith in the divinity(and apparently in individual
even
vinced
congods) and a providence exercised by him ; he was
that those who
held reprehensible
opinionson divine
and
of necessityworthless
creatures.
abandoned
things were
The pantheism of Epictetusalso acceptedpolytheism,and his
pupil Arrian appears to have adhered to the popular religion.
All the other writers take their stand on a distinctly
positive
belief in the gods,however
different in form and conceptionin
is

example,
brought about by a

to

inherited

piety;

Plutarch

case.

inquireinto

reasons

was

gods

Further, there

the

belief

old

sufficient foundation

would
it be shaken, its stability

should

it advisable

consider

for belief in the

their fathers

from

did not

be

for

endangered.

limit to his belief in miracles,

hardly any
and
although he warns
people against excessive credibility,
as
attempts a semi-rationalistic explanation of such marvels
the sweating,sighing and bleedingof images of the gods, and
voice.
Yet he asserts that divine
their speaking with human
that it is not unreasonable
is so entirelydifferent from human,
nature
is impossiblefor man.
to expect it to performwhat
Pausanias'
faith, certainlysincere,even
simple and orthodox
maintained
if deliberately
adopted and artificially
; Artemiof Tyre's
belief in miracles ; Maximus
dorus'
unshakable
ing
crass
supernaturalism; Aristides' enthusiasm, almost amountall agree in belief in a providence
to religiousfanaticism
individual gods. Only a
wonderfully exercised by numerous
widespread blind belief and childish superstitioncould call
was

"

writingsof Lucian, whose

anti-religious

forth the

repeated attacks could not be

'. Still less does
fightwith shadows
allow
not subjected to persecution
to

ridicule

no

religionwhich

the

orthodox, it could
to them
must
were

have

as

appear
not

the
to

only no

interfered

not

appear
mockery of a
those

who

to

us

to

infer

ridiculed,

Lucian

was

differen
general inAlthough his
a

religiousfeelingof the
so
deserving of condemnation
religionbased upon revelation

believe

dogmas, but

fact that

the

he

deeply wounded

doubt

'

considered

and

indefatigable
as
merely a

not

the

in it.
even

In

paganism

church, which

protect the threatened

faith

there

might

against its

Religion

96

passes
Certainly Pamy's Guerre des Dieux, which suraggressors.
Lucian's Dialogues of the Gods both in wit and in C3aiical

the

before

made

without
The
under
and

on

earnest
did

he

but

author

it ; its

suppress

attempt

no

became

to be

not, like Domitian, claim

Hadrian,

entered

like

sacrifice to

great
respect as Pausanias, showed
Pius
for the gods. Antoninus
never
be performed by a deputy ; a memorial

his honour

in

by reason
regard to

of his unusual

veneration

'

by

143

the

respectto

might be able

himself, who

appears

did

religion'. Marcus

state

foUow

the

freedom

death

to meet

not

with

to live in

care

all countries

broke

Rome

to

and

out

by his orders.

He

that

from

thou
The

message

shouldst
nature

was

ordered

them

the

conquer,
of

the

we

white

When

oxen

was

war

perform foreign

alive into
in

equally
the

priestsfrom

oracle

an

as

gods,

of Alexander

the Danube

offeringsacrifice

sent

to

him

'

If

lost ! '

are

newly

nations

to

extravagant

so

in

Aurelius

without

summoned

he

rites ; during the war,

by direction of
of Abonuteichos, two lions were
thrown

world

recognizedthe gods of all

equally worthy of reverence.

Marcomanni

against the

example of his predecessor,

from
that he
superstition,
an
equallyclear conscience.

to have

powerful and

allowed

people
scrupulousconscientiousness

and

especiallyhis piety and

zeal in his

set up in
is dedicated
to him

and

senate

of the

usages

in every

god,

temples of the gods to worship them.

of such exaggerated preopinionof a man
tensions

the

in the

even

honoured

in this

He

frangaisein 1803, and died in 1814

having been subjected to persecution.
of the second
evidently
century also were
emperors
of the prevailingintellectual tendency,
the influence
their part encouraged it by their example and their
solicitude for religion. Pliny praisesTrajan because

only

strove

was

Acadimie

of the

member

to

but

Catholicism,

of

restoration

subsequently

sacred, appeared (1799) in France

is most

of all that

mockery

awakened

religiouslife of the
here be illustrated by a few specially
second
century must
characteristic phenomena, which will enable us to recognize
to
belief was
extent
what
an
religious
strengthened. Claudius
Aelianus
of Praeneste, about the beginning of the third century,
wrote

two

works

Manifestations,the
numerous

in Greek

spiritof

fragments.

He

on

which

endeavoured

Providence
be

may
to

and

Divine

gathered from

prove

'

that

those

Religion
that

assert

who
earth

are

the

deity does

fooHsh

more

miracles, oracles and

than

miraculous
especially
terrible and

or

who

those
but

stories of

numerous

revelations

of divine

power,

pious believers,

upon
punishments of atheists and

narratives

he

frequentlyapostrophizes

What

'

believers.
un-

do

you

say

to this, you

gropes blindlyabout, or is nothing

Philosophershostile to religionare by turns

'

objectsof pity and

Hippo, Epicurus and
hated

by

providence on

that Providence

myth

these

'

bestowed

rewards

:
despisereligion

think

who

direct

miraculous

In

exercise

not

children

other

97

of

the

few

and

company,

gods,

be

ye
will

specimens

give

wretches

'

insipidand
of the good
pious simplicity
idea

an

the

Xenophanes, Diagoras,

all other miserable

accursed

affects

language

unctuous

'

execration

how

the

'

days.
Euphronius was a miserable fellow,who delighted
in the gossip of Epicurus, which
taught him atheism and
attack
of pneumonia,
had
This man
wickedness.'
a severe
and, suffering
greatly,at first called in the aid of a physician.
the art of the physiciancould do nothing to arrest the
But
When
disease.
Euphronius began to fear the worst, his friends
him to the temple of Asclepius. After he had fallen
removed
told him
asleepthere,it seemed to him that one of the priests
that there was
only one way of salvation and one remedy for
the writings of
the iUs which
oppressedhim ; he must bum
old

Epicurus, knead
with

books
and

tie

atheist

round

and

converted

book

others.

This

cures

of both

wonderful

was

cured

after him.

But

told

He

them.

full of

were

contempt by
was

the

all that

contained
of

numerous

had
he
the

model

of

instances

of

accompanied

Tegea, the tragicpoet,

who
by Asclepius,
how

he

joy,because
god. Thus

afterwards

ever

Aristarchus

bring a thank-offering. The

named

smear

nate
godless,sinful and effemiwith,
his bellyand breast there-

pious and godlessmen,

'

by edifyingremarks.
fell ill and

these

relatives,who

rejectedwith

was

pietyfor

of

wax,

bandages

been

not

ashes

moist

to his nearest

heard
had

the

him

commanded

to

poet brought the god the play

and accept
the gods demand
can

In their love and

to health ?
restoringa man
kindness
they grant us the greatest blessingsfor nothing ;
they allow us to see the sun and to share the all-sufficing
brightness of so mighty a god without reward ; they give us
a

reward

the

use

R.L.M.

for

of

water

III.

and

the

countless

productionsand
H

varied

Religion

98
assistance

of fire to aid

Consequently

of air.

ment

be unmindful

not

in

us

work, and

our

vital

is that

in less

ungratefuleven

or

wish

only

their

the

nourisl
shoul

we

important matter

better.'
us
thereby, in fact, they make
The
following story of a game-cock of Tanagra, which ha
to show
to what
childis
been injured in one
serve
foot, may
The
cock, i
credulity this mania for miracles could lead.
hopping on one le
opinion impelled by Asclepius,came
my
in the morning when
of praisewa
to his master, and
a hymn
being sung to the god he took a place in the choir as if it ha
been
assigned him by the leader, and joinedin the singinga
with the rest.
well as he could, in perfectharmony
Standin
on
one
leg,he held out the other, injured and mutilated, as i
and

'

what

to show

he

sang

to

his saviou

'

of the

head,

shook

his

Providence
with

contrast

also
the

examples of the
against the gods. A
look

certain

upon

climbed

to

the

like

crest

watched

top

and

showei

creation

'.

proud warrior,

over

brute

the

stories of salvation

find

to

Then

suffered.

might and begged him to restore the use of hi

with
revelatio:
a
Having been healed in accordance
god, he flapped his wings, strutted about, lifted u

foot.'

that

had

all his

with

his

he

the

as

result of

I;

faith,w

terrible consequences
of unbelief and si:
'
who
with longing eyes ' desirei
man,

mysteries without
of

having been

stone, fell down

from

initiated

it and

died

Another

by the doctrines 0
unhappy wretch, enervated
Epicurus,forced his way into the sanctuary of the temple a
but the hierophant might enter ; as
no
one
Eleusis, which
punishment he was smitten by a fearful malady, and endura
such
from

dreadful
his

torments

that

he

longed

to tear his accursed

son

destroyed the temple of Athen

at Alalcomenae,
was
slowly eaten by worms
('according t
others, by lice '). Lastly, a Sculptor, who had eyes for gaii
of money
t
a
only, not for piety ', having received
sum
execute
worl
the statue of a god, produced a second-rate
and
small
of inferior quality; he wa
unsightly, in marble
afterwards
punished in body, as an example to all and ;
to do the like again for the sake of profit
'.
warning never
Aelian was
also the author
of a Historyof Animals, in whicl
body.

Sulla, who

'

'

"

the

unerring instinct of the lower

festation of nature

is held

Elephants worship

animals

up to mankind

the sun,

as

stretchingout

as
a

moral

purer

mani

example

their trunks

to i1

Religion
like hands, when

gods,
The

or,

if

mice

on

touch

they

island

an

nothing

intended

it rises ; but
exist, whether

for

which

in the

99

doubt

men

have

they

Sea

Black

to him

is dedicated

whether
any
sacred
;

there

care

us.

Heracles

to

when

are

for

the

grapes

his

offeringsare ripe they leave the island to

do not return
escape the temptation of nibblingthem, and
till the vintage is over.
and
Hippo, Diagoras, Herostratus
of religionwould
the other enemies
certainlyno more
spare
these grapes than anything else which is dedicated to the gods.
In another
work
Aelian praisesthe barbarians, who have not
become

the Greeks
are

from

alienated

education

writingsof Aelian acquaint us with the

fanatical, orthodoxy
unbending, indeed

If the
and

the

world,
tides

of the

confessions

of Asia

like

Indians, Celts and Egyptians there

like Euhemerus,
Epicurus, and Diagoras.

atheists

no

excessive

by

the

amongst

faith

the

Minor,

rhetorician

ranked

man

by

most
of

Publius

his

extreme

the

pagan

Aelius

Aris-

contemporaries

and

greatest intellects of his tipie, afford

of the intensitywhich
remarkable
evidence
religiousexaltation
could
attain, when
subject to specialinfluences. Aristides,
of a wealthy and
born
about
the year 129, came
who
was
of a priestof Zeus ;
the son
distinguishedfamily, and was
ailingfrom his youth, he early devoted himself with passionate
of his delicate
The
to study.
nervous
irritability
eagerness
and
fostered and
nature
was
heightened by excessive work
the

posterityamongst

the

inseparablefrom

excitement

which

strongly his
attacked
by
which

he

than

more

was

an

lasted

detailed

account

About

ambition.

and

illness, which

given

has

professionof sophist,
adapted to develop most

other

any

vanity

natural

the

about

twenty

in the

he

152

Sacred

was

of

years,

Orations,

composed after his recovery (about 175). During this illness

of
of enthusiastic
he developed a spirit
piety,which in course
time

veneration
he

concentrated

became

for the

regarded

the

upon

endeavour

rest

of

to find

nothing else, whether

with
who
that

more

and

the

awake

cure
or

for his disease, he

thought

sleeping; for, in

accordance

general belief,the god gave advice

sought his aid and passed the night in
the

centre

whom

as

the

time

with

Having
insignificant.
society of his priestsfor years

gods

the

exclusive

more

compared
healinggod Asclepius,

frequentedhis temples and

in the

of Aristides'

entire

in dreams
his

to those

temple.

existence

of

was

From

his

Religion

100

dreams, which

the

writing. For Aristides

sacred
duty ; when he
Of

others.

that

confesses

he

he

neither

imagined himself

he

condition

two, in which
tears

state

of mind

alone

which

him

he
he

complaint ;
Sometimes

awake, but between

corporeally conscious

was

hair
his

in

stood

the

of the

end, his eyes filled

on

heaj]^swelled

with

pride
"

the god
Jft,injured am' things,
he sai. winter, in spite
in the ri^j
Then

the north

Aflhim

wind.

restortfelta wonderful

to

wi

his

a
everythfEe
proud

of comfort, in which
the

his

weaker.

temperature was evemaccordance

invigorated his entire body ; h^gs,strutted

relief :

given him

thelattiated
coul(J"^ny^vWtTrTri^h

one

bathe

to

of frost and
'

no

understand.

and

know

ordered

god ; his
delight, and

of

with

been

and

asleepnor

he

of the

proximity

have

to

weaker

grew

was

to

probably only aggravated

he

whereby

dreams,

believed

he

absurd, which

most

in

write, he dictated to
all the instructions, even
the
weak

followed

he

course

to set down

of this command

fulfilment
too

was

him

commanded

had

god

the

gentlewarmth

scifeible feeling

wa-the

seim^itionsof

the

his eyes were

open ;
Goc'ir
terrible
with
his
salv"**0BVer
sufferings,
absolutely
; he

moment
was

regarded them
the

of which

nothible

as

god

rightly estimated

over
nothii^ed

saw

had

wh
deev^

it would

congratulatedrather

co.

comparison
him

the

honour

who
any one
deserved
to be

worthy

censider

with
;

that he

commiserated.

than

religiousextravagance of Aristides is most

ments
with his exaggerated pride, his stateintimately connected
in more
than
remind
one
us
respect of the confessions
the

Although

refer to his continual

selfpietists.We may
his fixed
contemplation,his self-exaltation and self-deception,
the recipient
of specialfavour
and
that he
idea that he was
of the god's elect, and
the spiritual
was
one
presumption
of

Christian

which

the inevitable

was

of the
of

god with
fire (the heads

three

result.

In

dream

he

heads, entirelysurrounded

excepted).

The

god signed

the

saw

by

image
flame

to all the other

The
worshippers to withdraw, but ordered him to remain.
enraptured Aristides exclaimed, O thou who hast no like ',
It is thou
that
I call !
replied:
meaning the god ; who
These
all human
better than
words, O lord Asclepius,are
'

'

'

'

life ; all my

they give
he says

me
'

sickness, all my

power
I also was

to do
one

gratitude are

what

I will.'

those upon
jsf.

nothing
In

whom

another

to them

passage

the grace of the

Religion

102

the
were

of the
limited tendencies
and strictly
superficial
driven
back by powerful counter-tendencies.

is nothing to show
when

of the

all appearance
the masses
than

the

even
religion,

to

limits

narrow

made

never

deeper

literature

belief of the European

atheistic

monotheistic, pantheisticand

of educated

anti-Christian

Christian

the

eighteenth century on
peoples in general.

The

the

they

To

impression on

hostile

tendencies

the

spread beyond

strongest,ever
circles.

views

of

the

ture
eloquently pleaded by their supporters in the literaof the first century, left the belief of the people in the
life of millions, untouched
gods firmly rooted in the spiritual

world,
old

that

age, which
But
there

so

at least unshaken.

or

developments, all
which

affected

that
Roman

main

forms.

its

within

the

north

and

west

over

civilization

fusion of Greek

Italian

amplifications

and

renewed

ever

first,prevalent in
Greek

world

far

as

extended, had

and

alterations and

and

ground

The

developed

spread

the

losses,disturbances

religion,it held

itself in its two

lands, had

the

Despite all

its

elements

origin in

influence
mixture

it took

that

second,

the

the

as

eastern

of

and

centuries

to

itself
complete. In both forms belief in the gods maintained
for nearly five hundred
against Christianity,by which
years
it was
So protracted a resistance
is
finallyoverwhelmed.
alone sufficient to prove
the still unweakened
vitalityof the
old belief.
is equally manifest
This vitality
in the adoption
and

assimilation

of

religiouselements,
character

its

Lastly, by
showed

that

it

continued

has

elements
and

Such

proved

of the

in

No
to

such

divinities of

of faith'

or

the

efiect is

maintain

canonizations

that

of

only
old

essentiallychanged by

or

decomposition.
productivitypolytheism

decay

that

deities.

the

been

belief

its

or

of

heterogeneous
generally regarded hitherto as

view, however,
the

alter

to

would

shaken,
reasoh

cause

its dissolution

livingforce.
adoption en masse

the

opposing

unable

were

creative

still

was

Undoubtedly
symptom

which, however,

bring about

to

or

heterogeneous,even

numerous

the

Graeco-Roman

be

had

worship of
perceptible.There
mere

increase

is

in the

were

due

to

more

no

number

polytheistic
system presupposes
of
its
than
that
weakening
intensity,
Church

foreign

new,

of the Catholic

be

abolished,

been

the

religion.

justifiedif it could

gods

ligious
re-

of

decline

the

fresh

disappear-

Religion
of belief in the old

ance

to
prejudicial

it.

saints,or

Graeco-Roman

two

is dif"cult to understand.
with

compared

as

in

between

the

ideas
religious

founded

in

and

melancholy

two

Greek

and

of

way

thinking,the
strange and

which

seems

and

the

and

cults

of the

contrast

usages

are

greater. Gloomy,

even

mysteriousceremonies, extravagant ecstasy,

and

unlimited

Roman

elements

belief

as

religions.Most

characteristic of Greek
limitation of the

devotion

conditions

expiationas

all Oriental

our

union

latter, appear

on

cases

all these

"

in any way
Oriental
between

they were

respectsmonstrous

some

self-renunciation
sacrifice and

To
the

and
singular,

the

that

Certainlythe contrast
cults is so profound,that

and

former,

103

and

of

were

they

were

and
purification

with

of the world

of

divinity,free from all

bility,
regulated,the general accessiexcess, confidential and strictly
and cheerfulness
of the religious
unpretentious simplicity,
And
Greek
and
Roman
services.
believers
never
yet
found

these

profound
It

amalgamation.
made

is

to the

contrasts
well

result of

known

fusion in the world-wide

have

resulted

in

mixture

however,

Oriental

that
a

very

early date
If such

war.

empire of
of

gods

by any

of

to

elements
; into

the

was

of nations, their intimate

contact
superficial

hindrance

absolute

an

their way
into Greek
religionat
at least after the second
Punic

Rome
and

of believers

this, and

cult, is the fixed

faith and

idea of God, the clear view

gods, the relation

secration
con-

originallyas foreign to
most
deeply rooted in

sharplycontrasted
Roman

deity, self-

the

to

union

necessity

Rome

must

in the

widest

extent,

in the

nature

alteration

accompanied,
un-

and

of religious
belief. The world of gods, from the first
intensity
to be a
to the last days of paganism, was
and
continued
domain
to believers, since the
only very imperfectlyknown

lightof

revelation

that it could
was

the

the

contain

more

deitywas

this unlimited
combined
extent

in

had

the

never

the most

natural, since
the

power

of

been

thrown

varied
one

it ; the belief

upon

figuresand manifestations
essential attributes of
any form at will. With

of the

assuming

expansion in ancient polytheismwas

tendency, already emphasized to a surprising
power

Herodotus,

of

to

recognizenative

gods

in

foreignones.

pious believers that

completelydominated
to perceive
it only allowed them
what was
reallyor apparently
and completelyblinded them
similar in the different religions,
to the sharpestand
most
glaringcontrasts.
This

tendency

so

Religion

04
It

was

polytheism to

ancient

characteristic of

ever

deavour
en-

supplement its own imperfectknowledge of God by

the cults of foreignnations
entirely
; in Greece, as in Rome,
adopted at times when the idea of a
heterogeneouscults were
to

diminution

of the
The

earlier

fact

this

that

to be

time, but

belief at that
nations.

between
of

exchange

world

of the universal

the establishment

phase with
The

incessant

and

flow of the inhabitants

wanderings

tory, brought about

of
the

Thames

Euphrates, all

and

of this

with

nations

Osiris,Baal, Astarte

and

Mithras, who

example spread the worship of

these and

other

and

different forms

with

Memorials

their

ebb

continual

of teirri-

promiscuous
religionsand

their

provincescontained

the

their last

expanse

the

Atlas, from

Mount

to

upon

empire of Ronje.

enormous

and

course
inter-

developed,the
and
multiplied.

the

movements,

unexampled

an

and

races

restricted

more

intercourse

such

As

tained.
enter-

frequently the case in

explainedby a stronger

the

by

be

cannot

proportionatelyincreased
and its polytheism entered

cults

ancient

From

less

was

antiquity is clearlynot

national

The

religiousbelief

of

power

mixture
inter-

cults.
to the

Atlantic

worshippersof Isis and

or by their
deliberately
; and

gods

in this

manner

under different names

divinities,
of ritual,gained countless
proselytes.

Asiatic nature

have

been

found

relatingto

the cult of the so-called

a
Jupiter of Doliche in Commagene,
sun-god identical with
Bel, worshipped at Palmyra, in Dacia, Pannonia, Noricum
Daland
and
Raetia, Germany and Gaul, Britain, Numidia
matia
of which
is in Italy (twenty-nine,
; the largestnumber

found
twenty-one were
third century this god
another

the

on

the cults of
made

sanctuary
EsquUine). Throughout

to the

and

district

was

they

figureof

north

by

called

second

Aventine

and
and

empire
widely spread ; they
the

Roman

their monuments

are

most

Crimea) directlyfrom Egypt, to

of Italy (especially
Aquileia,where

way
after Isis and

Osiris)

Even

in the

Rhine

are

Isis in

frequently mentioned

Jura limestone,

the first century, made

of St. Ursula

the

the

on

most

were

(where

East

especiallyin

the west

lands

had

in the

where

Rome,

Egyptian divinities

their way

numerous,

in

into

most

romanesque

on

monuments.

probably belonging to
capitalin the church
from a chapel of the

Cologne,perhaps came
of all kinds,
goddess in that city. Egyptian monuments
of demodels
especiallystatuettes of Apis, Ushebtis (little
at

Religion
ceased

in the

persons

there

in the

or

other

form

of

genuineness,without

found

in this

set up

or

of
appearance
appreciationo! their actual

real

an

to lightin
Serapishave come
Horus,
gravestone of an Egyptian named

of

in the
served
Pabek, who
Chnodomar,
King of the Alemanni
son

them

scarabs

of Isis and

the

places;

and

been

have

give

to

any

significance. Altars
different

mummies),

neighbourhood,may

sanctuaries, in order

105

Roman

fleet,at Cologne.

(defeatedby the Emperor

of Serapio
Julian in 357) gave his son Agenarich the name
detained
a
because, when
as
hostage in Gaul, he had been
initiated into
'Greek
secrets'
(i.e.the mysteries of Isis).
These

cults
in

the

Non

valley in

festivals of Isis and

her

lost

cults

new

but

time

the

that

old

into

southern

certain

confined

of the

goddess for

individual

background,

divinities could

comprehensive worship of

leys
val-

Tirol, during the

in many

the

mountain

remote

such
no

the

cases

local

or

than

more

effect any permanent alteration in religious

Even
individuals
who, as a rule, did not

whole.

aspireto

the

preferencefor

other
as

doubt

no

drove

individual
at any
belief

be

can

most

Serapis,the mourning
represented.

was

spouse

If there

the

penetrated into

themselves

more

the

world

of

gods,

exclusivelyto certain

less

or

entire

and
the national
divinities,could very well combine
particular
Domitian
was
foreign cults without
prejudiceto the former.
he built temples
a
worshipper of Isis and Serapis,to whom
at his table his guests
at Rome
; according to Pliny, even
theless
Neverdue to foreignsuperstition
struck by practices
were
'

'

should
the

go

unpunished

Minerva

which

the

no

; and

'

'

displayed a

'

veneration
superstitious

divinities.

all other

panied
accomchange in religiousconditions was
similar change in the idea of superstition,
by

understood

was

been

according

the

state.

at all times
to

each

Egyptian

Hence

but
not

considered

the idea of

worthy

of

must
superstition

varied,
only relative,but infinitely

not

individual

divinities

chieflyfounded
idolatry and
especially
belief

erroneous

an

an

recognitionby

of the

traditional

worship
Martial
says that during his reign
temples was preserved,although

of God,
exaggerated awe
worship of foreign divinities

have

of the

constant

by
upon

before

violation

ancient

the

himself

emperor

The

'

of

honour

the
for

he

insisted that

was

conception of
forbidden

by

it.

The

worship

the senate

in

58

lo6

Religion
', and
superstition
disgraceful

'

B.C.

as

but

prohibitionhad

the

repeated interference
at that

which
or

the

21

B.C.

in 19

to

Minucius

fact

the

Roman

Felix

that

cult

The

A.D.

48)

speaks

their

effect

than

worship,
the Capital,
by Agrippa in

under

been

Tiberius
considered

gradually forgotten.

was

and

cult

the

same

votaries
ever

troyed
des-

to

Rome

that

formerly Egyptian, but

was

were

its way

had

divinities

altars

the

with

their

they

that

of

more

made

persecutionof

the

and

no

deities from

of the

banishment

inferior

'

time

(in 53 and
had
already

their

is

of

Serapis as
Roman.'

now

other
had
Oriental cults, which
Egyptian, many
been at first generallydespisedas superstitious,
were
gradually
of
numbers
on
a
footing
equalitywith
accepted by increasing
the national
down
cults, as handed
by tradition from time

the

Like

The

immemorial.
in

depended

each

for naturalization

time

necessary
individual
case

the

on

doubt

no

various, and

most

in

part incalculable, influences ; but first and foremost on

of the relations between
the intimacy,continuity,and extent
of the two
the votaries
religions. The cult of the Persian
firstbecame
Mithras, the god of light,with which the Romans
acquainted in the war
against the pirates,was
already in
existence
until

in the

after the

widest

of Hadrian

time

took

about

to the

Romans

probably
(known

reignof Tiberius, but

the

recognition.
from

large numbers
Britain

and

on

of
interesting
such

esteem

as

years

cults may
have been
their
superstitiousbecause

of

Thus

the

it

the

Egjrptiancults
to obtain its
earlier)

Danube

His

when

for

Antonines.

been

found

in

to the

north

of

Sahara, the largestand

Germany.
that

into vogue

come

have

of the

of the

Origen certainlyexaggerates
Many

150

as

monuments

the mouth

in

the

time

about

the borders

them

and

same

Mithras

did not

cult may

not

most

have

joyed
en-

Egyptian divinities,but
he calls it obscure

in

longer time looked

upon

parison.
com-

as

practicesappeared particularly
strange and singular,repulsiveor ridiculous.
Plutarch, who
regarded all the peculiaritiesof the Egyptian worship as
of Asiatic religious
worthy of reverence,
despised a number
customs
as
superstitious,
especiallyrollingin mire, keeping
the

sabbath, prostration,and other

ridiculous exercises and
tortures,speeches and gestures,the result of fear of the gods,

juggleriesand

'

enchantments,

vagabondage, drum-beating.

religion

107

and
impure purifications,
dirty mortifications, barbarous
illegal
punishments and outrages in the temples'. The fact
that long familiarity
with the Egyptian cults had
removed
the foreignatmosphere which
still surrounded
others, essentially
contributed
to this difierence of opinion ; to all
ance
appearthe
of
a
conception
foreign cult as a contemptible
or
a venerable
superstition
religiondepended upon the length
of time it had been known.
According to Suetonius, Augustus
showed

the

for the old and

greatest reverence
but
foreigncults (such as the EleUsinian mysteries),
rest with
includes
contempt. But if Suetonius

recognized
treated

the

the

Jewish
error.
amongst
despisedby him,
tus
Augus(so also Livia)not only sent valuable
dedicatorygiftsfor
the temple at Jerusalem,but instituted the sacrifice of a daily
burnt offeringin his name,
and a bull,
consistingof two rams

faith

the cults

the discontinuance
war

the

was

Further,
have

been

judgment

affected

remote,

have

the

temple
Cappadocia and
paralytic. The
guilty person,

had

veteran
all his

Enlightened Romans,
in

despisingthe

been

was

asked

by

who

had

struck

came

he

Augustus

the

had

prince

Armenia,

and

himself

just dined
admixture
the goddess. The increasing
Roman
Empire continuallyextended
that

the

plundered

blind

from

cult of

veteran, who

(worshipped in

replied that
fortune

people.

first person

Anaitis

goddess

Media)

that

temple, and
the

the

Jewish

foreign cults may

by the relative importance

hesitation

Bononia,

at

of the

upon

extent

barbarous

that

true

was

the

in

passed

outbreak

against Rome.

revolt

certain

no

and

Augustus
of

legs of

had

unknown

entertained

the

to

the

peoplewho professedthem.

least,could

it

before

of open

first act

at

whether

of which

the

of the

he is in

died
was

the

plunder

on

one

of

of the

of nationalities
the

sphere

of

smaller proportion of
foreign cults, and a much
them
were
regarded as mere
superstitions
by the orthodox.
of gods did not reach its height until
Although this admixture
the third century, it had already made
great progress about
showed
of the second
the middle
century. Hadrian, who
Greek
and
the greatest respect for Roman
cults, ' despised
influence

of

foreigncults ; nodefinitestatementismade, but the Egyptian

be included.
During the reign of Marcus
certainlycannot
'

Aurelius,however, who, at the time of the general alarm

by

the Marcomannic

War, summoned

from
priests

caused

all countries

Religion

io8
and

ordered

them

perform foreign rites

to

in

expiatory ceremonies
line

the

of

city

all kinds

the

Rome,

foreign superstitionand

between

and

boundary

national

the

of

religion,

practicallyobliterated.
Italy and Greece, was
crowd
of gods
Certainlythe ever increasingmedley of the
and
more
excited the mockery of unbelievers
Lucian
more.
the mixed
society of the world of gods the
frequentlymakes
is
object of his satire. At a meeting of the gods, Hermes
ordered
by Zeus to arrange the gods according to the artistic
intrinsic
of their statues.
Thus
merit
and
value
Bendis,
and
Asiatic moon-god
allotted
an
are
Anubis, Atys, Mithras
the highest places,statues
of gold being preferredto those of
marble
ful
; while, on the other hand, Atys and Sabazius, doubtand
alien gods',are
placed at the end of the table at a
banquet,by the side of Pan and the Corybantes. On another
occasion
the gods are
of
discussingthe claims of a number
both

in

'

'

'

candidates
forward

for

has
does

the

Olympus,

his

linen

ibises,apes

both

Greeks

and

of the

company
has

his

Momus

company.

the oriental

his Median

does

not
health

divinities.

caftan
know

even

comes

and

Greek

is drunk.

tiara,
and

Still less

be tolerated ; the

garment,

and

followingproposal :

he

when

Egyptians to

in

Anubis

in

Mithras, with

understand

not

ought
the

that

place

no

their

to

speak and giveshis opinionof

to

declares

He

admission

dog-headed, barking
oracle-giving bull Apis,

the

Momus

goats.

accordinglymakes

Seeing that many

barbarians, have

gods, that

unauthorized

forced

the

strangers,

their

into the
way
and nectar
of ambrosia

the

supply
for them
the great demand
has sent
a
mtna
a
jar, that strange gods shamelessly
and
forward
turn the old gods out of their

to fail,that

begun
price up to
push themselves

the

places,let
appointed

commission

of

fully authorized

seven

gods

be

investigatethe claims of each of their colleagues.

Zeus does not put the proposal to the vote, foreseeing
that
the
be against it, but
declares
it
at once
majority would
with
carried,and instructs all the gods to provide themselves
the

necessary
the

as

and

the

to

of their

names

the

certificates for the

in which

manner

gods,

and

It is often

parents,a

so

they

coming examination,

statement

have

been

such

of their

nationality,
admitted
amongst

forth.

believed

satire, the feelingthat

that
the

the

feelingwhich prompted this

admixture
of absolutelyhetero-

Religion

no

all must

itself is correct, but

pretationsby

taken

be

together

of

The

enigmas
Egyptian theology,
of sphinxes
which
he believed to be indicated by the rows
before the temples,did not discourage him, but all the more
gation
provoked him to investigatetheir true meaning ; such investiarrive

to

truth.

the

at

should

in

undertaken

be

pious

and

philosophical
divinitythan

the

agreeable
that man
should
attain to a correct knowledge of his nature.
Thus he became
intimatelyacquaintedwith the most repulsive
Egyptian legends and the most singularcustoms of the country,
since
spirit,

is

nothing

especiallyanimal

to

more

he

worship ;

in the

discovered

also

Greek

analogous to the festivals of lamentation, and

of the
a
profound symbolism in the form and ornaments
sistrum (rattle)
so
generally used in religiousceremonies in
in the
consideration
of the
Egypt. But though absorbed
cult

customs

of

monstrosities

towards

the

for him

they

they
from

had
that

divinities

national
continued

to be

of Herodotus,

If educated

with

find

the

who

any

absurdity in the simultaneous

gods, that

obscured, still remained

in

was

such
so

no

firm

roots

many

and

hold

to the state

civilization

to

the

the

geneous
hetero-

most

vitalityof

their

of

the

blended

personality

For

this reason, belief in them

had
of men,
attached
since it was
by

the souls

on

tion
altera-

less conscious

and

same,

for

still more

forms, however

their

the

affected.

way

been

worship of
was

conscience

injuryor

have
even

So indestructible

Graeco-Roman

or

were

sincere.

their

latter,this must

masses,

and

gods, without

case

divinities.

different
certainly

was

in

room

the

old

only

attitude

in the least affected ;

but the same
living,
as

equally robust

side of national

belief in the

of the

not

was

not

but

could

men

the

foreignby

cult, Plutarch's

His belief in them

been.

ever

belief and

Egyptian

to
religion,

generally,from

art and

which

poetry,to school,
it

drew

ever

fresh

nourishment.

Pausanias, for instance, says that the multitude

believes

it has

what

heard

from

childhood

in

choruses

and

tragedies.
And
most

further

human,

attracted

and

or

in many

the

to them.

of believers
more

of all the

human

They

heart
not

were

into barbarian

less of the
instances

gods in the world

even

names.

transformed

in the

nation
imagi-

gods, but the latter borrowed

personalityof
their

felt

the
they were
most
irresistibly

the

Graeco-Roman

Mithras

and

gods,
Elagabalus

Religion
of Emesa

became

in
of

Phoenicia, Philistia and

and

form

who

of Greek

bestowed

the

Zeus

Nabataean

inhabitants
and

Numidia

Saturnus,

invincible

old

civilized

not

have

the

rude

received

the

of the

(agod

name

heights,

Moloch

cruel

century, and

children

sublime

countries of Mauretania

of

giver

him

to

in

public,
(according

even

in secret

under

fruits', or

the
'

of

name

Saturnus

the

'
.

Graeco-Roman

assimilate

to

the

second

sacrificed

god

If, then,

enough

originallyPhoenician

to the

the

of Gaza

Mamas

worshipped

TertuUian)

countries

identified by the western

was
fertility)
Aumu
the Syrian with Helios ; Dusaris,
of a virgin,
with Dionysus. The Roman

of the

other

and

born

apparently up
to

gods

rain

settlers with

'

Sol

(the sun-god); Astarte of Carthage

'the heavenly virgin',sometimes
'the heavenlythe gods of Heliopolisand Doliche, Jupiter. Similarly,
Palestine
and
the neighbouring districts,the gods

sometimes

Juno'

1 1 1

polytheism

the

countries

ancient

of

the

and

still

was

venerable

vigorous

gods

of

East, this assimilation

the

could

when
presented the least difficulty
dealing with
and
obscure
gods of semi- or entirely barbarous
Numerous

countries.

memorials

Pannonia, Gaul, Spain and

merchants
settlers, officials,

in

Africa

Britain,

Germany,

that

Roman

show

the

zealously took part

in the
cults of the local deities.
Augustus also, during a
and
in
built
vowed
Gaul,
a
temple to the wind-god
stay
of storms, which, while
sender
Circius, the lord and
they
caused
devastation, also purifiedthe air, especiallyfrom the
of

mistral
be

mentioned.

offers thanks

in

Roman

plunder, not

of

governor

for
inscription

an

the

to

example

of

native

captivityand

into

god, but

Graeco-Roman

here

may

Mauretania

eastern

annihilation

of its families

tribe,the carrying away

extensive

soldiers

characteristic

One

Provence.

or

to

the
'

the

'

These
cults rarely
gods, the preservers
of their province or district,
recognitionbeyond the bounds
duals
indivialthough no doubt retained or adopted by many

native
won

Moorish

outside

Grannus,
him
If

the

to

in

the

same

addition

to

thus

Caracalla

Aesculapius and

prayed to Apollo
Serapis,to restore

health.

the

merchants

Syrians,who

numbers,

acted

were

above

settled
to be
all

as

outside
found

their

home,

in such

large

oriental

cults,

everywhere

missionaries

of

especially

Religion

112

the

soldiers,who

everywhere

held

fast

by the cults of their

lands in their garrisons,includingthe veterans
in the
to the
military colonies, chieflycontributed
spread of all
cults foreignto the Greeks
and Romans.
A legate of Numidia
and consul-designate,
native of Dalmatia, in 167 erected
a
in the temple of Aesculapius at Lambaesis
of his
statue
a
native
god Medaurus
(on horseback, brandishing a lance).
native

veteran

his

in another

Noreia,

to

of Numidia

town

mends
(Thubursicum)com-

native

goddess of Noricum, the

who
had pre-deceasedher son.
birthplaceof the mother
In
garrison fellow-countrymenassembled
every
together to
Thus, in the third century,
worship the gods of their home.
the Thracians
serving in the imperialguard at Rome
appear
to have
had
for
their native gods. Heron
a
specialchapel
or
Heros, Asclepius Zimidrenus, and others.
Similarly,the
son

Celtic
and

in Rome

guardsmen

Camulus,

but

continued

especiallyto

the

sacrifice to Arduinna

to
'

mothers

'

'

and

wives

'

{maires,matronae) of their home, supposed to be three in

number, protectinggoddesses of house and famUy, and also
of whole
communities
and
peoples,who bestowed prosperity,
abundance
and
AH
their memorials
in Rome, the
fertility.
in
majority of those in Britain, and a considerable number
Germany, are due to soldiers, simple legionary soldiers or
and
veterans, rarely centurions
equestrian officers ; the
of those who were
mothers', as is shown
by the inscriptions
divinities of the common
not
soldiers, were
people. It is
true that the Romans
livingin the provinceswere in a measure
content
to worship these barbarian
gods, without troubling
and the
about
their name
mothers
nature
or
(such as the
kindred
the great god of the
Suleviae) Thus they adored
and
Numidians
the Moorish
were
gods (amongst whom
included princesof old times worshipped with divine honours);
them
under the names
or
by which they were
they invoked
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Auzius, Bacax, Aulisua, whose names

of north Africa, or Laburus, Latothe monuments
on
appear
from
stones
bius, Harmogius and others, known
inscriptional
and
Pannonia.
of Noricum
Frequently, however, it was

usually known,

such

as

concealed
forms
were
thought that under these barbarous
then
used
side by side with
were
native gods, whose
names
the
unpronounceable by Roman
foreign-soundingnames
simply substituted for them ; thus Caesar calls
lips,or were

Religion

113

the chief Celtic

gods,Teutates,Hesus and Taranis,respectively

of Alsace
and
the
Mercury, Mars and Jupiter. Grannus
Rhine
lands was
identified by the Romans
with Apollo ;
Belutucader
Albiorix

gods,

of

with

south
the

and

southern

Mars

of

of the

regard the
The
native

later

the

native

icus-

and

with

gods

their
But

been

ground

south

found, which

occur

the

on

divinities

longer
to

upper
in

but

at

the

to

the

more

district,which

Iberian

immigration,

even

in the

west

Gallaecia, Asturia)

or

chieflyending in
tained
Vagodamaegus), mainunder the empire.
even

holds^
that

not

just as
good of the

singlevotive
well have
east and

stone

been

The

of

worship
province of

southern

Spain :

'

in

Frejus, Aix,

set

north-east

isolated traces of the Celtic

gods

non-Roman
much

Gaul

great commercial

the

(Aries)certainly the only

gods,

ceased

singularnames,

Douro.'

southern

Arelate

Italian

the

not
(Baetica)

persistedin the

than

city of

In

might

Italy; the same

(Tarraconensis),
except

identified

but also
by the Roman
both these
Spain especially

in their old seats

in

up

In

their

forth.

so

out

Caecus
(Endovellicus,

throughout the

has

'

had

romanized,

Callaecia
(Lusitania,

-ecus

been

near

livingpersonalities.

tolerablyfree from

north-west

in the

Ardennes

Diana, and

with

became

latter.

occurred.

remained

of the

possiblyhave

not

only driven

into the

phenomena

; Arduinna

Forest

real and

not

were

transmuted

and

Minerva

province

gods

as

Celtic local

Turobriga

equivalents,if believers

latter

more

of

and

Proserpina; Sulis, worshipped

Black

Graeco-Roman

other

many

Adaegina

or

Celtic divinities could

with

Leherennus

Cumberland,

Ataecina

Bath, with

at

Abnoba

These

of

France, and

Spain, with

baths

and

Cocid

dedications
and

Nlmes

in the

refer
coast-

the old Celtic divinities were

worshipped
generally,
imperialtimes as much as in the interior of the country.
traces
the Iberian
portion of Aquitania, also, numerous

districts
in
In

occur

of the

native

Certainly,the
from

the

cult, entirelydifferent

barbarian

Graeco-Roman

from
differed

gods

sometimes

that

identification

was

Celtic'

the

greatly

so

impossible;

as Cernunnus
Belgian divinities,
squatting with legs tucked under him, with a stag growing
out
of his head, or the goddess of Compidgne, with birds at
the breast, or the three-headed
god of Rheims.

such

some

were

However,
R.L.M.

faith

III.

of the

could

local

not

only assimilate strange divinities

I

Religion

114
but

could

also create
unmistakable

vitality.Not
so
deeply conscious

was

at every step,
day
every
every
whole, but feelingthe necessityof breaking

believer elevated

the

and

hour

and

singleunited
up the infinite divinityinto
as

energy
of which
he

control

is

power

undiminished

proof of its
regardingthe divine

the most

this creative

and

ones,

new

infinite number

of

important phenomena

and

an

life,into

human

profoundly afiected

divine

individualities,
efiects,which

personalities.
and

her cult do
(Annona)
than
the early empire,when
to go farther back
the
not seem
and
existence
safety of the eternal city depended upon the
regularityand sufficiencyof the suppliesof grain from over
be some
felt that it must
It was
sea.
divinitywho gathered
stores of Africa and
together the immense
Egypt, conveyed
the
them
them
safely across
sea, heaped
high
up mountains
belief in

The

in the

subordinate
'

Annona

found

at

genius

the

of

our

in fervent

with

bakers

with

rich

first

prayer,
of the

it, and

the

in the

holy Annona

had

man

two

statues

city',another

native

found

an

tion
inscrip-

harbour

storehouses, intended

state

to the venerable

measurer

'

according to
an
export
(PhUippeville),

grain-bearing Numidia
a

to

permanent

Rusicade

she

administration

connected

dedication
'

wheat-flour

supplying Rome,

the

coins

separate goddess.

as

out, provided

itself,provided occupation and

trade

of

On

invoked

in Rome

is the work

corporationof

thousands.

industries

of livelihood.

in year

and, year

of Ceres, later

for whom

chieflyby
corn
supply and the
provinces the com
in Rome

corn

often
certainly

was

those

means

of

hundreds

for
a

as

appears

Holy

of Rome,

storehouses

daily bread
'

goodess

of

"

set up,
of Annona

of
for
'

one

of

of the

holy city' (Rome).

all, the

old

Roman

belief

in

tinual
genii involved a conand unlimited
increase of divine beings,as is sufficiently
of this belief,and consequently
shown
by the persistent
vitality
frame
of mind
formed
the
which
of belief generally. The

Above

basis of the
countless

of

every

divine powers,

whose

to fillnature

mission

it

and
was

existence

with

to control

and

generate and give life,to help and protect ; these

favourite
the genii,whose
form was
believed to be that
snake.
Every individual, every house and every family,
city and province, legions, cohorts,
country, every

preserve,
were

latter continued

to

centuries, corporations,
guilds and

unions

"

all had

their

Religion
But

genius.

115

the

'

in everything
feelingof piety,which saw
the trace of a god
and the hand of a divinityin every beneficent
act and
dispensationof providence,peopled every space
with
divine
beings wells, mountains, deserts, markets,
and
theatres.
palaces, warehouses, baths, archives
Every
who
one
frequented these places paid homage to the genius
the
whether
or
guardian power
[iutela)
god or goddess
'

"

'

'

The

merchant, whose
lands, sacrificed there
and

'

trade

the

;
'

countries

'

him

genius

in

who

god

took

the

to

traveller

the

to

business

of

to

remote

the

Roman

unknown

invented

and

roads

frontier

people

inhospitable

and

paths '. In
the houses of Rome
and other cities,
as late as the fifth century,
an
image of the patron divinity,with a lighted candle or everburning
in front

lamp
behind

the door

of

it, was

be

to

in the

seen

vestibule

cult of the domestic

; the

gods (Lar,Genius,
against it,lasted
far on
into Christian times, during which
took
angels soon
the place of genii. These
minor
divinities repeatedlyproved

Penates),in

their power

spiteof

the

prohibitionissued

help within

to

definite

sphere,and

thus

received

clearlydefined personality; thus

of Trimalchio's
one
guests,all belonging to the commercial
class, swears
by the holy 'Holdfast'
(Occupo),and the Lares
special names

and

of the

of the

master

'Gain'

Luck',

more

house

bear

the

'Profit', 'Good

names

[Cerdo,Felicio, Lucro).

change of the republicinto a

that the genius of the reigningemperor
took
monarchy was
its placeby the side of the geniusof the Roman
people, whose
from
times
(at least as early as 218
worship dated
very early
B.C.). This appeared so natural and necessary that Augustus
had
hesitation in undertaking the regulation of this cult
no
A

himself.

It

and

But

controllinggod.
influence

the

East
from

From

Greece

the

time

had

on

the

belief in the

of the

home

that

together
Greek

venerated

idea

of

tutelarydeity of the
came

with

to be

although

the

imperial
people,should

the

person
the

regarded as

the belief in

superhuman
with

the

geniiwas

emperor,
of the
nature

monarchy,

of the East

into

after their death

it
the

as

the

not

the

real

monarch
planted
trans-

was

of

distinguished men

of

tutelary

deification of the

states

immemorial

been

the

popular belief

thus himself

who

without

was

the

as

in the

confounded

emperor,

the

unavoidable

was

genius,worshipped
be

of

result

necessary

West.
merit

heroes

in

(demi-

Ii6

Religion

gods),

founders

the

"

the Persian

of

colonies, the

and

towns

the liberators of their fatherland

wars,

heroes

of

(Harmodius

of

Syracuse), also poets

Aristogiton of Athens,
philosophers(Anaxagoras)and victors
(Aeschylus,Sophocles),
in the
Occasionally, this elevation to
Olympian games.
Timoleon

and

rank

the

of heroes

in Plutarch's

thus

prominent men
Theophanes, who
a

a
'

offered to him

was

death

after their

thus

from

obtained

had

the

(such
owing

How

to

the idea

is shown

Romans

upon
honoured

Mytilene
the

privileges

Athenodorus

the meritorious

If in these

and

similar

of

manner

of the

semi-divine

or

Under

expressinggratitude was
there
is no
doubt
that
servility,
venerated
after
Apollonius of Tyana) were
sincere belief in their superhuman nature.
a

as

common

divine

Sparta,

'

flatteryand

prompted by
many
death

of this

choice

in

of heroes

Pompey

city,and Tarsus
Stoic, the teacher of Augustus.

deification ;

sanctuary
to a god
as

honours

the

free state for the

cases

had

Lycurgus

rule also, cities bestowed

Roman

led to actual

of time

course

time

sacrifice

in which

of

in

existence

Cicero's

by

of

elevation
had

glorifiedspiritsto

become

intention

amongst

to build

the

temple

to

daughter Tullia, who had died at the age of thirty-two.

The Carpocratians,
a gnostic sect of the first half of the second
reverenced
the -fereek
Jesus together with
century, who

his

philosophers as
erected
a
temple

persons
known
Asia

the

the

time

also

were

instance

of

in

Cephalonia to

human

supreme

founder, after his death.

of the

Peloponnesian War, however, living

worshipped as gods in Greece, the first

being Lysander,

flatterywould
the

had

purification,

Epiphanes, the seventeen-

to

whom

altars,offered sacrifice and

erected

basest

model

of their

year-old son
After

not
homage
imagine gods and men
a being
prone to see

have

not

ancient

cities in

Greek

sang

thought

Greeks, who

Even
paeans.
of this kind of
were

unable

to

separatedby an impassablegulf,been
of a higher kind
in every
personality,
which
apparently or in realitywas
superiorto the ordinary
Nor
of humanity.
of looking at things
this way
was
run
entirelyforeignto the Romans
; as a general rule, at meals
to
of the Cimbri
libations were
Marius, the conqueror
poured
and

Teutones,

as

if he

had

divinityof individuals also

world.
Amongst the Getae

been
occurs

the

god.

outside

The

the

belief

in the

Graeco-Roman

prophet Decaeneus

or

Dicineus,

Religion

Il8
If the

as
apotheosisof the emperors was
it at least
of the conscious hypocrisyof servility,
The
to the popular belief.
in certain
cases

belonged ?
a

work

'

of Caesar

the

result

of

the

belief of the

the

next

decree

days,

seven

into

heaven.

After

and

classes

of the

him

divine

honours

in his house

of the

multitude

the

any
considered

be

to

of Marcus

death

which

comet,

supposed

people,

ponded
corres'

lation
trans-

says

was

rule

not only
Suetonius, was
with
Senate, but in accordance

gods,

the

to

his soul

Aurelius,

of
irrespective
did

who

one

visible for

was

sex

not

or

keep

taken

up

all orders

age, paid
his image

impious,and even in Diocletian's

time
his statue
the
frequently occupied a place between
Penates ; many
prophecies,confirmed
by the event, were
believed
to have
been
delivered
by him in visions. Thus
there can
be no doubt
that this good and gentle and universally
beloved
monarch
was
really regarded as a god by the
Severus,
people. In the domestic
chapel of Alexander
where

was

held
religiousservice was
every morning, not only
the souls of the holy (includingApoUonius of Tyana, Orpheus,
a

Abraham

and

but
Christ),
worshipped.

were

It is easy

to

deification of

respects were
his time

men

in order

this belief in

understand, however, that

men

repugnant

was

staunchly

those

to

even

Pausanias

orthodox.

who

real

in other
that

says

in

gods, as formerly
Dioscuri, Amphiaraus, except in words, and

were

Heracles, the

best of the deified emperors,

also the

into

longer changed

no

flatter power.
He
probably had in mind the
apotheosisof Antinous, for which, however, an oriental model
to

not

was

Thus,

wanting.

Belesticha,

Alexandria,

at

'

of divinity
of the town
foreignwoman
', received the honours
and
from her royal lover
a
temple as
Aphrodite Belesticha
(Ptolemy II Philadelphus) No doubt, generallyspeaking,
'

'

the cult of Antinous

but

the

belief of the

'

observed

was

'
to flatter power
;
the divinityof the

in order

generation in
sincere (as appears
beautiful, melancholy looking youth was
from
Athenagoras, c. 177), and lasted at least till the third
century. Celsus had compared the worship of Christ with
that
of Antinous, and
Origen, who
rejectsthis comparison
as

entirelyinadmissible, had

under
were

next

the
to

name

of Antinous

in
investigate,

no

doubt

that in

haunted

of
spirit

truth

his

and

realitya
temple.

'

demon
If

one

the
impartiality,

Religion
to Antinous, he
relating

stories
the

magical

arts

and

efiect which

an

the

by

is said to have

Egyptians

they practise.
who

to have

seem

kinds of food

was

in the

city

who

produced

in other

skilled in the

are

"

temples

arts which

they set up in certain places demons

healing power, which frequently torture

claimingpropheticor
those

been

those

For

there

to

that, too, only after his decease

and

and

due

was

Egyptians that
performing anything

of his

appearance
bears his name,

which

find that it

would

rites of the

the

even

119

committed

mistake

any

about

nary
ordi-

other

religious
precepts. Of this nature
is the being that is considered
to be a god in Antinoopolis
in Eg3rpt,whose
of some
virtues are
the lying inventions
who live by the gain derived
therefrom
; while others, deceived
of a
by the demon
placed there, and others again convicted
weak
conscience, actually think that they are paying a divine
Of such
also are
nature
a
penalty inflicted by Antinous.
the mysteries which
they perform and the seeming predictions
which

they

or

difierent

Far

utter.

from

such

of

those

are

Jesus.'1
Further, the cult of the emperors
than

more

from

demand

despot could

absolute

expression of

the

on

was

his

the

whole

nothing

devotion, which

at
subjects,

least

far

so

the
as

the

in a human
recognitionof a divine nature
personalitywas
in no way
repugnant to religiousbelief. If Christians have
the folly of worshipping a king as a god,
committed
never
the

that

is not

reason

the

between

difference

ruler

and

ruled

feeling of self-respectgreater,or servilityless

of homage
resourceful
in inventing degrading acts
(rather,
in the Byzantine empire and
in
the case
the contrary was
and Napoleon I). Christian dogma
under
Louis XIV
France
belief encouraged,
such an act of folly,which
forbade
pagan
and only allowed the ruler to be recognizedas the representative
"was

less, the

of

God

earth.

upon

The

imperial cult

Roman

form, the essentially

political
importance of which
could

man

does

not

desecrated

or
1

Origen, Conim

cease

in

to

be

thinking

accomplishment left
and
untouched,
was
quite

its external

mistake, while

religiouslife properly so-called

incapable of shaking belief. To
sacred

no

was

so

individual

Celsum, Hi. 36, Eng.

the

because
cases
trans,

believer, that
he

has

seen

which

is

it misused

rather, like Pausanias,

by F. Crombie in Clark's Anie-Nicm

Christian Library, zxiii. (Edtoburgb: T. " T. Clark.)

Religion

l20
he

holds

promptly

only

clingthe

to

abuse

the

up

contempt,
and precious

is venerable

what

firmlyto

more

ridicule and

to

in his belief.
The

best

of the

proof, however,

polytheism is

the

fact that

it

strength

able

was

and

hold

to

its

vitalityof
ground for

centuries

and
further, in a certain sense
against Christianity,
For
it never
to compel Christians
to recognize its truth.
occurred
to Christians in general to deny the real existence
of the pagan gods ; they did not even
dispute their superhuman
attributes
the miracles performed by theA.
Of
nor
it was
them
course,
only natural that they should look upoii
of darkness, demons, fallen or lost angels aid their
as powers
"

descendants,

sinful souls,

permitted by God to injureand

lead
those
who
carried
men
astray. Consequently, even
the war
of extermination
on
so
against polytheism were
mixed
selves
theminextricably
up with it that they could not bri^g
to deny its reality. The authorityof this belief must
have
been
general and most
firmly established In men's
or

conscience, if its most

withdraw

to

irreconcilable

completely from

themselves

But, seeing that

opponents

direct

and

unable

were

its influence.
incontestable

proofs
strength
polytheism are ready to
be
hand, all such Indirect evidence
dispensed with.
may
The
stronger a belief is,and the more
deeply it is rooted in
the conscience, the more
eagerly does it seek and the more
certainlydoes it find throughout nature and life,confirmatioii
so

many

of the

and
universality

of the

existence

recognizesthe
chance

or

if the

the

author

centuries
and

is the
is

The

causes.

favourite

which

of the Christian

In all strata
course

old belief In

which

be

can

era,

child of

no

is assumed

doubt

belief in the
unaffected

in ;

it

only
passionate;
sees

demonstrate
of nature,
own

faith.

infallible test of the

an

higher power,

miracle, there

varied, being of

unbelief
Its most

phenomena,

cult, entirelypositiveand

common

believed

powers

divinitywhere

and

belief in miracles

of the

the

divine power to overrule the laws

of necessityalways secures
its

miracle

belief in the

of

of the

facts

the

this demand

action

efiects of natural

natural

doubt

beyond

of

hand

is for

demand

and

and

of

faction
satis-

Now,

intensity
to

be

the

that, in the first

gods of tradition

was
by scepticism,

of

society. The strength of this belief

strongestin least educated circles.

anthropomorphism,powerfullysupported

Religion
the

by

impressionproduced by

images

of the

miracle

performed before

like
everywhere present and lifeit possiblefor the believer to
of the god himself in the author

the

gods, made
recognizethe corporealpresence
of

the

was

beyond
at

at the time

case

all doubt

L5rstra. How

existence
author

and

of

companion,
were

at

come

down

well-known

certain

close

the

his eyes ; and the fact that such

of which we are speakingis established

the

by

proximity

from

messengers
filled with

once

of

the

the

who

lame

man

but

apostles

been

gods,

heaven

of

the

saw

in the

and

in his

gods, and
that the gods had
And
they called

conviction

in the likeness

to them

the

have

men

of their

cure

of

incident

these

must

miraculous

not

121

very

'

of

men.

Barnabas,

Jupiter; and Paul, Mercurius, because he was

the
chief speaker. Then
the priestof Jupiter,which
was
before their city,brought oxen
and
garlands unto the gates,
and
would
have
done
sacrifice with
the people'. And
the
restrained
the
apostles scarce
people, that they had not
"

done

sacrifice unto

firm

as

as

who,

and

whom

Here

then

childlike

as

imagining

by

armour,

rock

'

them

Pisistratus

of the

of

ancient

clothed

woman

accompanied

was

to be Athene

in person, worshipped her as a

find words
to express his amazement

cannot

faith still living,

that

as

the beautiful

was

nians
Athe-

in,complete
his return,

on

goddess ; Herodotus
such

at

unheard

simplicity.A parallelis to be found in the faith which

Italian
the
our
own
peasant recognize the
days makes

in

mother

of

God

herself

in

young,

that

belief

beautiful

and

like
madonna-

benefactress.
It may

be

admitted

blindest

perhaps

was

and

in the heart
most
common
propensity to self-deception
in the
of anterior
Asia, as is expresslyattested by Lucian
beliefs and
of Paphlagonia. Undoubtedly superstitious
case
than
in the
always stronger in the East
prejudiceswere
the

'

West.

But

actual

presence

worked
and

even

believer

if the

of the

divinity,he

by him, his
scepticswere

enthusiasm

carried

belief in miracles.
71 at Alexandria,
affection
undoubted

by

Tacitus

blind

man

The

of the

everywhere the

saw

wonders

continually re-kindled,

was

by

away

miracles

indicatingthe

favour

the

sincere

wrought

in the

of heaven

gods for Vespasian

'

and

are

and

versal
uni-

year
an

described

perfectgood faith. A
having been inspiredby Serapis
paralytic,

other

and
and

'

of the

only rarely convinced

was

historians

in

Religion

I2Z
in
the

of

use

their

'

the

blind

at

the

to

be

it

omen

believed
of the

miracles

these

god,

he

There

saw

what

the

named

man

went

future

Basilides,

subsequently ascertained that he was

that
moment.
Vespasian recognized
of his impending greatness. No
one

was

at

an

afterwards

Vespasian
Serapisto learn
'.

of

temple

for him.

away

name

the

to

in store

miles

two

present day, when

gained by falsehood

although

the

These

man.

unattended
had

light of day again shone upon

facts are attested by eye-witnesses
there is no
longer any advantage
the

functions, and

its

restore

so

Vespasian finallydecided to do as
the people. The hand
immediately

limbs.

they asked publiclybefore

resumed

and

them

dream, imploredVespasian to touch

whom

to

they

who

the

and
greatness
power
voice
of
attributed
the
by

doubt

could

many
his

in

were

people.

This

miracle

the

belongs to a period when

great and convincing as

idea

of

appealing
the Christian certainly
to miracles
as
But
when
the struggle
cannot
be attributed
to the heathen.
of the two
religionsfor the empire of humanity had begun,
the mania
for miracles
necessarilybecame
greater on both
furious
it
the more
sides the longer the conflict lasted and
We

became.

century, the

already felt

was

the

that, about

assume

may
need

of

of the second

end

settingup

rival to the

in the person
of a prophet of the old
Christianity
gods, equally superhuman and equally capable of working
miracles.
This was
of Philostratus'
probably the purpose
of ApoUonius of Tyana, composed at the command
romance
of the empress
The birth of ApoUonius is as
Julia Domna.

founder

of

marvellous

convince

the

Among

his

as

end

young
miracles

of demons

and

knowledge

of

The

omniscience.

Christ.

future

The

been

had

whereas

those

witnesses.

and

him

of

in

his

him

embellished

dead.

borders

on

(as already
chapel together

above

Christ, whose

by

fictions of the

the

His

Severus

neo-Platonist

ApoUonius were
ApoUonius' reputation was

pagans, but also among

the

secrets

domestic

anti-Christian

of

from

hidden

earth, to

on

immortality.
the casting out

are

Alexander

emperor

(under Diocletian)put
declared

reappearance
in
disbelieved

performed by him
raisingof a man

observed) worshipped
with

his

who

man

the
the

and

attested

acts

he

apostles,
by unimpeachable

only among
succeeding centuries.

great, not

Christians of the

Hierocles

Religion
In

Christian

collection

gods ', composed

Moses, Hermes

of

oracular

'

about

of

responses

it is declared

474-91,
Trismegistusand

The

123
Hellenic

that

Apollonius were
(died1698) believed

only-

like God.

that the
pious Jansenist
devil, fearing the destruction
of his kingdom, had
caused
be
born about the same
time as Jesus ; Bayle
Apollonius to
in his lexicon (1741)calls him
the ape of the son
of God '.
Not
only did heathens and Christians meet miracles with
miracles, but they must
frequentlyhave laid claim to the
same
miracle, although only one instance is reported. During
the war
against the Quadi (173-4) in the reign of Marcus
Tillemont

'

Aurelius, the

blazing sun,
threatened

Roman

found
with

itself surrounded

annihilation.

heat

by the

overcome

army,

of

the

by a superiorforce, and
suddenly thick clouds

Then

gathered together, rain fell in torrents, and a fearful storm

confusion
in the ranks
of the enemy
and
wrought havoc
;
the Romans
saved
and
the
The
effect
were
gained
victory.
of this event
was
overwhelming ; according to the custom
of the time
it was
immortalized
by pictorial
representation,
of which
was
generally regarded as a miracle, the memory
lasted till the last days of antiquity,
and for centuries
wards
after-

by both Christians and pagans as a

which
faiths. A picture,
proof of the truth of their respective
Themistius
had seen, representedthe emperor
himself appealing
to Jupiterfor aid with upliftedhands, while the soldiers
appealed

was

caught the
of Marcus
as

rain

in their helmets

Aurelius, which

representationof
marvellous

The

others, however,

the

been

hitherto

to

asserted

of the

the

army

had

drawn

it

that

Christian

contemporary,

of
prayers
Tertullian also

the

known, and

the

But
the

Christian

(197) refers to
appeals to a letter

column

generallyregarded
possiblybe meant.
to have

appears

been

emperor's

rain from

down

the

on

scene

this event, cannot

gods, especiallyHermes.
a

to Jupiter;
prayer
really due to the art

was

Egyptian magician Arnuphis,

an

who

has

deliverance

generally attributed
of

to

suite,

by callingupon

heaven

according
miracle

had

soldiers

of

the

of his

member

the

to

of

wrought by
twelfth legion.

been
the

Christian

of Marcus

account

the

version

Aurelius

in

as

well

support

of it.

Amongst the miracles, which

adduces
work
againstChristianity

the
as

Platonist
a

proof of

Celsus

in his

the existence

Religion

24

gods, he givesspecialprominence to oracles,prognostics

the future
issued
and portents,by which
or
they announced
the faithful
warnings and exhortations, and which convinced
of the gods, but also of their solicitude
not only of the existence
of^the

'

for mankind.
oracular

or

men

wonderful

things that

sanctuary

all the

who

consulted

that

has

To

gods have

is full of such
in obedience
in the
how

many
oracles, have

been

and

all the

the

the inner

made

to those

knowledge
prodigies?

men

The

world

cities have
been built
many
received from
oracles : how
often,

from

disease

cities,from

disregard
perished miserably !
and

been

aU

How

delivered

established

issuingfrom

divine

influence

have

that

all the

with

by other signsand
appeared in visible forms.
to

instances.

way,

heard

collect

by others, whether

as

divine

been

to commands

same

well

sacrificial victims

conveyed

the

some

have

revelations

the

been

under

were

to

delivered

been

as
priestesses,

who

women,

is there

need

have

which

responses,

by priestsand

voice

What

famine

Or

again,

forgetfulnessof these

or

How

to flourish

made

and

colonies

many

by followingtheir

have

orders I

princesand privatepersons have, from this cause,

had prosperity or adversity! How
who
mourned
ov;r
many,
their childlessness,
the
have
obtained
blessingthey asked for !
How

many

How

have
turned
away
many
demons
! How
who
were
many,

had

from

themselves

maimed

the

in their

anger

of

limbs, hp,ve

have
met
with
again, how many
of reverence
to the
punishment for showing want
summary
temples some
being instantly seized with madness, others
openly confessing their crimes, others having put an end to
them

restored

And

"

their lives,and
maladies

others

Yea,

issuingfrom

having
have

some

inner

the

future, of which
appearance
who

the

was

at least in the

others

at that

last

had

been
'

Edinburgh
signs

time

'

and

the whole

T, " T. Clark.)
of

announcements

the

',to all
of belief in miracles,

world

days of antiquity. Many

received

of incurable

by a terrible voice
(Origen, Contra Celsum,

general form

most

victims

slain

sanctuary

viii. 45, Crombie's

trans.
belief in wonderful
The

the

become

was

full

philosophersand

philosophicaleducation also professed

it. Certainlyit was
rejectedby Epicureans, C3aiics
and
and
controverted
Aristotelians
by Academicians
; but
Platonists,Pythagoreans and Stoics only clung to it the more
firmly,and this belief formed part and parcelof the theology
a

126

Religion

The

those

imperial biographers,of presages,

to
announced
a
private individual

to the

accession

throne,

especially
his

the

of

majority

future

leaves

emperor,

belief,with which

this

credited

certainlyhave

of the

the death

or

of
persistence

to the

as

must

Dio, Herodian

later

which

doubt

universallyreported.

was

Suetonius, Cassius

in

regular mention,
the

and

to believe what

refuse

this instance

the

no

writers

their

readers ;
it was
held

frequentlyshows to what extent

of the time.
Augustus, says
prominent men
by the most
to certain
to the
Suetonius, paid great attention
as
omens,
and

narrative

the

foot, it was

wrong
on

made

always
when

old

of

Suetonius

the list

aU

the

robust

as

holm-oak

future

of his

marvel

as

seriouslyrelates

for

Capri

all

have

recalled

event

was

the

drooping
read

in

traditions

omens

which

victories

and

his

complaint of th"
things. To a fajth

such
fuU

the stones

the

and

also

instance,

Livy

books

the

of

significance
; fno

great or too ridiculous for it. Suetonius

that Augustus, when
a child justbeginningto

ordered

speak, once

events

as,

Had

on

starting

was

between

at

from

contemporariesto

this, every
too

was

revived.

of

he

greatness of Augustus, his

death, perhaps he would

indifference

him

the cracks

(culledby him
industry of a bee)

the

announced
his

an

shoe

Wonderful

his arrival

on

put

fell when

good sign.

tree sprouted from

branches

with

of his house, and

in front

if dew

sign;

was

If he

doubt.

no

great impression on

palm

bad

journey, it

long

he had

of which

meaning

frogs on

family estate to cease

asserted, they immediately did.
croaking, which, it was
different kinds of portents were
Of course
differently
ciated
appresome

of divination
by believers, and the various methods
did not
esteem, but sometimes
always enjoy the same
one,
sometimes
the greatest favour.
not
But
one
another, found
of

recognized kinds

the

for

disuse
art

of the
the

too

want

deeply discredited

remark,

that

another

without

The

victims.

and

he

from

wondered

this method

to

recover

the

how

laughing,and

harusptx foretold

fell

entirelyinto

crushing ridicule of the

inspectionof entrails might suggest

the

ever

be further

could

'

ever

Cicero's

view, that

mistaken

nothing

divination

belief.

of

haruspex

of

the future from

its

truth.

of divination

was

popularity,whereas
Cicero

quotes Cato's

haruspex could look at

Hannibal's
question to King
one

the

of
inspection

the entrails of sacrificial

Religion
Prusias

127
'

because
the entrails
(who refused to give battle
forbade it '),
whether
he had more
faith in a slice of veal than
in an old general ; he further recalls the fact that in the last
civil war
the exact oppositeof what
had been foretold nearly

always happened.
disturbed

the

But

the

faith of believers than

lie to their belief.

of unbelievers

mockery

the

no

facts which

more

the

gave

As

always happens in such cases, they only

remembered
prophecies,which were, or were
supposed to have
been, fulfilled ; and ample testimony from succeeding centuries
confirms
the persistence
of the belief in the inspection
of entrails,and
The

its diflEusion

fact that

pices in

secret

Tiberius
and

amongst the educated

even

prohibitedthe

without

the

classes.

consultation

of harus-

of witnesses

presence

assumes

of this form
of
Claudius'
divination.
general use
apprehension (in 47) that the oldest science in Italy might
become
extinct through neglect,
can
only have referred to the
tion
not to a general diminudecay of the Etruscan
haruspicina,
of its employment.
The
older Pliny also says expressly
that
of people firmly believe that animals
large numbers
of danger by their muscular
On
fibres and entrails.
warn
us
the morning of the day on which
the emperor
Galba
was
dered
murinformed
(January 15, 69), the haruspex Umbricius
him that the entrails of the victim pointed to a dangerous plot
in the house
and
an
was
standing by,
; Otho, who
enemy
favourable
took
this as an
to his undertaking. Epicomen
a

very

tetus, who

in accordance
revelations

divine
which

in his actions

by

this
It

only
to

pity on
or

the

'

that

the

Maximin

foresee

been

but

no

me

before

occasion

to health

for

generallyrecognized.

very

! But

the

augur

or

injuriousto

the

person

resistance

mainly due

offered
to the

whether

they

concerned

by

the

are

propheciesof

its

have

sickness

ficial
reallybene-

'. Herodian

city of

fulfil

haruspex

impending events, death, danger,

know

brave

all

often drives
so
says, that
Trembling with excitement, they

not

He

be

future, he

the

does

was

been

have

should

man

if they could
as
prayers and flattery,
fatiier's heir ? Lord,
Lord, shall I be my

restore

like.
or

would

cognized
re-

in the art

with

me,

only

can

of

that

advises

only by divination,

divination

soothsayers.

the

wishes

not

fear

approach them
our

There

duty.

advice, had
is

men

of

sense

not

of his school

doctrines

thoroughly believed

and

only

interpretedthem,

influenced

the

with

says

Aquileia to
:
haruspices

Religion

128
'

for the inhabitants

of divination

Italy also
but also by
besides

the

his

not

admitted

who

it

few

in this kind
held

was

remarks

it by the

outside

of

Epictetus,
dream-interpreter

methods

of divination

lacked

haruspex never
Regulus, notorious

Further, accidental

birds.

allow

dates

the

to conclude

us

that

supporters amongst

the

the

during the period from Nero

of lise-majesiS,
in cases
accuser
was

and

orator

only

flightof

the

of different

an

confidence

astrology,the inspectionof victims' liver (i.e.

own

and
entrails),

as

the

only by
accorded
recognition

is shown

Artemidorus,

most

in which

estimation

The

'.

Italyhave

of

ments
stateart

of

educated.

to Domitian
accustomed

questionthe haruspicesas to the result of the

to answer
trial. According to Juvenal, they had
so
many
about
the
favourite
and
musical
virtuosi
actors
of
questions
that they got varicose veins from standing
distinguished
women,
so
long on their feet. The emperor Gordian I was greatly
in every

to

case

skilled in this art, in which

Diocletian

also had

great confidence.

practisedin public,but forbade

it inside the house
on
pain of death ; in cases of injuryby
ing
Accordlightninghe ordered it himself (321)for state reasons.
of the means
for reading
to Ammianus
Marcellinus, one
which
the future
mankiM
providence has bestowed
upon
is the inspectionof entrails ; he says that Julian,while stil^
a
to the art of the harus-pex
devoted
professingChristian, was
and everythingelse practisedby the worshipand the augur,
pers
be

it to

allowed

Constantine

'

'. Such
incidental
gods from time immemorial
proofs of the lastingand widespread belief in the art of the
haruspex, which could be multipUed, justifyus in assuming
of

the

the

same

in the

of aU

case

the

other

traditional

methods

of

divination.

Among

the

science

favourite

the

of

methods

inquiringinto

of that

which

age,

favour, especially
amongst the upper
belief in the

presuppose

them,

although,on

Of the

it.

he

contested

general.
in

an

Yet

inevitable

other

members

older

in Providence,

the

gods

Panaetius
the
it

and

the future, astrology,

enjoyed

only

fate, which

should
astrology,

highest

classes,did not necessarily

providence exercised by
excluded
hand, it by no means

of the
the

was

Stoic

school,which

only

natural
more

that
than

who

one

efficacyof prognostics

was

the

and

believed

rejectedit ;
divination

in

widespread belief
aged
anything else encour-

the

tend to the abandonment

of

polytheism.

Religion
The

belief

'

which

referred

all events

129
their constellations

to

nativity',equallyapproved of by the educated

and ignorantand shared by Seneca, according to which what
had been
decided
once
was
irrevocablyfixed for all time,
tonius,
definitivelysuperannuated the divinity.According to Sueby

the laws of

Tiberius

cult, because

showed

he

little interest

But

direct

also,in
predictions

strengthenand

to

enjoyed
and

fact that

temporary

of the

reputationalmost

the

which

the

gods,as it were,

the future to mankind, since they assumed

bound
than
of the divinity,
were
more
inspiration

first centuries

the

their

revealed

anything else
In

and

of fate.

decrees

oracular

in person
the

the

gods

to
entirelydevoted
astrology,and
that everythinghappened in accordance

was

thoroughly convinced
with

in the

they

foster the belief in the latter.

Christian
as

great

as

era

these

in any

predictions

earlier period;

only held their ground, but, after

not

decline, underwent

complete restoration,

is

a
a

proof of the strength of polytheism.

Strabo, who
expresslyattests the decay and neglect of the
influenced
Greek oracles in the time of Augustus, was
certainly
in his statements
by the recollection of the splendour of Delphi,
stiU

indubitable

more

had

which

been

extinct

for centuries.

he gives the
appearance
that the Romans
of the

Sibyllinebooks

of
(observation
signs). It was

and

the

Etruscan

; and

element

impressionof
in

the

Greek

world.

strong enough to divert

channels, it was
by no means

There

The

oracular

famous

old

belief

temples

were

prophets,full of the

'

foretold the future, warded

the

menon
pheno-

predictions

of divination

empire,that the
by the Roman

everywhere be kept down

it was
justat that time that the overpowering
Roman
might and greatness had reached its

was

permanently.

the

methods

result of universal

natural

should

non-Roman

height

satisfied with

were

the

all

the flight
of birds,and the heavenly
entrails,

the
a

explanationof

correct

"

the less, to

None

although this impression

man's
religiousneeds into new
But

strong enough to control

completelyrestored

was

again

god

and

filled with
identified

ofiE dangers, healed

them
;

the

pilgrims.
with

him,

the sick, comforted

sorrowful, helped the unhappy, gave

consolation

sufferingand relief in distress '. Christian writers declare

into the world the power
that with the coming of the Redeemer
of
of the false gods had been broken, that the charm
by means
in

R.L,M.

"

ni.

Religion

130
which

had

stone

but

had

they

and

lost its power,

they

even

of wood

long given speech to images

so

obliged to

were

their

that

oracles

that

confess

the

and

dumb,

were

demons

in the

temples again issued true prophecies and salutary warnings

of course, was
Their object,
to do all the
and performed cures.
more
they turned aside from the search
injury to those whom
ideas of the
after the true God, by insinuatinginto their minds
The
false one.
foreknowledge of the future possessed by the
of God
demons
was
explainedby their being former servants
who
in

thus

acquaintedwith
respects remarkably

were

other

in the heathen

free from

Petrarch,

believed
superstition,

given by demons.
The greatnessof the Roman
empire and the incessant mutual
intercourse
of all its component parts,highlydeveloped by its
admirable
of communication,
means
enormously enlarged the
area

which

over

extended.
to

the

the

as

influence

the

of the

Pilgrims journeyed

Greek

which

temples in

of the Greek

responses
to

oracles

Even

his intentions.

their

world.

search

gods
had

names

Apparently

from
of

barbarian

remote

and

help

received

were

respectedoracles

more

counsel, and

with

in the

Rome

of Hadrian,

time

the

in countries

awe

penetratedbefore

never

lands

ruled

cohort

of

(Housesteads in
Tungri in its fixed quarters at Borcovicus
to the
Northumberland) in Britain offered an ex-voto
gods
and
with the interpretationof the
goddesses in accordance
oracle
of Apollo of Claros
(near Colophon), and similarly
of Dahnatia
dedicated
in the north
inscriptionsat Obrovazzo
'

'

and

Cuicul

at

oracle

in Numidia

in these
of this

there
the

can

cases

be

no

doubt

numerous

To

mention

only

of the bull

may

perhaps

that

consulted

incidental

by

to

god by troops

provinceswere

oracle

we

refer

in

the

proofs of

aU the

other

the omniscience

Strongereven

than

the

in

'

'

lot

'

the Fortunes

of
'

fact confirmed
authorities.

to that of

Antium,

Carmel,
that of

the

consulted

Geryones
at

sultation
joint con-

oracles in all

ancient

in addition

oracle

same

how,
provinces. Any-

famous

most

Delphi, Vespasian that of mount

Venus
at Paphos in Cyprus, Caracalla
and

instances, Germanicus

at

of

assume

imperialtimes, a

Apis at Memphis

of the

response

of different

statements

few

Claros, Tiberius the

vium, Caligulathat of

the

Pata-

near

Nero

Titus

Apollo
that

that

of

andria
Serapisat Alexoracles of repute. Amongst believers,
of the oracles were
brought forward.
of the Delphian oracle to the
answers

Religion
inquiriesof Croesus,
friend, the

learned

as

Demetrius

of which

he

an

event

an

unbelievinggovernor of
the suggestionof certain

At

his suite, he

sent

by

recorded

was

131

Herodotus.

of Tarsus,

an

freedman

Plutarch's

gives an

account

of
eye-witness the conversion
CUicia by an
oracular
response.
at
scoffers
religionin
Epicurean
with a sealed tablet, containing
"

the

to the
question to which he desired an answer,
oracle of the demi-god Mopsus.
The
who
messenger,
to custom
spent a night in the temple, dreamed
handsome
man
approached him and said a black one
'

retired.

then
fell
to

When

the governor, he was

the
tablet, and showed

knees, opened the

Shall I sacrifice
those who were
present :
'

bull ?

'

the

Even

Epicureans were

and
offered the sacrifice,

Nothing, however,
the believer

so

in miracles

readilyoracles

was

black

ing
accordthat

question
or

white

; the governor

worshipped Mopsus.

the extent
to which
clearlyshows
and how
capable of self-deception,

admission

found

disconcerted

afterwards

ever

dream-

',and
terrified,

he informed

his

on

of

and

acceptance

in countries

previouslyunknown, as Lucian's account

of the pretended oracle of Apollo and
Aesculapius set up by
in his native town
of Abonuteichos
the false prophet Alexander
in Paphlagonia.
Alexander
(c.105-c. 175),who when a boy was remarkable
in the art of magic by a
been instructed
for his beauty, had
physician (a countryman of ApoUonius of Tyana), to whom
they

where

he

for

been

panion
Having travelled with a single comin the character of a
through Bithynia and Macedonia

acted

as

magician
own

had

in
the

and

his

assistant.

soothsayer,he

decided

to found

an

oracle

of his

appeared speciallyadapted
place, which
superstition
owing to the wealth and crass

native

purpose,
of its inhabitants.

of bronze,

buried

by Alexander
and
covered
in the temple of Apollo at Chalcedon
convenientlydisthat Apollo and his son
Asclepius
again, announced
The
lighted,
inhabitants, highly dewere
coming to Abonuteichos.
set about
at once
building a temple to Asclepius.
oracle had been circulated to the effect that
After a Sibylline
and Asclepius,
would
of Perseus
make
Alexander, a descendant
the town, an imposing
as
a prophet,he entered
his appearance
and attractive personahty,magnificentlyclad in a white and
of
purple tunic, carryinga sickle in his hand after the manner
The
Perseus.
god Asclepiuswas said to have revealed himTablets

Religion

132
self in the

form

townsmen

little

snake, in
of

exhibited

he

readiness, the
of

matter

in

an

temple

the

had

which

of water

pool

Prompted by Alexander, his

empty goose'segg, containing a

snake.

found

fellow

foundations

of

been

had

Soon

dug.

the

afterwards

large tame snake which had long been kept

rapid growth of the god being looked upon
the snake

with

Appearing

course.

dimly-lightedroom, he thrust out

made
of painted linen, somewhat

where

collected

round

his robe

from

in
as

his neck

snake's

resembling a human
shut
could be opened or
of which
face, the mouth
by means
inside.
attachment
of a
horsehair
Subsequently pipes (a
fixed
number
of cranes' windpipes fastened
together) were

head

head, through which

in the

speak ; but these

exceptionallyand
in sealed

handed

opened, the

answer

of the

name

fame

The
and

god

short

being

about

wishes

the

whole

rule

is.),out

about

he

had

to

other

hand,

consulted

him

would

on

utterances

who

;"3,ooo(the fee

the

The

crowds,

when

The

Minor

pay

(more

that

the

estimates

Lucian

of which

takings.

of those

by

such

god

only given
questions were

of its existence

time

visited

was

prophet at

oracular

of their

out

As

were

Glycon.
spread rapidlythroughout Asia

during

of all kinds

assistants

obscure

was

Abonuteichos.

at

of the

income

oracles

the

condition
;
given back in the same
of the god was
found written inside.

years)it

twenty

ran

make

of the oracle

Thrace, and

than

'

autophonic
for a high fee.

and

could

assistant

an

'

for the

food

annual
oracle

number

of

of
interpreters
each to pay him "240 yearly
had
god frequentlypromised that the
two

be

if the
fulfilled,

It was
no
uncommon
prophet interceded for them.
thing for
questionsto be asked in foreignlanguages,such as Syrian and
in Galatia),and it was
Celtic (thelanguage in general use
not
them.
Occasional
always easy to find persons who understood
did
not
blunders
in the
answers
injurethe prestige of
the oracle ; it was
dangerous to deny its divine nature, for
how
the crowd
Alexander
to rouse
knew
of believers to frenzy
the Epicureans)with the cry of
(especially
against its enemies
Christians
'. He
atheists and
gained the friendshipof the
priestsof the most famous oracles of Asia Minor by sending
'

his

on

"

own

visitors to them.

I.e. oracles delivered

be in

use

by

the god himself.

in English,but is adoptedfor

The

word

'

brevity(theGreek

autophonic

'

does not seem

is avrd^ui/osj.

to

Religion

134
bonianus

(251-3), and

also in Nicomedia,
have

found
Moesia

to

come

dedicated

which

colonized
(chiefly

perhaps also in
light in Dacia
to the god Glycon,

(atUskub in
serpent and

The

chus

that

so

But
these

belief that

of those

as

his brother's
as

who

he

he states

one

guard

in

as

Rome,

dream

Several

influence.

Commodus

by

murder

predictedthe

effects of
aU

in

serpents).
only in

future, not

the

who
a

admitted

causes

one

been

mad

dog, was saved

in Spain. Having

attacked

communicated

the

elder

of

rence
occur-

the
In

one

but

in

gods,
Pliny,

future,
of his
a

later

imperial
by hydrophobia as the
by a remedy revealed

that

had

to his mother

by

; the

revelation

fact

the

sent

as

dreams.
significant
questionundecided,

undoubted

an

misfortune, she had

natural

supernatural

leaves

result of the bite of

a

recognized

everywhere, was the most generalof all

contested
by
portents,which was not even
in other respectsutterlyrefused
to believe

denied

earlier books

in the

child, stranglingthe two

dreams

inclined to the belief in

was

practisedso
serious opposition,

but

the natural
who

also,

in

their

prophecy. Aristotle and Democritus

of propheticdreams, not, however,

but

be

could

without

estimate

counterpart,

Lucian.

strongerbelief

even

to

and

own

of belief in

some

in

his

sanctuaries

forms

by
and

female

imposture

an

success

us

(of Hercules,

the

in Moesia

',one

dream-oracles, as those of Mopsus and Amphiloin Cilicia,

which announced
to Sextus
Quintilius

at MaUus

dream

had

mentioned

gross

enables

were

Condianus

been

Asia

by his command

to have

appears

long with such enormous

naturallyimpliesan
of these

have

Macedonia) to Jupiterand Juno, to the

', accordingto
serpent'swife and Alexander

the

oracles, and

likewise

must

'

to the snake

fact

'

Turkish

Alexander

in addition

Glycon

Minor), and upper

that have
Africa.
Two
inscriptions
(at Carlsburg in Transylvania) are

in Dacia

from

III

Gordian

of its extension

evidences

Further

penetrated.

cult of

the

whither

and

Caracalla

under

the

of the

no

idea

of his

purport of the dream

to him in a letter,which
reached
him just in time to save
him,
when
his life was
despaired of. When
Pliny says that this
hitherto unknown
remedy, which
always proved successful
in other cases, had been
revealed by
God
',he is referringto
the
in the
mysterious working of nature, also manifested
sympathies and antipathiesof its forces,certainlynot to the
providence of a personaldivinity.
'

Religion
Now,

although the

belief in

propheticdreams

the belief in the

suppose
safelybe asserted that the one

the

other ; in the

majority
simultaneously to

accorded

t35

and

gods

not

sarily
neces-

Providence, it may

rarelyunaccompanied

was

of

does

belief and

cases

both.

To

unbelief

by

were

all appearance

the

little favour
found
theory of Democritus
even
amongst the
Epicureans, who, generallyspeaking, not only denied the
working of Providence, but also divination,whether by dreams
in

or

who

other

any

accepted

form.

the

On

the doctrine

other

hand, says Origan, all

regarded it as certain
that manifestations
and phenomena were
brought before men's
in dreams, some
minds
of which
of a nature
were
entirely
divine, while others revealed the future, sometimes
clearly,
sometimes

in riddles.
in the

of Providence

In

dialogue

sleep,says

the

of Minucius

of heathenism

spokesman

Felix, we

see,

hear

and

whom
recognize the divinity,
by day we impiouslydeny, treat
with contempt, and insult by perjury. The Stoics,especially,
attached
the greatest value to this
specialform of consolation
derived from a natural oracle ',bestowed
by Providence
upon
'

mankind
true

sent

were

with

the

Christians

even

not

those

deceptiveand

impure.

infer

from

the universal

universal

The

We

firm

and
and

the

by

also

latter

shall not

that

with
more

be far wrong,

gods

and

came

certainly

by demons,

were

belief in the

firm

dreams

above, and

mentioned

sent

that

but

only by God,

evil intention

that

believed

the

vation
reser-

frequently
then, if we
Providence

belief in dreams.

peciall
superficialacquaintance with the literature (eso
f
the
first
centuries
of
the
Christian
is
era
historical)
sufficient to establish beyond a doubt
the universalityof the
belief in dreams.
An
important event is rarely described,
in which
it was
without
at least being mentioned
dream
one
eminent
men
were
predicted. The most
greatly influenced
in their actions by dreams, and prompted to all kinds of undertakings
most

it

was

his treatises

on

of the
the

Roman

choice

of

of

in consequence

man's

dream,

profession. Galen
in the

treatment

results.

in

Thus,

on

dream

and

Pliny

Germany.

Dreams

mathematics,
wars

of

career

decided

to

the

elder
often

thus, Galen's
educate

that

him

Galen

wrote

his

history

determined

father, in
for the

quence
conse-

medical

frequentlyguided by dreams
of his patients,
rule with the happiest
as
a
of
one
occasion, actingon the inspiration
himself

was

Religion

36
unmistakably

two
veins
and

between

art of

Suetonius
of
foretold
him

to

whether

blood

that
think

on

beggar

over

in the
who

but

to

to him.

day

and

of

case

of others

which

in

to take

dream

a
a

certain

Aurelius
to him

to

dreams
it very
conducted

that he had

to

view

a
over

In

one

the

had

and

reference

own

him,

to

once

every year
his hand like a

out

coins

copper

offered

gods for having

for dizziness
prescription
to the

book

the dreams

on

accession
such

of these

sea

to his

of

Septimius

importance

to

his

representedin bronze, accepted

loftywatch-tower,
land

the

wrote

attached

of them

one

graciously.

Dio

foretold

latter, who

the

had

thanks

dream

only

his stand

accept

blood-spitting.Cassius

Severus

dream

own.

not

place,to hold

offered

in

prognostics which

of his

dream

attention

passers-by,and
Marcus

since

be

careful

paid
those

to

communicated
and

defendant,

was

againsthim.
Pliny advised
the matter
again, since the questionwas
dreams
signifiedimpending events or the

Suetonius'

certain

he

the verdict would

persuaded by

was

right hand,
His

till it

flow

in which

case

contrary, as
Augustus,
dreams,

the

belief in
stopped of itself.
of birds was
divination by the flight
equallystrong.
ment
Pliny to procure the adjournbegged the younger

let the

the

incision in the

an

fingerof

middle

and

index

the

made

he

clear dreams,

; he

dreams,

from

which

he
he

saw

had

his hands

moved

himself
an
as

tensive
ex-

if he

his ear.
sounds reached
playingthe lute,and harmonious
of
Dio also began his great Roman
history at the command
the divinityin a dream
and strengthto
',and found courage
continue
and
complete it in fresh dreams, in which
Tyche
he had
himself
devoted
the tutelary
as
(Fortune),to whom
deity of his life,promised him immortality.
The only dream-book
that has survived
out of a very extensive,
chieflyGreek, literature of the subject,is especially
interestingas a proof how
generallythe interpretationof
dreams
was
recognized as a science, whose
representatives
to develop as rigorousand
method
endeavoured
of
exact
a
based upon the most comprehensive
as possible,
interpretation
and
of this
available.
The
author
trustworthy material
of Daldis (as he preferredto call himself
treatise,Artemidorus
rather
his native city Ephesus, in order
than
from
that his
mother's
obscure
birthplacemight have the glory of having
the end of the second
produced a famous man), lived towards
were

'

Religion
He

century.

obedience

in

wrote

137

the

to

repeated command

of

Apollo,who had appeared to him in a dream in visible form,

and at the instigation
of senatorial
of Cassius Maximus, a man
rank and African descent, who was
also on friendly
terms
with
Aristides.

Artemidorus, who

of birds
'

send

and

proof

of divine

to be those

of

believed

divination.

is useless

chief

neither

the

as

after

the

if he

dream

were

he

'

of

as

man

for

the
a

gods

practical

he considered

opponents

in any kind
action of the

nor

the

when

warning that,

observation

which

in Providence

dreams, he should

pray

the

on

dreams

profound respect

by

him

nor

and

them,

His

shown

to send

gods

His

Providence.

who

divinityis

wrote

palmistry,regarded the
naturallypropheticsoul

the

to

also

begs

man

the

inquire after what

to
addressing instructions
neither

should

offer

sacrifice and

preting
regarded his mission of interof the divinityas a priestlyoffice,
the manifestations
its investigationhe had
sacred.
To
and
his
science
as
devoted
his whole life,studied
night and day, bought all the
dream-books
he could find, and during his journeys in Asia
Minor, Greece, Italy,and the islands had made the acquaintance
and had
voured
endeaof as many
confreresas possible,
professional
to increase his knowledge by experience. His lofty

prayer

of

thanksgiving.

'

idea

of

disdain

'

the
all

He

truth

and

quackery

and

dignity of
artifice.

his
He

science
had

never

caused

him

to

endeavoured

the general public or to win the

upon
it would
have
rhetoricians ; otherwise
approval of professional
to

produce

been

as

easy

an

efiect

for him

as

for others

to

use

striking
intelligible

dazzlingand

simple and
language. He always insists upon
ficialitie
explanationsof dreams, and rejectsall the subtleties and articonsiders them
which
impress the vulgar ; he even
blasphemous, since to a certain extent the intention to deceive
The
send the dreams.
to the gods who
is thereby attributed
of his
the rigorous accuracy
proud of was
only thing he was
proofs of his
interpretation.His book contains numerous
sincerityand veracity ;

he also had

the satisfaction of

knowing

and pedantic critics might censure

although malevolent
ventured
one
insufficient details, no
its incompleteness and
in the slightest
to assert that it departed from the truth even
degree. The fewer the traces of anything that can properly
be called mysticalor fantastical in this book, whose production

that,

and

circulation

is inconceivable

without

an

educated

circle

Religion

138
and

the

of similar views, and

of readers

methodical

"

of the fact that

belief in

divine

striking
sobriety

more

at this

periodeven
by no means
Providence, which
continually

proof does this afford

of judgment and a certain element
excluded

the

subject

of the

its treatment

consistent, rational

more

of rationalism

itself in miracles.

manifested
Of these

miracles

palpableand

the most

the most

convincing
in

dreams ;
suggested
faith most
that is to say, those
which
quently
readily and most frecreated
as
continually affording it fresh support.
the holy
These
on
miracles,of course, took place by preference
ground of the temples of the healing gods Aesculapius, Isis
and
aries.
Serapis,who also wrought other marvels in their sanctuthe

were

cures

Thus
'

well

chest
who

by

diseases

declares

Aristides

in the

in

of

means

of

Aesculapiusat Pergamus,
recovered
their eyesight,and

temple

it many

'

inexhaustible

the

of

that

by

sacred
ing
bath-

cured

were

of the feet ; a dumb

to speak ; and in several

complaints, asthma, deformity

drank

of its water

able

was

of

man

cases

It was
merely drawing water from the well effected a cure.
for the god to appear
in person to
uncommon
by no means
calls tte
believers.
Celsus, who
Origen complains because
Christians simple for believingin the miracles of Jesus,expects
them

'

to believe

that

(according to their
Aesculapius, not in
distribute

number

vast

assertion) have

own

vision, but

of Hellenes

in

predictthe

and
blessings,

barbarians

and

and

seen

still

see

perform cures,
Against these

person,
future'.

witnesses
to the
Origen appeals to the innumerable
livered
dehad
miracles of Christ, adding that he himself
men
seen
ness),
from
grievous diseases (demoniacal possession,mad-

assertions

and

evils,'which

other

heal', simply by callingupon

The

semi-divine

two

of

sons

neither

the

nor

men

of

name

demons

God

and

could

Jesus.

Aesculapiusalso

appeared to many
dedicatoryinscription

Epidaurus and other places. In a

(preservedat Rome) to Pan, givingthanks for recovery from
illness,it is said that the god appeared visiblyto the
severe
patient,not in a dream, but in broad daylight.
at

But

gods

of

course

in person

the

greater marvel, the descent of the healing

to those who
sought their aid, was also of less

frequentoccurrence
limited

not
In

to

; as

those

specialsection

who

had
'

on

rule

wrought by dreams,
passed the night in temples.

cures

were

'

Prescriptions Artemidorus

has

at-

Religion
tempted

to

reduce

this

marvel

139

its true

to

proportions,by
divesting it of the embellishments whereby the livelyimagination
of believers thought to magnify its importance,but which
in his opinion were
unworthy of the sublime nature of the
of maladies
that is, treatment
gods. As to prescriptions,
prescribedin a dream by the gods to men, he says that it is
useless to questiontheir ef"cacy. For many
have been healed
at Pergamus, Alexandria, and
other placesby prescriptions,
and several believe that they are the source
of medical science.
But, on the other hand, absurd and ridiculous prescriptions
been given in dreams, but are
are
recorded, which have never
said to have
inventions.
mere
are
Thus,
biting negroes
been prescribed to a sick man
in a dream
(meaning peppercorns,
which
black
and
maidens'
are
pungent) ; to another
milk
and
stars' blood
(meaning dew). Those who imagine
such things show
that they do not understand
the love of the
The
gods for men.
prescriptions
reallygiven by the gods in
dreams
clear and
tions,
are
simple ; they prescribesalves and fricdrinks and foods, called by the names
ourselves
we
use
;
if ever
in ambiguous language,the
they clothe a prescription
'

'

'

'

'

riddle

is

'

always easy

of solution.
of the

inflammation

from

For

instance, a

breast

dreamt

fering
suf-

woman

that

she

was

'

appliedthe herb called sheep'stongue ',

and was
cured.
Thus, it will always be found that the cures
prescribedcontain absolutelynothing contradictoryto rational
medicine
; and
consequently,that divine revelations are in
suckling a sheep ;

she

the

perfect agreement with

writer

instance, the well-known

from

the

certain

gout, prayed

the

that

he

results

him

science.

suffered

who

Fronto,

gods to tell
was
walking

of

how

greatly

might

be

city ; and
relief by taking
of fact he obtained
considerable
matter
as
a
pius,
Aristides
was
speciallydirected by Aescularegular walks.
in a dream, to compose
(inprose and verse)and to deliver
instructed
a
boxer, who
speeches. As the god in a dream
cured

; he

passed

the

overthrew

taught
and

even

dreamt

night in
a

me

the

famous

opponent,

knowledge
the

ideas

temple, in

and

and
manner

songs
of

the

outside

he

For

devices

the

by

which
'

so,

and

says

Aristides, he

he

has

subjects for speeches,

as
expression,

masters

teach

that Aesculapius had

boys their letters '. Galen mentions
prescribedthe writing of odes, songs and farces to many who
were
; others
were
sufferingfrom violent mental excitement

Religion

140
told

practisemilitary exercises, definite

ride, hunt, and

to

being given in

instructions

had

patientswho

The

used.

what

the

cases

put

remedies

themselves

to be

were

into

the

hands

Pergamus, submitted to the severest regulations,

have obeyed on the advice of a physician
they would never

of the

god

which

at

Galen

indebted

was

ulcer ;

of any kind

drink

from

abstain

(e.g.to

Aesculapiusfor

to

the

for

of

cure

fortnight).
danger us

a
a

Aurelius, when
setting out against the
left him
behind, since the god (presumably in a

and

Marcus

Marcomanni,

peror.
pronounced against his accompanying the emThe custom
of passing the nightin the temple (JyKoi/ii/ostill practisedin southern
incuhatio),
Italyand Greece in cases
of illness,
was
adopted by the Christian Church from paganism ;
the Madonna,
the archangel Michael, and different saints and
tions
martyrs took the placeof the gods and heroes who gave direc-

had

dream)

in dreams.

During the excavations

Epidaurus in 1883-4 'two
on

which

marvellous

the

six

tablets have

(of

cures

Aesculapiusat

the

sick

been

who

In addition

find the

to

walked

instances

god,

and

pay

the

of

recovery

boy,

of the lame, the blind and

cures

who

after

woman

immediately

about

with

recorded.

fee.

which
priests,
given by an
restoration

Besides

these

belong
educated

to health

to

bom

was

There

of those who

punishment

of

sinners, and

has also been

we

second

found.

himself

washed

also

are

or

numerous

doubted

of such

as

stories written

pre-Roman

of the

man

dumb,

the

denied

marvellous

the

miracles.

being five years pregnant

his mother.

of the conversion
of the

he

found,

passed the

temple) accomplished by the god are

records
are
adapted to the rudest belief in

These

and

of the

of

temple

in his

night

with

in the

period,an
century

a.d.

the

did not

by

the

account

of his

This person, Marcus

had been very ill (especiall

JuliusApellas,of Mylasa in Caria, who

from indigestion)
had been told by the god in a dream
to repairto Epidaurus. On his journey,he was
advised (at
ceived
Aegina) not to worry so much : in the sanctuary itself he reinstructions

numerous

remedies
to be

the external

although he

used,

internal

to bathe

was

without

the assistance

attendant, the god did not forget to add

him

and

cises
specialdiet,and the gymnastic exerincluded
practised,
amongst which swinging was

to

be

to

as

drachma

as

tip.

When

he had

that he

of the bath-

ought to give
prayed the god to cure

Religion

142

boundless, and capable of being exercised

the
limits, wherever
god pleased; every
as

'

as

upon

kind, and

the

power

applied to

for

assistance, where

was

beneficent, where

where

he

was

In

all

cases

of

god

always having

in

he

looked

was

aid
he

of

every

was

near,

worshipped '.

was

believer

the

which

render

to

its proper

outside

recognized

the

action

buted
attrihigher power, he most naturallyand instinctively
he had
been
in the
it to the particulargod to whom
of praying from
early youth, whose sanctity,
authority
his
in
own
city or country,
greatest
reputation were

habit
and

he had
he believed
already experienced.
power
heard
Thus
Aristides had
say that the god
many
persons
Asclepiushad saved them during a storm at.sea by stretching
and

whose

his

out

hand

of

inhabitants

the

repairedto

localities famous

other

round

country

for his cult

Ephesus, Serapis

for

the

patron deitynot
his temple, but of aU the
about
Pergamus, and of
the great Diana
; such was

Asclepius

who

of all those

only

for

them.

to

was

Alexandria, Pan

for

'

Panias, Leto
'

heavenly goddess of Carthage

for North
Africa, and so forth.
Generally speaking,the god,
of the
whether
was
highest or inferior rank, who
chiefly
its most
natural
worshipped in each country, was
helper
Pausanias
in time of need.
(viii.
37, 8) speaking of a temple
of Pan
not far from
Megalopolisin Arcadia, says : This Pan,
equally with the most
powerful of the gods, possesses the
the wicked
power of accomplishing men's prayers and requiting
Stratonicea
as
(Frazer's translation).At
they deserve
the divinitychieflyworshipped next
to Zeus
(Panameros or
for the

Lycia, the

of

whole

'

'

Both
had
Panemerios) was Hecate.
greatest dangers in ancient times

saved
hence

stiU

extant) the town council

day thirtyboys of good family,clad in
document

with

of

wreaths

accompaniment
their

worshipped

observed

each

helper in

confined
and

of

to

the

small

the

(accordingto

resolved
white

of

hymn

the

from

that

and

every
crowned

praiseto

the

council-house, where

Beside

the

gods,

heroes

countries, as has been

already
its specialprotector
probably
of need, whose
sphere of activity,being
all the more
was
area,
put to the proof

district

time

of these

in

erected.

in all Greek

recognizedwithin

claims

sing

cithara

been

had

statues

were

and

olive, should

the town

heroes

had

those
to

Umits.

reverence

However

doubtful

the

might originallyhave

Religion
been, if their cults had
it with

remarkable
We

do

gained

once

tenacity;
know

not

143

footing,they maintained

is shown

as

whether

in the

of Anti-

case

the

worship at Athens
(in the second
century a.d.) of the physician Aristomachus
the
existed at a later period. In Lucian's
as
physicianhero
stilloffered to the ScythianToxaris, who was
time, sacrifice was
saved
Athens
from
a
severe
supposed to have
epidemic,
and
his gravestone cured
those
fever.
At
sufferingfrom
Chalcis in Euboea, in Plutarch's time, a priestwas
appointed
for Titus
sacrifice
offered
to the
Flamininus,
was
Quinctius
There
latter, and a panegyric in verse
sung in his honour.
the Great
not only
were
temples and priestsof Alexander
other
in Alexandria, but
in many
places. As late as the
sixth
oasis of Augila in
of the
century the inhabitants

nous.

'

the

'

of

interior

Marmarica

offered

sacrifice

to

him,

and

devoted
to his service;
of temple slaves was
large number
of the Virgin
them, and built a church
Justinian converted
of Pausanias,
In the time
not only was
Mary for them.
sacrifice
offered to the Olympian victor Theagenes as a god
"

in

Thasos, but in other placesin Greek

statues

attached

often
to

have

there

administered
of

gold

province of
supposed

house

to

offered to

was

of

heal

it stood

it

was

Sometimes

was

; small

consul

said
in the

Neryllinus
in

sicknesses

it, and

statue

was

50,

'

who

proconsul about 67-70) ;

as

garlands.

with

power
where

Asia

hero

his

Reverence

Alexandria
'

the

NeruUinus,

Suillius

crowned

miraculous

of the

was

of

lands

hero, which
At

power.

statues

barbarian

sicknesses.

of the

specialstatue
several

were

sacrifice

and

healed

and

its miraculous

the

these

oracles

Marcus

(probably
one

to

proved

Troad

the

revered

were

and

limited

coins

and

and

deliver

covered
the
to the

with

belief

in

inmates

plates of silver,

to its

legs,were
thankoflerings
of
fever
cured
its
aid ; impious
had
been
those
who
from
by
most
slaves, who
attempted to steal these pious gifts,were
cruelly put to death.
doubted
the repeated and
A
belief which
never
natural
superof the divine power
and
revelations
goodness was
of course
all the more
ready to recognizethe ruling hand
of life which
of Providence
in all the events
appeared quite
fastened

sometimes

natural

or

with

accidental

properly so called,was

wax

to
also

the

sober-minded.

nothing but

one

The
of the

miracle,
manifes-

Religion

144
tations

of

incessantlyinterfered
nature, although no doubt the most

of hfe and

course

and

which

this power

It marked,

convincing of them.
point attained by
idea

of

miracles, it
whether

from

was

great

them

questionedthe

who
indeed

do

we

Pluto

or

yet

and

the

and

of mankind,
these

other

translation).
Certainly many
like

or,

he

for

us

of the

wife

the

or

have

may

birth of

the

when

son,

in

Pliny says
worshippers than in
their temples with
one

who

But

such

prayer,

and

gods rejoice
a

pure
a

admonitions
one

was

than

more

blindness

our

really

we

pray

more

the consequence
ask for somemust
thing,

body.
in

the

The

younger
innocence
of

elaborate

recites

no

prayer,
themselves

leave

will be

what

our

the

morality
Long's

ef"cacy of

to

men

the disastrous

the

on

year,

degree by

chieflyfrom

32 ;

prayer be granted ; if you

let it be for a sound
mind in a sound
if

ful
Grate-

co-operation

only to pray for what

The
gods love man

they know,

that

than

their doubts

the

in any
about

themselves

Aurelius, advised

himself

loves

for

trouble

not

of the

seasons

moved

not

are

gods and
SimilarlyJuvenal :

good.

enough to say,
her daughter Persephone
to mention
that they

the

of the Stoics denied

Marcus

In the hands

or

day,

ii. 20,
{Discourses,

men

'

gods, says

the land, and

and

sea

do

that
'

the

yet they

things ; and
influence

of

the

perform

shameless

are

; not
deities)

(thecom

stars, and

of the

Demeter

enjoying the night and

are

could

fore
there-

that

existence

if there is

know

not

it,and

blessingscould come,
cians,
Epictetus,rebuking the Academi-

and

dailyeating bread

are

the culminating

modest, who, if they do nothing else,

and

men

are

in

alone

gods

alone

small.

or

the

striking

tioned
subjective,condi-

believed

who

by the feelingsof those

Since
varied.
infinitely

the

gradations of imperceptible
nothing fixed about

thus, there was

miracle, its recognition was

transitions
the

as

hundred-fold

it were,

with

can

who
enters
prayers ; the man
heart is more
agreeable to them

carefullyprepared litany.
only confirm the general use of
doubt
that the majority of believers

themselves

not

only addressed

and

undertakings, but also paid them

to the

gods in all their anxieties

reverence

and

thanks

in

themselves
and
others to
regular prayers, and commended
their protection. Seneca
combined
belief in Fate
even
a
with a belief in prayers being granted. The
voices of those

Religion
ofieringprayers
if it

known

not

was

of their

and

free

would

vows

that the

gods

heard

not

be

not

only bestowed

also in

will, but

145
everywhere,
benefits

to prayers.
They
that
the
of
left so many
uncertain
use
things
prayers
like
beneficial.
vows
Persius,
Juvenal, has
prove
may

have
and
made

own

foolish prayers

the

satire.
who

It is not
that

the

majority the subject of

sculptor,says Martial,

but

the

man

gods as they reallyare (kindand

thought it his specialduty to warn
merciful). Plutarch
alone is everything ; it
not to believe that the prayer
men
will not be heard, nor
the help of the gods be expected,
can
When
the Jews besieged in
unless men
help themselves.
the Sabbath, even
on
Jerusalem gave no sign of movement
when
the Romans
were
settingup ladders to storm the walls,
they were
paralysed by the bonds of superstition.God is
the hope of courage and
for cowardice.
strength,not an excuse
The piloton a stormy sea no doubt
prays that he may
prays

guides
The

of

and

monuments

character, scattered
religious

empire, would

Roman

of

number

immense

stones

the

calls upon the saviour god, but at the same

the yards, and shortens
the helm, lets down

escape, and
he

shows

of the

answer

sail.

inscriptional

throughout

be sufficient to

alone

time

the

vast

beyond
gods were

prove,

possible doubt, that during this period the

of all blessingsand the averters
always regarded as the source
of all evils and
monuments
attest
most
dangers. These
emphatically that the belief in an omnipresent Providence,
of the world and human
cised
destinies,exerdirectingthe course
morial,
by the gods who had been worshipped from time immehad only become
known
in modern
as well as by those who
all

or

various

the

populationsand

learned

consolation

of the

the

and

high

of

hope

and

low,

of these

offeringsof

thanksgivings
certainlyowe its originto

minds

part
homage

outward

prevailingcults,to the

and

vance
obser-

unreflecting

hypocrisy,but in most cases

afford just as many
stones
proofs beyond suspicion
sincere,naive and deep-seatedbelief. A few examples

force of habit
of

afforded

and

of the forms

these

flourish in the

affliction of every kind to

A considerable
simple alike.

and

prayers, vows,
adoration may

to

and

of need

in times
to

times, continued

recent

more

will be

or

to

sufficient to

conscious

give

clear idea

of the

of this

nature

belief.
R.L.M.

"

III,

Religion

146
In

thanks

and

prayers

the

with

accordance

were

of

essence

as

polytheism, reverence,

rule addressed

whole

to the

not

only (as in the cult of the saints)

individual
to
divinities, chosen
partly with reference to
the specialefficacyand
gifts
their sphere of influence and
individual
reasons.
attributed to them, partly for local and
The
last cannot, of course,
always be indicated with certainty.
state
for imperial and
contractor
When
a
buildingsoffers
thanks
to the
sacred, heavenly good goddess
{Bona Dea),
he
has
for that with her assistance
successfullycarried an
of the Claudian
arm
aqueduct underground, and at the same
old and
ruined
his gratitude by restoring an
shows
time
good goddess in this case, as frequently,is
chapel, the
regarded as the protectressof the localityor building. On
stone
near
Coblenz, belonging at the latest to the age of
a
of divine

body

but

powers,

'

'

'

'

Antonines,

the

mental
frightful

from
is

here
As

certainly to

rather

than

to

thanks

those

to

set

person

up

statue

or

(about "'jo)to

the
and

local

divinities,

from

the

river

Meles.

sanctuary at
genius of a town

cost

occasion

epidemic, not

an

god

embraced

A
of

to

certain

terces
8,000 ses-

in Numidia,

on

the

experiencedthe aid of his divine power '.

not
only natives but also strangers worshipped
course,
divinitywithin whose
sphere of influence they sojourned,
her
themselves
to his or
commended
protection. A

spot
Of

the

addressed

influence
sphere
at Smyrna, on
one

Thus,

but

healing gods

were

of

whose

for deliverance

offered

were

divinity.

prayers
national and

the

to

Celtic
and

thanks

course,

solicited.

favour

the

national

number

without

times

the

of

matter

ance
thanks
Mars
for deliverperson
and bodily tortures ; the reference

certain

'

where

he

had

traded

merchant, who

Roman
fulfils

on

vow
'

Nehalennia
'.

Titus

Lemens

at

to

preservationof
Pomponius Victor, an
was

Axima

in

Aosta)

in connexion

stationed

and

with
verse

image

in
prayer
enclosed
was

forest

chapel) for

the

the

as

Graian

probably
his

in the

his

to the

local

wares

in

the

hollow

goddess

good

official of the

had

to

take

forest
of

an

god

sacred

protectionhitherto

dition
con-

imperial
imperial

procurator of the
Alps (on the road

duties,addresses

to

Britain,

pottery with

the island of Walcheren

for the

household, who
domains

in delicate

from

neys
jour-

numerous

giving
elegantthanks-

(whose

Silvanus
oak

as

afforded

natural
to

him

Religion
the

at

time

same

he

promises to dedicate a
brings him back safe and

him, if he

trees

to

with

his

family.
have already mentioned

We

native

divinities

Roman

settlers

the

in

the

northern

traders.

or

and

Of

in all Celtic

thousand
sound

worship of

the

districts and

the

western

large

to Rome

non-Roman

provincesby

Celtic

of the
gods one
shipped
worApollo ; he was
beyond amongst the

Belenus, identified with

greatest was

147

even

is shown
as
Romans,
Vienne, Venice and

found at Autun,
by votive inscriptions
the emperor
Maximin
Aquileia. When
(in 238) was besiegingAquileia with all his forces,the courage
of the defenders
sustained
in the aid of
was
by confidence
the native
his
god Belenus ; the besiegers also often saw
form
the city. Herodian
leaves it in doubt,
hovering over
he actuallyappeared to them
whether
it was
whether
or
of their defeat by
only an attempt to palliate the shame
the

fiction

of his

unexpected

result

had

and

place

local

that

sacred

oak

an
foliage,

with

adorned

tree carved

hung

with

smoking
fragrant

'

adds,
and

the

even

the extent

gods, otherwise

with

axe

their

Pious

journey

skins,

an

foreign land

performed

of the

it would

flowers,

every

Apu-

says

found

sacred

shaded

cave

by

an

of

statue, a plot of grass

stone

moistened

with

stranger performed his devotions

simply local cult,the divine power which

showed
its authority in great natural phenomena the more
A
Roman
volunteer
called for adoration.
at
irresistibly
to Jupiter mightiest and
best,
Remagen fulfilled his vow
the
and
the
Rhine
to
to the genius of
', according to
place,
of this kind).
set up in the year igo (notthe only one
a stone
were
But everywhere in a foreigncountry those who
exposed
at these

centres

of

they

prayed

at

of sacrificial victims, a beech

enclosed hillock, a stump of a

in the form

If the

devotions

horns

sacrificial libations,

essences.

also

wanderers,

wherever

with

crowned

their

with

in

to them.

their

altar

an

and

gods

was

or

shows

case

of the

wanderers

leius,lingered on
grove

he
'

credible

anything

in such

Yet

meaning.

no

Travellers
the

assistance.

visible assistance

belief in the

to

makes

fabrication

conscious

have

miraculous

'

to

the

'

mindful

stone

dangers
of the
at

vicissitudes

of the

journey
gods ', certainly including the

and

Urbisagliahas preservedthe

memory

doubly

were

native
of

ones.

present.

Religion

148
which

imperial freedman,
to the gods
east

an

from

'

the

On

the

native

other

Maximus,

Nemausus

Urbssalvia

of

goddesses

(Nlmes)

man

to

the

'.

primipilus,a

the

gods in whose neighbourhood he found himself

themselves
inscriptionsof travellers,commending

the

sent

vow
god of his native
Berytus,
but also to the god Nemausus.
Jupiter of Heliopolis,
always felt most directlycalled upon to worship

of

and

fulfils his

place,the
For

at

hand,

Flavius

Titus

protectionand

favour

The

colossal

primeval,

native

of the

sanctuaries

divinities,are
of

Egypt

hence

the

to

numerous.

to

appear

have

produced the most overwhelming effect upon the religious

scriptio
inby rock-hewn
feelingsof foreign visitors, as is shown
on
temples, obelisks, pylones (gateways),etc., in
most
placeson either side of the Nile. At Talmis (Kalabsheh)
in Nubia

offer

there
that
his

number

of

homage

district,in

to

Roman

centurions

the

sun-god

and

Mandulis

inscription(year 84)

an

soldiers

in

posted

worshipped
the

forecourt

in
of

temple.

But

the

of course,

frequently called upon as

fested
because, and in so far as they manigods of a specialactivity,
it in a certain
place. Thus, for example, at Alba
veteran
fulfils
Julia (Carlsburg on the Marosch) a Roman
'

his

gods

after

vow

were,

vision ', also

in

the

of

name

his

wife

'

daughter to Aesculapius and Hygiea and the other

gods and goddesses of this place ', in gratitude for
of his

god

was

patientscured
of the spring;
have

eyesight.

limited

been

the

to

in

bath

in many

In

are

locality.Thus,
votive

for

the

and

thanks

to the

tablets of Roman

Apollo

healing
the

toration
res-

of the
eflSciency

naturallyaddressed

baths

found, at Ischia

cases

many

definite

the

and

"

the

of

nymphs
visitors

nymphs

of

'. Other
scriptio
inwhich
healing springs, near
nitre-springs
to the nymphs have
been
found, are e.g. those of
Les
Fumades
(d6pt.du Gard), Varasdin-Teplitz,Tuffers
near
Cilli,Bagnfires de Bigorre,Loprestihaspol,and others.
A votive tablet found
the hot springsat Vif is dedicated
near
the spirits
of the eternal fire '. At the baths
to
of Hercules
(as they are still called)in Transylvania, thanks are offered
to the
health-bringingHercules ', as the god who on his
wanderings through the world discovered all the hot springs,
A hunter, who
had
been
cured
of a swellingin the joints
(the result of a bite from an Etruscan wild boar) by the baths
'

'

Religion

150
number

of

the

worship, yet

more

the

on

respected sanctuaries
hand
other
every god

solicited for the

assistance

other

believed

gods was
good not only
the

and

least

action

he above
all
gift,which
able to grant. This holds

be

of the

restricted

was

definite

to

find

very

subordinate

Yet,

as

sacred

legs for

its

on

goddess Statina,

the

to

that

us

assures

stand

to

to hold

for the

we

the
the

Christian
its

ground
expect to

cannot

of

worship

only
day on

who
protectingspirits,

TertuUian

able

was

we

course,

evidence

of

amount

great

Of

forms.

numerous

the

to

act

certain

to

or

cases

functions, according
spheres, and whose
belief,were
performed by angels,continued
under

everywhere

was

greater gods, but also of the inferior

the cult of those countless
important. Even
religion,
auxiliarypowers of the old Roman

protectingand
whose

of

centres

the

or

to

and

these

at intervals.

which

first time

the

child

always

was

that others
assume
may
the most critical moments

who watched
over
divinities,
of human
life,stilllived on in the popular belief. Waggoners
of those

and

muleteers

whose

of horses,
of the

Epona,
main
girder which

the

Celtic)goddess
(originally
usuallyin a niche

little chapel was

supported

the

roof

crowned
feast days
on
image was
flowers ; images representing her, for

There

her

other
are

by

still swore

In

still in existence.

vapours

worship

ascended

from

with
use

stable.

roses

in

and

stables,^

the

foul or suffocating
places where
ground (Beneventum, Cremona)

offered to the

was

of the

goddess Mefitis.

But, however
firmly the people clung to these countless
ministeringdivinities,since their less important but clearly
to a section of the
nearer
activity brought them
faithful,whose
longing for intercourse with the supernatural
the
world
better able to satisfythan
they were
superior
and
human
whose
rather
the
gods,
omnipotence
majesty
kept
heart at a respectful
distance ; yet the latter,as most
ful
powerof the world
and specialagents of Providence,
governors
to be the most
still continued
ardently worshipped and the
most
universallyinvoked.
Everywhere the soldier prayed
to father Mars, the mariner
to Neptune, the merchant, the

defined

dispenser

the

and

tradesman

and

to

Minerva,

to

Diana

and

careful

preserver
the

of

householder

profits', the

countryman

Lucina

parted

to

Ceres,

lovers

to

Mercury,

artist and
women

(in Greece

the

artisan

with
at

'

child

least)to

Religion
the

god of love ;
speakers tells how
which

had

each

vow

their

made

one

to sacrifice to Eros.

sphere of influence

the

more

the

aid

and

had

of Plutarch's

dialoguesone of the
his parents, soon
after their marriage,
of a family
long delayed in consequence
pilgrimageto Thespiae,in accordance with a

been

quarrel,made

in

and

the

frequentlythe gods
of

151

The

generaltheir worship,
appealed to. In the East,

more

were

Heracles, the invincible,who

dangers,was

invoked

extended

more

in all

all terrors

overcame

land

perilsby

and

and

sea,

in sickness.

Undoubtedly, however,
addressed

to the

drought,processionsof
hair, ascended
mountain

whose

inhabitants
the

worshipped
there

in
in

the

and

926)
which

wanderer

to

in addition
bronze

far

tablets

his

But
the

'

almighty

controller

',and

saviour
enterprise,

interest, great
;

in

the

to

coins

the

Jupiter

of

pass,

district

Hannibal's
eleventh

time

century

St.

Bernard

of the

been

have

year),
found,

the
Jupiter,from which
Mont
Joux (mons Jovis).

mountains

the

than

the

confront

the

on

other

passes

',

other

offerings,
fifty
presented by soldiers

numerous

been

have

On

of

greater extent

god of battles and

him

rain.

found

to Jupiter
travellers,who fulfilled their vows
mightiest and best, for their safe journey and

of destinies

to

of

dishevelled

Roman

Poeninus,
return.

terrors

1,600 coins and

to

votive

other

was

the

St. Bernard

offerings and

of

felt to be less remote

was

up

temple
formerly called

where

for

hospice (dedicated to
(frozenduring eightmonths

lake

was

with

the

numerous

'

in times

worshipped, as

of the Great

god Poeninus,

the

him

to

was

recently discovered

There,

he

he

sky

and

(the Celtic Veragri)

stood, between

mountain

and

top

clear

barefooted

prayed

commonly

thunderer,the lightning

Apennines,etc.,he
the

At

man.

the

of the

women,

where

heights
the

and

hill and

Vesuvius, of
from

god, as

supreme
lord of storms

hurler,the

most

were

prayers

his

or

of

in that

will

only

not

controlled

and

lord

and

things human
capacityguardian,preserver, victor,

bringer of peace,
in all times

of need

small, public or

omnipotence

was

of every

consummator

and

danger.

revealed

in

Every

commended

private,was

high official of senatorial rank fulfils his vow

has
in this place he
because
Campania,
imminent
from
danger and has recovered
'

divine

nature

every
to
been

event.

Jupiter in
preserved

his health

'

Religion

152
steward
a

of

to him

vow

the

as

because

he

fame

bestowed
of

he

had

for his

in the
In

third

to
the

'

devote

made

council

the

had

Roman

by

found

slave

buried

of the

tablet with

and

of

the

people

the

that

danger

the

town

threatened.

In

speciallydistinguished by tl^
prosperity of

of

'

Tuder,

the

the

town,

to\in

Jupiter greatest tod

to

'.

preserver

be

nature

of the

belief

the

that

assumption
considerable

the

number

of unbelievers

the

prevailingforms
opposing them,

of these

of cult
on

could

other

Even

have

been

belief whose
of this

in the

entire

much
of

Greek

that
the

and

expresslyand

the

number

of

it

be

may

such

tended
ex-

to
or

work

the

support

the

at least not

concessions

or

scintilla of evidence

no

literature

of

the

period,

irrefutablyconfirms it. In
Epicureanism, it is certainly

of those who

considerable, but

witness

possiblein the face of

undisputed. Against the

is

Roman

great progress

credible that
was

predominance was
predominance there

stones,

supposing that

desired

hand

these

bear

they

memorials

ejter-

world, justifythe

by recognizingthem

the

only

Providence

Roman

which

to

in

variety of

who
indifierentists,

or

compromises

belief

and

equally large area.

an

over

view

Carpi, who
province of Dacia.

delivered

and

gods. The number

throughout all parts of

cised

but

',because

But

for the

clear the

make

fact

vow

of the

infamous

an
'

his

superfluous to multiply examples taken fum

stones ; those
already given wiU sufice
inscriptional

It would

tant
inhabi-

of the under-world.
powers
revealed the crime, handed
over

freedman

best, guardian and

to

land, and

order

fear

vow

and

cattle in time

the

had

the

for this,

town

and

the

'

relief,

in
(town councillors),

punishment,

to

citizens from

in

oxen

his native

violence

the

decuriones

to

god

perpetrator

Phrygia

two

of his relatives

that

of Tuder

town

them

supreme

return

from

all the

family

son

frightfulcunning

of

names
'

men

century frequentlyinvaded

with

commune

the

own

Etruscan

the

Apolloniain

safety to

safetyand

delivered

been

life of

performs

of this

An
amongst the Trocmi.
(Carlsburg on the Marosch) fulfilled

his

upon

Apulum

in return

in

back

Roscii

property

altar to him, with

preserved the

had

the

At

Brescia).

of

an

famine, led him

of

'

dedicated

Galatian

of the

preserver

(in the neighbourhood

a

of

distinguishedfamily

the

was

disbelieved
no

more

in

dence
Provi-

possiblethen

Religion
than

careful and
farfor the most
even
any other time
observers
to define even
approximately the numbers

at

seeing

of unbelievers

believers

and

respectively.The vague expressions

in a generalway discuss contemporary
nothing to our knowledge. Statements

of authors, who

religiousaffairs,add
such

and

Juvenal,that

in the

chance,

the

as

world

the

force, and

duties

of

herself

that

orders
believe

many

superiorguidance
laws

that the
have

men

Jew,

without

moves

divinity;

everything depends

opinion of many
the

of

account

no

is reverenced

chance

of Philo

or

of its innate

rights and

take

men

some

rules the world, but nature

one

everythingin
virtue

by

no

of events

course

that

that

blind

upon
the

Pliny,

that

gods
of

of

that

as

the
or

153

and

customs,

solely

established

been

rate
are
only an inaccuintelligencesuch statements
paraphrase of the Epicurean doctrine,which, as endorsing
affairs,Tacitus
opinion that chance
prevailsin human

human

by
the

"

also sets

against

belief in
well

the

Stoic

the

no

excludes

in

the

spread
wide-

by him

attested

Faium,

means

school

The

belief in Providence.

unalterable

an

by Pliny, by

as

Stoic

as

dence
belief in Provi-

also, as is well-known, succeeded

In Plutarch, also, who
(in his De

combining the two.

and unbelief as aberrations
treated superstition
Superstitione)
in opposite directions
from
true piety,by atheists are
chiefly
to

be

understood

numerical

Epicureans.

relation

whose

between

There

them

and

religioustendencies

is

indication

no

believers, but

were

from
religion
view

and
it

handled
That
and

far

of the

world

been

also

be

the

less

any peril
alistic
spread of the materi-

calculated

to

feared

arouse

anxiety

have

the

between,

is asserted
'

by Apuleius : the
philosophy, void of holiness
but

the

to

to

recognized
pious,Plutarch would hardly
reaction
natural
against excessive superstitionand
it so tenderly.
belief in the gods was
general and unbelievers few

offend
as

Had

its diffusion.

if Plutarch,

closely akin

so

declares
atheism
superstition,nevertheless
harmful
can
hardly believe that he
error, we
to

of the

of Tyre
only by Maximus
ignorant masses, uninitiated into
not

knowledge, destitute
in truth, treat the gods without
share
of piety, without
a
over-anxious
partly with
reverence,
respect, partly with
others through
insolent disdain, some
through superstition,
full of fear, others full of self-complacency.
unbelief, some
and

true

Religion

154
For

peopleworship the

most

of gods, dwelling
company
with
from contact
but
men,

in aether, far removed

in the rightway
; all people fear them, but

high
not

up

; few

their existence, and

deny

these from

through ignorance
godlessness'.

of atheists
this,at that time at least the number
materialists,although in itself considerable, only formed

According
and
a

whole

small

to

minority

view

This

is in

in this

evidence

whose

with

compared

as

the

main

the

all the

carries

case

lievers.
of belarge number
confirmed
by Lucian,

undoubtedly have preferredto

about
the
contrary. The gods, uneasy
are
present at a public debate between
he

be able to state

would

denies, and
The

latter

Mercury
this

is
'

Stoic

who

defends

in

is the harm

what

But
?

conviction

For

the

if

of their

few

who

Providence.

return

those

the

cult,

Epicurean

an

argument.

of

number

future

belief in

the

worsted
disgracefully

weight, since

more

Then

says

home

with

who

hold

the

oppositeopinion is great the majority of the Hellenes, the

all barbarians
of the people,and
'.
mass
However
of the gods of the
ancient
greatlythe number
"

world

may

have

barbarian

of oriental and
in

the

and

weak

to

admission

the

en

alteration

masse

took

place

the

increase
divinity. The
had
rather
litated
facipersonalities

multiplicationof divine
than
impeded intercourse with the higher world for
and
serves,
helplesshumanity, which, as Pliny correctly obcould only grasp the idea of the divinityby brealjksg:

be

without
and

by

divinities,no

of believers

relation

it up into an
the belief in
to

increased

been

it

infinite number
a

Providence

indispensableto
it

cessation
was

not

Strabo
miraculous

women

the

exercised
vast

demanded
and

thought,

tales '.

of individuals.

the
who

It is to be

by

the

felt the

mankind,

created

multitude

the

alone,

need

only did

gods continue

of

majority
and

Not

of

as

Ijut

miracle ;
the

lightened
en-

'

legendsand
investigations

hoped that our

shown
of
have
that, throughout the domain
sufficiently
the world
of gods, the result of
Graeco-Roman
civilization,
the fusion of the two
the whole
maintained
its
on
religions,
tations,
imporsway, notwithstanding the reputationacquiredby new
and, in spite of all admixture, re-established its
authorityover the minds of men.
have
In conclusion, we
the question of
still to consider
in continuallystrengthening
cult, the influence of which

Religion
and

reviving belief
complete inundation
would

have

never

long as
public

their

be

must
of the

rated

West

eradicated

cults,which,

by

155

a
highly. Even
very
the
of
the religions
East

belief in the old

the

gods, so

with
intimatelyconnected
and
and
added
private life,consecrated
solemnity
to the most
in
crises
ever
both,
important
claimingattention
and captivatingthe mind, the soul and the imagination in
various
forms.

to exist everywhere in the traditional

ways, continued
So long as the temples
dignifiedby the personal
'

of the

presence

divinities

by
to

men

and

inhabitingthem
and

ornament
;

prayer

long

so

religiousceremonies

and

most

enriched

mankind

than

tinguishe
dis-

invited

by gifts',

numerous

solemnities,festivities,

of all kinds

(sacrifices,
processions,
emphatically recalled
gods and their relation

as

spectacles)continuallyand most
greatness and glory of the
power,

the

rather

it impossible for human

belief to
long was
aside from the paths prescribedfor it by the venerable
turn
centuries
and
tradition of so many
approved by countless
to

so

leading to truth.
Not
only is the persistencein
and
Roman
cults of importance

generationsas

the

retention

and

forms

in the

which

case

extremely
or

of obscure

of

were

no

the

The
down

their

an

local cults, ceremonies, usages

is amply
longerintelligible

attested

different lands that, consideringthis

many
tenacious
tradition,any great
vitalityof religious
so

essential diminution

on

and

antiquityof all Greek

undisputed fact,but also

late

whole

of it in the

of centuries

course

appears

inconceivable.

preserved,at least in great measure,

which
owed
to the last days of antiquity,in forms
originto a period anterior to the beginnings of Roman
Roman

ritual

was

history,and are based upon those very ancient ideas of the

of gods prevalent in Latium
world
long before the Roman
The liturgical
hymns,
by the Greek.
religionwas inundated
in part unintelligible
to the priestswho
even
year by year
chanted

them

of

according to instructions, contained

the names
the gods under
given to

the oldest settlers

long since obsolete

on

the
; year

hills on

the

bank

the
them

of the Tiber,

vocation
in-

by
now

religious
ceremony,
the
priestswith
performed by

in, year out,

equallyhigh antiquity,was
The
stations {mansiones)
the
same
punctiliousaccuracy.
the
for the procession of the priestscalled Salii,in which
of

156

Religion

ancilia

restored

probably

(compiled in

after

instituted

of

by

state

as

382.

night, were

one

calendar

The

of

Philocalus

a considerable
sources) still specifies
the religiousfestivals supposed to have

from

354

number

been

deposited for

(sacredshields)were

of"cial

Numa

in
(i.e.

existence

festivals celebrated

from

in Rome

time

morial),
imme-

at that

time.

the
just those which survived
longest,
when
historic
of
had
the more
times
spiritualworships
long since fallen victims to the religionof the cross
; for
16 and
instance, the procession on March
17 to the twentyfour chapels of the Argei (puppets of rushes
or
straw),which
hurled
into the Tiber on May 13 (customs undoubtedly
were
death
of the spirit
of spring);
to the incoming and
referring
and
with
the sacrifice of a horse
{October equus) crowned
head
of the oldest regionsof the city
loaves (for whose
two
took place at the harvest
contended) which
thanksgiving
The
(October 15) on the Campus Martins.
equally ancient
festival of Lupercalialasted till 494, the day of its celebration
(February 15) being changed by Pope Gelasius I into the
festival of the purification
of Mary.
The

oldest

cults

were

'

'

But

continuance

the

unaltered
the

and

minutes

as

it

for

thousand

frairesArvales

of forms

years

fossilized,is most

were

of the

clearlyshown

by
the
(the field-brethren),

association.
only surviving acts of a religious
usuallycomposed in imperialtimes of men
rank

the

themselves,
emperors
in
honour
festival
of the ' divine
days'

three

Dia,

and

This

old

these

ritual

name

for the

maternal

hood,
brother-

of the

celebrated

very
of the

of cult,

est
high-

in

May a
goddess [Dea
'

penser
earth-goddess,dis-

the growth of the seed

blessingof corn) to secure
then
beginning to sprout, in her sacred grove of primeval
trees as yet untouched
by the axe, situated five miles from
the road to Campania.
Rome
iron axe
Whenever
on
an
was
used
within
the precinctsof the grove ; when
tree was
a
blown
fell
from decay or was
struck by lightning
down, or
;
whenever, in fact, any iron implement was
brought into it,
a propitiatory
offeringwas necessary ; the prohibitionof the
of iron is to be explainedby the fact that at the time to
use
which

Among

the

laws

solemnities

go
of the

priestsshut themselves up
pots,with fervent prayers

in
and

back, the
second

metal

was

unknown.

day of the festival,the

the temple and touched
certain
adjurations. The most recent

Religion

158
372, and

poet of repute)calls himself

clung to their native

Feronia, chiefly worshipped

worshipper of Nortia.

Italian towns

from

families

Similarly,other

had

who

settled

cults,the Turpilianito that of

in Rome

Terracina

at

Soracte, but
goddess Vacuna, by
and

placesin Italy. The

ruined temple in the neighbourhood of his Sabine farm
whose
to his friend Aristius Fuscus, was
dictated
the epistle
Horace
worshipped at several places in Sabine territory; her most
famous
sanctuary was a grove in the plain of Rieti,where the
other

also at many

Velino

reputation of
of small

beyond
limited

to

the

the

; thus

outskirts

cult of

the

of Numiternus

Casinum,

other

hand, the

of the

aldermen

did not

remarks,
scofiingly

Tertullian

as

On

local divinities,like that

other

towns,

lake.

Veline

the

flows into

Delventinus

tend
ex-

was

Atina, of Visidianus

to

of Valentia
to Ocricuto Asculum,
Narnia, of Ancharia
A temple of the goddess Cupra
lum, of Hostia to Sutrium.
to

in the

town

of the

name

same

the

on

coast

of Picenum

was

Curious
festivals,attended
by crowds
by Hadrian.
pilgrims and sightseersfrom all quarters, and singular

restored
of

usages
the

continued

bestowed

was

branch

from

this

the

upon
a

certain

of"ce for the time

for

Aurelius

of Marcus

time

reward

in different

in existence

the

tree in her

of blood

duel

were

sometimes
to

exist

and

barbarous
in

Greece,

Pausanias, and

are

broken

had

local

manifold

antiquity,often
horrible,

even

to

us

which

chieflyfrom
Some

monuments.
inscriptional

examples will be
manysidedness of

of

as

Nejni

of|a

slaves.

runaway

remote

known

he

late

As

grove, slew the holder o^t^e

; at that time the candidates

and

The

astonishingly numerous
great part also dating from

after

who,

man

being in

places.
priesthoodof Diana

suflS.cientto show

the

in
cufts,

singiiat,
continued

Plutarch,
istic
character-

superabundance
acity
amazing tenwith
which
traditions
immemorial
held their ground.
At Patrae, the festival of Artemis
Laphria was celebrated in
Round
the largesacrificial altar green
the followingmanner.
trunks of trees, each sixteen ells long,were
planted in a circle
within which
pilesof the driest wood were heaped up. On the
first day a magnificentprocession took place,in which
the
maiden
of Artemis, on a car drawn
priestess
by stags,brought
On
the second
day the sacrifice took place,to
up the rear.
which
both the township and individuals vied with each other
and

the

Greek

cults,and

the

Religion

159

in

thrown
the
alive on
contributing. All the victims were
altar,consistingof edible birds, wild boars, deer, roe, wolves
and
bears
and
their cubs ; then the
fire was
lighted. If a
bear or other animal
in gettingloose and escaping,
succeeeded
it was
at once
dragged back again,yet no one was ever injured
by any of these animals.
In
the same
town, an
image of Dionysus Aesymnetes
in a
chest
enclosed
('president') was
worshipped ; it was
from
which, according to the legend,had been carried away
Troy at the time of its capture. Nine men, chosen by the
inhabitants, and the same
people from the most distinguished
number
of women,
On a fixed night
the service.
conducted
during the festival,the priest carried the chest out of the
temple. Then all the children went out of the city to the

river

Meilichus,

According to
who

They depositedthe

was

with

to

live

have

of

sanctuary
very
a

old

'

known

only one
proved by a

was

failed to
several

stand

wood.

life,and

chaste

Artemis, bathed

ivy, and
the

The

then

river

The

man.

repaired

Crathis

there
'

were
priestesses

truth

to

the

obliged

office must

their

of

the
equally qualified,

were

in

earth-goddess

appointed

those

times.

tion
declara-

draught of bull's blood ; those

ordeal were
instantly punished.

the

candidates

in olden

broad-bosomed

the

image of

feet of

Near

temple of Dionysus.

the

com.

that the children

manner

with

their heads

of

ears

crowned

were

at the

crowns

river, wreathed

to

in this

legend,it was

the

with

crowned

sacrificed to Artemis

were

the

heads

their

who
When

selection

was

a temple of
Sicyonia there was
frequented by sick persons who lived in the
Asclepius,much
old
neighbourhood ; inside the temple precincts stood some
Only the head, hands and feet of the image were
cypress trees.
to be seen
J the rest of the body was
wrapped in a woollen
A statue of Hygiea (Health)by its side was
shirt and cloak.

decided

by lot.

At

with

completely covered
the

by

one

victims

in

women's

and

of

with

incantations, composed,
At
Medea.
enchantress
Troezen,
also

off in honour

hair, cut

Hard
stripsof Babylonian raiment.
the priestoffered sacrifice
altar of the winds, to which
an
time secretly
throwing
night in every year, at the same
the fury of the winds ; he
into four pits to assuage

goddess,
was

Titane

sang

Muses, there

was

an

altar

of

it

was

near

Sleep, to

said, by the

old

of

the

the
whom

temple

sacrifice

was

Religion

i6o
offered

well

as

Muses, since this god

to the

as

Hippolytus, the
magnificent temple was erected.
Troezen

he

asserted

they

to be

was

priestheld office for life,and

his honour

inhabitants

yearlyfestival

maiden

every

to

whom

denied

that

his horses

carried up to heaven, where he

constellation Auriga (Charioteer).His

in the

seen

Theseus,

at

been

had

he

that

The

object of worship

by being dragged along by

his death

met

of

son

was

had

chief

the

But

greatest favourite.

their

said to be

was

off

cut

lock

celebrated

was

of her

hair

in

before

temple. At the festivals of

the outward
frenzy, the eating of
signs of religious
raw
meat, the stranglingand tearing to pieces of snakes
by
The shedding of human
stillcontinued.
the Bacchantes
blood,
survival
of
human
certain
sacrifice.
a
cults,was
obligatory in
According to the legend credited by Pausanias, the image of
that Orestes
had
the very
Artemis
Orthia at Sparta was
one
carried off from the temple at Tauri
; the goddess stiU required
marriage
Dionysus

depositedit

and

her altar to be

youths

priestessheld
arm

if the

beauty

sprinkledwith

still

were

flogged

human
her

at

the

in

Alea

At

obedience

Orchomenus

Dionysus,

to

descendants

he

at

of

the

priestZoilus actually did

frenzy brought down
which

was

family of
conferred
sacrifices

they

Dionysus,

curse-laden

died of

the

guished
distin-

altar.'

women

At

were

Delphic oracle.
Agrionia, the priestof
pursued the supposed
of

utterance

libertyto kill the

Zoilus, who

of

were

at the

conquerors

Boeotia, at the
in hand, every year

sword

the blows

unflinchingly

"

festival

an

died under

many

in

female
was

title of

the

Arcadia, during

floggedin

they

of the

in his time
says that even
the flogging most
who
bore

by

purpose
The

bled.

image
goddess in her
flogged a boy lightlyowing to his
so
heavy that she could not carry it.

scourgers

for life

till

altar

Plutarch
those

blood, for which

little wooden

rank, it grew

or

in his

the

daughters of Minyas
whom

caught, as the
in Plutarch's
time.
But
this pious
wrath
of the gods not only upon
woman

he

horrible disease, but also upon the city,

grievouslyafflicted ; the inhabitants
deprived the
Zoilus

by
were

of

the

election.
ofiered

to

priesthood,which was
subsequently
According to Lactantius, human
Zeus
in Cyprus, until Hadrian
bade
for-

them

; even

were

secretlyoffered

under

Rhodes, also,a human

Marcus
to

victim

Aurelius
Zeus

it

Lycaeus

is said

believed

that

in Arcadia.

In

was

to have

been

offered to

Religion

i6i

Cronus

every year, usuallya criminal deservingof death

at the festival of Jupiter Latiaris in Rome).
Our

knowledge of

(as

the state of

in Greece, down
to the
religion
end of the second century and even
later,as alreadyobserved,
givesus the impressionthat the intrusion of new foreigncults
affected or changed the
essential
no
more
character of the
native cults than the introduction
of the worship of Adonis,
and

Cybele

Ammon

in earlier times.

And

yet

the rites of the

Isis, Osiris and Serapis (introducedat

Egyptian divinities,
least as earlyas the fourth century B.C.)
enjoyed a great popularity
and

islands.

the

reputation on
About

Greek

continent

well

as

the time

of the birth of Christ,the

and of the Syrian Adad
and

the

the

as

worship of

Syrian Aphrodite
Atergatis
associated
with
these
in
(sun-god and earth-goddess)were
Delos ; traces of Mithras
worship have been found in Athens
and
Thera
Lucian's jokes about the motley crowd
of
; and
other eastern
it probable that many
gods makes
gods had

found

home

in Greece.

discussion

the

present at

are

Bendis, Anubis, Mithras

much-frequented harbours
Rhodes, foreigncults must
desolate

and

unvisited
or

more

countless

that

in the times

been

have

interior

of the

Greek

in religious
worship
participation
of the usual

attracted
nax

attention

sacrifice and he alone had

mysteries ; yet
him

in the

he knew

'

to

sanctuary, he
his hand.
the
and

He

never

so

never

nourished

R.L.M.

nor
"

him

as

so

rites gave

offence

or

philosopherDemoone

ever

saw

him

ofier

many

the

storm

ened
that threat-

had

stones

ready to hurl

Oea, the

of

accuser

impiety.

He

had

never

he

when

passed a
his respectby kissing

temple ;

showed

Apuleius,
despiser
'

of the well-known

portionof

the harvest

nor

gods of the country,who clothed

his property contained no sanctuary, no

consecrated
III.

no

calm

offered

even

everywhere

notorious

much

of the flock to
firstlings

grove,

of

entered

god, never

regular
general,

that

initiated into the Eleusinian

(thename

gods in Virgil)for his

prayed

to

assembly, where

called Mezentius

of the

how

If it is certain

less certain

sacred

been

Sicinius Aemilianus

at him.
was

not

in the

to exist

was

Athens, since

at

and

cults continued

exceptional. The

as

accused

even

was

no

In

tained
probably main-

ascendancy.

theocrasy,it is

that entire omission

while

numerous,

old cults

the

less exclusive
and

others

concerning Providence.
least, such as Corinth

at

old Roman

and

the

ground.

Those

who

had

visited it
M

Religion

62
that

declared

not

fragrant essences

the

Jupiterand

altars

of

of

lamb

blood

of

care

seen

tree

hung

on

or

with

garlands.
little property at

dedicated

he

to the

stained

had

Fauns,

the
('often
by the inexperienced hand

Silvanus

goat ')erected

of the bailiff; further,

his

sprinkledwith

certain Marius, to whom

pines and holm-oaks

it ; the

transferred

of

to be

sanctuaries

the

to the

Nomentum

was

branch

nor

commended

Martial

stone

even

chapelsor temples of

Diana

with

and

Mars

and

He hoped that Marius, when

laurel-grovesacred to Flora.
him
to the care
of the
also commend
would
offeringsacrifice,
gods and beg them to grant both what one of them might wish.
number
of
From
youth upwards familiaritywith an enormous
a

exercised

of ritual

forms

of tender

Children

life.

tasted

century)
begrimed images
fourth

the

the

of the

smoke-

the

of the

statue

dess
god-

arms,

childish prayers.

in

them

addressed

and

(end

copies (horn of plenty),and,

kissed the images of the gods

cornu

still in their nurses'

while

Roman

sprinkledwith fragrant essences,

of the Lares

destiny with

on

years, says Prudentius

the sacrificial meal, saw

praying anxiously before

their mothers
of

irresistible influence

an

all joyful occasions

on
practice of sacrificing
for all classes of society. Persius
ridicules
is amply attested
who
property owners
pray to Mercury for the increase of their
time diminish
it by the frequent
live stock, and
at the same
Whenever
senator
sacrifice of heifers.
a
was
promoted to

universal

The

blood
Rome

let

the

slipthe joke
white

already
three

had

he been

Catullus

rich,he would

for the

and

Juvenal

Capitoline divinities

the

breed

mentioned.

of his friend

deliverance

buUs

ox.

The

to the

the

Augustus from

of intoxication,

moment

during the campaigns

cows

been

of

with

calves

prayed that he
similar jestconcerning the prayers of

return.

never

Rufus, in
all the

that

palace smoked

the absence

During

named

senator

of the

fore-court

steers '.

of young
a

might
the

'

rank,

consular

have

offered

from
two

"

of Marcus

the

lambs

substituted

Aurelius

has

sacrifice for the

perilsof
and
a

the

sea

to

ox
;
young
fat steer of noble

fees

paid by the faithful for admission

and the throwing
offeringof the sacrifice,

temples, for the

the of^ce of priest
in of the gift,
often made
lucrative
a very
farmed
account
of the state or
on
one
they were
; hence
sold by auction in some
of Asia
towns
community, and even
Minor

(inEgypt

this

was

done

on

account

of the emperors

as

Religion
of the

successors

Ptolemies).

is still in existence.
the

One

to

Pliny

that

was

temples,

festivals

demand

any

both

improved

measures

form

may

of

accession

the

bellowingof

to the

all,it is clear from

have

that

their

show

been

images

of every

zeal and

of the

kind.

to

have

activity on

forth
causes

of

extent

enormous

at the

Even
at

religiousbelief
new

temples

than

160,000 victims

three

months.

Even

time

its lowest

the

and

of the

inscriptional

numerous

pious believers
behalf

the

of

continued

their

faith

by

in

repair,by adorning them

by gifts,
offeringsand benefactions

gods, and

been

the

when

is usuallysupreligion
posed

ebb, Lucretius

is still deep-rootedin the minds

awe

state

with
Way resounded
Capitol for sacrifice.

preserved,that

buildingtemples and keepingthem

with

this

the Sacred

driven

oxen

above

stones

of the

Caligulamore

of Prudentius,

time

But

scarcely

what
disquietedPliny,was sometaken
by him against the

alone in less than

sacrificed in Rome

in the

was

for sacrificial purposes

from
the
were
of Suetonius, that as a result of the general rejoicings

statement

were

However,

idea

some

there

the

used

animals

to which

to

the

by

We

Christians.

surprised and

112)
bouring
neighdeserted,the

and

almost

celebrated, and

ing
(accord-

in the year

Trajan

place,were

results of

Pontus

of Amisus

for sacrificial victims.

which
affairs,

at

first

not

were

province of

those

sacrificial fees

the

remarkable

most

letter to

doubt

no

localities in the
sacred

the

in his well-known

the

tariff of

of the

in
spread of Christianity

163

of men,

adoration

gods

to be

which

of the

erected

'

wrote

has

that

called

which

the

whole

gods

over

of visitors'.
days with crowds
ing
Certainly,it is no proof of a general decline of belief that, durfearful political
convulsions,
a period of uninterruptedand
of the very numerous
temples and sanctuaries in Rome
some
appropriated even
were
by
destroyed and their sites illegally

earth, and

fills them

private individuals.

on

festal

If the

number

of

those

which

needed

actuallyrestored by Augustus in 28 B.C.

this number
was
reallyeighty-two,it is a question whether
ber
should be considered largeor small, in view of the total numrestoration

and

were

buildings.
of buildings,donations
number

of such
The

and

benefactions

given

was
enormous,
purposes
by private individuals for religious
from
Italy and all the provinces.
is shown
by inscriptions
as
their originto other than religiof these, no doubt, owe
Some

Religion

164

equallycertain that in most cases these

retain the
or
presented to earn
pious offeringsand giftswere
favour
of the gods or to quiet an
conscience ; many,
uneasy
were
or
given after a vision
accordingto the inscriptions,
; but

motives

OTIS

it is

'

by command
According to

'

'

number

this

of the

'

or

'

admonition

evidence,

we

of the

temples throughout

private individuals

at

their

divinity in
that

assume

may
own

'

the

empire

dream.

considerable
built

were

who

expense,

by

sometimes

in

upkeep of the building.

in Appian's time
In Italyespecially"
where
under
ninus
Anto(i.e.
Pius)the wealthiest temples,next to that of Jupiteron the
and Lanuvium,
that of Hercules
those at Antium
at
were
Capitol,
addition

Tibur, and that of Diana

rank

of their

at

at Aricia

vied with

municipaltowns
high

for the

assigned a capitalsum

with

and

Rome,

their

thewell-to-do

"

countrymen

the

patrons

who

and

had

other

towns, in showing their munificence

of

inhabitants

and

attained

protectors
attachment

place ; above all,by providing it with worthy

dwellingsfor the gods. For example, a certain Publius Lucilius
Gamala
(who lived from about 117 to 180) built or restored

to

their

native

of Vulcan,
temples at Ostia
Venus, of Spes (Hope), of Fortune,

seven

of

"

Tiberinus
friend
at

(thedeified personificationof
Sabinus

Caesius

Sassina.

apparently

of Castor

on
(about ;fi,iio)

landowners

Great
their
on

and

property

one

the

built

husband

In Malta

statues.

of Castor

and

wife

at

Pollux, and

erection

of

and

Pollux,
of father
Martial's

Tiber)
.

Assisi

of

nymph
built

in addition

privateindividual

the

the

for the

temple

and

of Ceres

and

lake

temple,
provided the
a

spent 1 10,792 J sesterces

marble

temple of Apollo.
after the country temples on
also looked
thus, Pliny repaireda ruined temple of Ceres

of his estates.
restoration

In

addition

to

entirelynew

buildings

and

completion of dilapidatedsanctuaries,
offerings,
repairsof individual parts, and specialbuildingsof
all kinds (altars,
sacrificial kitchens,pillars
and
capitals,
pediments,
floors, ornaments,
for

religiouspurposes are
inscriptionalstones.
Images of the gods, some

etc.),donations
very

and

benefactions

frequentlymentioned

of them

on

the

costly,were
ally
especiin temples. Thus, a priestessof Aeclanum
common
presented a silver statue of Felicitas ; a cavalry officer at
Formiae
bequeathed 100,000 sesterces (about ;"i,ooo)for a
silver processional
of Minerva
car
weighing 100 lb. with all
very

Religion

1 66

fulfilment of

offered to

vow,

'

Aesculapius,

tude
grati-

their

to show

which

surprisingeffect of the power of the god

statue of the god of
a bronze
experienced,'
they had themselves
and some
sleep(theyhad perhaps been cured of sleeplessness)
for the

valuables
tablet.

Acci

At

in honour

chain

gold

"

in

of httle

and

snakes

Hispania Tarraconensis

silver

statue

writing

grandmother,

granddaughter,offered Isis

of her

or

some

offering,weighing iizf lb. of silver,besides a set of

for the head, neck
and
other precious stones
pearls,emeralds
and
other parts of the body, including,according to the list,
diamond
and two pearlsfor the ears
two
emeralds
rings
; two
for the little finger; a ring with emeralds, various stones and a
pearl for the next finger; an emerald ring for the midle finger;
for the shoes.
eightpreciousstones cut in the form of a cylinder,
Frequently (as at Riez) statues of other gods than those to
which
consecrated
were
they were
presented to the temples ;
and donations
were
given,which had no reference to the cult,
intended
the beauty and magnificenceof
but were
to enhance
other

Thus,
temples, and to increase their stock of treasures.
citizen of Rhegium bequeathed to the temple of Apollo in
a
his native place a small parchment book with ivory covers,
an

the

ivory

and

nineteen

pictures.

fact that

gold and

silver votive

case,

The

valuable)even
(such as Ostia) are

very

to five

Augustus

in second-rate

frequentlymentioned

temples

in Rome

these
that

and
the

Roman

whose
those

of the
at

the

giftsof

the

that

old

the

from

Avenger)

about

terces
ses-

100,000,000

damaged

and

construction

of

the

temple

statue

at

lb. of silver ;
206
3 lb. of gold and
similar considerations
would
justifythe assumption
amounted

votive

House)

that

west

(thoseof JupiterCapitolinus,

Julius,Apollo,Vesta, and Mars

spoilsof war, reached a total value of
(about ;f1, 000,000) ;
for
gifts,used by Hadrian

east and

of both

towns

Divus

Lanuvium,

offerings(some of them

to

empire probably contained not

not inferior in number
were
offerings
former

Loreto.

of
treasure-chapel
Such

the

Casa

treasures, in addition

few
and
Santa

to the

temples
value to

(Holymoneys

valuables

buildings,
frequently deposited in consecrated
for which purpose the militaryposts already
needed
protection,
mentioned
established near
the temples. Those
were
temples,
and

with
resolutions of the senate
divinities,in accordance
imperialdecrees, could be appointed heirs,were
probably

whose
or

Religion
the wealthiest

such

167

Jupiteron the Capitol,of

at Ilium,
Apollo at Miletus, of Mars in Gaul (?),of Minerva
of Hercules at Gades, of Diana
of
at Ephesus, of the Mother
the Gods
from
Sipylus at Smyrna, and of the
heavenly
(moon) goddess at Carthage.
Nor
the priestsand temple attendants
were
forgotten. In
reference
to the clause in a lady'swill, desiring her heirs to
and the
of 10 denarii
to the priest,
the caretaker
pay the sum
:

those

were

of

'

'

'

other

freedmen

'

of

market

instituted

decided

that

certain

her

by

the

temple,
in

'

the

on

of the

day

yearly

neighbourhood,' Scaevola

the

must

be

made

him

face

to

annually.
is no doubt
plation
that the worship of images, the contemof the divinitypresent in the image, which
irresistibly
influenced even
rebellious and wavering souls, and the possibility
of adoring the divinity in person
and
in some
sort
payment

There

holding communication

with

else in the cult tended

to maintain

than

face,more

thing
anybelief.
strengthen

and

like Seneca, rejectedthe worship

Although some
philosophers,
of images, others, like Maximus
of Tyre, insisted,with much
that

reason,
removed

from

by
and

the

that

God

the

few

weakness
earth

as

senses

could

of human
is from

nature, which

is

as

far

heaven, needed

signs perceptible
of the divinity,

in order to grasp the idea

He
added
dispensewith them.

that

the

use

worthy of all the different symbols of the divine beings in

form, as bearing
amongst different peopleswas the human

the

greatest likeness to God.

most

We

need

evidence

no

to

that

show

the

naive

belief of the

unconsciously transformed
image into the god himself, and that each god weis splitup
there were
famous
as
as
images of
personalities
many

instinctivelyand

masses

Similarly,the
the modern

in different

Greek

day in Greece and

are
worshipped as
at Monteleone

diseases of
ter from

as

an

loud

The
in 1801

blessingsof

laments

ruin

of

of

believes

in different

Panagias.
Italy ancient

Even

him.

Madonnas,

at the

images

into

of

present
the gods

Ariadne
local patron saints ; e.g. a mutilated
in
invoked
is especially
Santa Venere, who

women.

as

removal

(now

at

the harvest

the removal

of

colossal

statue

Cambridge),to

whose

of Deme-

cence
benefi-

attributed, called forth

of Ceres from Enna
by Verres,
were

as the
cause
regarded throughout Sicily
agriculture.In ancient times the lips,hands

outrage which

of the

the south

as

Eleusis

the

Italian

modern

the

was

68

and

Religion
images of

feet of the

it prayers
and
attached
waxen
knees

tablets

of the

and

they cursed

to

and

he and

of

the Lord

sailors when

there

had

that

weather

the

when

storm, hurled

of their
their

gods
hopes

thrashed

or

their

god Pan,
; the

empty-handed
idols and

their

break

when

Ostiak

he

stolen ;

and

the

Jupiter.

ancient

modern

or

the

upon

The

old

returned

from

Laplander

image^

unheard

are

prayers

they

bad, and

Wherever, and
existed or still exists,/

unfulfilled.

assistance

at

their wrath

vented

saints, when

of

that

been

was

curses

form, image worship has

at all times

with

peasant's uncouthness,
abuse '. Similarly,according

whether
in
disappointedsuppliants,
with
not content
times, were
simple curses.

believers have

in late

St. Felix

But

in whatever

forget the
not granted,

not

at the

at his

laughed
was

recorded

were

god might

oxen

greatlyamused

Epictetus,farmers,

to

vows

Nola, quite in accordance

his two

recover

was

peasant rudely informs

'

their

the

the

image as possible,
they whispered
to keep secret ;

if their prayers
were
the gods, as the Christians

Paulinus

tells how
reality,

expects him
the martyr

But

threatened

saints.

the

hearing
they wished

which

on

the

of the

ear

better

that

image,

by
perceptiblyworn
Suppliants begged

to the

which

vows

object of their desires.

times

devout.

to

that

to the

the

put them as close

they might obtain a

attendant

they

gods were

of

frequent osculations

into

the

ancj

Arcatfians
the

chasfe

maltreat

theii;

overtake
pieces,should misfortune
he is
them ; the lazzarone of Naples kicks the saints with whom
dissatisfied ; the Spaniard throws his virgen(imageof the Virgin)

into the water

of the

Lord

them

to

; the Bavarian

peasant flingsthe wooden

image

cease.
dung-heap
and
s
aints
who
do
not
send the
Italy
Sicily,
longed-for rain in time of drought are frequently bound
with cords and thrown
into the water.
During the Napoleonic
the
battalion made
St. Peter
run
campaigns, an old Bavarian

In

the

the

on

south

hailstorm

does

not

of

gauntlet, since

Spanish lady

if the

he
of

had

refused

high descent

them

an

easy march.

An

(in 1871) flogged St.

old

Martialis

(field-marshalof the Spanish army) with her riding whip on

the day when
the Carlists were
obligedto lay down their arms.
These

examples

show

that

such

excesses

accompaniments of image worship ;

accident that only a single instance
outbreak

of rage

in later

antiquity.

and

the

are

it

can

is recorded
The

manner

necessary
only be an
of such

in which

an

it

169

Religion
is described
remarkable

by Suetonius
in it.

of Germanicus

all the

nothing

saw

disquieting
reports of the iUness
of his recovery,
by the rumour

the

followed

inhabitants,in spiteof the lateness of the hour, flocked

Capitolwith lightsand sacrificialvictims ; the gates of

to the
the

temple were
they could not
his

When

were

it clear that he

makes

death, on

almost

burst

fulfil their

vows

open,

since the

people thought

quicklyenough

the

on

day

of

the other

hurled at the temples,

hand, stones were
altars of the gods thrown
Lares flung into
down, the domestic
the streets.
In this case, also,we see that the belief in the existence

well

as

could

shake

The

in the power

as

gods was

of the

such

that

it.

extent

which

to

the

popular belief,unreflectingand

and maintain
able to carry out
was
unhesitating,
of the image with the divinity
can
hardly be
What
'

Seneca's

excited

so

nothing

indignation,on

the identification

determined.

chance

visit to the

Capitol,was

ish
partlythe antiquatedritual,and partlythe childthe divinity
saw
belief,incomprehensibleto him, which

himself

in the

hardly

were

mentioned.

image.

yet

singularor
According to the
more

Capitoline deities

Jupiterhad

And

his

expressions of

ridiculous

than

this belief

those

already

religioususage,

ancient

waited

were

the

the

by different persons ;
upon
of the day,
to tell the hours

lictor,a servant

Just as the latter,by waving his

in the air, represented the operation in dumb
arms
show, so
the temple attendants
moved
their hands,
of Juno and Minerva
the goddesses'hair, while others held a mirror in
as if dressing
and

another

to anoint

front of them.

On

him.

the other

hand, those

'

called upon

who

the

and laid
petitions
their case
before them
evidentlysuppliants. Seneca
', were
who
also saw
quence
women
(probably in consesittingon the Capitol,
of
beloved
of dreams) believed themselves
Jupiter and
such as the
awaited
his pleasure. These and similar practices,

gods

to assist them

in court, submitted

their

of offices upon the gods, the clothing of their images

the march
of the lictors
in the garb of senators and high officials,

bestowal

before

them

surprisingthan
highest orders

Corpus
head

Christi

of

bundles

with

the

with
equerries

their
are

not more
are
processions,
parallels.Thus, in Spain, the

of rods in

modern

bestowed

upon

at

Lisbon,

on

Cappadocia marches at the

accompanied by pages and
Mexico, the holy virginof Guada-

day, St. George

Portuguese army
led horses ; in

Madonnas

of

Religion

170

appointedfield-marshal (witha salarywhich

paid
for fourteen
years) of the insurgent army fightingagainst the
Spaniards by its leader Hidalgo ; the holy Virgin dos Dolores
rank
Carlos to the same
raised by Don
(in 1834). Thus,
was
like all image worship in its lowest
form, that of the period

loupewas

with

which

which
down
ceremony,
Maria
church
of Santa

the

of the

and

the

of

Saviour

people,the

solemnly

was

cut ; this

place
in the

On

the second

of the

authorities

called

was

of

the toilettes of

beard

and

hair

took

Carmine

in presence
festivities,

Christmas

great crowd

del

character

1864

singularthan
to by Seneca.

more
Naples was even
Capitolinegoddessesalluded

at

day

to

idolatry.
annually in the
gross

Mercato

the

assumed

had

concerned

are

we

was

of

figureof

far la

barba

di

Gesu.
stillsufficient for the

Thus, polytheism was

of mankind

in ancient

in

times, while,

needs
religious

order

satisfythe

to

of
variety of its tendencies, it splitup into a number
forms corresponding to the countless stages of development of
the spiritual
conscience.
However
great the contrast between

infinite

the

faith of

sailors and
all had
and

Plutarch

and

an

divergentforms
existed

in

with

intolerant

regarded as

weather,

same

was

between

no

the

power

the

niost

greater than

that

highest and

lowest

CHRISTIANITY

AND
of

Polytheism

exclusiveness

agreement
the

bad

gods, in their

difierence

The

of the

that

the divine.

expansive power
which

the

between
Christianity

II. JUDAISM

strict and

and

Jupiter during

of belief at that time

conception of

The

Aurelius

Marcus

peasants who cursed

equally firm belief in

solicitude for mankind.

which

was

highest and

found

its limits in the

of the monotheistic

impossible. What
holiest

was

condemned

religions,
polytheists
by both

and
soulJudaism and Christianityas horrible, accursed
destroying. All that is holy amongst us, says Tacitus, is
unholy amongst the Jews ; what we consider impure is lawful
with
He
them.
calls them
a
people given to superstition,
from religion. Both
averse
Jews and Christians looked upon
the gods to whom
the heathen
prayed as dead idols or evil
demons.
and
Greeks
who
conceived
the divine
Romans,
'

Religion
fulness of life as

171

a world, of gods ',were

totality,
incapableof
the divinity,
understanding the belief which removes
solitary
and
almost incomprehensiblysublime, to an
tance,
inaccessible disand
mense
separates him from adoring humanity by an imgulfthat can never be bridged. The heaven of Judaism
and
afiected them
like
cold wilderness
a
Christianity
; the
belief in one
god was to them the negation of all that was divine
ungodliness; Christians and atheists were equallyhated by
the polytheistic
heathens and often coupledtogetheras enemies
of religion
Christians and Jews were
; both
reproached with
a

'

'

"

hatred

of the

We
as

human

here

are

concerned

only

contrasted

reacted

race.

with

paganism,
another.

one

upon

Judaism

with
and

In

in

the

far

and

Christianity

as

they

endeavour

to

so

acted

and

obtain

general view of the state of religionunder the earlyempire it

is indispensable to indicate
their position within
the worldwide
which
empire of Rome, and the circumstances
essentially
hindered
the
their
favoured
of
or
doctrines, although
progress

only the

pointscan

relation of the two

The
was

salient

most

different.

very

be touched

here

monotheistic

to polytheism
religions

both

Although

upon.

condemned

paganism

was
restriction,yet only Christianity
absolutelyand without
reallyhostile to it. Judaism, a religion admirably fitted for
defence, but never
designedfor conquest (Gibbon),preferred
'

'

isolation to
of

to

attempt

an

propagate its doctrines

at

the

Jewish communities, dispersed

throughout
empire
yet closelyunited, certainlyhad a
certain attraction
for paganism, but never
injured it to such
expense

paganism.

the

an

extent

as

friction and

and

imperilits

peaceful.
from
was
Christianity

of

spread
world.

in

spiteof

Judaism

the

This

dispersionof

dispersionhad

the outset

that

every

land

Jewish people. Strabo says

element

had

and

ism
pagan-

and
that

penetratedinto

Jews throughout
begun early,and even

every
'

even

sea

was

In

'

the
in

SibyUine

century B.C.)
full

in Sulla's time

of

the

Jewish
is hardly
a

every city,and there

this people and
not admitted

place in the world which has

is not possessedby it ; accordingto Josephus,there
a

tively
effec-

most

the

times
had
made
great progress.
pre-Christian
the end of the second
oracle (composed towards
it is asserted

occasional

main

promoted by
ancient

; and

existence

conflictsthe relations between

in the

were

The

to

The

was

no

Religion

172

the

'

as

heard

',who

heaven

under

nation

every

The Acts of
Jewish element.
Jews and akin to Jews, people out

without

people on earth
Apostlesmentions

of

apostlesspeaking

the

Jerusalem : Parthians, Medes, Elamites,

dwellers in Mesopotamia, Cappadocia, Pontus, Asia, Phrygia,
King
Pamphyha, Egypt, Cyrene, Rome, Crete and Arabia.
the countries
Herod
Agrippa, in a letter to Caligula,enumerates
in which
there were
Jewish colonies : Egypt, Phoenicia,
Syria,Coele-Syria,Pamphylia, Cilicia,most of Asia as far as

with

in

tongues

Bithynia, and the coasts of the inmost bays of the Black Sea ;
in Europe, Thessaly, Boeotia, Macedonia,
Aetolia, Attica,
Argos, Corinth, most of the countries (and those the best)of
Peloponnesus ; of the islands,Euboea, Cyprus, Crete ; lastly,
the countries
beyond the Euphrates, and Libya.
But

there

is

motives
to

contradict

are

known

mercial

to

it.

any

The

have

to
centres

favourable

lives

of

in honour

of
and

making

industrious

'

their

handicraft

in the

the

beginning

praises the industry of

agriculture'. 'In Roman
emperors
themselves

there
up

people at

are

to

all.

the

retail

Their

trade,

miserable

or

word

money-

always

ture,
agricul-

state
chief

occupations.
and

era

their

to

an

old

century Josephus
in

and

that

nition
recog-

Christian

second

literature

sixty-three

were

faithful

compatriots

his

indications

no

petty

of

which

is not

their

dispersion they remained

at

the

formed

of the

early centuries

trade

dangers of

Jews

were

anciint

honourable

an

The

wandering life.
people. As long as they
a

and

in

to the

allusions

in

trace

njost

occupation,

every

occupation,there

and

labour

accords

the

ofiered

for the

Jews

Jews

part comj-

most

no

of others

which

trade, but many

Even

habits ;

the

work

Talmud,

horticulture
after

is

Further, there

sale of the

to manual

the

for

much

which

in

towns

opportunitiesfor

varied

of the

the

were

preference amongst

the

tractates

that

nothing, since they

proves

and

on

fact

settled

especiallyindustrial.
times

Jewish emigration
cial
prompted by commer-

great extent
there is nothing to support this idea, but

especiallyor

was

the

that

direct evidence

no

the

the

had

and

handicraft

had

Jews
become

condition

of the

laws

in

given

tile
mercan-

Rome

and

the

islands are
great revolts in Egypt, Cyrene and the Greek
arguments to the contrary : a population engaged in trade

does

not

generallyhave

recourse

to

arms'.

How

far

the

Religion

174

the limits of the Roman

empire (Palestine
excepted)
been
the Jewish population appears
to have
largestin Asia
and
Minor, Phoenicia
Syria. Of the population of Antioch,
the Jewish colony settled there by Seleucus Nicator
especially,
Within

formed

contingent,and

very important
is described
by Josephus
in

certain amount

privilegedposition,and

synagogue
magnificence. As

of remarkable

as

Alexandria, they enjoyed

and

its chief

of

fact that

the

independence

both

cities

were

an
Jewish Diaspora was
important element
As late as the end of the fourth
in their development.
tury,
cenis proved by the homilies of John Chrysostom against
as
the
of
possessed dangerous powers
Jews, their community
for the
Christian
church.
Here
attraction
also
they were
visited as physicians. In Damascus
or
18,000 Jews are
10,000
in
been
the Jewish war.
massacred
said to have
the Great
had
already transplanted 2,000
King Antiochus
Jewish families from Mesopotamia to Asia Minor, which in

of

centres

olden
to

the

had

times

form

been

of

nucleus

the

of the

one
a

chief

brave

and

of the

seats

Diaspora,

trustworthy population

of the synagogues
of
or
Phrygia.
Lydia
in Jerusalem belonged to the Jews from
foreign communities
for

One

and

Asia

and

Ionia, Ephesus in early times

first century

managed

B.C.

the

attest
and
Smyrna
(female)of the

their

for

at Passover

certain

and

and

Severus, Macrinus
in the ark with
attest

the

the

influence

In 62
(Ktj8o)T3s).
with

his

the

of

the

scriptio
privileges.In-

honoured

the

wall

of the

place

desecration

Coins
and

of the

in

builder
court

of

of honour.

time

in Sardes

in Miletus
and
justice),
Phrygia payments of fines to

Philip,on

raven

of

Publius

Pentecost.

middle

in Caesar's

Aelius

guildsfor the

artisan

had

synagogal communities

latter

court

own

Jewish community
two

the

Hierapolisin

At

HalicarnEissus.

to

of

the

various

secure

Jewish communities

had

instituted, and

about

oratory and surrounding

with
and
a
golden crown

synagogue
There
also
were

(where they

to

existence

Phocaea

the

money

which

Jewish community,

numerous

the

In

Cilicia.

two

the

which

Jewish

Glycon

decoration

of the

dove

of

graves
left

sums

were

of

of his grave

reignsof Septimius
Noah

is

represented

with

the olive branch,

community in Apamea

the

praetor,Gnaeus
dance
Flaccus, in accorof
the
prohibition
export of gold,publicly
B.C.

sequesterednearly

100

pounds

of

gold from

the

tax

intended

Religion
for the

temple

whole

the

confiscated
Acmonia

in
in

Nero

Smaller

sum.

honoured

building the

the

different persons
synagogue

of

sums

hardly have

can

the

who

in

the

At

time

of

service

in

JuliaSevera,

amongst them

"

were

Pergomus.

rendered

had

been

kind

same

Adramyttium and
Jewish community

Laodicea,

Phrygia

this

and

Jerusalem ;

at

175

chief

of the first
the end
priestessof the imperial cult. About
erected a burial ground for the
century, a certain Ptolemaeus
Jews at Tlos in Lycia, as a thankoffering for his son having
been raised to the dignityof archon
Paul
in the community.
preached in the Jewish schools at Antioch in Pisidia and Iconium in Lycaonia.
whose
The
in Cilicia,
numerous
Jews were
chief

Tarsus,

town,

also in Armenia.
have

to

speak

Polo

'

the

and

Greek

by

Herod

Crete

'

a
'

true

in the

to

the

in the

as

of

the
very

century

ing
Accord-

in 1286.

are

not

and

extinct.

(where catacombs

century

have

been

of

found)

Jewish populations,
a
supported pretender,
Augustus, liberally

the

residences

of

well-to-do

himself out to be Alexander, who

;

said

previous century their

Melos

of the third

ninth

character
religion,

their

and

are

Mohammedan

present day they

islands Crete

had

been

murdered

a Jewess from
Josephus was
"noble family, whose
highly
parents were
unions of
island '. Caesar permitted religious

second

wife

respected in the
Jews in Delos and elsewhere
Euboea

to

they

a.d.

China

the

Jesuitin

at the

even

who, under
gave

of

community

mentioned

who

(from Persia) to

remained

Christian

are

century

Jews living there

statement

descendants
customs

of

second

apostle Paul

the

refers to their influence in China

to the

Of

the

immigrated

travellers
Marco

In

birthplaceof

the

was

of

Jews

also lived in Cos

and

Paros.

in the letter of Agrippa ;

Cyprus are mentioned
latter island (where the community of Salamis, in particular,
down
is known
from the Acts)the Jews were
numerous,
but after the atrocities committed
during
year 116;
and

to enter the island again.

forbidden
insurrection,they were
In Greece
and Macedonia, the communities
of Athens, Corinth,

the

from
the
Philippiare also known
Acts.
Two
edicts of Arcadius
(397) and the younger Theodosius
to the prefect of lUyricum (Dacia
(412),addressed
and Macedonia),ordered
that the Jews in the country should
not be disturbed
their synagogues
nor
injured. Before Theo-

Thessalonica, Beroea

dosius

II" who

and

banished

them

from

their
Constantinople,

176

Religion

in the place called Chalcwprateia ('copper-ware

was
synagogue
market
'),so called from their workshops. They also spread
the

over

northern

shores

Black/Sea

of the

at

an

early date.

from
scriptio
inJewish communitifes are known
at Panticapaeum
:
(Kertch)jabout 81 a.d., and at
Gorgippia (Anapa) about 41 a.d. ; in the slave emancipation
In

Crimea,

the

two

a condition
(writtenin Greek)it is made
remairi true to Judaism.
that those emancipated should
According to Philo, the Jewish populationof Egypt amounted
than
to 1,000,000,
or
more
an
eighth of the entire population.
They were
spread over the whole countp^as far as the frontier
haid already settled Jews
the Great
of Aethiopia. Alexander

acts of these

districts

citizenshipupon them.
After his death they immigrated in large numbers.
They were
In
Philo's
well treated
time they
by most of the Ptolemies.
of
chieflyresided in two of the five regiops Alexandria
(inthe
but many
lived scattered in the other three ;
east of the city),
in

Alexandria

in all
were

parts of
to be

the

basilica with

the

city their synagogues,

they also had their own

surrounded

by trees,

synagogue

at

in the
in Alex4ndria,
chief synagogue
that an
double peristyle,
was
so
Ia.rge

form

seen

The

bestowed

and

salem.
Jeruof

attendant

the

give the signalwith a fla^jphen congregation had

to respond Amen
during the ith yers and reading of the
chieflyengaged in
Scriptures. The Alexandrian
ftu'S'^^re
the mechanical
and navigation; som"|how^"^in
commerce
had

to

'

trades.

The

'

administration

to
entrugi^d

ipotamophylacia)was
and

also

by

the

oi,khesystem^

Roman

them

the

Nile

Ptolemies
by^tije

(at least during

emperors

dues

the

first

in th^^vJDelta
at Athribis
is
Jewish community
known
from
an
inscriptionof the time of the Ptblemies.
document, belonging to the time of
According to a papyrus

century.

the earlier Ptolemies, found

in the

nome

Fayyflm, in the villageof Phenyris a

formed
Hellenes ', who
the Jews and
side of the natives.

In

of
tax

Arsinoe, the
had

to be pa

specialgroups

we
as

of

^rave

times there was

a
post-Christian
mius
In the Thebaid
street in Oxyrhynchus.
foi
receipts ;nted
have
been
found,
(secondcentury B.C.)
bearing the naimch,
The
religiouscentre of the Egamea
Jewish tax-farmers.
Jews was the temple of Onias (160 B.C.)about 40 kilo ccor-*
from Memphis ; the whole district formed
(till
73 a.d.)a)iiclJl
hierarchy.
nd

Religion

177

In the district of

Cyrene also,where Ptolemy, son of Lagus,

already established a Jewish settlement, there was
a
numerous
of the five synaone
Jewish population,to which
gogues
at Jerusalem belonged. A disturbance
was
put down
had

Two
thousand
of them
took
by LucuUus.
part in the
The
attempted revolt under Jonathas in 70 a.d.
community
of Berenice, according to an
decree
of honour
extant
for a
certain

Marcus

ontes)in
revolt

Jews,

and

at

in the

240,000
the

the

said

are

220,000

13

year

of the

Egypt,

on

the

Titius, appears

had
the

which

broke

time

same

in

it

The

contained

was

{afchwidespread

in

116
and

Mesopotamia,
first two,

for the

most

part

speciallysacred,

as

mosaic

floor of the

synagogue

of

town

recently been discovered, together with

inscriptions(ofa later period)of those who had it laid
has

Africa

In west

traces

of

Jewish community

Jewish inhabitants
preserved.

tania, and
The

of

statement

Gnaeus

to

have

to

after they
by Justinianinto a church
embraced
Christianity. In the province of Africa, where
to have
been the
Jewish community of Carthage seems

Naron

not

habited
in-

converted

was

largest,the

are

and

Boreum

coast-town

regarded

and

Cyrene

temple, supposed

and

chiefs

fearful and

Cyprus

countries.

Solomon

by King

nine

lost their lives in the

last two

had

in

out

great Syrtis (SyrtisMajor)

built

which

the

During

B.C.

to have

by Jews
been

to have

of Valerius

only the Chaldaeans

taint

Roman

Maximus

HispaUus,

Cornelius

usages

but

elsewhere

Latin
down.

at Sitifiin Maureat Cirta)

(especially

that

in 139 the praetor,

and Italy
expelled from Rome

also the

with

called

the

Jews,'who

rites of

had

attempted

JupiterSabazius

',

sent (140probably refers to the retinue of the ambassadors

At that time there were
to Rome.
139) by Judas Maccabaeus
clearlyno Jews settled in Italy; the identification of the god
is to be explainedby the fact that
of the Jews with Sabazius
Sabaoth.
Zebaoth
the Greek
as
Jews pronounced the name
considerable
a
Eighty or ninety years later, they formed
due
of the population. This was
element
partly to their
of Pompey and LucuUus, as prisoners
removal, after the wars
where
set at liberty; partly
to Rome,
soon
en
masse
they were
relations
and varied
intimate
the
to
development of more
between

east

and

(in59 B.C.)hoped

west.
that

The
their

accusers

of the

praetor Flaccus

numbers, their perfectunion

and

Religion

178
their influence

regionbeyond
there

of

was

make

Tiber

the

Herod, King

also

and

Rome,
who

there.

synagogue

by
The

The

them

Whole
; probably

ambassadors

of the

in 19 a.d.
infected

were

condemned

were

by Jewish

age

to bear

arms,

Egyptian superstition',
Nevertheless,
deported to
of
of
a community
speaks
Jews in Rome,
Sardinia.

40

and

reign of Claudius

that

their

Philo

an

and

be

to

year
in the

the

of

4,000 freedmen

in the

to

allies.

chieflyinhabited

was

valuable

them

Jews, to Augustus were

supposed to have
of
settled in
their co-religionists
accompanied by 8,000

been
'

would

expulsion,which

disturbances

that

numbers

their

had

considered

was

broke

out

so

increased

advisable

owing

them,

amongst

could

only be carried out to a very limited extent ; at all events,

the apostlePaul found
of them
in Rome.
The
a community
Roman
in Jerusalem. It is clear
Jews also had a synagogue
from
that
considerable
number
a
inscriptions
they formed
munities.
(at least seven) of individual, independently organized comand
of
Each had its own
council
elders,
synagogue
at the head
of which
its
a
was
president (gerusiarch), managing
officials (archons)being elected partly for life,partlyfor
for this office. Divine
minors
a fixed term
were
; even
eligible
service

was

synagogue

under

the

control

of

chiefs

assisted by
(a.p)^i(Tvva.y(ayoL)
,

'

'

father
hazzan), the
honorary positions; the
children

and

'

scribes

mother

of the

or

rulers

of

{vTnjpcnj^,

servant

'

synagogue

were
(ypa/x/taTcis)

the

not

held

regular

for the post. The

ent
differeligible
communities
in Rome
had burial grounds in common,
five
of which
The inscriptions
known.
are
are
mainly in Greek,
in an
written
almost
some
are
unintelligible
jargon ; some
in Latin, none
in Hebrew.
The
of Hebrew
use
during these
centuries
confined to church
matters
guage
was
; the general lanof the Jewish diaspora was
Greek, except in Syria,
where
Aramaic
was
spoken. The Roman
Jews are occasionally
mentioned
miserable
as
vagabonds, beggars and soothsayers.
The
the general condition
of the cemetery discovered
graves and
rude
by Bosio in 1602 (but since lost sightof) were
and poor ; no fragments of marble or painted work were
found
chandelier.
On .''"
except the coarsely painted seven-branched
the other hand, in a burial ground on the Appian Way paint/
ings (includingeven
figures from heathen
mythology) ha- J ve
been found ; their meaning, which
is still unsolved, is prj0and
officials,

were

.-

Religion
bably symbolical.
settlement

in

There

are

179
of

also traces

early Jewish

an

Portus, probably the birthplaceof

the

Peitan

(poeta) Eleazar (beginningof the eighthcentury),the reputed

author
of liturgical
at great
still in use
are
hymns which
festivals in Germany, France
and
Italy.
In the rest of Italy Puteoli seems
been a chief seat
to have
of the Jews, whence
they spread over the cities of Campania.
The
contents
of an earthenware
vessel at Pompeii is indicated
fish-sauce
as
i.e. Kosher
^a"'(um) cas"(imoniale),
(made of
fish without
with
the superstition
of the
scales,in accordance
Jews ',says Pliny). A wall inscriptionin a triclinium (dining-room
have
can
SODOMA
only
originated
I GOMORA
with a Jew or a Christian
caricature
the
of
a
;
judgment of
Solomon
(perhapsof Alexandrine
tance
acquainorigin)presupposes
with
traditions
the
Maria
names
(in a list of
Jewish
;
in wall inscriptions. The
occur
existence
slaves)and Martha
of a community
at Capua is proved by the epitaph of a chief of
the synagogue
combs
by the discoveryof Jewish cata; at Venusia
'

(ofthe sixth century),containing the epitaph of a chief

physician(archiaier) During the siegeof Naples by Belisarius
the Jews offered to supply the city with
provisions,and at
its capture offered an
obstinate
and
unexpected resistance.
and Fundi.
Jewish epitaphshave also been found at Tarentum
.

In

Calabria

Apuliaand

alluded

to in

(thecoast

of which

formation

midrash),the Jews

is specia,lly

in the fourth

century formed
so
largea part of the inhabitants,that, according to an imperial
offices in many
decree
of the year 398, the communal
towns
that they were
since the Jews maintained
could not be filled,
In central and northern
them.
not bound
to undertake
Italy,
where
traces

their settlements
of them

do

not

are

occur

of a
epitaph of a mother
of a Jewish community.
"

Genoa

king

rightsof

the synagogue

broke

set fire to the

to

as

in the

Brixia

In
'

prejudicedthereby.

not

disturbance
latter

till late.
synagogue
Theodoric

old

as

restore

out

between

in

proof of the
permitted the

is

Milan,

While

he

Jews

so

was

and

far
in

south,

the
(Brescia)

existence

Jews in
; he

restore, but not to enlargetheir synagogue

to

the
was

probably

as

firmed
con-

the church

Ravenna,

Christians

the

compelled by the
(Bologna) the martyrs
pieceof ground belonging

but
synagogues,
them.
In Bononia

were

Agricolaand Vitalis were buried in a

to the Jews amongst their graves ; Ambrose

had

their remains

Religion

i8o

Jewish epitaph has been preserved;

a Roman
Aquileia as the birthplaceof a
epitaph mentions
tions
gerusiarch. Gregory the Great (who in his letters also menat Terracina)writes to the bishop of Luna
the synagogue
In Pola

removed.

not

(in Etruria)

allow

to

Jew

any

his

on

probable that

It is also

slaves.

Christian

also

in

property to
early times

own

there

Jews in Sicily. The rhetorician Caecilius of Calacte (inthe reign of Augustus) was
probably a freedmentioned
in the
of Jewish origin. They are
man
frequently
of the
rescriptsof the popes referringto the administration
of

large numbers

were

church, which

of the

estates

According

Sardinia.

and
there

Jewish

were

extended

letters of

to the

communities

the

over

in

Gregory

Palermo,

Sicilies

two

the

Great,

Messina

and

Agrigentum ; in 594 he had a list drawn

up of all the estates
of those who
which
braced
emon
Jews resided, so that in the case
The
Christianityhe might remit a third of the taxes.

deportationunder Tiberius
Jewish colony in
Jewish community existed
intended

'

Paul

in

of

manent
per-

Cagliari,at

least,a

is mentioned

in the

for centuries.

visit

Spain ', which

and

appears

to

have

carried

out

probable that Jews lived there at

Herodes
with
his wife, Herodias,
that
time.
Antipas, who
to Lugdunum
banished
quently
subsewas
by Caligula in 39, was
removed
to Spain, where
part of his suite may have
With
this exception, previous to the council of Illisettled.
his intention

hence

establishment

the

Sardinia

Talmud,

the

and

Mishna

to

led to

it is

(Elvira; probably held between

309),which
300 and
mentions
the Jews, there is only a singletrace of
definitely
them
an
:
epitaph on a Jewish child in Abdera
(Adra) in
beris

from

Baetica, which
to the

the

beginningof the

considerable

third

was

the

Visigoths against

Augustus

Gaul.
to

the

the

take

part

of Gaul.

greetingsof Jews

Jews.
Jews are

Vienna
visited

is made

(612-20)
of
legislation

son

also said to have

of

by

in the

of

Rabbi

been

nected
con-

was

banished

the

countries

Akiba, in order

to induce

Herod,

(Vienne). Amongst

Hilary
and

was

Sisebut

extremely severe

Archelaus,

been

to

in Minorca.

belong

the

said to have

Jews

letters appears to
century. About 417 there

the

out

carry

earlytimes,
with

by

of the

Jewishcommunity

first to

the

From

form

risingof Bar-cocheba, mention

Poitiers (died366) avoided
the

heretics in the street.

In 331, Constan-

82

Religion

After

great Jewish

the

the

war

merly
drachmae, for-

of two

tax

paid to the temple at Jerusalem, had to be given to the

temple of JupiterCapitoUnus ; this led to vexatious oppression,
Domitian
treated
them
Nerva
under
more
;
especially
leniently,but
the

did

remit

not

of the

civil condition

the

Jews

tax.

With

such

in the

as

this
Roman

exception,
empire
enjoyed

only free from restrictions,but they even

important privileges.While confirming their fitness to hold
offices of state
tage)
(which at that time was
certainlyno advanfrom
Severus
and Caracalla
expresslyexempted them
those
which
'. Caesar
were
repugnant to their superstition
not

was

'

had

them

exemption

must

also

granted

which

they

been

have

military service,a privilege

enjoyed later. They must have

from participation
in the worship

tacitlyrelieved

at least

from

; if in this and
emperors
advantage of the Christians, the

other

of the

reason

looked

respects they had the

is that they were
still
only as a sect.
tus,
Augus-

upon as a nation, the Christians

carried on
in the main
who
Caesar's

to the
to

Jews,
in

appear

had

ordered

court

they should

that

of law

policyof

the

on

in Rome
fell
and
corn
money
be distributed
should
to them
on

day ; that instead of the oil furnished

forbidden
to use,
a
they were
money
given to them, a right confirmed to

their

own

least, jurisdictionover
ethnarch

funds, and, to
their

on

tribution
dis-

Sabbath,,

the

the

to

had

free
the

certeiin

'

members.

own

when

following
which
by the provinces,
equivalent should be
the Jews of Antioch
by

In addition
Vespasian'sfriend, Mucianus.
of their religion,
the Jewish communities

administering

compelled

; that

of

their share

be

not

Sabbath

friendliness

cise
exer-

right of

extent

The

at

Jewish

patriarchin Palestine, who after the destruction

the chief of the nation, must
of the Jewish state became
have
possessed very great authority; the office was
hereditary
All the Jewish communities
in the family of Hillel.
of the
dispersionappear to have submitted
diction.
voluntarilyto his jurisor

And
of

the

that
from

at

the

were

time

obliged

to

of Christ the

Judah '. For

the

extensive

so

were

Jews

make

certain

sense

that

serious

the

efiorts

fathers

already been

he

chief

was

reconstituted

the
of

show

to

sceptre had

thus, in spiteof the destruction

and

in

church

his powers

of the

taken
state ;

Jerusalem,they

were

nation.

conceded
If, in spiteof all the rightsand privileges

to

them,

Religion
we

read

in Philo

being treated worse

to their
referring

that

the

than
social

Jews had

183

to be

This, of course,
very unfavourable.
in countries where
hatred
a strong national
the direct result of

shed streams

of blood.

wars

and

by Pliny the elder, Quintilianand

to

the

from

fanaticism

the

to

themselves,
'

all mankind

A.V.),and

to

filled with

were

all other
of the

in which

suflacient

existed ;

they

to

zations
nations, civili-

society of their

they persistently
kept

make

them

'

repugnant

(I Thessalonians, ii, 15, contrary to

create the impressionthat they were
of

had

Jew expressed

'

hatred

or

the

which

manner

case

is to be attributed

Tacitus

struggles,their haughty contempt for

and
religions,their avoidance

neighbours,and

of the

as

But, apart
Jewish war.
raged during these despairing

feelingsengendered by

the wild

of them

revolts,in which

Thus, the hatred

tal^en

chieflythe

was

not

the whole

certainlyon

was

it was

is to be

others, the remark

which
position,

with

content

humanity.

The

all
a

to

',

men

people

accusations, exaggerations

Jewish writers, chieflyof Egyptian

of the Jews,
origin,assisted in keeping up the hatred
which
showed
itself in frequent outbursts.
According to
all to despise
Tacitus, they taught their proselytes above
their fatherland, to disregard parents,
the gods, to renounce
and
sisters. According to Juvenal, Moses
children, brothers
taught the Jews not to show any one the way, nor to guide
the thirsty traveller to the
a
Jew.
spring, except he were
Epiphanes, the
Apion declares that, in the reignof Antiochus
Jews every year fattened a Greek, and having solemnly offered
and

fabrications

of anti-

day in a certain forest,ate his

With
eternal
entrails and
swore
hostilityto the Greeks.
associated contempt for their miserable
hatred of the Jews was
condition, their disgusting uncleanliness, their punctilious

him

up

as

sacrifice

on

fixed

of
as
superstitious)
(ridiculed

observance

senseless, absurd

and

singular laws

so

and

many

customs.

apparently
Next

to

chieflyaroused by their abstinence

circumcision, derision was
rabble
the tumultuous
from pigs'flesh, which
attempted to
described
(asin the Jew-baitingat Alexandria
as a
by Philo) by their scrupulous observance of the Sabbath
seventh
part
day of rest, whereby, says Seneca, they lost a
of the arrangements for
of their life ; and by the minuteness
that day.
on
Juvenal mentions
avoiding any kind of work

force tiiem

to eat

the

baskets

filled with

hay,

in which

the

food

prepared

the

184

Religion
before

day

kept warm,

was

articles of
indispensable

as

ture
furni-

Abahu
Rabbi
poorest Jewish households.
the Jews, however
feeble, never
jokes about

in the

even

lamented

that

laughterin the theatres.

tues
the other hand, the Jews gained friends, partlyby the virrecognized even by their enemies and praisedby Josephus

failed to
On

of

shouts

cause

in his defence

of them

during

written

the

of

reign

Trajan.

unchangeable piety,strict obedience to the law,

their few
wants, charitableness, perfect harmony
amongst
chanical
themselves, contempt of death in war, diligence in the meThese

were

an

occupationsand
unshakable

in

confidence

time

agriculturein

in

Thus

God.

attracted
enlightenedreligion,

Judaism,

of those

many

of peace,
as

who

an

truly

ing
striv-

were

knowledge of God
rejectionof the
Strabo
to regard
Greek
and Egyptian image worship caused
Stoic philosopher. Yet if" may
the Jewish legislator
as a true
far greater,whose
that the number
of those was
be assumed
fullest satisfaction in Judaism as the only
need of belief found
to attain

professionof

; the

purer

which, before

faith

offered
Christianity,

consequently removed

from

conviction

unshakable

friendlyor

hostile

all doubt

that

it

often

how

spread

revelation

upon

the

was

and

only

true

was

of

and

the

religion

professors. All authorities,whether

the Jews, are
agreed that in aU landsi

by

heroicallyattested

birth

depending

dogma

the

its

to

partlyor entirelyobeyed the Mosaic

law ; the women
showed
themselves
especially
guiding stars
of this most
infamous
The
to faith '.
customs
people',
have
that
alreadygained such influence
they
says Seneca,
have been introduced
into all countries ; they, the conquered,
have
given laws to their conquerors '. Horace, Ovid, Perabstained
sius and Juvenal testify
that at Rome
from
many
and
the day of the
on
any kind of business on the Sabbath
the former
new
moon
on
travelled, but
; that
they never
prayed, lighted up lamps and hung up garlands; others
there

were

very many

who

'

'

'

studied

the Mosaic

law, attended
'

temple-tax to Jerusalem.
for

now

says

long

Josephus ;

time

of

not

'

great

endeavoured

there
our

penetrated,and

lamps and

The

to

abstinence

is

state

no

of

custom

where
from

nor

our

emulate

our

fasts and
food

the

the
are

the
has

piety',

province, Greek

resting on

forbidden

sent

of mankind

mass

barbarian, to which
has

and

the synagogues

or

Sabbath

lightingup

not

observed.

Religion
They

also attempt to

amongst

trades

our

the sake
that

the charitable

us,

in

of the

without

law.
the

But

bait

traversed

that

harmony

distribution

of

in

enduring sufferingfor
wonderful
thing of all is,

the most

pleasure the law has

pervaded all peoples,as

world

'

shown

itself

himself

God

'

Philo, are in
lenes,
subjectionto it ; it exhorts them to virtue barbarians, Heldwellers
the
and
mainland
the islands, the
on
on
nations
of both
east
and
west, Europeans, Asiatics, the
'.

All

prevails

gence
goods, ouru dili-

our

of

has

the

the

fortitude

and

strong in itself,and
has

imitate

185

', says

men

"

peoples of the whole earth '. The Alexandrian

philosopher
to hope that
one
thought he might venture
day Judaism
would
become
the religionof the world.
With
the exceptionof the brief period of persecution under
Tiberius, conversion
till the

time

without

'

that

Caesar

them

ancient

superstitionsof
observance

till later times.

made

it is well known
land

after

to

the

that

which
the

who

the Pharisees

in

edict
the

also

with

remained

held

to

warned

contempt for

the
the

in force
their

Jews, on

part,

different belief ;

'

particularcompassed

one

sea

of

proselyte (Matt, xxiii. 15). Yet,

Jerusalem, the development of an
the

continually widened
paganism ; the Babylonian

practicein

allowed

content

Rabbinism

been

this edict

that

be

edict,

an

'

make

Jews

had

This

those

Judaism and
proselytesa leprosyfor
the

'.

attests

to convert

destruction

unbending

laws

own

be

enjoy

teed
guaran-

issued

He

to show

nor

nations, -but to

Horace

attempts

and

kindness,

other

of their

unhindered.

customs

his

to abuse

to

complete religiousfreedom

the

porary
tem-

some

continued

and

their
not

and, except for

Augustus. In 42, Claudius

Jews throughout the empire should

the

observe

legalizedopposition

no

suppression,the Jews

interference

by

with

met

of Hadrian

at

attempts

Judaism

to

to

Israel.
the

resume

forbidden
the

remained

case

in

Talmud

circumcision

of those

force, the

who

calls

the

ing
Pius, while allow-

Antoninus

by Hadrian,

gulf between

of

forbade
strictly

most

Jews ; since
that
(with few

not

were

result

their children,

was

to Judaism took
place.
exceptions) no formal conversions
The proselytesof this later period were
no
longer proselytes
of justice but only the so-called 'fearers of God
((Jio/Sov/tc
the Sabbath
observed
or
Tov
6ibv),who especially
a-efto/itvoL
'

'

'

and

abstained

from

forbidden

food.

To

the

latter class the

Religion

86

in
paganism to Judaism, even
the times anterior to Hadrian, probably belonged. Further,
the influence of Judaism extended
beyond the limits of its
of semi- Jewish semifollowers and led to the formation
own
Such
the
sects.
were
worshippers of the most high
pagan
in the
in Tanais
dibv vij/uttov)
empire of
("r"/?d/i"voi
god
the Bosporus at the beginning of the third century, and
bably
prothe Hypsistariiin Asia Minor, a sect attacked
by the

majority of

the

from

converts

'

'

of the

Fathers

in

Church

the

fourth

century.

of Judaism, as the religion

of a chosen
very nature
people,set limits to its propagation at the expense of paganism,
If the

the other hand, had both

on
Christianity,
the strength to break
and
through all the
its extension
barred
throughout the world.

conversion

regarded the

of unbelievers

work, for the

of

salvation

the

was

of

example

Christians

highest and

first

the

to

another,
midst

the

set out

of

to

greatest dangers
Christians ', says Origen, were
eager
'

visited not

doctrine

they did
bosom

of

Christian
their
incited
to

not

world

'.

The

doctrine

they

shrink

and
to

also

ever-

with

had

from

the

amongst

people

one

abated

the word
of

in

even
'

difficulties.
sow

The

duty.

messengers

only towns, but

The

cast
broadthe

new

farms

villagesand

from

making their way into the

the family and interposing
between
blood-relations.
slaves were
reproached by pagans with converting
even

masters'

wives

children

obtain

great

the

the

accordance

of God
carry the word
zeal never
wearied
nor

the

throughout

Jews
torious
meri-

apostlescontinuallyinspiredan

whose

and

that

the

most

sacred

of imitators, who, in
increasingnumber
teaching of the gospel,distributed what
the poor, and

While

spread of

most

inclination

obstacles

at the

as

the

the

to

disobey

salvation.
shakes

movement

ties of nature

children

and

their

Thus,
the

as

the

fathers

more

and

zealous

teachers

always happens

world

and

fashions

even

in order

when

it anew,
asunder, hearts

some

the

were
only too often torn
love and loyaltyuprooted like an evil weed '.
broken, and
The toleration exceptionallyaccorded
to the Jewish nation
as
such, which resulted in a tacit release from aU obligations
that conflicted with their superstition,
includingthe worship
of the gods and
of the emperors,
could not, in the opinion of
be granted to a sect which had fallen away from
the Romans,
were

'

Religion

the faith of its fathers, least of all to the Christian.

of the

defence.

Roman

state

Since

which

the

towards

detachment

of the

tude
atti-

The

was
Christianity

of self-

one

faith from

new

87

ism,
Juda-

materiallyassisted by the destruction of Jerusalem,

its tendency,namely, the complete and uncompromising
destruction
of the state religion,
must
have
become
widely
was

known.

The

refusal to

fundamental

the

worship

institutions

emperor,

which

was

of the

one

and
earlier
an
empire, was
of the persecutionsof the Christians
more
frequent cause
than
the refusal to worship the gods. The
first which
we
hear of took place in the province of Asia, in several cities of
which
(Pergamus, Smyrna, Ephesus) there were
temples
for this cult, where the yearly gatheringsof the festal associations
to it took place.
devoted
It appears that the decision
of

the

'

to the

as

regard

attitude

does

allow

not

this decision, which

death
in

of the

which

of
'

had

not

to

Domitian,

under

even

if
form

definitelyin what

state

in

'

speaks of
Jewish apocal3rpse)
tians
martyr
Antipas and other Chris'

where

witness

made

up

older

an

faithful
'

subsequently took'

state

embodied
reallyauthoritative, was
Revelation of John (a revision in the

The

Pergamus,
for the

us

was

(C. J. Neumann).
reign of Domitian
the

the

Christianity,was

to

tradition

which

of

Satan

Jesus

worshipped

the

'

dwelleth

and

', that

for the

beast

word

neither

his

headed
be-

were

of God,

image

'

and

(xx.

4).
In accordance
refusal
to

the

the

to pay

national

conceptionof majestas (hightreason),

homage not only to the emperor as god but also
with the

divinities

Christians

state, rendered

criminal

law.

the middle

But

being regarded

only

of the third

few

liable

to

offence

against
punishment by the

as

an

until
and
governors
emperors
with this
acted in accordance

century
the extraordinary powers

conferred
commonly
the higher authorities
governors)
provincial
(especially
upon
for dealing with religious
offences, were
brought into operation
order
in
to
both
and
against
proselytizers,
proselytes
prevent or at least to check the apostasy of citizens from the
national
of procedure, not forming part
belief. This method
idea.

More

of the

of

regularadministration

arbitrary,was

in its nature

of the officialand

upon

the

sity
justiceand therefore of necesality
dependent upon the individuof the people;
varying mood

'

Religion

88
'

such
is
as
prevalenceof an instability,
in other
respectsin the administration
perceptible
hence

the

in

no

of

way

justice

'

during this period of decay

the state of public feelingwas

even

But

from

the

outset

hostile

They
were
despised by the educated classes for their humility, their
ignorance, their contempt for art and science and everything
which

indifference

their

The

hated

masses

those

who

time

as

went

Their

of their

life,which

implied censure

threats

of eternal

damnation

of

of

of any

degree ;
of what

atheism

their

to
hostility

kind

of

had

greatness, to whose
that

life worth

made

of the

favour

ancient

Roman

state
man

every

laxity,their

sufficient to

of the human
an

of the
and

race

'.

greater
mockery
gods, who for
even

an

raised it to such

indebted

was

living. As

faith showed

opposition

their
religion,

the national

protected the

strictness

the

alone

to

sacred, their abuse

millions held

centuries

hated

them

made

which

unbelievers, and, generally

for

'

their

societyof

paganism, the

"

But

state.

all festivities which

from

speaking,everything which served

these were
of Christianity
to the world
bring upon them the reproach of hatred
'

of

with

steadfastness

to accentuate

'

patriotism

the

from

aloofness

they clung together, their aversion

had anything to do with the cults

on.

vital interests

most

Christians, the

not

were

the

to

them.

so

more

life,for their lack

adorned

and

refined

and

became

Christians,and

to the

time

went

for thing
everythe adherents
on

increasinginclination

generalmisfortune to the wrath of

the gods at the decline of their worship, and to hold Christianity
and
Most
its professorsresponsiblefor this wrath.
of the sentences
of death pronounced upon
martyrs before the
reign of Decius, as in the case of the founder of the religion,
all

attribute

to

publicand

'

were

due

of the
a

the blind fanaticism

to

governors

Christian

author,

'

of the

'If the

'.

if the

Tiber

Nile has not

masses

has

and

the

left its bed

poured

its waters

ness
weak-

',says
over

if the sky gives no

fields,
rain, if there is an earthquake,
if famine
or
pestilencethreatens, the cry immediately arises.
To the lions with the Christians I
The
aged bishop Pothinus
ended
his life as a martyr at Lyons in the year 177, brutally
treated
All thought it would
be a grievous
by the mob.

the

'

'

crime

and

an

act

violence,for which
of time

the

idea

of

impiety not to take part in this wanton

their gods would
punish them '. In course
of Chrisgained ground that the entrance

Religion

190

sacrificed and
ceremonies
a child was
initiatory
tied to
eaten with bread dipped in its blood ; that dogs were
when
something to
the candlesticks, which
they pulled down
acts
thrown
to them
disgraceful
eat was
; and that the most
that

at their

This

under

committed

then

were

mob-frenzy

darkness.

so-called cution
persedivert from himself

of the

cause

To

Nero.

under

Christians

of the

chief

the

was

of the

cover

suspicion of having been the originatorof the great fire

for their
the Christians, hated
(July,64), Nero abandoned
clamoured
deeds
of shame
',to the fury of the people,which

the

'

for

Those

victims.

seized first ^

If not

of others.
to death
'

the

on

with

race

'

of

that

fearful tortures

aroused

they

put

were

of the

their general hatred

were

number

their

on

charge

such

Christians

themselves

information, an immense
of incendiarism, they
convicted

then,

avowed

who

human
sion,
compas-

guilty and deserved the severest

although they were
punishment (Tacitus). Wrapped in the skins of wild beasts,/
torn to piecesby dogs or nailed to the cross
; others
they were
'

'

set

were

fire,that

on

night.^

in

imperial gardens

The

illumined

might

flames

the

the

darkness

'

which

the

in

were

to

serve

lightup

Nero's

the
'

torches

St.

of

neighbourhood

Church.

Peter's

to us for dealingWith
generalinstructions known
the Christian questionwere
drawn
up by Trajan in his rescript
of Bithynia
to the younger
Pliny. The latter,when
governor
The

and

first

Pontus

about

the

112,

year

alarmed

at the

spread

of the

'

been
',asked for advice, since he had never
superstition
present at any judicialproceedingsagainst the Christians.
and
of
accused
convicted
Trajan decided that all who were
being Christians should be punished ; but that any one who
new

recanted
to the

They

and

gods should
not

were

of any

Hadrian

account

1
3

hunted

being taken

that

the

allowed
orders

in

the
a

Christians
decree

to
the

to

Christians

the

charged with

by offeringsacrifice
regard to the past.

also disapproved
emperor
of anonymous
denunciations.

out

only emperor who

; he issued
religion

of Asia

if

be

without

pardoned

the

was

'
Rather
were
Their bodies

ke torches.

to

be

notice

practise their
governor

his renunciation

confirmed

might only be called

crime, and that
nori-religious

to
in

first brought to trial'.

were

smeared

with

some

combustible material,
which

made

them

bum

Religion
such
In

case

no

should

mercy

be

191

shown

false

to the

accuser.

vention
general,however, the emperors held to the policyof interand
information
on
received,
punished when it was

unavoidable.

always

The

legalpositionof

the

Christians

was

became

worse.

thus

uncertain.

Under

Aurelius

Marcus

their condition

rescriptissued by him about 177, orderingthe punishment of

such
as
helped to disturb the easilyexcited minds of the
masses
by false belief ',was taken to refer to the Christians.
In
of the population of the
different provinces the wrath
towns
burst
out
We
terestin
against them.
possess the highly inand
of Vienne
report of the communities
Lyons to
'

the

brethren

in Asia

latter town

(of which
In

victims).
citizens
beasts.

Christians

who

the
the

were

thrown
to the wild
beheaded, non-citizens were
Contrary to Trajan's decree, the governors had the
hunted

visited

by

tribes,driven
had

persecution in
of
one
bishop was

condemned

the

out, and

according to

least

at

crossed

so

by

on

the

many
the

for

reason

fanatical hatred

before

Never

had

dire misfortunes.

the

In

pressure

of the

nations

overran

and

devastated

Danube,

this

contemporary
frequent practice.

It is easy to understand
the
the Christians
at that
time.

been

the

on

the

Pothinus

Lyons

general or

Phrygia

were

Christians
was

and

of

empire
German

166

behind

them,

the

east
north-

frontier

gary
provincesfrom east Switzerland as far as Hunand Transylvania,
and carried away
hundreds
of thousands
of prisoners
of their hordes
had
even
penetrated to
; some
For the first time
the empire was
of
out
Italy and Greece.
and
the Romans
joint. The severe
costly wars, in which
strained

lasted

nerve,

every

epidemic, brought
Rhine

and

changed

whole

harvests

and

the

to the
that

in from

the

tracts
famine

gods

of land

had

ever,

withdrawn

the

time, since

east, had
the

camps

the

their

162

In

was

fearful

addition, bad

sufferingsof

it seemed

enemy

penetrated as far as
of the legionsand

into deserts.

aggravated

Then, if

before

years

same

Gaul, devastated

utmost.

the

the

At

finallyoverpowered.

nine

reasonable

favour

from

the
to

the

people
believe

empire
likelyto

long visiblyprotected ; and what more

have
caused their wrath than the increasingapostasy from the
of the
national
faith, brought about by the false doctrines

they

'

had

so

atheists ',who

shunned

the

lightand

were

filled with

hatred

Religion

192
of

mankind

this

opinion

but

Marcus

to

some

himself

Aurelius
He

extent.

man

gods,

regarded the gods of all nations

equally deserving of reverence.
Finally,it must be remembered

shared

very

devout,

that

he

he

seems

and

would

not

have

to

equally powerful

as

at that

that

time

and

amongst
appeared,

had

founder
the

paraclete. The

the

western

sect called

in the

in Asia

Montanus

Minor

renunciation

the imminence

views

millennium,

also

be

to

spread

to

and

everything earthly,announced

of the world

of the end

claimed

strictest asceticism

the

of

Montanists, whose

(about 156)

Montanists, whose

church, demanded

unconditional

the

pronounced

most

was

of

only

have

visionarytendency
obstinatelychallenged and resisted the state authority.

which
It

themselves

Christians

the

not

was

declared

He
of strong faith.
without
to live in a world

care

must

and

excessive

attached

of the establishment

value

to

martyrdom

to suffer for their belief. This longing

encouraged men
for a martyr's death, disapproved of by moderate-minded
and ridicule of the heathen,
Christians, only atoused the scorn
advised
them
who
to kill themselves
to save
other people thfeand

trouble.

When

the

(184-5)vehemently persecuted
of

Asia, they crowded

to

before

voluntarilyoffered

and

be

words

ropes

led
'

and

martyrs
idea

that

it

the

reasoned

conviction.

The

persecution of
hitherto

the
possess
Christian
men

Genius

of

their
the

and

They

were

shown

date

also

Christian

no

the

rest with

return

to

there

by

the

Christian

Aurelius

with

emperor
not

declined
beheaded

the

even

to

victims

been

taken

paganism,

offer

involve

shed.

the
to

in

We

by

the

consul
proobvious

accused

by

swear

persisted
the

safety

ity),
recognitionof his divin-

thirtydays

the

day

same

the

against three

sacrifice for his

offer of
on

are

obstinacy,not ,of

professionof faith, refused

and

the

die

of Scili in Numidia

women

ordered

to

had

proceedings

Ephesus)

he

demanded

blood

in

province

(July 17, 180). Notwithstanding his

(althoughthis did
and

the

courage

that

efforts to facilitate their

in

dismissed

impressed Marcus
result of pride and

protocol of

of Africa

of them

of death

was

Africa, where

The

(atleast

want

Antoniflus

in his

Some

creatures, if you

!
precipices

in face

his tribunal

their lives.

'

Arrius

Christians

the

execution, but

to
away
Miserable

Gaius

proconsul

for consideration.
basilica

was

sub-

Religion
sequentlyerected
time

or

In Rome
their grave.
itself at that
little later the Christians were
condemned
to forced

(about the

in the

death

penalty;

mines

rank

the

was

those

they

the

to

liable to

were

their

liberation

of Commodus.

punishment next to the

it were
therebydegraded

side of their head

of slaves,one
the

owed

mistress

severest

condemned

in chains, and

worked

mines

190) to Marcia,

year

Work

to the

over

Sardinian

the

in

labour

193

shaven, they

was

corporalchastisement.

immediately after the death of

Aurelius the persecutionof the Christians stillwent on,
Marcus
a
their lot was
happier one, chieflyowing to the influence of
For nearlyseventy years they remained
unmolested
Marcia.
under SeptimiusSeverus and the
except during the persecutions
Although during

The

Maximin.

Thracian

years

stories of ritual murders

orgiesgraduallydied out,
boldly from its retirement and
A

Christians

diminishinghatred

the

proof of

less
shame-

emerged
Christianity

as

(even through marriage

contact

into

and

and

more

came

pagans

family relations).

and

of the

is that

Christians

millenary secular festival of the city of Rome, which was

celebrated (in248) with the greatestsolemnityfor three days
and nightsand undoubtedly called forth a great increase of
concluded without any hostile demonstrations
feeling,
religious
against the Christians.
of martyrs up to this time was
If the number
by no means

the

be

it cannot
inconsiderable in itself,
to the size of the

during which

years
the victims
called

be
the

martyrs).

stantine,in
whose
from
the

time

time

for the

in

248.

experiencesmight

rather

have

and terrible nature

survived two

R.L.M.

"

HI,

of the

of them, and

himself, before he

for
violently

He

'

says

suffered

was

death

martyr'sdeath

himself

suffered most

first had

the sword

condemned

been
as

years of age,
that his mother was

seventeen

few,

death

to encourage

persecutions.He

in the

by

weighty, since his personal

led him
to exaggerate

father, Leonidas, had

to

Only

of the faith,and

sake

more

His
cruel treatment.
(in202) in Alexandria
he

expresslyconfirmed by Origen,
writer of the period before Con-

is

is the

His

properly

cannot

easily be counted, have

can

portion
prodred
hun-

(not reckoning

their death

evidence

rest '.

the extent
had

to

This

Christian

numbers

the

largein
periodof two

who
persecution,

treatise written

and

met

they

of the Neronian

learned

most

empire

considered

Christian ;

longed
obhged
o

so

to

Religion

194
his clothes

hide

his father

in

was

martyrdom,
'

family :

See

sakes

our

exhorts

impressive letter

an

him

dost

thou

to it that

not

persecutionunder

the

Exhortation

an

exhorted

he

which

him

When

house.

not

consider

to

on

his

change thy opinion

for

'

During
issued

in

leaving the

prevent him
prison he wrote

to

them

not

under

threats

Origen

as

to

of

to the

to

Maximin
in which

Martyrdom,

sullythemselves

death

small

or

number

by

the

on

of

the

Thracian

he most

earnestly
single word, even

rack.

The
down

martyrs

he

evidence
to the

of

middle

(ifconfirmation were
century is confirmed
needed)
Persecutorum
On
in the passionate De Mortibus
the
Deaths
('
of the Persecutors
written
in
In this
by Lactantius
'),
313-4.
to follow directlyupon
Nero
(249-51)is made
essay Decius
and
Domitian.
that
the
Lactantius
states
good emperors
of the third

the

church, and

sufferingsand
between
left

had

Domitian

succeeded

who

fact that

the

oppressionsof
and

Domitian

very deep
Diocletian
cannot

he

the

Decius

be

But

in the

Netherlands, where

suffered

death

under

estimated

by

Paolo

Fra

zeal
the

of the

Christians

persecutions.
Alexandria,

of

by kings

and

'

'

was

The

since

that
rather

spread

the

of

not

like

and

and

cannot

prophesied that
Yet
in spiteof
doctrine

it flourishes

be

other

which

is

',says Clement

as

administrators

far

more

hindered

of vinces,
prosoldiers and a

hired
as

possibleto

and

It does

more.

; it does

from

God

minate
exter-

not
is

wither

fragile.

in its progress, although it

persecuted to the end '.

glowing missionary zeal,the

gospel,too sublime for a great,if not

relatively
speedy
causes,

faith

the most

greatest, part of the heathen

such

who

be hindered
it shall

of the

Duke

of those
of their

sake

their

perishlike a doctrine invented by man

a
fragilegift,for no giftthat comes

It abides

is

yet

of the

its first proclamation has been

rulers,by governors

And

number

doctrine

our

aU
all oppose
with
us
of others, seeking
multitude
us.

deed's

by Hugo Grotius at 100,000.

the religiousand missionary
inflamed than quenched by

who

vast

the

for the

at 50,000,

Further, it is well known

in silence the

over

during the period

have
that they cannot
the persecution of
even

with

of Alva

hostile to

Christians

compared
Charles

themselves

passes

shows

impression.

shown

not

world, could

never

have

lime
subthe

made

the co-operationof
progress without
had their originpartly in the needs and

Religion
weaknesses

of

conditions
The

human

of the

salvation

was

all,even

to

Naturallyit found
multitude

of

all mankind

appealed to

open
'

general,partlyin

the

social

age.

doctrine

new

in

nature

195

the

lowest

the

the

; the

and

favourable

most

promise

the

of

pised.
des-

most

soil in the vast

and

fortunate.
heavy-laden ',the poor and unIt brought the most
for slaves ;
joyful message
it announced
to them
their elevation
from
tempt
lowliness,conand a positionoutside the pale of the law to an equality
with
have
those who
free. It must
were
spread with the
greatest rapidity amongst this class,and certainlypenetrated

often

from

enough
But

master.

the

all it afforded

despairingand

invited

were

and

fools

New

would

Testament
known

consolation

to

prospect of

scofied

at the

free from

admit

guilt

both

sinners

In these circumstances

proclaimed could

gospelwas

classes.

it first became

in which

the

of the

consecration, the Christians

of God

in which

house

heathen

words, the unfortunate.

of the lower

of the

books

of

ceremonies

language

be that

to the

felt themselves

who

Kingdom

in other

"

the

only

the

guiltiest.The

those

only

to other

that

promised

the

slave

unexpected
; it opened

faint-hearted

to

idea that, while

cell of the

the

above

forgivenesseven

the

weary

Neither

the Greek

in which

the Latin
written, nor
to the West, is the written
or
are

'

the everyday language of the home

language, but
and the streets,of the workshops,
family, of the market

learned
and

country, of the

of the

camp

'.

to the new
very impressionable
also exercised a very considerable
its
doctrine
influence upon
in
the
Greek
women
propagation. Christianity elevated
fact

The

that

were

women

very inferior position,to the equals

and
marriage a new
; it bestowed
companions of man
upon
intimate
communion
consecration
spiritual
through the more

they held

countries, where

of

the

and

one

however,

Women,
their

positionas

Paul

had

to

belief

same

did

with

them

keep silence

to

their

But

husbands

what

for

uncovered

head

Corinth
to

for them

them

censure

in the

hope

woman

in the

within

was

churches, and

in accordance

with

gainedthe greatest number

the

Christian

praying
he

virginitya new
higher social value.

; upon

always keep

not

defined

and

lifeof

whole

the

sanctity; upon

and

community.

prophesying in
admonish

obliged to
to submit

the

limits of

themselves

law.

of converts

to Chris-

196

Religion
the very

tianitywas

made

thing that

same

Judaism, with

all

quirements
exclusiveness, so attractive : the satisfaction of the reof belief,sought in vain within the limits of paganism,

its

only a dogma depending upon revelation and thus

completelybeyond the reach of scepticismcould a"Eord. And
further, the mysterious nature of this dogma corresponded in
the highest degree
to the propensity of the human
mind,
But
believe
what
is secret
most
(Tacitus)
perhaps
readilyto
minds
the
as
promise,
nothing so irresistibly
impressed men's
before proclaimed with such unassailable conviction, of
never
of eternal bliss. In conjunction
a better life beyond the grave,
which

'

'

with

this

of

hope

which

threatened

powerful effect,since
was

very
second

of the
'

no

less than

and
In

and

Signs

unbelievers

to

of the

eternal

exercised

an

belief in the imminence

the

generalamongst

ments
punish-

even

of the

more

nium
millen-

until the middle

Christians

century.
'

wonders

and
sceptics

served

fear

happiness, the

confirm

also, after which

both

of

were

waverers,

Christian

the

believers

hankered

frequentoccurrence,
and

the

faith.

pagan

(Bishop of Lyons 177received

who
have
the giftfrom
202), his disciples,
him, cast
out
have
of
and
devils ; others
foreknowledge
predict the
future ; others heal the sick by laying on of hands, and bring
back
the dead to life. It is impossible to number
the gifts
the

which
and

of

name

the

Jesus,says

church

in the

exercises

has received
of

name

for the benefit of the

also she

from

Jesus Christ

acceptingpayment

nor

Irenaeus

; for

as

God

crucified

under

nations, neither
she

hath

whole

world,

Pontius

Pilate

for the

deceiving any

freelyreceived of

Gocl^;

(partlyfrom Keble's translation).

Arnobius, who
(likemost people) regarded the miracles j^rformed
by Christ as a proof of his divine nature, in repudiating
the assertion
of pagans
that he was
a
magician, laid special
so

stress
back

like

the fact that he

on

dead

the

of hands

freelyministers

the heathen

and
physicians,

to assist the sick.

sick men,
freed from
and

had

able to heal

to life by his word

; whereas

'

was

whom
their

in thousands

alone

men

by
sufferings

and

bring-

the

layingon
gods only prescribedremedies,
of cases
were
utterlyunable

Similarly,
Origen
neither

the sick and

nor

the

by

asserts

demons

simple

that

were

he

has

seen

able to heal ',

invocation

miracles
Jesus. Augustine relates numerous
seen
himself,includingno less than five cases

of

which
of

God
he

raising

Religion

198
ligionwhich
down

', says

The

blood

with

it,and
Who

incited
does

to suffer

embrace

not

inquiry?

and

himself

the

inquiry,which

accused

slaves

in the

fact that

god

strict

secret

ings
meet-

at
investigation,

which

two

female

that

nothing to accuse
'.
extravagant superstition

and

find

that their sole ofience

to him

and

their

could

offeringup

and

they

vowed

their

to break

robbery or adultery,never

error

them
The

consisted

assembling

prayer

before

to Christ

as

guiltyof theft,

be

to

never

or

of

habit

in the

they were
certain day,

extorted

at

deeds

of shameful

perverse

declared

to

in his

'

accused

on

Christians

of the

opponents. On the occasion of

capacity as governor of Bithynia

tortured, he

of, except

sunrise

morality

desire

not

of their

them

after

were

it, does

embraced

has

finished his

obliged to hold in regard to the Christians

the general prejudice,
Amisus), Pliny shared

in
(especially

but

he

The

even

felt himself

'

admiration

which

obstinacy

has

he

religionwhen

our

who, when

the

he

increases.

stubborn

That

mown

are

we

number

our

more

is seed.

Christians

more

a
source
reproach us becomes
profoundly affected by the contemplation of
of it ?
is reallyat the bottom
to inquirewhat

you
is not

who

the

The

of instruction.

which

For

'

Tertullian,

of the

'

followers.

such

had

word,

to

never

deny
they

After this
to them.
deposit had been entrusted
meal.
separated and assembled
together again at a harmless
Galen
of opinion that tlie faith of the Christians
was
taught
with
the precepts of true
them
to act in accordance
sophy
philoof
their
death,
; he
especiallyrecognized
contempt
hfe
their chaste, modest, abstemious, and strictly
moral
; and
that

held

that

in their
But

the

by

the

the

by

and

the

moral

fact

the
that

abuse

to

philosophers
attain

virtue.

some
certainlycontained
sinners, whom
they admitted

by

James

of the

which

found

Pauline
alone

Paul

and

an

at Corinth

communities
'

This

reallyreformed.

were

reproaches addressed
to

true

endeavour

earnest

all the

of reformation,

name

to

communities

not

inferior

not

were

Christian

elements

hope

in his
as

self-control
the

impure

of them

some

himself

doctrine

is

author
and

Crete,
to

and

proved

speaking

obliged to

relative

in

the

as

well

censure

power

'that the

brings salvation,
certain tempters in Pergamus
Revelation had to denounce
(the
Nicolaitans) who not only did not observe the regulationsas
to food enjoined upon
gentile Christians, but even
paid no
of

that

faith, as

Religion
regard

199

to the

prohibitionof lewdness '. In fact, it was just

this active charity and compassion, shown
by the Christians
to one
abused
another, that was
by hypocrites,who joined
the new
vantages
community in the hope of assistance and other adof time exaggerated rumours
as in course
especially
of the wealth
of the Christian
communities
penetrated the
heathen

world.

their

It

declared

was

'

that

the

'

brethren

sold

proceedsto the church ; that they

the height of piety to striptheir own
children
as
in order to enrich the church.
dering
Already Paul speaks of wanmunities
Christians, who live upon ('devour ')the foreigncomand rob them
of their property,and he himself
was
obliged to vindicate himself before the Corinthians from the
In the Teaching of the Apostles,
reproach of intentional fraud.
goods
regarded it

written

and

about

instructed

the

And

when

'

bread,

of

Hadrian, travellingmissionaries
than

more

if he abide

departeth

he

false

time

but

he

until

the

to remain

not

place :

same

ofiered

findeth

days, he

three

is

at

; but

if he

ask

in the

most

false

apostlereceive

let the

shelter

days

two

are

prophet.

nothing

save

he

is

money,

that

in the

Yet
one
speaketh
prophet.
every
spiritis a prophet,but only if he have the ways of the Lord
anti-Christian
an
translation). From
(Lightfoot's
standpoint,
Lucian
has described
the sympathy shown
to the philosopher
he
by the Christians of Palestine, when
Peregrinus Proteus
to
his conversion
cast into prison for having declared
was
not

'

their

faith.

After

they had done

his release, they sought

their

(but

utmost

in

vain)

to alleviate
in every
secure
way
the hardships of his imprisonment. At daybreak old women,
to

orphans gathered round the prison gates. The

obtained
heads of the community, by bribing the guards, even
permissionto pass the night in the prison. Food in abundance
widows

and

taken

was

arrived

in, and

prayers
the

from

even

consolation, advice
Lucian,
all

they possess
secured

source

Lucian
hence

of

and

considerable

income

at meals.

for

and

his

to him.

In

in such

this

of this

world

to

cases,

and

For

the

ofier

says

give
grinus
Pere-

manner

imprisonment

proceeds,imagine that an eternal life

they attach little importance to life on

good things

Envoys

Minor,

incrediblygenerous,

hesitation.

money,

up

of Asia

assistance

without
much

ofiered

communities

themselves

show

they

were

was

the

unfortunate,

will be
earth

theirs ;
the
and

further, their first lawgiver has

Religion

200

the

when

moment

begin
with

alike and

without

fools

his way
of these

short

time.

the

any
into their confidence

Tertullian

also

faith,and

to

the

censures

lavishingtheir giftsupon

unworthy

assistance

false

There

is
as

favourable

various

weU

as

enthusiasts

of their false

in

very
excessive attention of
of those

imprisoned
priestsagainst

the

who

persons,

prophets

solicit their

of every

fanatics, found

and

postors
kind, im-

specially

for the propagation

communities

Christian

soil in the

to make

pretences.

false

that

doubt

no

wealth

seriouslywarns

Ambrose

under

amass

bodilynecessities

to the

for him

it is easy

simple people,and

communities

for the

they despise all earthly blessings

to aU, having adopted these
as
common
If a clever impostor
sort of warranty.

regard them

theories

and

gods

to live in accordance

and

sage

Hellenic

Wherefore

his laws.

worms

crucified

worship their

to

another, from

of

they are all brothers one

they have rejectedthe

that

them

taught

thereby acquired influence

doctrines, and

men,
reputation. It is equally certain that ambitious
whose
humble
position or other disadvantages prevented
them
from
attaining their aims, attempted to play a part in
denied
them
in political
life. From
this societywhich
was

and

the

beginning

communities
each

sectarianism
the

other, with

amongst

persecuted the sects,

church
bitter

rife

was

hatred

and

Christians
in

that

splitup

so

were

the

except
Refutation of all Heresies
long before 235 by Hippolytus,
common

the

rigourismof

Celsus

they

the

sects

had

that

af"rmed

scarcelyanything

(see p. 189) composed

a

with

man

and

not

strong leanings

Montanists, gives an

of the divisions

interesting
summary
bosom

the

and

name.

The

towards

Christian

passionate accusations,
charges brought against

hardly surpassed in violence by the

the Christians
generallyby the heathen.
the

the

extremely
in the

antagonisms

of the Christian

communities, chieflydue to difierences

also of the difiiculties
of opinion in regard to doctrine, and
and

discomforts

the

Christian

the

head

which
with

of the

sometimes

the

world.

pagan

Christian

community

clearlywhat ugly passionswere

time
by religiouscontroversies
account,

which

main

follows.

as

is in

resulted

many

the

contact

of

Hippolytus' attack on
shows
at Rome
only too

aroused
in

from

the

and

fostered

Christian

at that

world.

His

respects characteristic,is

in the

Religion
Callistus

Christian

201

belonging to a freedman
named
Carpophorus, an official in the palace of the Emperor
who was
also a Christian.
Commodus,
Carpophorus entrusted
a

considerable

a
a

was

Callistus,with

to

sum

slave

of
banking business,the profits

it

carried

was

and

his

harbour

of Portus

sail.

and

took

back

followed

port he sprang
Rome,

to

and

punishment

was

persuaded

to

who

were

in their

But

him.

their

it.

time

win

to

the

of

several

collectinga debt,
Sabbath
and

and

in him

had

hard

Las
many

in the

labour

Antas

in the

other

be

to

Christians

to meet

his life and

Under

of
had

who

The

them

latter

at

the

been

same

pretence

on
synagogue
Jews fell upon

of the

had

his engagements,
of

the
him

city praefectFus-

flogged and condemned

mines
(the lead mines
the island),where
there

Sardinian

south-west

the

tears

safely invested.

sum

into

the tribunal

him

ordered

brethren

induced

that

martyrdom.

his way
the service.

before

him

to

made

disturbed

dragged

cianus, who

he

of the

representedto him, with

end

an

of

pulledout,

was

the treadmill
by Carpophorus
slaves) However, Carpophorus

confidence

put

his

saw

to

him, when

glory

ship justready

but

Callistus,finding himself still unable

to

Callistus,

Callistus

sea,

to Callistus,and
money
that he still had a certain

attempted

But

ruptcy,
verge of bankaccount, fled to the

their

them

widows

to the

When

into the

in the bank

eyes, that

entrust

assured

release

interested

in

his, although

Many

name.

sent

(acommon

to

master's

to found

was

to be

rendering an
refuge on board

escape

Carpophorus
in the

master
taken

to

he

were

deposited their money

mismanagement had brought him
in order

to

which

brethren

whose

to

under

on

which

condemned

on

him
near
were

account

Marcia, Commodus'
mistress, desirous of
bishop Victor (198-9) to
performing a good work, ordered
give her a list of the martyrs in the island, and secured their
Victor had purposely omitted,
release.
Callistus,whose name
of their faith.

But

persuaded the eunuch Hyacinthus, the bearer of the letter of

foster-father
and
at that
Marcia's
was
emancipation, who
time a presbyter in the community, to procure his release
Victor was
of Sardinia.
from the governor
greatlydispleased,
but confined
at Antium,
These

events

himself
and

to

settled

took

ordering Callistus
on

him

monthly

place between

Zephyrinus (199-217),the

to take

successor

186

and
of

up
allowance

his abode

for food.

190.

Victor,

was

accord-

Religion

202

ing
of

who

Hippolytus a simple,ignorant man,

to

but

theological doctrines,

bribes.

avaricious

was

nothing

knew
and

ingratiatedhimself with him that Zephhim

and appointed him overseer
to Rome,

Callistus

so

yrinus summoned
of the
by him.
great cemetery recently founded
each
of the rival partiesin
succeeded
in making
believe

got himself
with

that

elected

false and

to

open

he

was

its side, and

on

In this

bishop.

the

in this

capacityhe

manner

forward

came

been

twice

perniciousdoctrine

thrice married

and

to continue

in

holy

orders.

symbol

the

was

ark

animals.

He

and

The

together with the wheat

grow
sinners
should
be allowed
to

saying,

remain

in

which

himself

Suffer

the

the

clergy
tares

to

that

mean

church, whose

contained

clean

and

clean
un-

ally
culpablyindulgent,especi-

permitted to live with slaves

of inferior status, with
whom
or
men
they could not contract
Their repugnance'
a valid
marriage without losingtheir rank.
of such marriages led these women
to rearing the children
to;
fresh crimes.
Thus
this impious wretch
both
taught
adultery
to

of rank, whom

married

allowed
'

the

', he interpretedto

of Noah,
showed

asserted

munity
com-

unity of
the Father
of theology, and
and
the Son, founded
school
a
promised forgivenessof sins to all who should joinit. Many,
whose
conscience
smote
them, including those whom
lytus
Hippohad
from
in
accordance
with
the
community
expelled
the
Callistus
sentence, joined this school.
condemnatory
for a deadly
taught that a bishop ought not to be deposed even
sin ; he appointed
who
had
bishops, priests and deacons
a

he

Callistus

women

he

"

and

murder.

During his episcopatealso, for the

attempted by his followers.
baptism was

second
There
here

be

can

no

alleged,but

explained,and
We

shall

it is

substantial

equally clear

commented
discuss

not

of the

doubt

in

upon

how

far

that

the

average
But
the

of a more
morality ', admit
account
given by Hippolytus

spiritualdisciplineand

he

community

which

knew

is said

things

of his
are

entry

omitted

have
him

into

which

after
intelligible,

been
as

orders, and

facts

collected,

are

of

timei

manner.

Callistus,his

'

legitimization of
favourable
judgment.

his

chosen
common

of the

hostile

doctrine

of

how

they

most

exercise

could

truth

first

makes
as

it

hensible
incompre-

its head

criminal.

probably

might possibly make

such
a
past. Callistus

many
such

by the
Nothing
other
an

appears

vation
eleto

Religion
have

become

deacon
the

the

ministers

and

funds

have

In

to avoid

been

of

of the

orphans.

for him

of

minister
Pope Zephyrinus ; as such he adthe community,
paid the salaries of

positionit

place laid
of the

brilliant

of these
called

last

of
resting-place
re-discovered

was

place

land

on

belonging
This

down

popes
the

to

nineteenth

narrative

of

forgotten :
possibly separate
that,
bear

their share
of

of the

the

evils and

(died 314)
defatiga
century by the in-

and

desire

is to

them,

are

the

the

the

virtue
Yet
had

Corinth

spoke

so

former

see

is

times
some-

could

not

with

the

are

meek

only natural
only love and

pagan
and

of

God,

the

even

than

the

heads

can

ill of it.

At

that

time

'

heads

way
and

indolent

more

to have

and

of

other.

Athens,
of the

peaceful,since
no

made

councillors
the
the

the

harmony

communities

in

to

that

the

communities

hardly believe that

completely changed since

we

but

of the civilization

persecutionin

Christian

them, will be found

perfectamong
cities.

Rossi.

of what

us

please God ; the latter, who

Even
the
given to sedition.

communities

towards

course,

mutual

and

hatred

Alexandria

cities ;

same

De

inconveniences

faith should

Compare, says Origen,

Corinth

the

was

communities

Christian

It is, of

new

and

one,

cemetery,

themselves

period.

the

apologistsof
in the

the

that

servation
pre-

entirelyfrom the world,

continuallycalled upon
contrary, they were

the

on

reminds

Hippolytus

dividual
in-

to

Miltiades

genius and successful explorationof

The

perty
pro-

possessionthe

of Callistus, which

Cemetery

during

The

the

on
way
the first

title of

whose

the

the

Callistus.

Appian

burying placesdepended.
the

time

same

all appearance
cemetery
at Rome
recognizedby the state ;

taken

upon

of

name

the

near

to

was

had

members,
since

him

community

burials

at the

archaeologicaldiscoveries,

the

with

by

out

Caecilii

Christian

ever

; but

church, and

inseparably connected

hitherto

he would

hardly
ministra
bishop had not his (eighteen years) adbeen
in the main
beyond reproach.
foundation, of great importance for the history

primitive Christian
subject of one of the most

of the

difi"cult

elected

venerable

burial

to widows

been

have

must

causing dissatisfaction

of the

is

alms

distributed

church, and

such

203

their

resemble
elders
and

more

of
less

progress

in the

various

congregation
time

of

Paul

when

debates, envyings,wraths,

tumults
strifes,backbitings, whisperings,swellings,

'

(2

Cor.

Religion

204
xii.

of every
short, irregularities

in

20)
"

; and

their assemblies
Clement
is to

written

of Rome,
heal

it is

that

writer declares

community,
According
persons.
about

the

middle

had

arisen

time

and

infirmities.

and

the

writer

There
utters

lack

no

suffered

who

Carthage,
rather

deserved

days
the

to

suffer

of

had
peace
priests there

sincere

by

had

God

of

the

to

unbelievers, of oaths

arrogance,
that

sins ;

the

had

the

long

ministers

moral

He
faces, painted their eyes, dyed their hair.
of insatiable avarice, of cunning frauds
snares

enmities,

Christians

the

faith, no

simple, of

evils

discipline.Amongst

in their works, no
mercy
disfiguredtheir beards by art, women

Men

moral

escaped by flight)

piety, amongst

no

munity
com-

Bishop Cyprian

their

moral

undermined
was

(composed

257, says

he

account

on

more

in

two

or

Roman

various

forth.

so

which

instituted

test

one

quarrelsand

martyrdom

persecution(under Decius,
was

and

The

trustworthy

warning against ambition,

drunkenness
avarice, adultery,
of

of

century,

them.

of

sake

so-caUed

first

amongst

from

suffered

was

of the

century),the

second

also

end

Shepherd of Hermas

the

the

letter of the

for the

elders

rife in

were

"

this old and

disgraceto

to

of

that

at

the

resist their

to

the

towards

that

schism

objectof

the

kind

no

discipline.

rouged

their

further

plains
com-

deceive

to

the

dupe the brethren, of marriages wfth

rashly taken and of perjury,of haughty

of
them, of envenomed
insults,!
contempt of those set over
quarrelsand obstinate hatred of one another.
Many bislAps,
their
sacred
became
office,
neglecting
agents (procurators)
of secular
their communities, and
dered
Wanmasters, abandoned

foreignprovincesin search of gain.

starving, they went
community were
seized estates by fraud, and
increased

over

in

the

money,

by

John

usury.

longer happen,

example
there
In

is not

acted

'.

'

has

Extreme

repressedduring

the

but

this

can

sworn

falselyto

outbreaks

of

found

and

their

incomes

miracles

by

no

the

amongst them.
who
attempts
to

me

become

I have

never

and

I have

me,

dissent

early centuries by

of

pursuit

utterly corrupt, and

exhort

me,

brethren

converted

the Christian

you

cheated

is

to be

to
replies

How

be

only

can

in

that, since

says

of love

heathen

A Christian

Christian
so

life ;

trace

even

him

convert

Christian

heathen

of Christian

Augustine,the

to

so

Chrysostom

the

While

the

acted
never

certainly
persecutions that
were

2o6
in

Religion

the

of

name

communities

Lyons 177-202)speaks of Christian

Iberia, Gaul, in the East, Egypt and
of

the

Tertullian

still

uses

the

Addressing

language.
'

come

addition

In

asks,

countries

in

centre
to

threatening

even
'

the

ascribed

treatise

in whom

For

anointed, who

in the

the

to

he

Jews,

peoplesbelieve,if not

all the

of

high-flown and

more

in

Libya, and

author

The

(Rome).

world

(bishop of
in Germany,

Irenaeus

Jesus.

crucified

the

do

has

which,

already
according

Jewish inhabitants, he mentions

Acts, there were
Gaetulia, Mauretania, Spain, the districts of Britain untrodden
but subject to Christ ', Sarmatia, Germany,
by the Romans,
the

to

'

'

and

other

many

islands

'.

declares

He

lack

we

numbers

199), if we chose
cherishingrevenge
and

limited

are

to
than

numerous

of

are

yet

the

the

camps,
forum

present day

their
the

of

Marcomanni,
yet
district,more

own

entire

already

tribes, the

is
be

exaggerating
were
only

Christians

the

earth

of

the

We

filled your

whole

public

decuries, the palace,

more

if it

case

It is also

Origen

few

employed a,jf

were

proportion of Christians

the

other

'

population of the
preserved show
to 325

great exaggeration,far

world.

very
Roman

74, up

the
to

statement
in

doubt

no

in reference

the

(about
merely

'.

populationsof
to

some

of

Should

greatest peoples,who

the

have

we

language there
perhaps than would

who,

the Moors, the

Are

singlecountry
population

this

in all the

and

Tertullian

', asks

the

senate, the

more

the

in secret

'

population.

cities,islands, fortresses,municipal towns,

places, even
In

the

nearly everywhere

instead
displayopen hostility,

to

yesterday

dominion,
the

of

resources

Parthians, and

the

even

Christians

that

and

'

lands, provincesand

unknown

larger half

the

already formed

and

distant

in direct

(severaldecades

direction, declares
'

in

proportion to

empire.

that

up

than

550,

to

Statements

98

tradiction
con-

later),
that

the

entire

quite

some

42,
placescontained

up

the

dentally
acci-

to

180

Christian

communities.
But
a

small

in the

Roman

minorityas

at least up

to the

exclusivelyfrom
joke amongst
convert

the

the

empire
late

as

of

lowest

heathen

Christians

only formed
this minority,

not

the third

beginning
the

the

century, but
the century, was
drawn
classes
of society. It

that

the

Christians

simple-minded,only slaves, women

and

could

almost
was

only

children ;

Religion
that

they

rude, uneducated

were

members

of their communities

artisans

and

old

dispute this.

not

is

from

the

attested
the

the

the

from

Eusebius

higher classes.
enjoyed
propagation, so

distinguished for their birth

their
of

reign
rich

and

'

of which

is to

it had

Tertullian,

to

of senatorial

women

took

Severus

the

in

persons

at

peace

Rome,

salvation

to

able

the

well

Christian

previouslybeen

not

'

the

present day
delicate

as

messengers
obtained

Christianitythen

say,

adherents

family '. Origen (in

Severus) says that

as
high dignitaries,
the

of

contributed

turned

wealth,

and

ladies, receive

that

and

several

middle

that

says

Commodus,

that

household

many

born

nobly
word

entire

Alexander

men

under

'

its

did

the

says

Church

greatly to
with

themselves

community of Christ
the Lyceum
and
the Academy, but
{de vili plebecula).It is expressly

lowest' rabble

amongst

the

account,

no

by Christian writers that, even

up to the
faith counted
century, the new
only few

third

which

Christians

that

chiefly
peopleof

The

Jerome

recruited, not

boorish

and

were

women.

207

to boast.

and

of

the

successes

According

his

under

and
protectionmen
openly professed Christianity
;

rank, who

already observed, the indulgence shown

by Callistus
to distinguished female
proselytesexcited indignation in the
Roman
In 258, the emperor
Valerian
addressed
community.
and,

as

the

rescriptto

senatorial

and

household

and

the

senate, to

effect

that

Christians

of

equestrianrank should be deprived of their

be
; if they persistedin their belief,they should
possessions
members
of the
imperial
punished with death ; Christian
in

chains

the

time

of

amongst

the
the

whereas

the

on

classes
is the

reverse

of

the

end

are

very

the

in

is

with

rarely mentioned

time

of

in

obtain
Marcus

accurate

Aurelius

of

terms
and

the

information

only mention

new

Christianity

literature,and
and

Pliny
younger
circles in Rome

sect

to take

concerning
the

that, till about

and

indiflference

upper

in the

fact

Christians

classical

in

Trajan, the

interested
sufficiently

the

labour

Consequently, from
spread of Christianity

this is the

century.

expressionsof Tacitus
the

domains.

forced

to

variously and expressly attested,

in regard to the preceding period.

case

second

only casually,and

condemned

onwards,

Commodus

upper

be

imperial

complete agreement

In

The

should

court

it.

courage

the

contempt.
show

that,

were

trouble

Epictetus
with

then

which

not

to
and

the

Religion

2o8
Christians

went

this

consider

been

mentioned

the

result

obstinacy

of

it.

It

nothing in

infatuation.

that

there

already

has

faith of the

the

Galen, while

that

but

nizing
recogastonishment

of the

followers

nothing
belief

complete

Christ in doctrines

and

Marcus

dignity,and

about

saw

for the

however,

them,

conviction
intelligent

Christians,felt

of the

contempt

the

it lacked

and

foUy

virtue

and

of

Lucian

that

but

Christians

not

of

Both

theatrical

something

even

be

that

declared

also

was

to

courage

famiharity with death,

Aurelius

death.

their

to

proved, since
he, like all the heathen, had absolutely no idea of a religious
diffuse and
In the
extremely detailed history of
dogma.
carried down
Rome,
by Cassius Dio to his own
days in the
of Moses

and

reign of

Alexander

of the Christians

Domitian

under

Severus,

mention

no

accordingto him,
accused

were

held

'

; that is,he
does
not
Herodian

the

'

of

the

them

is

expressly made
Christians
persecuted

atheism

Christians

mention

not

were

and

be

to

and

Jewish
Jewish

the

even

of the

historiae
imperialbiographies(caUedScripfores

some

of whom

only

notice

till the

them

and

reign

of

sect.

compilers
augustae),

Constantine,

casually. It

second

was

not

writers
century that
Christianity.Fronto
repeated the most
of the

fabrications

Celsus, who

the

as

seldom

very

attack

ridiculous

early

as

of the

middle
to

began

wrote

tices
prac-

been

had

heathen

mob

and

carefuUy informed

even

by

the

Platonist

Jew concerning

object of the Christian doctrine, in his lengthy treatise

against it expressed himself to the effect that the dispute
between
Jews and Christians, which accordingto him turned
the prophesied saviour
entirely upon the question whether
had
already appeared or not, was
nothing but a dispute

the

'

about

an

The

ass's shadow

'.^

of

rank

only persons
conversion

whose

DomitiUa, who

Flavia

hand, the far from

that
same

execution

the
time
to

the

time

Christianityseems

before

Commodus,

probable, are

Clemens, executed

Flavins

consul

to

in

due

was

was

clear

in 95, and his wife

banished
to Pontia.
On

excerpt from

of Acilius
to his

Suetonius, he

was

Glabrio

Dio

in

(orsister)
the

other

no

way
proves
the
about
(consul91)

ing
professionof Christianity
; accordcondemned
for supposed revolutionary

plans.
"

the

expression
proverbial
=

'

about nothing at all '-

Religion
The

old

sopher
personalrelations between the philoand the apostlePaul has not as yet been found
in fact, although it is very easy to
foundation

tradition

Seneca
to have

any

understand

how

attribute

to

209

of

it may

have

arisen.

It

very natural
with Christian

was

points of agreement
many
doctrines in the writingsof Seneca to the influence
the

opinionsand
of the apostle,whose
easily have brought

years'captivityin

two
him

into

might

Rome

the

with

philosopher,
especially as the proconsul Junius Gallio (who acquitted
Paul
when
he was
brought before his tribunal by the Jews)
Seneca's brother.
TertuUian, Lactantius, and Augustine
was
make

mention

no

'

Seneca

as

that
which

result

he

from

his

of

the
he

Augustine

siders
con-

of the heathen,
superstitions
could

not

publiclyannounce,
that

studies ;
philosophical

the

of God

purpose

Christians, to avoid

the

'

faith

true

speaks of

Lactantius

he

was

spread of Judaism (which he hated),because

ignorant of

was

the

senator

at the

astonished

tradition.

of

ignorant

Roman

the

the

his freedom

as

was

of

contact

that

he

praisingthem

tioned
men-

never

in defiance

of

opinion,or blaming them, perhaps against his

own
feelings.Jerome had read certain letters (some of which
been
the
still extant),said to have
are
exchanged between
apostleand the philosopher; but they are in realityone of
the

national

the

numerous

literaryforgerieswhich
the

by
(end

of the

that

in

zeal of the
religious
third or beginning of

family, which

Christian

at least derived

or

tradition

the

its

of his

certain Marcus

Marcus

son

memory
of the

apostleswere

the

of the second

of

use

amongst
that

the

all

that

and

name

epitaph on

Paulus

were

can

both

origin to
Senecae,
tomb

at

Paulus, preserves the

of the two

There

its

Annaei

Petrus.

popular amongst

very

Annaei

An

inscription

century)shows

back

of the

Annaeus

Annaeus

heathen.

the two

the

The

Christians ;
unheard

togetherwas

be

names

little doubt, therefore,

Christians.

of personal relations between

possibility
apostleand the philosophercannot be absolutelydenied,
this possibility
a
certainty
previous attempts to make

Finally, if
the

from

name

An

fourth

traced

highlyprized.

was

Ostia, set up by

Christians.
the

tence
into exis-

called

were

must

be

the

considered

(oftenalmost
Seneca
R.L.M.

with
"

XII.

those

to

word

have
for

of Paul

completely failed.
of the

The

ment
agree-

used
expressions

word)
by
the
sinfulness
general
concerning
P

Religion

2IO

to the similar

due

been

have

must

of mankind,

circumstances,

dispositionsof both, like everything else

in Seneca's
approximates to the Christian
writings which
also be completely
this agreement may
But
point of view.
form in which the Stoic philosophy
explainedby the particular
in the nature of
developed,a form which had its foundation
of the school
and in the milder
Stoicism itself,
representatives
Marcus
Aurelius) very naturally
(Seneca, Epictetus and
character
assumed
a
sympathetic with Christianity,although
experiencesand

tradition has

no

from

Christian

last named

that the two

asserted

ever

borrowed

sources.

all that

Consequently,judging from

of the

first

hardly be imagined that

world
before the time of Septimius (emperor 193the pagan
Severus
(emperor 222-35), had the least
211) and Alexander
anticipationof the future historical importance of the new
cized.
religion,then so little regarded and so contemptuously critiof the Christian

centuries

could

What
of

this

things in

empire

an

to last for

destined
assistance

'

assistance

those

to

he

has

has

for

done

call your

own

Do

clod

if you

are

'

appeared

without

has

the

promised

belief in

And

of

of

world, including yourselves

Celsus,

for them

men

order

world

the Romans,

the whole

Instead
even

established
of the

not

assert.

you
done

not

the

professtheir

you.

have

earth, you
can

he

'

', says

who

greater blessings,as
what

God

ignorant recluses,

dominion

god, rule

of your
Your

'

of

against

whose

ever

can

crowd

avail

importance,

no

era, it

know

we

him, and
see

now,

(the Romans)
being rulers of

of earth
found

or

home

wandering

his

even

for

selves,
your-

and

what

the

whole

that
about

you
in

punished with death '. In

existed
side by side,
an
religions
empire in which so many
the idea of a universal
religionmust have appeared absolutely
only possible', says the same
incomprehensible. If it were
secret, you

are

hunted

down

and

Greeks

and

'

author,
and
But

'

that

Africa
any

all the

to the
one

who

ends

of the

thinks

it

barbarians

earth

could

possible is

in

Asia, Europe

recognizeone law !
utterly devoid of

'

understanding!
The
decided
victory of Christianitywas
freedom
religious
guaranteed by Constantine.
faith then
immediately began to exercise
suppressionof paganism, at a time when

by

the
The

complete
victorious

its power
in the
the old belief had

Religion
not

ceased

only

and

annoyance
reallybeen
its

to ofier any

overthrow

complete

have

must
time.

But,

on

under

by

the

advantages,but

as

in
and

within

and

decay

increasing

Had

paganism
dissolution,
of Christianity

supremacy
short
very

of
space
struggle,carried

of fact, its death

matter

of

state

the absolute

followed

entailed

its adherents.

persecutionupon

for centuries

211

the

greatest disadvantages, was

prolonged for two
centuries
polytheism,utterly powerlessand defenceless
; and
it was,
still survived, although Christianity
ever
as
more
and
and
endeavoured
to
more
relentlessly
indefatigably
stifle everything in the old faith that still gave
signs of life,
aid

of

This

paganism

alone

age.

Constantine's
and
of

period
Julian); and

under

can

the

half

about

the

century
heathen

197)

word

', and

calls

in the

than

towns

Christ

tion.
persecu-

of
great vitality

the favour

edicts

ment
encourage-

seventy years
yet, as already
the population
in

the

time

in the time

senators, although at that

had
subsequently Christianity

in the

'

the

prove
After

and

half
over
scarcely have won
nobles
the
empire. Nearly all the Roman
to the old religion,
and
devoted
Julian were

Theodosius
and

old

brief reaction

observed, it
of

its

to

Christianity
enjoyed
secular
authorityfor

of the

(exceptfor

is sufficient
in

even

of toleration

of

compulsion,robbery, destruction

country.

made

far

In the

of

time

greater progress
of the fourth

course

(countryman) came
in the poem
Endelechius
quoted
is worshipped in
the god who

to

paganus

mean

above
the

(p.
great

Judaism also in the Diaspora was

only one.
chiefly,although not exclusively,a town religion.
But
even
during the persecutionstarted by Theodosius
after the fall of the pretender Eugenius, who
in 380, which
forward
had
been
induced
to put himself
by Nicomachus
carried
with
on
Flavianus, the champion of paganism, was
cities

the

as

vigour,the

renewed
resistance.

First

chapelsand
to

ashes

of their

and

East,

sword.

defenceless

bitter

and
the

fire and

and

sanctuaries,
women

the

'

remarkable

belief showed

seats of the ancient

by

scattered

in

old

as

then

the

in

cults

were

But

if the

West,

laid low

rural

their

children, for their cattle, crops,

deprived them

of

temples,

and

reduced

populations,

unable,
they were, were
prevent the destruction

complaints, to
which
on
they placed all

loss of which

powers

in

spite

of their

hopes, for men,

and
plantations,

of all the

joys

of life '

Religion

212

in
(Libanius),

the

combats

bloody

towns

took

often

only too

place between the populace and the furious clergy and monks.
With
the exception of direct compulsory conversion, every
kind of violence
All

employed

was

for the

suppressionof paganism.
and

observances,

sacrifices,ritual

in

attendance

the

threat of the severest penalties

forbidden
under
;
temples were
and
banished
of
their
from
the priests
were
privileges
deprived
confiscated.
Yet the
the towns
the
were
temple possessions
;
and
during
penalties
repeatedinsistence upon these regulations
the
slow

fifth

and

even

was

the

process

faith seemed

the
of

deprived

how

when

even
extirpation,

been

to have

century, shows

sixth

of aU.

extremely
the

ancient

of existence.

means

with draconian
legislative
rapacity combined
the
in
of
defenceless
severity
persecution
paganism, is proved
of Augustine, not to plunder
by the repeated exhortations
the heathen
the cloak
of religion,
and
under
by an imperial
rescriptof the year 423.
Paganism also at that time had
That

crime

and

its

martyrs,

and

virtuous

what

to

the

and

deeds

of horror

the

of

murder

Alexandria

at

Hypatia

Christian

This

abominable

the

in the

year
fanaticism
of
spirit

the

beautiful

415, shows
could

drive

mob.
of extermination

systematic war

waged against paganism

had lasted for a hundred
and fifty
years, and yet the life
of the
ancient
belief was
In 528
not
completely extinct.
Justinian felt impelled to order a rigorous persecution of the
'

so-called

adherents

Hellenes

of

paganism

patricians,learned
his

'.

In

discovered

were

and

men

itself

Constantinople
and

physicians ;

numerous

arrested
of

one

amongst

them

took

life,the rest embraced

Christianity.In 532, Bishop
made
of the
tour
a
John of Asia, by imperial command,
he converted
provinces of Caria, Lydia and Phrygia, where
own

and

baptized 70,000 souls. Any one

idols was
to be punished with death.
flood of barbarism, which
the foundations
hastened

the

the

529,

year
was

Apollo

on

of

paganism

destruction
when

the

still in the
Monte

St. Benedict.

the

offeringsacrifice

ing
In the West, the advanc-

at the same
time
away
ancient
civilization generally,

and

former.

Yet

it

country population of
main

pagan,

that

was

converted

an

the
year
edict of

same

philosophers,
expelled by

to

swept

of the

Casino
In

found

the
into
seven

not

was

the

hood
neighbour-

last
a

until

of

temple
cloister

last

by

Athenian

Justinian,emigrated

Religion

214
all

cases

here

and

been

of
replacedby holy personalities

there

they

faith ;

new

ground, like

their

maintained

have

the

Demeter

worshipped at Eleusis, and Santa Venere invoked in southern

Italy and Sicily; or they have been changed into the new
and
their myths into Christian legends. Thus,
personalities,
of Celtic
mothers
apparently,here and there in Gaul the
the three
holy Maries ; Hehospopular belief have become
of the sun
the driver of the chariot
Aumu,
worshipped in
into
transformed
the country east of the Jordan, has been
in a chariot
drawn
the prophet Elijah ascending to heaven
by a
by fiery horses ; and Hippolytus, who probably came
'

'

in

martyr's death
tradition

torn

was

the

his namesake,
'

Least

offended
for

it is with

'

them

that

libations, expiatory sacrifices,

the

heroes, the demi-gods, the deified

Heracles, Asclepius, Dionysus and many

the

to the rank

of

befel

king of Attica.
Theodoret,
ought the Greeks to be
place at the graves of the martyrs,

takes

what

at

fate which

the

"

of Theseus

son

all ', said

of

horses

pieces by

to

Sardinia, according to the

of

mines

the

how

gods ;

then

have

men

raised

were

be

the Christians

can

originated.

others

reproached

of God,
honouring
martyrs as
it better
without
deserves
making gods of them ? Who
their
than
helpers and
they, the champions of mankind,
the
they avert evil and drive away
protectors,from whom
for

the

afftictionswith
Childless
become
to

them

to

mothers

he

attend

of

destroyed,
upon

the

Dionysia

lord
driven

and

of

by
ostentation
reserve,

as

and

votive

them

Christian

In

feet and
of

of

sobriety

be

the evidence

are

gods

are

his

dead

own

their honours

Pandia, Diasia,
of Peter, Paul, Thomas,

martyrs
and

hands,

the

bestowed

place

these

by

introduced
and

may.

journey, begf
who
return
safely)
offerings
presented

temples

that

must
sensuality,

is shown

out

they

'

of eyes,

all has

other

Theodoret,
and

the

festivals,those

other

Sergius,Marcellus
assertion

of

children.

own

those

fulfilled. The

place,has

his

gift,implores them

way,

silver models

vows

for

thanks

demons

that

starting on

are

the

on

their

received

has

the

by

them

to

pray

who

them

them, gold and

evidence

who

servants

threatened

are

women

those

it;

to them

in their

they

barren

to

render

which

and

preserve

and

witnesses

the

are

celebrated

celebrations

modesty,

not

accepted with
of Christian

are

'.

The

panied
accom-

by pagan
considerable
writers.

CHAPTER

PHILOSOPHY
No

who

one

has

literature needs
as

whole

the

even

to

is most

gods,

executors

AS

as

MORAL

directors

of the

moral

of its laws, requirefrom

shown

EDUCATOR

superficial
acquaintancewith classical
be reminded
that, in antiquity,morality
with religion
intimatelyconnected
; that

reward
obligations,
been

III

the

good

order

and

and

fulfilment of moral

the

men

world

of the

punish

has

It

evil.

the

that

to exist unchanged
polytheism continued
down
to a late period of antiquity; it
amongst the masses
remains
to refute the idea that the
anthropomorphism of
the Greek
had
infected
the national
which
faith of
religion,
the Romans,
exercised a demoralizinginfluence by attributing
to the gods human
and passionsand representing
weaknesses

them

as

was

favourite

with

transgressorsof
The

heathen

laws.

Christians

of the

argument

paganism.

moral

the

Of

this

course,

in their

struggle

possiblybe virtuous,

cannot

naturally good, since the

example of their gods trains them to vice Jupiterto adultery.
Mars to bloodshed, Mercury to fraud, and so forth.
Augustine
held the opinion that the evil spirits
even
worshipped by the
Lactantius,

says

if

even

they

are

"

heathen
deeds

allowed
which

themselves
had

they

be

to

accused

in order

committed,

never

of

disgraceful
to

ensnare

selves.
drag them to destruction with themof polytheismmany
But even
amongst the adherents
with
looked
stories,which taught men
suspicionon those
to sin '. Dionysius of Halicarnassus
theology
preferredRoman
the minds

of

and

men

to

'

to

Greek, since the legendsin the latter

only

serviceable

while,

on

to the

the

other

mankind, untrained

regard as

lawful

the

in

few

who

were

understood

of little use
their real

hand, they taught the great

and

ing,
mean-

mass

philosophy,to despisethe gods, or

infamies

and
21S

crimes

attributed

of
to

to them.

2i6

Philosophyas

This

of

assertion

the

Educator

his attack

Dionysius, in

popular belief,is

of the

Moral

more

the

upon

understand, since

to

easy

absurdity

which
that sophistic,
it may
be assumed
delightedin showing
in praiseof what
its skill in defence and even
was
reprehensible,

arguments from legend ; thus, in

of Aristophanes,the
raises
Clouds
Unjust Argument
not
punished
question why, if justiceexists, Zeus was
his father with
In the Homilies
chains.
having bound

did

the
for

so-called Clement

of the
have

the

right.
the

of

art

defence

The

of

set

subject for
gods in their
his

table

on

could

the

the

dish

followed

the

good

of

consciousness

If

in

not

meals

assembled

Cronus
was

gods. In fact,
by legend to the
in

even

of

men

imitate

Metis, Pelops

attributed

acts

should

we

their

swallowed
the

the

and

wrong
relies
chiefly
upon

exercises.

reallymisled,

have

adultery ; perhaps
practice

ings
gods (and also the teachby a refutation,perhaps

other

before

that

'

of

appear

why

amours,

is said

woman

rhetorical schools, for

bad

rhetorical

ever

moral

encomium

children, Zeus
as

virtuous

adultery,which

of

it is inconceivable

gods

the

Jupiter and

devoured

'

an

is
philosophers)

of the

the

by

making

'

of Rome

subjectin the

was

amours

also

seduced

been

this
in

borrow

to

'

the

to

disdain

not

ancient

times,

ordinary intellect

and

moral

and thieves
adulterers, murderers
; that
responsibility
have
could ever
seriouslyattempted to justifytheir crimes,
to themselves
and others, by tbe examples of Jupiter,
Mercury
and

other

support of

the

if

propositionthat

do

harm,

in

discoveringexcuses

traditional
can

misused,

he

proofs
there

that

says
for sin,

immoralities

of

is

adduced

by Ovid

nothing which
who

women

be

might

led

in

cannot

ingenious

are

into

it

by

the

'

the

goddesses :
Corrupt minds
be led astrayby anything '. On this point Seneca expresses

himself

if he

as

belief in the
from

the

gods. Amongst

men's

had

fear whatever

no

legends so
minds

absolute

and

as

of the
to

doubt

of
possibility
all fear

remove

he

of sin

is

right. For if the

unbelieving rejectedthe popular belief just because of these
as
fables,the rationalists,
always, explainedthe contradictions
between

tradition

and

no

the

demands

of

by artificial

reason

(euhemeristicor allegorical)
or by
interpretations,
that
committed
and

the

immoral

acts

attributed

by
merely
believers
were
unreflecting
the

semi-divine
content

to

the

the

gods

demons
in such

tion
assump-

were

while

cases

really
naive

to recog-

as
Philosophy

nize

mysteriestoo deep

rules for human

no

and

Greek
of the

existence

based

upon

this evidence,
comedies
their

and

could

erotic

cunning devices,

order

certain

to

in which

poems,

abundant

which

evidence

of the

will of the

the

by

217

derived.

moral

is made

appeal

be

furnishes

belief in

maintained

Educator

understanding,from

literature

of the

and

for human

action

Roman

Moral

universe,

gods. Against

frivolous

jestsin

swains

amorous

excuse

their

lapses from morality and even

deeds
of shame, by the example of Jupiter and
the other
gods. They even
quote the monologue of Byblis (in the
Metamorphosis of Ovid), who attempts to justifyher unnatural
passion for her brother by the marriages of the gods with
their
be

With

sisters !

asserted, as

ancient
and
have

exercised

might

made

to

expressionsof
'

which

done

God's

to

the

embarrassment

the

sins

heart

own

of

character

in

patriarchs
Testament

attempt
or

necessary

the reader

that

not

only

coarse

literature,in

modern

mention

'

to remind

might
of the

the
Old

in the

devil

the

it

reason

demoralizing influence ; and an

support the assertion by jokes

similar

more

even

appeals to Scripture ; we may

Frau
Schnips. It
Biirger'spoeticaltrifles,

of

one

or

that
apologists,
after

men

be

often

was

Christian

other

equal

is

such

were

hardly

offeiices

but
that
everywhere severely punished by
legislation,
the gods were
as
worshipped and invoked
protectors of the
laws which, according to the legend, they had broken.
same

civil

In

not the Greek

was
Zeus, like the Roman
Jupiter,
particular,
a
god of marriage ?
and
will
idea of the nature
In every
religiona mistaken
of the
be found.
Benjamin Constant, whose
deity may
remarks
polytheism generally are also applicableto
upon
that
the
polytheism of our
period, very rightly observes

general spiritof religiouscreeds

the

to their moral

by

the former

god,

kill
of

'

appear

of

one
'

The

faith
to

in

an

amour

whose

in all

the

human

of Mars

the

passions aroused

that

good faith,in

commandments

fables consecrated
certain

in contradiction

of the latter ; that

the fulfilment

by

with

Rhea

Rome

order

please

shalt
the

not

object

they sometimes

in

traced

Silvia ;

murders
to

Thou

religionare

permanently

brain.

'

is,

respects mechanical

establish themselves
of

to

hinder

frequentlycommitted

are

and

commandments,

is often

none

partment
specialcom-

back

the

its

origin
less,any

21

Philosophyas

vestal who

allowed

punishment

'.

herself to

undoubtedly

The

Educator

Moral

be

seduced

view, that

correct

gods in legend permit themselves

the
moral

law

by

illustrated

no

do

privateexcesses
their

soldier

although
like the

he

affect the

not

subjects.
of

accused

murder

himself

the

by

Constant

by

by

indicates

means

'

of the

In

in

their

fearful

licence

the

which

reference

Macedonian

whose
mitted
com-

the

camp

Alexander,
of Clitus.
The gods,

murderer

by

public and a private

In the former
character.
they are the upholders of morality,
in the latter they foUow
inclinations ; but only
only their own
in their public character
have
they anything to do with
great ones

world, have

it, is

to

example of kings,
laws againstexcesses
the

the

to

indifference

condemned

was

the

was

sufiered

'.

men
'

The

moral

gods

not

are

the

but
originators,

the

guarantors of the
alter it ; they do not

law.

They protect it,but do not

issue its commandments,
in force.
but keep them
ward
They reand
their
will
does
what
decide
not
but
good
punish evil,
is good and evil ; human
actions are meritorious or the reverse
in themselves."

But, although belief in the government

respect for their will, hope of their favour
wrath

of divine
and

powers,

fear

of their

the most
essential supalways reckoned
among
ports
of morality throughout antiquityand
(as already ob- i
not, properly/
recognized as such, they were
served) were
were

speaking,the

foundations

of

The

morality.

duties of

to

man

the

not proclaimed'
divinity,to humanity and to himself were
by the revelations of a higher will,nor by the teaching of a

divine

the heathen

prophet ;

without

had

not

received

the

law

from

; as the

apostlesays, they were a law unto themselves ;

to depend not only upon their own
knowledge of their
duties, but also upon their own
strength. They had no idea
of an
absolute truth, founded
supernaturalrevelation,
upon
and

had

and

could

understand

not
of

reason

redeeming
highesttask of
a

to which

faith,and, above

the

ordination
aU, the sub-

faith,could be meritorious

sanctifyingvirtue.

and

in the

to

that

thinkingmind

conviction

was

In
the

of Christians

their

and

possess

opinion

search

revelation

after

had

the

truth,
set

limit for ever, so that henceforth

it was
not only superfluous,
but even
unlawful.
The
heathen, says Tertullian,are ever

as
Philosophy

seeking truth,
questioningnow
that

have

we

but

find it ; we
have Christ

never

that

the

we

If

Gospel.

Christian

opinion

wisdom
of

the

their

and

morality
absolute

have

219
of curious

need

no

of

Jesus,nor

inquirynow

lieve
this,we desire to bebelieve I This, according

shalt

final

the

was

Galen

Educator

believe

we

nothing besides. Thou

Julian the apostate,

to

Moral

the

of the

conclusion

physician,who

had

Christians, could

of

high

stand
under-

not

belief

of the Jews) in
(like that
doctrines
had
not
the
which
been
proved true. While
of Christianitypromised redemption by faith,
messengers
heathen
philosophyproclaimed salvation by knowledge. The
knowledge of good and evil, promised (accordingto Genesis)
by the tempter, was for it the attainable objectof all human

aspirations,the foundation

to be

which

be based.

alone

is the

knowledge
all

moralitycould

of all moral

root

knowledge can
without
knowledge.

errors

virtue

efiorts,on
by man's own
According to Socrates,
action, ignorance that of

laid

no

exist

more

In

the

knowledge, vice

without

same

virtue

the

way

than

Stoics

fined
de-

ignorance. Consequently,
virtue
and
with
it happiness in this life were
attainable
by
to subject his lower
man
knowledge, which enabled
impulses
For
divine
in his nature.
element
to the
paganism knew
nature
being thoroughly bad, of the
nothing of human
doctrine
of original sin ; even
according to the Orphic
doctrine
it contained
the
good derived from
Dionysus as
virtue

well

as

the

idea

of

the

as

bad

derived

need

from

as

the

Titans.

redemption by supernatural

of

foreign to the
spirit of the ancients
acceptance as their intellect decayed and
be imagined than
No
greater contrast can
self-control

proud

of the

the

redemption

and

the

Among
for

cheek
For

him

unable

his

cardinal

who

to disturb

contained.

that

found

its

vigour.

between

the

by mysticism, his

subjectionto the
virtues
of paganism there
after
for the patiencewhich

Yet,

to

knows

his
as

will of

absolute

the other

humanity

torment

lost

only

abilityto subdue all passionsand

Christian's feelingof dependence, his need of

humilityas

turns

and

was

grace

of his

consciousness

desires,and

room

philosopherunaffected

also, the

Hence,

have

the

wise

existence

happiness,which
Socrates

blow

on

one

smiter.

the
(i.e.
no

little

as

was

God.

man)
;

or

the
at

evils which

least

they

is self-sufficient and

said,the whole

lifeof the

are

self-

philoso-

Philosophyas

220

pher
him

is

preparation for death,

other
any
level of human

than

above

for

the

of the
But

in the

is invulnerable

less

terror

is raised

man

from
to

for

the

fluence
in-

its attacks.

tion,
possessionbut in renunciasistently
(forwhich cynicismquitecon-

in

not

of all needs

absence

had

weakness, withdrawn

happinessconsisted

this

which

By knowledge

man.

world, and

outer

Educator

Moral

not
only of external
strove), in the abandonment
possessionsbut also of the most important interests,of the
which
nature
innate
tribute
confeelingsand inclinations of human
most
and

happiness.

to

renounce

'

in

The

certain

of

motto
sense

'

Epictetus,

sums

the

up

Sufier

practical

consequentlythe theory of happiness,of all

philosophicalsystems. The aim of all knowledge, says Seneca,
is free is happy,
is to teach
to despiselife ; only he who
us
and only he is free who
hopes for nothing and
says Demonax,
Stoicism
with
at one
fears nothing. Epicureanism and
are
Ufe ; like the
Christianityin their seclusion from political
apostle Paul, Epicurus and also Epictetus placed celibacy
above
ledge
marriage ; scepticismbased happiness upon the knowof the
impossibilityof knowledge, consequently, in
philosophy,and

of knowledge.
reality,upon a renunciation
Ancient
of
the terrors
philosophy, therefore, overcame
death
not by the hope of celestial happiness,but by the knowledge
of the small value
of earthly existence.
The
Christian
belief and hope, the love which
springsfrom respect for that
which
is beneath
to paganism. It
equally unknown
us, were
to recognize
was
Christianitythat first taught mankind,
humility and poverty, mockery and contempt, outrage and
misery, suSering and death as divine, and to honour and love
sin and crime as not hindering,but promoting hoUness
even
foreign to the ancient world,
(Goethe). Such an idea was
and
now
again. Plato
although traces of the feelingoccur
and
Aristotle proposed that
children
mutilated
sickly and
Seneca
thinks no
should, be put to death in the ideal state.
of drowning crippledand
more
misshapen children than of
drowning mad dogs and unhealthy cattle,which might infect
'

'

the

whole

herd.

can

consider

In

his

the wise

man

Stoic doctrines,he neither

wise

man

must

by sympathy

not
or

allow

opinion,only
too

harsh

feels

his

of

men

no

intelligence

if,in accordance

compassion nor

serenityof

mind

other emotions, for this is

with

the

forgives. The
to be

weakness

disturbed

of feeble

Philosophyas

222

that it

declared

towards
a

heathen

the

early centuries

great extent, to perceivethe sharp and fundamental

'

between

main

was

borrowed

the

that

was

and

trained

in him

before

God

relation

derived

to

; it

the

what

the

law

above

was

From

Rome
had

or

false in it

was

in

of

Christ,

perfectionthat was to be embodied

given to the Jews, so philosophywas

was

Thus,

Jews

some

all Plato

and

the

it,as children

heathen

and

his teacher

for Christians

indispensable
;

opinion of

Testament

forerunner

Christian

of

just

were

Socrates

(who

in

in accordance

with

philosophy was

able,
valu-

Even

of

this truth

by false prophets
of philosophy to Christianity
original,of fragments

the

afraid

Old

foisted

godless pagans) spoke

eyes were
spiritof God.

were

debted
in-

were

their education,

was

Luther's

nay,

time

for the

heathen.

given to the

The

singlewhole

men

the

; as

of the

the

parts to

which

philosophersfrom

devil.

by the

sent

that

at

Clement

truth, whether

by inferior angels ;
misunderstandingsor was

result of

mercy

philosophy in

them

to

brought

the

by

Greek

to

contrast

'

from

who

it also'contained

that

doubt

no

virtue

and

like all Christians

in the
had

justice

from

virtue

of Alexandria,

it

highestpractical

ethics,they failed,at least to

of

system

in the

Christians

of the

attitude

the

for

in it the

saw

freedom.

moral

proof of
As

but
permissible,

was

Educator

Moral

writers

ghosts,and

who
had

disdained
formed

no

it.

century B.C., Greek philosophy

had
make
its
begun to
(as already observed)
wayjto
and the West, and, in spiteof all attempts to checkut,

made

the

middle

of

the

second

of relatiosis
multiplication
with Greece, the ever-increasing
immigrationof Greek savants'
and more
to Rome, the more
to
frequentjourneys of Romans
Greece, where they frequentlystayed for a considerable
time,
the
of
introduction
Greek art and
gave a powerful impetus to
Cicero emscience, and of philosophy in particular. When
ployed
the enforced leisure of his last years (45-43)in rendering
readers
in a popular form
accessible to Roman
the most
portant
imresults of the post-Aristotelian
dently
philosophy,he evisupplied a general want that was
keenly felt by his
educated
works, which have
countrymen. His philosophical
done so much
the knowledge of Greek philosophy
to introduce
the nucleus of the new
to all succeeding ages, formed
philoconstant

progress.

The

as
Philosophy

sophicalliterature
Quintilianreckons

Moral

Educator

223

of Rome.

Amongst its best read writers

(Lucretius excepted) the Stoics Brutus
Plautus and Seneca, Cornelius Celsus (thefollower of the Sextii,
who were
and the Epicurean Catius,
closelyakin to the Stoics),
the only addition to whose
in the second
numbers
century a.d.,
is the Platonist
Apuleius.
Now, although after the fall of the Republic the influences
favourable
to the spread of Greek
philosophy in the Roman
world

increased

in number

of it, based

in the

practicaland

the

continued

exist.

to

in
not

aU

like-minded

strength,the

main

the

on

The

to become

old

Roman

realism

and

view

expressed by one
good to take a sipof
'

absorbed
Roman

in

also that

it,was

and

statesmen

like
disthe

oppositionbetween

theoretical,between

Ennius, that it was

but

bound

and

idealism,

of the
'

acters
char-

philosophy,

of Tacitus

and

patriots,who

were

speculative
system, which led to indifference
its most
to the State
and
Although an
important interests.
with
the
doctrines
of
acquaintance
philosophy, that noble
science ',was
regarded as worthy of commendation
; although
that moderated
the passions was
a
ceded
consalutaryinfluence
to oppose

'

'

to it ;
its
a

that
the

he

considered

was

Helvidius
take

might

blows

of

of

circles,over-zealous

reprehensiblein

Priscus, who

part in

studied

in aU

morality,was

relations

study

Roman
'

Stoicism

state affairs better

fortune', and

highestclaims
since

these

yet, among

doctrines

senator.

'

and

in order

equipped against

of life satisfied
Tacitus

according to

of

an

the

tion,
excep-

'

the

the higher studies

in
majority only affected
indolent
order to conceal
an
inactivityunder a high-sounding
the
'. In Tacitus
Rufus
name
highly respected Musonius
ledge
plays the part of a ridiculous pedant, who parades his knowthe

on

attempted
of

soldiers.

of the

and

truly wise

discussions

but

to

all the
he

What

the

duties

legionsof

ever

philosopherhas

ever

year
70 he
before the gates

the

6f peace and
blessings
difficulty
escaped ill-treatment
Quintilianalso contrasts the
on

'

who

devotes

themselves

of

in the

Antonius

administration

'

asks, has

occasions

man,

hold

philosopherswho
from

the

with

and

war,

the hands
citizen

to influence

by addressing them

of Rome
evils

unsuitable

most

citizen
been

as

far

state ', with

the

not

as

'

general. What
prominent as a judge or

interested

himself

true
idle

aloof

in

at

to

himself

of the

the

in the

possible

sopher',
philoorator

manage-

Philosophyas

224
of

ment
them,

Educator

affairs,for which, however,

state

fond

are

Moral

of

rules ?

down

laying

'

majority

the

The

of

Pliny
purity,piety,justice,

inferior in

younger

praisesTitius Aristo as a man

of those who make
and strengthof mind
to none
outward
an
Yet
he does
show
of philosophy.
not
frequent gjnnnasia
and
nor
spend his time and that of others in idle
porticoes,
the toga and is
and lengthy discussions, but he always wears
turn of mind
must
have
always busy '. Men of this practical
regarded a regular study of philosophy as intolerable in the
of a ruler.
Some
case
expressionsof the pretender Avidius
Cassius
afford a specimen of the manner
in which
the philosophical
studies of Marcus
Aurelius
criticized by the opwere
ponents
of philosophy. He calls the emperor
the disputant ',
the philosophical
old woman
', 'he institutes researches into
'

'

'

of the elements, of men's

the nature
and

has

our

philosopher'spraefectof

as

heart

no

as

poor

become

suddenly

rich '.

Virgilianverses,

in the
In

the

and

arts

like
of

study
it

that

the

world, while others

the

'

was

court

injurious to
took
order

place of

be allowed

he had

which

and

then

one

who

believe

and

honest

themselves

livelyinterest

of

things, above

warning

may

work

that

not

in the

to the

all real

or

since
;

many
incalculable

on

the

rule

prize

jiie
firs1^
by

ground Ithat
'

rule

Irfi the

cf)fthe

maintenance

and
governmentalL

despised as f^^ared.
to
ideology a dant'^.ger

much

so

in

emperor

'

'

in which

Maecenas

presence
to be on

of

i,^nfolds
also
Augustusi,^^^

his

guard agEu^t

revolutionaryideas.

He

were
pretended philosophers

Areus

and

wear

this

mischief

from

son

the
to

all in

saw

reason,

propagated

men,

such

off the

introduced

destined

was

without

who
philosophers,
not

to

upon

her

been

by Seneca,

speech in Cassius Dio,

of imperialpolicyin
principles

contains

on

oracle,in which

to carry

dissuaded

itself. The
the

an

called

were

mother

circles,philosophy was

Caesarism, not

in

Severus,

"

Nero's

Chaeremon

established

that

up the study of music

in his resolution
by the

gave

Romans

might

philosophy,to

circles which

heard

sciences.

manner

Stoic

Alexander

to him

quoted

declared

was

When

strengthened

was

have

the

Mammaea,

philosophy,he

and

You

praetorianguard, who was

days before his appointment, has

three

of his mother

advice

it

for affairs of state.

beggar

souls,of virtue and justice,

to

Athenodorus

mask,

in order

states

and

had

must

worthy
proved

that

they

individuals.

as
Philosophy

In fact,like the murderers

Moral

Educator

225

JuliusCaesar, many criticsof the

the most prominent leaders of the
government, and especially
oppositionin the senate in the first century,professedthe
doctrines of the Stoic school.
Amongst them were republicans,
such

Paetus

as

Thrasea

of

and

Helvidius

Priscus,whose

aim

was

political
martyrdom, and of those who took part in the Pisonian
and
Seneca.
conspiracy (65) against Nero at least Lucan
Besides, the emperors In general were
only too ready to listen
to insinuations
against Stoicism and philosophy. In 62
Rubellius

who,

as

Plautus

had

put to death
Tigellinus
representedto Nero,

the ancient

been

Romans,

made

of imitating

show

man

adopted the arrogance of

the Stoic school, which formed
and produced turbulent spirits
Nero
'.^
ever
to
was
seeking danger {negoiiorum)
instigated
Thrasea
(in66) by Capito Cossutianus, who reprepersecute
sented
to him
the

senate

head

of

Thrasea's

as
a

act of

an

faction.

and

while in exile,a
'

had

abstention

from

rebellion,and

He

declared

the

deliberations

Thrasea

that

he

himself

had

rather

satellites,
who, although they did not

imitate

the

of
the

as

partisans,or
to
yet venture

audacityof his language, reproducedhis demeanour

and manner
and morose,
if constantlyreproaching
as
; stem
the emperor
for his excesses.
Either their principles
must
be
the leaders and instigators
or
adopted,so far as they are preferable,
of these
that

has

hateful

innovators

produced
to the

even

monarchy, they
have

overthrown

the Tuberos
old

make

republic. In order

use

son-in-law, who

and

and

is mentioned

Pliny and even

by Tacitus
political
martyrdom), was
like Suetonius
for

his

i.e. political
martyrdom.

R.L.M.

"

III.

the

his

to be in

the

days
father-in-law,the birth-

(forthe

in exile.

second

time)

Priscus,who

celebrated

ideal

was

figuresof

respectby the younger

(in spiteof his prejudiceagainst
condemned
archists,
by conservative mon-

and

downfall

Suetonius, Vespasian endured

1

reported

was

banished

Cassius,was

Vespasianand put to death

the
subsequentlyreckoned
among
Stoic school

names

to overthrow

of

under

the

the Favoniuses,

and

celebrating,
togetherwith

of Brutus

It is this sect

libertyas a pretext ; when they

it,they proceedto attack liberty. Helvidius

Priscus, Thrasea's
habit of

be removed.

must

with

Cassius

Dio, who
himself.

upon
Priscus' defiant

throw

the

According

ponsibility
res-

to

obstinacywith

Others translate 'eagerto take part ia publicaffairs',

226

Philosophyas
patience,tried

extreme

of

manner

Dio's
to

to
a

fix the

reprimand
of

the

philosophersupon

but

at

and

the
friend
and

others

to

throw

mud

'

declares

same

at the

the

that

as

until he had

delivered

in

the

and

Helvidius

acted

if it were

seditious

was

always abused

the

existingorder

imitated

archy
mon-

accordinglyand incited
the task of philosophyto

stir up the masses,

of things and to bring about

government,

Helvidius

fortunately
un-

Vespasian'spowerful friend Mucianus,

praiseddemocracy,
do the

was

He

mob, that he had

of the

it

excerpts from
certainlyattempts
preserved.
and
proceedings against Helvidius
Only fragments

the

time

same

when

his wrath,

restrained

been

have

odium

his death

impertinentremarks,

numerous

account

prevent

late,and

too

submitted

to

Educator

Moral

to

Thrasea,

but

to
a

throw
over-

lution.
revo-

greatly his
directed
inferior. Thrasea's
against a Nero,
oppositionwas
but his words
9.nd actions were
fined
always temperate ; he conhimself
to passive resistance.
Helvidius, on the other
dissatisfied with
a
hand, was
Vespasian and opposed him in
publicand in private; he sought death and thereby paid the
offences.
penalty of numerous
According to Dio, other Stoics,
well as the Cynic Demetrius
Seneca expresses his
as
(forwhom
admiration),publiclyexpressed views incompatible with the
that
existingorder of things. The result was
(between the
were
expelledfrom Rome,
years 71 and 75) all the philosophers
with the singleexception of Musonius
Rufus
(who had been
banished
and
certain Hostilius were
a
by Nero) ; Demetrius
deported to islands. In 93, the philosopherswere
again
in
connexion
banished
the
trial
with
of
the
Domitian,
Stoic
by
in a panegyric on
Thrasea
Rusticus, who
Junius Arulenus
and
of other senators
had called him a holy man,
who
held
the
views
this
directed
same
:
prosecution was
entirely
wherever
it manifested
itself
against the political
opposition,
was

'

in literature

writers

en

masse

from

after the death

changed,

was

towards

the

In

chair,and while the most

and

with
not

government, but

letter written

(96 or 97) Pliny expresses

goverimient

famous

expelled

capital'.

of Domitian

philosophy,which

hostile to the
way.

the lecturer's

criminally punished, the

were

the others

But

and

the whole

it the

attitude

only
was

ceased

soon

system

of government

of the

emperors

to be

regarded as
encouraged in every

immediately after Domitian's death

his delightat the gloriousrevival of

as
Philosophy

intellectual life in Rome,

examples,

of which

as

attested

it would

Educator

Moral

be

by

227
glorious

and

numerous

suflScient to mention

the

one,

lectures of the Stoic

philosopherEuphrates. Pliny also praises

Trajan for taking specialinterest in the education of youth,
and for highly honouring teachers of rhetoric and philosophy.
Studies,which had been punished with exile by a prince,who,
'

vices,proscribed,from fear rather than hatred,

fostered and
opposed to vice, are now
everything that was
conscious

made

of his

much

and

of

have

under

by Trajan. They

recovered

Domitian

lived

in

had

land

';

Dio

of

vigour,

Prusa, who

(voluntary)exile,returned

after

The

to

is said

native

reign of his former friend Nerva was too short

enjoy the benefit of his favour ; Trajan, however,

his death.
for him

their

full of life and

are

to

purposely distinguishedhim,

have

and

Dio, in

one

hortatory speeches on the government, declares that the

took
alone, not in
pleasure in truth and frankness
emperor
sought the society of philoflatteryand lies. Hadrian, who
sophers
of his

was
learning,
perhaps the first who appointed
publicteachers of philosophyin Rome. Antoninus Pius
appointed them in all the provinces,and accordingto his letter
to the diet of the provinceof Asia the immunity from taxation,

and

which

in the

number,
be

of all men

few

the

fixed in accordance
in

of them.

; at

Aurelius

from

Under

this

amongst

Rusticus

of

case

the

the throne

women
a

get

adviser
and

the

had

Aurelius

after his death

public and

great weight,in time of peace

ordered

be

to

paid

Marcus

the

Stoicism, formerly so persecuted,

recommendation, and those who

in all

always embraced
praetorianguard,

were

show

Stoic

before

him
twice

the senate

of it.

Junius

Severus

The former, a son

highly honoured.
by Domitian,
Junius Rusticus executed

his words

the emperor
fects of the

there

philosophybecame

on

of Marcus

to

was

summoned

men

influential and
of

certain

towns,

pretended to adopt it or made

the emperor's philosophicaltutors the
Claudius
and
the PeripateticGnaeus

to

to

since
philosophers,

salaries of the learned

considered

now

was

Among

The

the size of the

with

philosopheron

fashion, even
wished

the

limited

was

continued
to
including the philosophers,
Athens
appointed by
publicteachers were
the four most
important schools.

museum,

to them

teachers

of other

case

unrestricted

so

of

or

were

son
grandthe

was

private affairs,
well

as

as

war

going on

nominated

to erect statues

to the praehim consul and

in his honour.

',

as
Philosophy

228

Claudius

Gnaeus

consul in

been

Severus,

146

Educator

Moral

distinguishedcitizen,had

Aurelius made

; Marcus

his

his

already

of the

son

son-in-law.

same

the

Of
later
173)
(consul 163
Septimius Severus, followingthe example of Marcus
emperors
ing
AureUus, showed
especialinterest in philosophy,and accordallowed
to TertuUian
philosophersgreat libertyof speech ;
and

name

in

spiteof

and

the

their attacks upon the emperors

of statues.
Severus's
honour

with

him

as

the

result

received

intriguesof

of the

salaries

wife, Julia Domna,

to philosophy,after she had

her attention

also turned

they

the

quarrelled

favourite

Plau-

herself with philosophers.

tianus, and surrounded
Further, at the time when
suspected and
philosophy was
lack of philosopherswho
no
persecuted, there was
zealously
and
to
themselves
their
strove
learningas entirely
represent
harmless
to the government. Martial's friend and countryman,

of

and

Thrasea

enough

shrewd

Cato
'

not

', for which

swords
declares

of

Decianus

the advocate

he

does

to

he

not

Emerita, professedhimself a follower

in other
a
words, he was
Stoic, but
with

run

bare

breast

against drawn
The
by Martial.
poet
purchasesfame by his

is commended

want

blood, rashly shed, but

who

man

who

one

deserves

praise without
repeatedly defended

in his letters has

Seneca
martyrdom.
philosophy against the reproach of hostilityto
In
time
he
be

when

letter,which

may

philosophybegan

the

science

attacked
of the
which

world

and

affords

defence

itself shows
One

ground.

find

ment.
governabout
the

not

are

worst

against virtue, that the name

to be holy and venerable.

must

that it had

flee from

refuge in philosophy,

sure

protectionnot

good but also amongst those who

which
the
the priest's
even
fillet,
worthlessness
be so powerful,never
continue

written

with suspicion,
upon
that it could
inconceivable
ever

this

on

been

to be looked

quite
speaks as if it were
so
suspected,although his

already been
the dangers

have

the

only amongst
utterlybad,

respect.

will there

Never

be such

the

like
will

spiracy
con-

of

philosophy wiU not

Further, the philosopher

modestly. If it is asked whether

acted
in this way,
Seneca
Cato
approves
repliesthat he expresslydisbut also
of his participation
not only in the civil war
in the party quarrelsthat preceded it,as quite useless.
He
pointsto the example of the Stoics,who, retiringfrom political

must

behave

in
life,

quietlyand

their seclusion exert

themselves

for the ennoblement

Philosophyas

230

Moral

Educator

prevent its becoming the

subject of conversation and attractingattention.
It thus appears
that Seneca
by no means
attempted only
to representas baseless the apprehensionsand charges brought
againstphilosophyby the representativesand uncompromising
system, the latter of whom
supporters of the existingpolitical
conceal

even

have

must

been

very
them

amongst

in all

numerous

all who

desired

all material

basis of

the

price as

retirement, to

his

oned
circles,since they reckand

peace

order

To

progress.

the

at
mass

any
of

people philosophy,with its high moral claims, its severe

condemnation
of laxityof morals, its homilies and admonitions,
them
from
which
their selfunceasinglyattempted to rouse
complacent indolence, must have been exceedinglyannoying ;
that they were
and further, the claim of philosophers,
better
the

stood

and

offensive

higher level than other

more
strikinglyit manifested
a

on

the

of life and

manner

appearance,

was

men,

itself in dress

externalities.

other

the

more

and

This

is

addressed
complaint against Stoicism
by
The
Mucianus
to Vespasian according to Cassius Dio.
Stoics,
A
he says, are
full of vanity and
long beard, uplifted
arrogance.
cloak and bare feet, are
eyebrows, a coarse
thought to
off as wise, manly and just,and
entitle a man
to pass himself
to give himself airs,even
ments
though he is ignorant of the rudiof knowledge.
with
They look down upon aU other men
with
lack of control,
man
contempt, reproach the handsome
the wealthy with avarice, the poor with servility
and so forth.
Dio
of Prusa
for the general unpopureason
gives the same
larity

the

of

tenor

of

cloak

the

philosophy in

without
to

wearer

for most

Greece.

The

attire,his
philosopher's

tunic, his long hair and

and
derision, and
sneers, scorn

men

beard, expose

suspect philosophersof

the

ill-treatment

even

despisingall who

are

not

philosophers,of condemning
secretlyridiculingthem
of their ignorance of what
because
reallybenefits mankind,
the rich,who
the objectsof generalenvy.
are
Hence
especially
most
people think it their duty to anticipatethe philosophers'
and

ridicule and
whenever

they
marks
and

dress

contempt,

to

represent them

and thereby at
possible,

have

every

reason
one

on

who

their side.
wears

it

as

the

fools and
time

same

madmen

to show

that

In

short, the dress which

relentless monitor, a censor

disliked
moralist, is as universally

by children.

as

as

the

schoolmaster's

as
Philosophy

In addition

had

They

very
studies on

the laborious

Educator

the
antipathies,

to these

masses

Moral

cogent
which

231

half-educated
to

reason

and

educated
un-

cule
despiseand ridivalue was
placed.

high a
completely useless, they brought neither promotion

were

so

Persius, who reprereputation,nor as a rule money.

sents
the inflated provincials
as
despising all higher (Greek)

nor

culture,introduces
the

leaders

the

(who appear to have been

respects in the Italian towns,

centurions

in other

of fashion

everywhere enjoyed amongst the middle and lower classes

of society no less authority than they claimed by their consequential
and overbearingmanner), as expressing
their contempt
for philosophy as a professionwhereby it is impossibleto
If any one
to praise the freedom
one's bread.
ventures
earn
in the presence
of those men
with
enjoyed by the wise man
swoUen
legs,a gigantic Fulfennius immediately breaks into a
loo-as
horse-laugh and oSers a worn-out
piecefor a hundred
and

'

Greeks.

I,' says

all I have

need

any
Arcesilases and

of this unsavoury
I don't care
know.

'

another
to

crew,

I know

like your
their heads,

be

to

self-tormentingSolons, stooping
fixingtheir eyes on the ground, as they stand grumbhng to
their lipslike madmen,
and with
themselves
or
silentlymove
lower lipput forward
in the
to be weighing their words
seem
balance, deeply pondering
dotard, such as, Nothing can
return

to

amused

for

at

you

them,

the

come

out

of

dreams

of

Is it for this that

nothing.

for this that

over

sick

some

nothing,nothing

you

look

can

pale ? is it
people are

so

The
go without
your dinner ?
and
muscular
youths burst into

laugh
horse-

lists
again and again,enough to twist their nostrils.' Capitaand business men
also naturally
had a profound contempt
his
leaves directions that on
philosophers. Trimalchio

tombstone
and

became

inscribed
he

great ;

;^300,ooo)and
The

be

should

learned

has
world

has

'

also

began

left 30,000,000

listened

never

He

in

small

sesterces

way

(about

philosopher'.
reproached philosophy with being a
to

and
completely useless and superfluous science, in the name
the part of a healthy common
on
then, as at all
sense, which
end and the
times, claimed to have long since attained the same
results which
to reach
same
by
speculation endeavoured
painfullycircuitous paths, and accordingly denied that it
had

anything to

was

the

use

learn

of the

from

numerous

philosophy. What,

in

particular,
phil-

artificial systems of moral

Philosophyas

232

Educator

Moral

osophy,as compared with the simple and incontestable law of

morality which is implanted in all men's hearts ? Further,
which philosophy could be said to teach the truth, since each
the doctrines

school declared

of all other schools to be false ?

point of view philosophy was attacked especially

by those who regardedeloquenceas the aim of all educational
efforts,who probably in the later days of antiquityformed the
majority of the educated classes. This quite natural jealousy
between
rhetoricians and philosophers,the artists of the pure
of
nature
form of speech and the investigatorsof the inmost
things ',which was based upon internal antagonism and was
this

From

'

continually fostered by external

frequentlyembittered

led to incessant

causes,

disputesas

to the

of the

value

relative

and

Pupils were
already trained to take part in
themes
controversial
which
these struggles. Amongst
the
the subject of declamation
in the rhetorical schools was
were
sciences.

two

'

the

following: A father leaves three sons, an orator,

and a physician; by his will he appoints as
favoured

or

'

heir the

service

most

favour

of each

to

the

one

who

Speeches

state.

of the three

is able to show

renders

delivered

then

are

his sole

he

that

sopher
philo-

in

sciences and

againstthe other two.

philosophyis shown by its fruits.

The

complete uselessness of
The questionso often asked, whether
answered
in the negative. The
best

virtue
men,

taught, is

can

be

the

Fabricii, the

what
without
Decii, became
they were
philosophy ; on the
other hand, the greatest criminals had been
produced by th"of their country
schools, as tyrants and enemies
philosophical
be
can
But, even
by that of Socrates.
granting that wisdom

acquiredby instruction,the
be

method

to be

uncertain, for all the schools contradict

many
wise

philosophersconfess that,
has

man

never

existed.

in

adopted
each

spiteof

What,

the

influence.

diminution

That

the

Their

Besides;

therefore, is the

assertion, that

of vice, is contradicted

other.

by

always)

all efforts,a

philosophy ? Would it be of service in war or

?
Nothing is to be found in its votaries
idleness,and arrogance, by which
they manage
certain

will

truly
use

of

in civil employment

but
to

hypocrisy,
acquire a

they contribute

to

evidence.

teachers of

bound
to be, at least in
eloquencewere
great measure,
is obvious.
opponents of philosophyon principle,
A treatise attributed
to Plutarch
is directed against them.
The

elder

Seneca's

son

declares

that

his

father

hated

as
Philosophy

philosophy and

prevented

Educator

Moral

his wife

from

studying

233
it

seriously.

stronglymaintained the elder Gate's idea, that

the
skilled in speech ',
orator
a
was
morally good man,
affirmed that ethics was
of oratory ; that
properly a branch
it had
only been separated from it through the fault of the
who
orators
had
neglected it,and had been taken possession
of by
made
feebler minds
and
a
by them ; the
speciality
QuintUian, who

'

'

orators

Since

good
of

'

reclaim

must
the

this

that is,the

philosophy

same

of

oratory as
be nothing else but

philosophercan

true

man,

branch

own.

morally
orator,a specialscience

the true

as

their
a

is

superfluous. Quintilian uses

every
tunity
opporof expressing his irritation with philosophers,
of lashing
their servilelypainfuladherence
and expresto the doctrines
sions
of the school, their endless and sophistical
investigations,
their complicated methods
of framing the simplestpropositions,
their arrogance
of the
and

at the

world

had

interests

of the

ance
avoid-

state,

weaknesses

of Prusa

rhetorician,

also, when

philosophy, to

which

he

quently
subse-

himself.

Fronto

in

his rage

expresses
philosophy, which
to

Dio

the

to

idleness and

delightin exposing the

attacked

passionately

Aurelius

takes

schools.

devoted

hypocrisy,their

detrimental

so

time

same

of individual

and

had

desert

the

caused

study

of

truly comic fashion against

his imperial pupil Marcus
all the
eloquence. This was

regretted,as Marcus, as Fronto writes to him, had

and
alreadydistinguishedhimself as a boy by nobilityof spirit
dignity of ideas, which
only lacked brilliancyof expression;
the preparations and
the latter
efforts
to secure
necessary
more

had

to be

been
the

too

laborious

study

philosophy,in

of

which

elaborated,

no

for him

eloquenceand
there

narrative

no

to

doned
consequentlyaban-

suddenly jumped

had
"

was

had

he

introduction
be

constructed

to

be

off to
fully
care-

concisely,

no
skilfully,
arguments to be sought for, in fact
nothing of specialimportance '. Of course, he found matters
easier with his teachers of philosophy. He only had to listen
nod his head
in token that he understood
to their explanationsand
; while others read, he could generally
go to sleep; he was
it was
firstly,
obliged to hear frequentlyand at length that
thus, and secondly, it was thus ', and to have it laboriously
proved to him, that it is clear,when it is day, while the sun was
Then
he could go quietlyhonie.
shiningthrough the window.

clearlyand

'

as
Philosophy

234

nothing

with

about

to think

Educator

Moral

write

to

or

in

out

the

evening,

;
nothing to read to his teacher, nothing to repeat from memory
be
to
searched
no
be
for,
to
employed
no
synonyms
expressions

ornament,

an

as

gained by

be

could
Fronto

preferredto

and

of

course

in

'

that ?

as

than

What

be

But,

as

eloquent,

whispers and

murmurs

in distinct utterances.

than

also,in spiteof all his iU-humour

Lucian

of his time

rhetoric

he

when

in

spite

of

('Twice

of age ;
to philosophy,remained

conversion

rhetorician, and, like Quintilian,denies

written
'),

in

spite of his pretended

at heart a genuine

the

claims

of speculation

sense.
standpointof sound common
consisted
of
him, also, philosophy

the

According to
worldly wisdom,
attainable

was

degenerate

Accused

nearly forty years

was

from

with the

letter of renunciation

his

Bis Accusatus

to it inhis

addressed

but

into Latin.

converse

himself

express

Greek

study such

rather

would

Marcus

says,

from

translation

no

which

by

was

every

only tied
thinking man,
not

to

the

their doctrine

and

their

if not

even

of life.

manner

system,

no

hateful
philosopher. In general,philosopherswere
some
exceptions (belongingto
although he made
of the
not
different schools)
only by reason
; and

between

tical
prac-

him,

to

the

most

contrast

The

vanity,

studies
absurdity of all philosophical
form the subject of the dialogue Hermotimus.
Hennotimus,
for the last twenty years in the study
who
has been absorbed
of Stoicism, never
misses a lecture, pores over
his books day
and

folly,unreality

and

night, has

in another

twenty

obligedto

admit

one

system

of

happiness,it
systems, which
And

years.
contained
in

enjoyments,

no

years

to reach

that, in order

philosophy is

would

what
in

any
discovering the

take

two

certainty
one
system

his

pale
goal !

to be

the

be necessary

would

looks

able

only

and

thin, hopes

But

he

that

one

or

is there
?

And

that

all

even

truth
if

one

any

bestow

can

at least

finally

that

to assert

first to examine
hundred

is

existing
hundred

is

really

succeeded

the efforts of those

only true philosophy,how could one be

rightperson to teach it ? And, after all,
who
study philosophyare not even directed

towards

aim, the practicaldemonstration

sure

of

findingthe
its proper

in actions, but

rather

towards

Liddell and Scott, s.v.

miserable

piniinov.

'

of knowledge
'

',
phrasicles

as
Philosophy

Moral

Educator

235

syllogisms,false conclusions,and puzzling questions; their

masters' cleverness in confounding others with sophisms is
the objectof their profound admiration.
Instead
of striving
after
and

the

fruit,they work

throw

themselves

the leaves in each

for the

death

to

rind

other's faces.

Lastly, Aristides evidentlythought that he was

fulfilling
a sacred
him
his
duty, imposed upon
by
positionin the literary
when
in the struggle between
world,
rhetoric and philosophy
he threw
the whole
weight of his authority on the side of
the former.
In two lengthy discourses On Rhetoric he defends
it

against the accusations of the Platonic Socrates

(in the
Gorgias). Rhetoric is not only (what is there denied)an art,

but

is

it has

indissolublyconnected
been

invented

wisdom

by
is protected by bravery
should

man

the

art of

and

speak, also

has

he

has

and

matter

virtue

knows

how

he

with

the

of Platonic

who

should

justice,and

knows
act

how

in short,

of all moral

summary

his instructors.

Cimon

great
and

Pericles

conceal

Miltiades,

statesmen,

against the

Aristides

philosophy.

Athenian

as

accusations

excessivelylong discourse, in which

he empties all the vials of his wrath
the philosophers
upon
Even
if one
of the time.
sations
can
put up with such unjust accuthe great Plato, it is intolerable that
from
utterly
the
imitate
to
individuals
have
worthless
should
audacity
him

and

such

with
others

idealism

abuse

the

their

They

imagined
contributed

never

at

to

Demosthenes.

have

look

merit

they

endure

grammatical

down

others
upon
test
themselves, who

praise virtue
like the

never,

composed

or

whose

living,men

words, who

would

Who
'

themselves, who

never
'

which

contempt

but

an

of the

even

outnumber

practiseit

honour

insult

to

even

men's

faults

in

But,

commendations

certain hatred, of

four

the

Themistocles,

of

virtues

declares
Certainly, Aristides
of attacking philosophy itself ; he
best
and
greatest philosophersof

looks

defends

sake

he

and

as
upon them
fact, these conventional

of

cardinal

education.

strong dislike,even
also

for the

and

intention

no

associated

his time

all the

oratory is the foundation

intellectual

that

with

but

do

not

vered,
rhetoricians, deli-

profitable
speech,have

never

never
paid
brilliancyof festivals,have
the gods, have never
given counsel to cities,have

to

the

consoled

variance, have

the

aiflicted,have

never

admonished

never

the

reconciled
young

or

any

those
one

as
Philosophy

236

Moral

Educator

never
else, have
thought of embellishing their speeches.
But, creepinginto their holes, they excogitatetheir glorious
of their brain
creature
\ reaping
wisdom,
ranting to some
not
undoing I know
.ears of corn,^ tying ropes of sand ', and
what web ; for the more
they
they gain in wisdom, the more
'

'

rhetoric
those

after

somewhat

who

if

themselves

highly pleased with

lose ;

the

of

manner

always being flogged,they

are

they speak

evU

of

slaves, especially

curse

their masters

the

stage,who curses
himself
his approach. However,
at
Heracles
and
hides
it is quite natural that they should
speak ill of everybody,
for they have
enough bad language and to spare ; and even
the less
mention
if they do not specially
one, they none
any
speak evil,when
they do speak ; in so doing they are only
deprived of
superfluity. If they were
giving of their own
the power
of lying and acting maliciously,their occupation
between

would

their teeth,

be

gone.

And

like

or

with

satyr

on

it all,they hold

before

the world

philosophy as a show-piece; as if the

meant
name
anything, as if Thersites could be beautiful if
he were
called Hyacinthus or
Narcissus, or as if the name
of Nestor
could
make
a
Margites wise ?
For the reasons
above
indicated
of people,
a large number
belonging to different classes of society,took up an attitude
of dislike or positivehostility
to philosophy; Roman
patriots,
the

glorious name

conservatives
of

of

by conviction, instinct

or

interestedness

men

the

ordinary kind, who were

uncomfortably affected by
everythingthat rose above mediocrity ; those who detested
who
selfish utilitarians ; those
pretentiousness
opposed
;
and
kind
of
despised every
speculation; representatives
of non-philosophical
their
to defend
education, all strove
interests and

appeared to aU of these that

they could not more
effectuallysupport their opinion of
philosophy as superfluous,valueless or even
injurious,than
by appealing to experience, which taught, so at least they
asserted,that the standard of moraUty as a rule was
no
higher
if
indeed
it
not
than
was
lower,
philosophers,
among
amongst
own

the

majority of

property.

average

It

men.

Sophocles,Ajar,

302 (Jebb'str.).
i.e. attempting impossibiHties. 'XvBeptKov('blade ' or *
later Greek for the stalksof the asphodelplant,and this
may
reference to a plant that cannot be reaped.
3

'
of com) is used ia
be the meaning here, in

ear

Philosophyas

238
of

wise

man

to be

and

content

Wealth

with

compared

not

is

one

'

the

the

better

than

does

things (dSiai^opa,
media,
value

him

develop

to

the

it,yet prefersit to

love

not

bad,

perfection.

entirelywithout

not

the

of moral

way
'

indifferent

it enables

poverty, since

inquirerafter truth,

best, but

the

which
are
indifferentia),
philosopher,although he

Educator

earnest

an

steadilyin

to walk
of

only

is

he

Moral

number

of

good

liness,
qualities,such as moderation, generosity,carefulness,orderEven
Cato
of Utica, who
praised the
magnanimity.
of 4,000,000
poverty of the good old days, had a fortune
of 300,000,000
himself one
sesterces (about ;"40,ooo)
; Seneca
dictions
(;^3,ooo,ooo).It is obvious that such apologiesfor contrathe
ideal
between
theory and
practice, between

impressionon those who

especiallyas philosophers
opposed philosophy on principle,
Seneca
confesses
oHences.
only too often were
guiltyof worse
that some
of them
might be charged with gluttony,keeping
and

make

real,could

the

mistresses

and

but

little

found

livingin adultery,haunting

about

at

one

treacherous
towards
in

his

men's

if

be

patron

Barea

have

the

of straw
and

is his
save

bug, a

Publius
in the

deeds

of

of

that

poor

If

luxury,
and

and
pallet,

bare

enough

to

would

were

want

enjoy every
despiselife when
to

whole.

The
Celer

Egnatius

fresh

year

66,

was

quoted

was

as

an

'.'"

great cloak

their
cost

Martial, claims

says

short

livingin
to

great

black

the

to

of
the

and

bread

times

his life.
man

who

serves

he

man

is, to
a

litter

of wealth

enjoyment

live three

moment

poor

toga,which

as

long

as

It is easy
how
knows

to mean
Juvenal, iii. 115. The phrase,/octnus majoris dbollae,seems
Abolla was a thick cloak worn
',although the explanation is doubtful.
and may
be used to represent the class.

crime

mitted
com-

What
gives him
contempt of death.
utter poverty ; he has nothing he can
broken
a fire,
pitcher, a hearth without

only he

he

act

reproached for
their lofty ideas

were

means

the

the

Stoic Chaeremon,
his

as

be

hanging

shameful

or

covering by night. What

to give up sour
wine,
courage

Nestor

'

for

own

as

Soranus

shameful

said

was

fortitude

mattress,

him

'

Stoic

the

and

taverns

generation later,and

little. The

call his
a

of

could

men

his school

slur upon

conduct

admired

this

the

unworthy

every

philosophersof

wealth, it
them

was

memory
of the

example
But

And

court.

by

Such

accepting presents.

'agraater

by philosophers,

as
Philosophy

Moral

Educator

unhappiness is reallycourageous.
whenever
philosophershave attained

endure

to

that
have

it

exercised

thereby aroused
whether
they have
and

only

or

says

suspicionand doubts of other philosophers,

embraced
philosophyfor the sake of virtue
for

consolation

as

Appian
to

they
power,
uneducated
tyrants,

than

harshly

more

239

poverty

and

indolence.

Even

present day, he says, there are many,

poor and with
in the cloak of
nothing to do, who, wrapping themselves
of necessity, bitterlyassail the rich or
the wisdom
highly
placed ; but, instead of gaining a reputation for contempt of
looked upon as envious
of both.
wealth
and power, they are
abused
do well to ignore them.
would
who
Those
are
at the

As

the

of

number

consequently became
them

became

more

It is

frequent.

more

progress
first

philosophersincreased and their society

more
mixed, the feelingof dislike for
attacks
them
pronounced and
upon
of the

one

philosophy in

of

century that,

from
it

frequentlyused

Rome

the

in

time

the

at

the

continual

half

second

of Domitian

mask, under

as

of the

symptoms

of

the

least,hypocrites

shelter of which

able

to sin with
impunity. On several
they hoped to be
occasions
Quintilianinveighs bitterlyagainst those humbugs
who, having attended
philosophicallectures for a certain
time, with their hypocriticalairs and long beards and by
to obtain a great
their professedcontempt for others manage
reputation; in public they appear stern and gloomy, while
at

these

in gross excesses.
It is men
such as
of philosophy hated, which
in his
name

they indulge

home

make

who

the

cloak

for the

greatestvices and the worst

Palfurius
infamies.
Thus
the highly gifted,but morally weak
under
the profession of an
informer
Sura (who carried on
was

used

Domitian

and

time

as

immediately after
ifter he

Needy

had

been

and

Stoics

sightsin

condemned

was

to

death

that

on

accession)joined the Stoic school

expelled from the senate by Vespasian.
mon
comCynics v/ith huge dusty beards were

Nerva's

time

at that

Rome

during

the

tian
reignsof Domi-

Trajan every district of the city

who
pretended to
iulky-lookingprofligates,
and

^hose

life

rhese

men

jy

their

as

also

of

matter

excited

ignorance,

)f Chrysippus and

account

in

other

fact

the

was

dislike

spite of the

be

succession

of

honourable

numerous

with
philbsophers

which

with

swarmed

Curii
of

but

orgies,

people
plasterbusts
they adorned

240

as
Philosophy

their book

shelves.

dumb

they

yet

more

all

than

which

been

their

than

eyebrows
lite fresh

of

decadence

they rubbed

have

Stoics,who

of these

one

against the

of

number

The

shorter

even

time, betrayed their luxurious

with

Educator

they said, they might

their hair

wore

declaimed

Catos

For

Moral

morality in their
habits by the exquisiteperfumes
their scrubby necks.

philosophersand

pseudo-philosophers

already so great, and even

capitalof the world was
their behaviour
amidst
the motley, ever
so
seething crowd
that they attracted generalattention and criticism.
conspicuous,
in the quietbeen the case
this have
much
must
How
more
ness
to contemplation,in a
of provinciallife,so favourable

in the

country like Greece, which

of

home
end

the

formerly, was

as

philosophers,and

philosophy and

of ancient

then,

remained

of Prusa

Dio

civilization.

the

true
so

till

(inthe passages

cited) declares that the philosopher'scloak is to be

it is
of those who
wear
seen
everywhere ; that the number
fullers or
almost
or
greater than that of the shoemakers
; but, he
jesters or the followers of any other profession
the dress of Socrates or Diogenes
adds, even
though we wear
above

far

still remain

we

behind

in

them

But

wisdom.

space in the
of true
number

civilized

philosophy occupied so large a

Greece

at

that

time, the

even

if

life of

mained
philosophersre-

small ; the majority,as Epictetus says, were

phers
philosoin words
only, not in reality; but its opponents still
continued

point
philosophersonly by
to

to

the

of

of

philosophers,

these

virtue of their beard

represent the uselessness

to

conduct

and

philosophy as

cloak, in order
an

aid to moral

perfection.

Pseudo-philosophy,together
the

widest

true

such
philosophers,

that

recognition under
idlers with

as

Macedo

with

Marcus
the
and

philosophy, obtained
Aurelius.
friend

cloaks

of

At

Rome

plained
Gellius,com-

explained away
of philosophyin sophistic
the content
language and delivered
against vices, with which
eloquent sermons
they inwardly
In Africa Apuleius (underAntoninus
reeked themselves.
Pius)
not be permitted
expressed the hope that every one would
of philosophy,so that
to assume
the mask
uncouth, dirty,
uneducated
men
might not be able to sullythe royal science,
which
taught noble speaking and noble living,by their evil
words
and
of life. The
equally evil manner
prominence
beards

as
Philosophy

he

gives to impudent

outward

abuse

and

vulgarityin

chief

the

as

appearance

Educator

Moral

far inferior

the

to

characteristics

in all the

according to Lucian,
be

to

Platonists.

In

shoemakers

these

thinking
opinion
Greece, especially,
publicplaceswere

streets and

sticks in abundance

enormous

of

was

in his

cjoaks, and

long beards, book-rolls, worn-out

seen

and

manners

spurious philosophers,clearlyshows that he

of the Cynics, who
or
particularly
exclusively
were

241

and

carpenters

left their

workshops,to carry on an idle beggar'slife as Cynics.

The
degradation of philosophyby the gang of false disciples,
of its name
those
the abuse
which
especiallyembittered
who
not philosophers,
were
naturallystrengthened the ranks
of its opponents and played into their hands.
Lucian
made
it his specialtask to hold up the ways
of these men
to the
of

scorn

contemporaries.They,

his
for

contempt
praised virtue
before

the

money
the
as

brutal

than

other.

hares,
Added

to

called

the

Stoics

The

grovelled
snarling dogs,

for money,
than

fawning

more

taught

who
dispassionateness,

thievish than

more

cocks.

than

and

who

men

passionatethan

more

than

asses,

fame

only good, taught

rich, were

cowardly

more

and

the

some
quarrel-

weasels, more

this, every

school

the

the
Epicureans voluptuaries,

not

old

the

as

usury,
of

followers

of which

infamy

no

gant
arro-

of them

some

of their

pealed
ap-

vices,

justifiedadultery by Plato's Republic

his

by

was

philosophersin extenuation

Platonists

drunkenness

the

When

When

another.

one

accuse

to the

vices.

there
quarrelled

schools

different

they did

other

and

the

abused

quarrelsome and avaricious,the Platonists

Peripatetics
and
ambitious, being in turn reproached with
contentiousness

more

apes,

Laws, it was
exclusive

the

wonder

no

and

declared

that many

absorbingstudy of philosophical
from
led
books
men
thinking.
only
intelligent
astray
in
the
discourse
Aristides also,
already quoted, passing
the
to
defence
from
the
attack, represented philosophers
outright that

class of

as

all

but

cannot

envy ; but
their lectures on

first

let their
Helen.

saw

R.L.M.

"

'

III.

if

obol '-

the

one

of all virtue

themselves

declare

resist

pure

would

destitute

men

They

vices.

and

were

abstinence,
if

they

them, in the middle

of

piece of
were

Zeus,
of

abuse

cake

tongue drop,like Menelaus

But

inferior to

out

They

to offer
a

not

affected with

and

to

see

others

or

pastry, they

his sword, when

Helen,

or

he

only

as
Philosophy

242

Educator

Moral

in Menander,
the
Phrygian handmaiden
harmless
a
seem
of the satyrs in Sophocles would
behaviour
their untrustjoke in comparison. In order to understand
to entrust
and
worthiness
greed, it is not necessary
thing
anyto their care
; for they everywhere lay hands
upon
like

servant

the

everything they

of

frame
philosophical

envy

call

They

can.

pride themselves

They

money.
but have

robbery division of property,

mind, poverty contempt of

done

yet

never

one

their

on

service

philanthropy,

;
any
do
with
have
to
anything

who

the

on

contrary,

them.

While
they injurethose
when
they meet them,
they pretend not to see people,even
they travel to foreign parts in search of the rich, like the
Phrygians after tTWt)#"TS. "^op ; they scent their approach
at once^^d
seize hold of them
at once,
promise to impart
civil answer,
virtue
them.
to
when
They hardly g^'tflra
spoken to by other people ; but thej salute from a distance
the

cooks, bakers

before

bed

they

for that

houses

and

bolstering
one

demanding

other

servani

of

the

wealthy

even

recognized them, as if they had got out of

They crowd bei 3re the doors of wealthy
purpose.
mix with the portersmore
^n with their masters,
have

their

up

servilitywith

for the

them

sees

and

what

first 'time

nSl~"tb.eir due

is

When
efirdfttery.
any
show
less
they
scruplein
than
others in claiming
,

caU
they are the people who
thropy.
effrontery frankness, malignity sincerity,spoliationphilanbut
they
Certainly they do not ask for money,
too
know
sends
them
how
to take it. If any
one
little,
they
if
stick to their principles
but
catch
of
a wellsight
;
they
filled purse, then
has
the
Perseus
overcome
Gorgon ; the

is theirs

what

by right.

For

is very artful : ' the wife and the little ones

'. Their
definition of greatness of soul is, in fact, quite new
; that
excuse

it does

not

consist

in

giving much,

but

in not

acceptinglittle.

it a rule never
and
to refuse a gift,
already made
the giver after they have
to abuse
received
it. While
they
play the hypocrite like the parasites and ape the insolence
of their superiors,
they exhibit, like the atheists in Palestine,
Some

two

most

the

and

opposite faults, humility

atheists, they

those
as

have

of the

their

own

better

shadow

calumny,

one

are

far

inferior to

and
class),
;

and

the

Greeks

(at least,

in

everythingelse are as
except that if it is a questionof

would

be

Like

arrogance.

inclined to compare

mute

abuse

them,

npt

as
Philosophy

with
No

the

at Dodona

gong
is so

Educator

Moral

but

243

fliesbuzzing in the dark.

with

incapable of co-operatingin anything that is

the
needful ; on
better than
other hand, they understand
and to bring
to play the spy on a household
any one else how
confusion
into it,how to set the inmates
againsteach other,
and how
could manage
to declare that they themselves
things
one

much

better.

tempt
philosophy was
chieflybrought into conand
school, after
by the gang of Cynics,whose name
long suspension,revived at the beginning of the Christian
noble figures
Even
there were
era.
some
;
amongst them
more
but, in the second century especially.
Cynicism became
and
more
a
sign-board, which concealed a host of impure

The

of

name

'

'

'

of
mendicant
friars
majority of these
antiquity a veritable pest, at least in Greece, through their
effrontery. A caricature of
vulgarity, repulsiveness,and

', and

elements

and

Diogenes
moral

in

Antisthenes

of life and

manner

of

the

conduct,

freedom

based

outward

this

"

was

absence

upon

dress,
appearance,
only manifestation

the

of wants,

tion
renuncia-

weaknesses,
superiorityto all human
who
which
found
favour with only too many,
might be recognized
the
tattered
cloak
or
bearskin,
as
simple
Cynics by
staff
hair
and
a
beard,
(occasionallyeven
unkempt
pestle)
and
wallet.
Their
generate
without
a
home, decosmopolitanism,
of the

and

world

into

their

vagrancy,

disgustingobscenity,which
prove, in a specialessay, was

into
to

Their

lack

of

impudent mendicancy
mission

educators

as

of its infirmities as
;

their

humour,

robust

in

who

the
with

other

spend their
truth
'

those

for money.
of the

the

used

as

with

the

took

for

pretext

place

that

says

even

Cynic wallet, sometimes

the

dogs

the

round

ideal

of

ancient

by Lucian,

Epictetus contrasts

present day,

the
of these

sermons

in detail

Petronius

authors.
time

nature

low

capuchins.
drawn
This repulsiveportrait,
found

of

state

toadyism ; their self-appointed

of backward
humanity and physicians
for importunity and
latanry
charjustification
and

seasoning for

to be

vulgarity,which

coarse

as

to

Epictetusthought it his duty

no
necessityfor a philosopher.

bound

was

means

return

is also

those
sell

Cynic

the master's

Diogenes only in his most unmannerly

their
unceremoniousness, whose only claim to Cynicism was
table ', who

imitated

as
Philosophy

244
staff and

vulgar

of their

exhibition

and

Gellius

occasion, when

one

and pocketing,
jaws, their pilfering

wallet,lanthorn

abuse

Educator

Moral

with

was

beggars,with long hair and

navel, approached him and held out

of these
his

'

for

bread

'.

broad

shoulders.

Herodes
beard

Atticus,

asked

one

hanging below

his hand

When

On

with

who

request

he

he
buy
was,
rudely replied,a philosopher,as any one could tell by looking
'. One
of the companions of Herodes
remarked
at me
that
he was
the round
went
a
a vagrant and
ne'er-do-well,who
of dirty taverns, and
who
did not give him
insulted those
ordered
anything. Herodes, however,
enough to
money
Nor
to be given him.
is there any
buy bread for a month
of Lucian
that
reason,'
consequently,to doubt the statement
to

money

'

'

this

to

earn

time

inclinations

sheep

their

Lucian

that
and

much

respectable trade, chose

at the
beggar's life, which
a

dice

in

their

words,

for

most

people

or,

success,

venerable

asserts
and

it too

possiblefor them to indulge their bestial

the
philosopher's mask.
Everywhere

complete

respect for

in

lucrative

contributions

with

perfumes

it

under

levied

they

livelihood

and

made

found

ne'er-do-wells,who

convenient

same

and

and

slaves

runaway
trouble

that

dress

only

not

by begging

made
enough
many
live in luxury.

of

abuse

gold pieces,mirrors,

were

found

sometimes

the

out

gave
fear of their

from

or

sheared

in

their

wallets, but

buy land

to

and

houses

Consequently, although antipathiesof all kinds existed,

well-founded
or
not, partly against philosophy itself and
partly against philosophers,in the most different social and
educational

circles in both

yet obviously the

Rome

the

and

and

Greek

the

great majority of

western

countries

the

Roman

educated

in

persons

thoroughly

were

world,
convinced

that

the best guide to the highest morality.

philosophy was
sided
and
Indeed, the oppositionhitherto
described, many
unless this opinion
violent, is inconceivable
vigorous,even
be reit. Cicero may
was
garded
widely held ; rather it assumes

representativeof the view which in later

of supporters.
antiquityreckoned the greatestnumber
as

to

if the
to

the

the

him, there

germs

would

of virtue

develop themselves

be

no

implanted
undisturbed.

influence of false and

need

in

us

But

of

Roman
ding
Accor-

philosophy at all,

by

nature

since

we

perverted ideas from

were
are
our

able
under

birth,

as
Philosophy

246

forms

and

vates

helm

sits at the

and

philosophy no
without

what

and

free from

be

can

the

be

must

left

out
With-

one

occur

live

can

hour

every

sought from

our

undone,

waves.

fear, no

number

without

events

advice, which

demand

which

done

safelythrough

steers

one

anxiety ;

be

should

Educator

regulates life, directs

mind,

the

what

actions, shows

Moral

philosophy.
the question

discusses
lengthy essays Seneca
the paraenetic section
of moral
(often debated), whether
philosophy,i.e. a practicalteaching of duty, containingprecepts
In

two

very

or

important contingencies,is suf"cient for life ;

be based
such teaching must
a theoretical
upon
prescribe the rule
principlesor dogmas, which

all

for

whether
of

system

particularcases.
paraenetic, others the dogmatic
endeavours

Seneca

education
A

only

can

to reach

be

obtained

section
a

complete

and

be

conviction

invariable

founded
in

constancy
soil,on which

it is also the

upon
thought and
alone

of both.

basis
be

and

directed

it is

possible

star.

dogmatic

the maxims

moral

true

the

action

the

superfluous,

by the combination

principlesmust

on

be

to

thoughts and actions, which must

a fixed
goal,the highestgood, as far as
of ships is guided by a
it,as the course

such
an

show

declared

some

all

of

towards

that

to

founded

conviction

source

While

in all

of action

out
With-

principles,
impossible';,-^
moral philosophy

is
of

alone they can

draw
renewed
root, from which
vitality.But, in addition to the general principlesof liie
take

specialrules of the other are equallyindispensable.

Surrounded
of every
kind,
by perverted ideas, by errors
by lies and pretence, we requireto be incessantlyreminded
the

one,

of

well-known

even

roar

the

need

we

of cities
to

the

tumult

prompter by

appreciatepeacefuldevotion

our

to

of

hood
false-

admonition, amidst

side, to teach
and
panegyristsof wealth, power

the

truths ; amidst
warning voice of

study and

the

the

in sition
oppofavour, to

us,

return

of the

Philosophy alone
can
give us a healthy mind ; it is the only teacher of the
highestart, the art of living,and not only the best, but the
is no virtue without
only guide to morality. There
sophy,
philowithout
virtue.
no
philpsophy
One
who
required such complete devotion to philosophy
Seneca
as
was
naturally difficult to satisfyin the matter
mind

of the

from

the

zeal and

external

number

world

of its

to

itself.

About
disciples.

the year

64,

as
Philosophy

he

complains that

except when
he

wants

the

no

the

himself

ofi

put

are

kill time

to

troubles

one

games

Moral Educator

or

about

on

empty. Yet
is always given to exaggeration prove

his ideal remained

Rufus

in

since
of

unrealized.

65, who,
he

The

Tacitus

as

exercised

philosophy,

rainy day,

when

philosophicalschools, like the

these
complaints of a writer

rhetorical,are
who

147

at the

banishment

that

most

of Musonius

his exile to his tation,

reputhe education
influence on

says, owed

great

the

to
by introducing them
young
philosophy, shows
of fact, philosophy at that time had many
that, as a matter
zealous
disciplesamongst the youth of the upper classes.
of pupils of that
have
class must
Naturally, the number
been
the attention
and suspicionof
large,to have aroused

the

Neronian

regime.
the

Amongst

philosopherswho taught in
West
Massilia, one
(especially

cities of the
of such
the

studies

That

majority.

science

Greeks, such

the

as

Rufus, Favorinus, Marcus

in

Apuleius,wrote
naturalized
is shown
and

in Rome

patrons,
Rome, and by

which

but

by

above

of

the

as

it

all

took

in

it

of

dash

(such

shape
that

sense

with

was

in

of

century,

of

the

first

main

the

Sextii

however,

the

exercised

considerable

Sextius,
the

man

offer of

school

of

the

had
had

it

extent
it had

last century

come
beB.C.

followers,admirers

educated

society

form

of

consciousness,

animal
with

some

of

literature,
philosophical
the philosophical
school
Stoicism,

especially

to moral
from

borrowed

independent existence
pupils,like Seneca, returned
which

Roman

it lacked

an

from

the

Roman

from

it coincided

the

in

of

certainly only

asceticism

abstention

as

the

limited
distinctly

was

certainlyformed

which

early as
largenumber

the

seats

The

formation

It

chief

to

it secured

the

of the

Aurelius, and
to

other

Sextii,Cornutus, Musonius

two

as

the

and

regarded as a Greek
philosopherswho
many

extent

rise of

the

Sextii.

in the

Greek.

only by

not

time),Greeks

philosophy was
by the fact that

is also shown

not

were

in Strabo's

even

Rome

philosophy,
Pythagoreanism

food). Since, therefore,

and
Stoicism
Cynicism

the

fundamental

was

soon

condition

dissolved, and

its

great Stoic community

separated. During its existence,
and
important representatives,
to

influence.

the

Its

founder

was

Quintus

good family,who contemptuously declined

Julius Caesar to raise him to senatorial rank
of

as
Philosophy

248
launch

and

him

on

an

Educator

Moral

in order

ofiScial career,

to devote

self
him-

of
important members
of the founder, the prolific
writer
the son
the school were
Crassitius
Cornelius
Celsus, the learned grammarian Lucius
sacrificed his important teaching conwho
of Tarentum,
nexion
to join the
school, and
Papirius Fabianus, whom
had
and
heard
a
highly appreman,
Seneca, when
young
ciated.
of
the
old
true
calls him
He
a
philosopher
style,
the
at
time
of the modern
same
not one
although
professors,
felt elevated
One
tations
he praiseshis publiclectures.
by his exhorincited to emulation, without
and
losing the hope
of even
surpassinghim ; and although as a rule his hearers
and
now
silence,they were
again carried
preserved a modest
ments.
to enthusiastic
applause by the nobility of his sentiaway

entirelyto philosophy.

Other

moral
philosophy Stoicism
systems of Greek
national character,
was
undoubtedly best suited to the Roman
and
for this reason
always had the greatest number
who
Romans
of followers amongst those
seriously aspired
to moral
ties
perfection. The long list of prominent personaliknow
in Roman
we
as
Stoics, contains
history,whom
the noblest figuresof that time, and not a few who
by their
Of

all the

proved the earnestness

the convictions
they had acquired from the
of
philosophicalworks
philosophy. The

life and
of

of

writers

have

death

of this

period

that

been

have

and

sincerity

Stoic system
the

Roman

preserved also belong

almost

exclusivelyto this school. Next to Stoicism, Epicureanism

aU
reckoned
the
number
times
at
probably
greatest
of adherents, although there
is no
positiveevidence of its
under
the
world
the empire. That
spread in the Roman
themselves
prominent in public
Epicureans did not make
of their school, which
life was
due to the nature
purposely
there was
the less need for them
sought concealment
; and
to assert the claims of their system in writing,
since these were
set forth in earlier works.
sufiiciently
The
remaining philosophicalschools had
undoubtedly
made
less progress amongst the Romans,
but probably none
of them

result
aroused

without

was

of

the

eclectic

interest

eircle of its

own

its representatives; and

and

tendency

proved

followers.

The

of

the

attractive
lectures

it was

Romans
even

natural

that
outside

delivered

each
the

in Rome

as
Philosophy

the Platonist

by

attended

by

whom
Such

Plutarch

the

most

became

Mestrius

were

Senecio

during

important

firm

friends
Floras

(consul 98,

of

249

were
reign of Domitian
in the city,several of

the
men

venerable

the

philosopher.
in

consular

(alreadya

Sossius

69) ;

Plutarch

whom

102), to

99,

Educator

Moral

dedicated

his Lives ; Fundanus, a pupil of Musonius

tical
(probably idenwith Minucius
Fundanus, consul 107) ; Terentius Priscus
as
(perhaps the same
who
regularlyattended

Calvisius

Taurus

Romans

who

lectures.

the

Athens,

studied

in that

shall

patron),and

lectures

at

We

Demetrius

Martial's

of the

famous

of

large

one

was

have

latter.

the

about

brought

the

positionof
period from Nero

persecutionand

the

of

number

later of the

speak

during the
The
Cynic Crescens,whose slanders on
by Justin at Rome,
publicly refuted

were

Platonist

all attended

city,who

Rome

at

Gellius,

others.

the

same

Cynic

to

pasian.
Ves-

Christians
is

said

to

of the

execution

of PereCynic Theagenes, a zealous adherent

grinus Proteus, who according to Galen died in consequence
of being wrongly treated by the physician Attalus
(a pupil
of

The

Soranus),

"

well-known

of

ass

an

the

figureat Rome,

of Thessalus

sect
where

he

',weis

daily held

very

discussions

of the friends
Trajan. A large number
of Theagenes accompanied Attalus, who
desired to convince
them
of his convalescence, to the philosopher's
house
; on
their arrival,they found
some
Cynics and other philosophers
engaged in washing the body of the deceased, who, according
neither
household
to the principlesof his school, had
nor
in

the

laid

Galen

servants.

Rome

of

thermae

in the

of

foundation

the

162, by restoringthe

year

his

reputation at
sixty-threeyear old

Eudemus
to health.
During his illness,
PeripateticEudemus
visited by
was
nearly all those distinguishedby birth and
education
', especiallySergius PauUus
(consul about
150
and
sophical
distinguishedby philo168), also city praefect, a man
'

'

education

and

behaviour

',and

the

consular

Flavins

philosophy. The
latter,as well as Civica Barbaras
(consul157),uncle of Lucius
had
Verus, and Severus
(consul 162, also an Aristotelian)
zealous

Boethus,

Galen

lecture

to

attended

by

to

than

them

number

PeripateticAlexander
Platonist,in

of Aristotelian

student

on

of

anatomy.

philosophers,amongst

of Damascus,
162

lectures

These

teacher

of

more

of

an

Boethus, and

them

were

the

Aristotelian
about

175

in Athens

publicteacher

friend of Favorinus, who

the

subjects after
who
under

and

whom

who

by

his

of his chief

one

'

Rome

also

spent

once

the

recommends
the

were

of senatorial
Africa

of

learned

Platonist

rank,

the

Antoninus

which

at Tibur.

summer

and

Rome

Quintus
Pius)

to

with
society,

attended

AegriliusPlarianus
as

friend

and

Gellius
Fronto

lectures

by many
(legateof
student

philosophy. Apuleius (about 158) praisesClaudius

of

Maximus,

acquainted with the works of Plato

of Aphrodisias (between 198
original.Alexander

proconsul of Africa,
in

his friends

Julius Aquilinus,whose
in

crowded

under

as

distinguishedphilosophers
of Aristotle,
diligent student

part of

hottest

most

self,
him-

Stoic, both

the

Alexandria,
publicon given

adherents, mentions
'

member

of

in

Peripatetic,a

Demetrius

great favour with Hadrian,

he gathered round
liim a large
successor
of high rank.
admirers, some
Gellius,

pupilsand

of

was

was

; and

Educator

every day spoke in

of his teacher.
Favorinus

manner

Peripatetic and

at

Moral

sceptic,was

was

number

as
Philosophy

250

the

and

211) in

the

emperors

as

of

the dedication
Severus

and
of

teacher

treatise expresses his thanks

for his nomination
Caracalla
a

the

to
or

of

Aristotle in
philosophy
and encouraged
Rome, and declares that they trulyhonoured
philosophy. The first Gordian, according to his biographer,

appointment

as

all his life in

spent

Aristotle,Cicero

and

the

society of
Virgil.

the

ancients, Plato

and

studies in Rome, numelrpus

philosophical
in comparison with our
scanty knowledge of the intellectual
conditions
of the time, and other
incidental statements
(for
example, that in Trajan's time the dialoguesof Plato were
the guests),justify
the assumprepresented at meals to amuse
tion
of
the
the
from
end
first
and
that,
prehensive
comcentury, a lively
in
interest
common
philosophy was
amongst
the
classes.
of
the
Further, Porphyry's account
upper
These

references

of

success

continued
As
course

late

as

until he

studies.

in Rome

Plotinus

rule,

to

as

the

shows

end
did

man

that

of the
not

young
had completed his

this interest still

third

begin

century.

the

philosophical

rhetorical
grammatical
spent an unusually long time on the
his attention to philosophyuntil his twentyand

Gellius, who

did
latter,

not turn

fifth year

; on

the

other

hand, Marcus

unusuallyearly,at the

age

Aurelius

of twelve.

The

began philosophy
majorityof

as
Philosophy

Moral

Educator

251

probably entered the school, which was to bring

the moral emancipation of its pupilsand make
them
men
in the highestsense
of the word, at the time of the assumption
of the toga virilis(i.e.
when
to man's
they came
estate). Per^
sius,who laid aside the bulla
and dress of a boy at the age

young
about

of

men

sixteen,

that

now

the

toga ^ allowed

white

him

his

to cast

amidst
the distracting
turmoil
of Rome,
freelyaround
keenly felt the need of a trusty guide, to choose for him the
of the labyrinth of life ; accordingly
rightway in the mazes
eyes

he

attached

was

little

Sotion

of

Plutarch
to

the

himself
than

more

his essay

teachers

and

had

come

philosophy alone
of

ornament
In

man

upon

belonged to
Audiendo

De

friend,with

young
toga virilis he had

that

Alexandria, who
sent

Seneca

closely to Comutus.
he attended
boy when

most

the

under
was
a

that

of the

the

sect

(On the

reminder

passed out

the

able to bestow

school

Art

of

Hearing)

he

assumed

of his former

guidance of
the true

of

Sextii.

of the

when

care

divine

the

also

and

paid

reason

perfect

youth.

all

continued
men
probabilitythe majority of young
lectures until they had homes
regularlyto attend philosophical
of their own,
refused
to recognize the
although Plutarch
worries and occupations of housekeepingas a sufficient excuse
for neglectingwhat
of far greater importance. In fact,
was
it was
for older and
married
unusual
to
men
by no means
attend
school ; Seneca was
a philosophical
sixtyyears of age
when
the
he heard
in Naples. He
philosopher Metronax
writes

to Lucilius

for five
is no
to

to

hear

bar to attendance

has

now

philosopher? Certainlythe

whereas

been

school

is not

well

theatre, where musical contests take

time, is crowded, and the pupilsof Metronax

same

at

days,

attending the school

Metronax
at midday.
Age, he says,
of listening
; why should I be ashamed

that he

as

the

fools and

patronized,
place at the
are
laughed

idlers.

Philosophicalinstruction was confined to the three divisions

of philosophy recognized by all the schools
logic,physic,and
ethics.
Only the Platonists at that time as a rule appear to
have also included the study of mathematics.
In their studies
tablets with geometricalfiguresdrawn
to be seen
were
upon
"

*
2

See note on p. 13.

The colour of the toga

worn

by

men

was
{viriUs)

generallywhite [Candida).

as
Philosophy

252
them,

have

information, the

most

as

course

the

although
(and dialectic),

time,

of the

school

Stoic

the

In

pupils showed

knowledge by putting difficult mathematical

their desire for

questions.

the

lecture-rooms

in their

globes,etc.;

Educator

Moral

rule

with

began

authorities

Stoic

which

to

as

not

are

we

logic
agreed

subjects. Seneca calls logicthe elementary

and
of philosophers. Stoicism
school
philosophy at that
ethics the chief subject and aim of instructi
time
generallymade
as

to the order

'

of

'

that

so

to it,but

have

may
aim

only

extent

some

considered

took

for the

themselves

to

that

necessary

men

it

since

skilful use
When

of

was

forms
logical
has

man

arises

an

life in the
the

soon

insatiable

of

fascinate

is that
the

for

our

attention.

the

one

thing which

Such

fancies

they
a

and

logicaland
devoted

attractive

bling,
given to quibreputationby a

were

other occasions.

on

repulsiveat

and

apparent

more

learning,which must be
in danger of spending his

worst
a

convinced

more

of dialectic,which

exercise

who

this science, so

be

The

number

the

and

more

would

mind, which

acuteness, while

life.

man

one

cation.
general scientific edu-

brilliant

desire for

Sirens.

of the

Seneca,

and

up

becomes

labyrinthinemazes

islands

says

in discussions

taken

once

checked, otherwise

obtain

to

easy

first,its usefulness
there

useful for

and

subject,in spiteof its dryness,was

if they
of keen intellect,
especially

This
to

little interest in

study of philosophy. Those

of course
still more
oratory were

foundation

was

to be the

as
logicto be indispensable

dialectical discussions,stillheld

it

us

dinate
only suborregarded as superfluous.
and Epictetus,although
not

were

education

moral

philosophy,and

of

Ruf

Uke Musonius

Nevertheless, men

they

to

were

divisions

other

the two

is

tilingabout

certain

charm

as

fatal

as

sophisms,
and

arrest

by the appearance
important things calls

is seduced
of

more

hardly long enough to learn

is the aim of philosophy how to despise
and
freely encouraged
aspirationswere

lifetime is

"

the older Stoics,who

literature,to which
by a voluminous
There were
speciallycultivated this field,had contributed.
to individual
specialtreatises devoted
captious syllogisms,
the only objectof which
the sorites
to confuse ; such were
was
(how many grainsof corn make a heap ? ),the Cornutus (have
you
you

lost your
once

had

horns

if not, you stillhave

them), and the like. Such
:

them

; if you

have,

witticisms, worthy

as
Philosophy

254
authors

had written

who

When

on

certain form

of

in his villa

Atticus

visitingHerodes

Educator

Moral

conclusion.
logical
the Cephissus,
on

youthful,loquaciousand noisy Stoic,who

after dinner
and
livered
deusually monopolized the conversation
lengthy and insipidlectures on
philosophy, about
GeUius

met

which

very

declared

he

Romans.

and

that
made

He

knew

he

free

than

more

all other

Greeks

of

strange expressions,
and
boasted
that no
conclusions,
captious

syllogisms and

use

was

equal him in solvingdialectical problems ; that no

with moral
was
as
perfectlyat home
philosophy as he
he felt so thoroughly confident
that he possessed
; that

the

true

could

one

one

he

that

declared

cloud

which

wisdom

no

upon

in which

tetus,

Stoic.

by moral

always

excellence
their

on

take

To

old

Stoics, but

be

in

the

capacity; on
lipspuerilemaxims,
or

out

from

read

rebukes
no

such

bring a

as

the conceit

man

are

happiness, that
much

so

to

passage

venerable

that

call themselves

griefcould

or

thereupon ordered

Herodes

who

pain

the face of

eternal

guaranteed

the

of him

Epicyoung,

distinguished
way
contrary, they have
as

are

to

be found

of that lofty
elementary schoolbooks, and misuse the name
doctrine by raisinga cloud of words and subtleties before the

in

eyes of their hearers.

Natural
philosophy (physics)was
with

ethics

to

certain

not

to be taken

extent.

It

into

too

intimatelyconnected

consideration

felt that

with

it,at least

the

dence
question of Provitogetherwith the question

weis

only be reallysolved
of the origin of things and the order of the universe.
The
attention
more
was
concentrated, onesidedlyand exclusively,
the moral
task of philosophy,the less could physicsbe
upon
considered ; and the opinionof Socrates,that the examination
and first principles
of the last elements
of thingswas
beyond
and
in
had
no
our
case
practicalvalue, was propowers
any
bably
and
defended
was
by so high an authority
widely held,
Seneca
fond
of and
as
interested
also, who was
Epictetus.
in the speculations
of natural science, would
only allow their
importance in so far as they contributed to moral perfection.
The
mind, in order to refresh itself,
requiresto contemplate
could

nature, who
with

which

universe

of the

enables it to

'

it is concerned.

and

body

appreciatethe loftiness of

its creator
;

he becomes

man

In

the

rises

the

objects

contemplation of the
superiorto the burden

conscious gf bis higheroriginand

as
Philosophy

destination
the

learns to attach

; and

corporeal,and

littlevalue

free himself

to

Educator

Moral

from

255

to the

body

its trammels.

tainly,
Cer-

however, there is the danger that the mind

think

to

than
self-gratification
philosophy as a simple amusement,

treat

it is

above

cited),that

the

to

of health

means

imagination,

half in earnest

proposed

to

it,when

to

he

eclipsesof the

of the

causes

and

of the

sun,

of the

of the sea, and

passage

to understand

phases of

the

of

of the

phenomena

old for love

too

was

atmospheric variations,of rain,of the rainbow,

of

reality

attracted

the

of nature, and

(inthe

may

philosophy,so stimulating
who
dilettanti,
were
only
philosophicaleducation.
Propertius

was

himself

devote

also hints

in

natural

that

about

Plutarch

whereas

Then, he says, he will endeavour

affairs.
laws

it

'.

come

may
of health, and

of

more

and

moon,

the
of

earthquakes,

starry heaven

; what

god skilfully
governs
of
destruction
the
this universe, whether
a day
menaces
world,
and
whether
is
infernal
world
below
there
a
punishment, or
whether

logicand

But

always

physics were

ethics,that

to

of existence.

end

is the

death

seasons

the latter

nated
completelysubordi-

so

regarded

was

as

the

essential,

only, object of philosophy; it is called simply the

art, the science, the rule of Ufe. Although, after all that has
been
said, this hardly needs to be proved, perhaps it will not
if not

be

the

show

superfluous to

expected

was

from

the

how

alone
the

aid

of and

noble, what
what
be

our

is

that

In

the

his treatise

young
On

the

gymnastics and the

and
strength, so philosophy
the infirmities and diseases of the mind.
By

heal

can

training of

philosophy alone.

of Boys, Plutarch says,

bodily health
healing art secure

Education

moral

with

in company

philosophy we learn what is

is just,what
is unjust,in short,

shameful, what
at and

is to be aimed
attitude

as

what

gods, our

the

towards

is to be

avoided

; what

parents, old age,

is to
the

children
and
slaves ;
laws, foreigners,
rulers,friends, women,
learn that we
we
ought to fear the gods, honour our parents,
respect old age, obey the laws, submit to our rulers,love our
children
treat
friends,behave with decency towards
women,
with
affection,and slaves without arrogance ; but, above all,
in prosperity nor
that we
cast
should neither be too exultant

down
to

be

in

adversity;

overcome

brutal in wrath,

that

by desire
The"e

are

we

should

nor

show

the most

neither
ourselves

allow

ourselves

passionateand

to be desired of all the

256

Philosophyas

blessings which
parents, it is said
give their children
this

and

through
passage,

good education,

their

surround

pleasures;

philosophy. Foolish
who
have
neglectedto

do

when

sons,

not

as

grown

themselves

with

rule

up,
into

life,plunge

sensible

regular and

low

in another

until

omission

leading

obtain

we

Educator

Moral

regret

instead

of

debauchery

parasitesand

squander their fortunes

corruptersof youth, keep women,
in gambling, drinking, and
carousing ; commit
adultery
which
risk
for
the
their life
in
sake of
and other excesses,
they
pleasure. Had
they enjoyed the advantage of being taught
by a philosopher,
they would not have given themselves up to
other

such

of life.

mode

the

As

husbandman

out

the

from

the

field,so the

the

youthful soul

the

evil

tares

though

pleasure,even
other

in

cases,

he

he prunes the
impulses at the same

has

vine, so

when

of envy,
deeply and

promptings
to cut

proceeds with

he

gardener roots
philosopherroots out from
or

as

avarice, and
leave

caution, like the

not to

destroynoble

scar

vintager

and

vicious

time.

instruction preconception of philosophical

vailed,
wherever
the philosopherwas
not
regarded
only as the
teacher, but chiefly as the trainer,in fact as the spiritual
director of his pupils,it was
necessarilyconsidered his duty
in every way
to promote their moral
even
well-being,
beyond
Wherever

this

limits of instruction

properly so called, and consequently

their manner
of
entire supervisionover

the

right to exercise
the right road by advice
and exhortation,
on
life,and to put them
and
warning and reproof,mildness
severity. To all
of prominent men,
at that time
a
large number
appearance,
his

with

upon
from
at

of the

and equipped
high importance of their ofiEice,
the greatest moral
influence
such authority,exercised
entire generations,the more
as
so
pupils flocked even
far distant lands to the most
teachers
famous
(especially

conscious

Athens
from

men

these
the

young

men

became

friendshipoften

sometimes,
from

Rome), who, like Musonius,

all parts, as the magnet
attracts

and

intimate

far outlasted

indeed, continued

his seventeenth

year,

was

with

'

attracted
iron '.

their

the years of
through life.
united

by

the

young
of
Some

teachers, and

apprenticeship,
Thus
ties of

Persius,
an

soluble
indis-

friendshipto Cornutus, with whose pupilshe became

the poet Lucan
and
two
acquainted. Amongst these were
Greeks, the physicianClaudius Agathemerus of Sparta and

as
Philosophy

Petronius
and

Aristocrates

of

pure-minded men,
also

nutus

advised

Educator

Magnesia, both

whom
him

Moral

Persius took
in

257

highly educated
his models.

as

Cor-

his

poeticaleflorts, and was

in his will for a considerable legacy. Persius has
mentioned
his gratitudeto his
expressed, in words full of deep feeling,
beloved master, to whom
so largea part of his inmost
being
'.
He believed himself united for ever
entirelybelonged
by
the destinyof the stars with the man
who
cherished him in
'

tender

years with

the

affection of

stillflexible spirit
as the
recall

The

studies.

serious

Syria,became

(who afterwards

clay;

he

moulded

his

delightedto

considerable

debts.

Even

younger

Pliny, when

military tribune

devotedlyattached to the Stoic Artemidorus

married a daughter of Musonius
Rufus),and
in time
of danger. When
the philosophers

protected him
were
expelledfrom
a

artist the soft

and

days spent together in work and recreation, and the

repasts,prolonged till night-faU,which
interrupted

modest

in

Socrates

Rome

year 93 he lent Artemidorus

free of interest to pay certain honourable
he attained the rank of consular he looked

sum

when

in the

up to his revered teacher as a pattern. Amongst all those who

call themselves
writes Pliny in the year
now
philosophers,
10

will

1, you

endurance

hardly find

of heat

another

true

so

cold, his devotion

and

and
to

genuine.

His

tation
work, his limi-

enjoyment to what is strictly

necessary,
all these are
trifles,
self-discipline
compared with

of sensual
his

severe

"

his other
as

induced

virtues,which

son-in-law

of

out

number

Musonius
of

to

pupils of

choose

him

all classes of

society.
pictureof the relation of the
not
to his pupils. Taurus
Platonist philosopherTaurus
only
allowed them
to put frequentquestionsto him after the daily
devoted
more
particularly
lesson,but invited those who were
dish of Egyptian lentils
a
to him to a frugalmeal, at which
and
chopped pumpkin prepared with oil usuallyformed the
the pupils were
chief dish.
On
these occasions
obligedto
ally
propound questionsand problems,as a sort of dessert,especiwitticisms suited to those enhvened
by wine ; e.g. at
who stands
what
moment
a dying man
reallydies,when a man
stand
a learner begins to underup is no longersittingdown, when
pised,
his profession.Such
questionsought not to be deshad
serisays Taurus, since the greatestphilosophers
Gellius has drawn

R.L.M.

"

III.

an

attractive

Philosophyas

258
ously
his

disapprovalof

all that

in

of

study

or

tone

which

recommended

to

rebuked

study

another

when
he
angry
example of others.

quoting

copy
worthlessness

who

took

also

from
passage
of such
artists,
He

day.
suddenly

philosophy,and
attempted to justifyhis
Taurus

of life

every
had

beautiful passage

very

of

to read

man,
young
for that of

of rhetoric

mode

or

him

sent

him

in their

severity. In order to
the society of flute
abandon

generalmoral

the

on

he

to

friendliness

Aristotle

ill,Taurus
circumstances, he expressed

pupils were

displeasedhim

wealthy young man

players and tragicactors, he

induce

Educator

his

According

to visit them.

used

When

them.

considered

Moral

severely

left off the

became

ingly
exceed-

conduct

the

by

the

opportunity

of Demosthenes

of

suitable to

made
of every
use
Thus, says Gellius, Taurus
of warning and
the
on
exhortation, to put his disciples

the

occasion.

kind

of

way

goodness

and

example no doubt
visit paid by the

uprightness.
had

his

in

dignity

that

Stoic

who

had

In

his

Taurus

of his

power

his account
to the

son

knew

distinguishedsociety

Attains,
by Seneca, who

The

and

of Crete

governor
shows
Gellius
philosopher,

educative

efifect.

equal

an

The

how

without
school

to

of

famous
preserve

offendingpropriety.
at

Rome

which

and
always the first to come
fond
of
the last to go, was
answering his pupils'questions
Any one who visited a philosopher(he said)
during a walk.
with
should
him ; for
always take something good home
philosophy has the power of assistingnot only those who are
also those
to the study of it, but
devoted
who
are
brought
attended

was

into

with

association

most

varied

were

sent

from

him,

and

answered

his

Plutarch

subjects,selected
far and

near

the

taken

not

at
to

delivered

are

only

Chaeronea

preserved
from

lectures

will,to the young

to

questionsthey put

later treatises which

subjectswere
but

it.

was

to

be

on

men

educated

to him.

Some

show

that

us

the entire field of

the
who

by
of
the

morality,

also from

practicalphilosophyin its widest extent : e.g. On

Studying Poetry, On the Art of Hearing, Rules of Health,
and

so

forth.

philosophersthought it their duty to regulatethe life of

to the minutest
their pupils even
details,and to give them
If

instructions
matters

rightto

even

(ifin
do

so

any
was

in

regard to trivial and apparently indifierent

connected

with

moral

their
principles),
evidently
quitegenerallyrecognized. Grown
way

as
Philosophy

and
especiallyyounger
up men,
themselves
to their guidance and
obedience.

As

rule

teachers

who

attended

259

frequently entrusted
rendered
them
unqualified
exercised
greater authority
present day. Thus Gellius
men,

pupilsthan at the
grown-up
the
rhetorician
relates that
Titus
over

senators

Educator

Moral

Castricius

his school, because

they

rebuked
had

some

appeared

in

to their rank.
public on a feast-day in a dress unsuitable
the widest
Of course,
allowed
latitude in
philosopherswere
all and
on
mended
giving instructions
everything. Attains recomhis pupilsto sleepon a hard bed, such as Seneca used
in his old age, on
which
the body made
no
even
impression.
Epictetus exhorted his hearers to let their beard grow, not
only as a beautiful and dignifiedadornment, but also as a
which
the sexes,
to distinguish
sign intended by Providence
to the school,
we
ought not to reject. A young man, who came
foppishlydressed, with his hair nicelycurled, was treated to a
that he might
long lecture on the subject. The possibility
take
and
ofience
not come
again nor follow his advice, did
deter
the philosopherfrom
not
performing a duty, for the
he might afterwards
have
been
proached
justly reneglect of which
by the pupil. Epictetus objected to dirtiness and
than
to too much
slovenliness even
more
finery. He would
have them
always neat, that their company
might be agreeable
and he did not disdain to enter into the
to their fellow-pupils,
that they ought to blow their
details of the care
of the body
and
clean their
their feet, wipe off perspiration,
wash
nose,
teeth :
being,not an animal,
why ? that you may be a human
welfare
This solicitude for the bodily and mental
not a pig !
which
ranged from the most important to the most trifling
"

'

'

details and
extended

the

to

with

interfered

even

of the

members

without

its

private life,was
sophers,
pupils'household by philoa

man's

obtrusive

being considered

their

on

part.
For

example

of his

hearers, a

Favorinus
man

rank, had justbeen

that the wife

informed

was

would

distinguishedfamily and of senatorial

delivered of a son ; he immediately repaired

all the

rear

the

this, Favorinus

subject,which

one

of

pupils present to the house of the

congratulatedhim and then expressedthe hope
with

of

When

child herself.

immediately
Gellius took

delivered

down

and

the
a

mother

father,

young
that

the wife

objected

long speech

afterwards

on

to

the

incorporated

26o

as
Philosophy

in his Nodes

Atticae.

Moral

Educator

Naturally,the
pupils in aU cases

advice

philosophers
and
scientious
condifficulty
of

of
sought by their
Gellius,who had been appointed
scruples. When
a judge at a very
earlyage (not,however, before he was twentyfive),was unable to decide a certain case, he adjourned the
he was
court, went straightofiEto Favorinus, to whom
greatly
was

attached, and

begged him

and

case

give him

to

general rules

some

his

opinion of

the

on

duties

the

of

cular
parti-

judge.

all appearance,
to complain that
philosophershad reason
their advice was
asked
too often rather than too seldom.
As
To

Epictetus says, they

in

practicalaffairs,as

his

wares

their

own

; while

shoemaker

who

those

blacksmith

or

desired

advice

part to assimilate

those

moral

in all individual

cases

must

the decision

made

no

of conduct

supplies
effort

from
principles,

on

which

be derived.

philosophers(apart from occasional interference

particularcases)exercised a practicalactivityand thereby

As
in
a

expected to supply rules

were

rule

direct

under

effect

on

the moral

three characters

educators

: as

individuals, as teachers

education

of their

contemporaries
permanent advisers of
pubUc schools ; lastly,

and

morality in
missionaries and popular preachers ; the last field,which
as
the Cynics had
almost
to
chosen, was
entirelyabandoned
of
All the forms
them,
professionalphilosophicalactivity
mentioned
often enough by philosophers and non-philosoare
phers,
to obtain
idea of them, at least
an
so that it is possible
it is chiefly
the shady and bad
to a certain extent.
Certainly,
side,the defects and weaknesses, the ill-success and inadequacy
of philosophical
effort and
performance, that are made the
of

subject of discussion,and
of

philosophy on

even

upon

which

the

opponents

numerous

principleespeciallydelightto

these criticisms and

attacks

proof of
philosophy as the
are

behalf of
on
put forward
of the contemporary world, and

even

if such

the

dwell.

But

loftyclaims

moral

claims

elevator
were

only

in the case
of the majority, yet it is admitted,
imperfectlyjustified
that the best and purest teachers
tacitlyor expressly,
made
them
mous
good in the highestdegree and exercised an enor-

effect.
While

the

great majoritywere

for their moral

education,

instruction,people of
secure

with

obligedto
a

largermeans

the entire services of

brief

content

philosophical
frequentlysought to

course

very

themselves,

of

philosopherin

their household,

Philosophyas

262
with

carried it

Priscus, and

and

philosophersMaximus
expired.
positionwhich Greek

the

tillhe

Educator

Moral

on

philosophersaccepted in great
Roman
families for a certain length of time, could only be
of the dignity of philosophy if
maintained
a level worthy
on
In
both
partiesregarded it from the highest point of view.
were
such cases, the philosophersthemselves
only too often
they should
incapableof securing the esteem of those to whom
the other hand, distinguishe
all have
above
set a good example. On
teachers
Romans
seldom entirelyforgotthat these
The

'

ployees.
realityonly their dependants or paid emThe
shady side of the picture has been represented
in his
considerable length and in strong language by Lucian
'

of wisdom

at

in

were

treatise

style,in a
philosophernamed
usual

in

Timocrates, who

family.

aristocratic

an

in
had

Aurelius
unable

either

to go into

his

This

to

wanted

shady

warn

obtain

to

side

was

The

Plato, and desired,

philosopherin their train,who might

the

raptures over

Greek

of

loftyidealism

prospect of obtaining an honourable

in a great and
wealthy family was

who
did not
shrink
many,
to their applicationfor the
to

most

from

the

highly

attractive

post. They

to

incidental

annoyances

ready
they had

were

even

at which
qualifications,
knowledge and ability,to undergo

their

unworthy

appearance,
his cloak.

influential position

and

test of their

give proofs of their

inquiry into

pleasantly
un-

specialfrequency, after Marcus

made
philosophy the fashion. Many who were
to understand
or
respectit,thought it their duty

once

submit

post

doubt

no

recognized as such by his venerable

long beard and the dignitywith which he wore

at

certain

with

evidence

have
if possible,to
be

speciallywritten

had
past, and sometimes
of whom
candidates, many

to
to
an

compete with

to

only

the

used

mask
for exorcism, magic
recommendation
as
a
philosophers'
and
similar practices. If this examination
was
successfully
liancy
which
the brilafter
invitation
to
at
an
a
passed,
big dinner,
of the

the
settled.

The

establishment

novice, the

share

everything

would

be ridiculous

one's most
one's

question of

of the

master
with

not

his

house

terms
declared

man,

of

his

to whom

precious possession,one's

own

midate
inti-

and

discussed

was

'

soul
'.

or

to

it

for

has

one

everythingelse

and

readiness

house-companion

new

to treat

children, as jointowner

to dazzle

calculated

was

fided
con-

that

of

Neverthe-

Philosophyas
less,a yearlysalarywas

fixed,which

263

Educator

Moral

surprisingly
certainly

was

friendly
and honourable
treatment
promised,by the frequentpresents
to the lofty
on
feast-days; above all, an appeal was made

small,

but

considered

was

to be

made

for

up

by

the

In this
philosophers on the question of money.
the praises
in years, forgetting
manner
philosophersadvanced
selves
of libertysung by Plato, Chrysippus and Aristotle,sold them-

ideas

of

into base

ignominious servitude
of domestics, from whom
they were

crowd

by their

by

cloak

coarse

and

their bad

rest of the

; like the

and

only distinguished

Latin, they

summoned

were

morning to their duty as supernumeraries,

every
and
lasted till a late hour and entailed unpleasantnesses

the

clock

which

degradation of all kinds, inflicted only too frequentlyupon the

not expected to complain. When
patient Greeks, who were
used
was
no
longer required,
they were
up or their company
turned
the
of
house
a
out
on
foggy night on
they were
quietly
some
utterlyunfounded
charge,helplessand utterlydestitute.
The
of philosophy at court
position of the representatives
far more
was
precariousthan in the great houses, and far less
consistent

of many
a
in a tavern.
treatise

philosopherwas
Plutarch

has

as

much

indeed, in the opinion

of

out

endeavoured

since he has

place at
in

to prove

court

as

special

the wise
difficulties,

that, in spite of all dangers and

cannot

man

the ideals of the science

with

position,
good
opportunity of doing incomparably more
all
the
The
will
be
more
other.
philosopher

in certain
the

in it than

circumstances

such

refuse

in any
to undertake

the care
of a soul, whose
activity,wisdom
ready
he will
and justiceaffects the lot of many
; for in this manner
benefit the many
through the individual, like Anaxagoras the
friend

of Pericles,Plato

of Dio,

Italy. Philosopherswho
education
of private persons
of

their

weaknesses

character

of

be

abused

refrains from
the

societyof

takes

them,

devote

like
all

whole

submit

servant.

If

to
even

become

moral

only

the

of

and

interests
the

For
a

from

ennobles
sake

courtier

of
and

philosopherwho
principledoes not shun
the

character,

life will also take an

political
unobtrusively and without annoying them

an

in

the

state.

practicalactivityon
educated
princes of noble

interest

who

he

statesmen

to the

individuals

liberate

passions ; but
ruler thereby promotes
the

of the

themselves

and

improves the condition of

such
advantages one must
to

Pythagoras

one

who

interest in
with

un-

as
Philosophy

264

Educator

Moral

time
advice, while at the same
timely and sophistical
their requestfor his advice and
be always ready to meet

he will
ance.
assist-

philosophersas resident
of Augustus, Nero, Trajan, Hadrian, JuliaDomna
at the courts
and Elagabalus (the sham
that,
),it would seem
philosophers'
quently,
of philosophy very frethe teachers
like other learned
men,
tourage
if not as a rule, had their place in the imperialento some
These
positions also were
(as (ru/x.;8t(0Tat).
From

mention

of

says that

one

incidental

the

'

salaried.

extent

Lucian

philosophersof the
society,but

time

of the most

distinguished

the

for

paid by

was

compelled,in spiteof

was

emperor

his age, to

his

accompany

Scythian hireling. It
and
naturallydepended on the personalityof the emperors
the positionof the philosopher
the tone of the court, whether
Seneca
reminds
Marcia,
was
worthy or unworthy of him.
in his letter of consolation, how
Augustus' wife Julia,whose
him

travels, like

his

on

friend

intimate

she

Indian

an

after the

was,

or

death

of Drusus

and

sought
'

of Areus,
her
pious exhortation
dressing
husband's
philosopher ; according to Seneca, Areus in adthe constant
companion of your
Julia calls himself
who
knows
not only what
is public property,
husband, one
gustus,
secret impulses of both your minds
but all the more
'. Au-

found

in

consolation

the
'

'

after the

conquest

would

Alexandria, had

honoured

Areus

Ms
city,since it was
birthplace.Nero, on the other hand, made his philosophersa
of amusement,
source
by invitingrepresentativesof different
and settingthem
schools to dinner
to wrangle.
on
But
undoubtedly philosophers,especiallythose who were
conscious of their value, for the most
part preferred a public
sphere of activityto the most brilliant positionat court or in a
distinguished
family. The Stoic ApoUonius, when summoned
Pius to undertake
the tuition
of the young
by Antoninus
Marcus
of his pupilsand
Aurelius, left Chalcis with a number

by declaringthat

settled

he

of

spare

the

Rome, but refused to take up his quarters in the

He declared
Aurelius lived.
palace of Tiberius, where Marcus
that
the

in

it

was

the

heir to the

school

not

throne

only held

important and,
which

duty

might

in

extend

of the

pupil to
actuallydid.

go to the teacher, which

The
opening of a public

the

prospect of a
certain conditions,even
out

in centres

like Athens

worthier

life,of

an

splendid activity,
and

Rome

to

the

as
Philosophy

of the young
magnificent income.

pick

Educator

Moral

265

provinces,but also of a
For to all appearance
only the minority
such strict views as the Platonist Nigrinus,who
called
schools of the philosopherswho
stalls
taught for money
offered for sale like any other
shops where virtue was

held
the
and

from

men

various

wares.

in

who taught
But, apart from this,the conduct of philosophers
of tion,
their lectures and method
instrucpublic,and especially
gave

cause

for various

And

criticisms.

this

censure

is

peated
freelyand emphatically and so constantly rethe philosophical
writers of the time, that we
might
be
inclined
to form
too unfavourable
an
easily
opinion of
the philosophers'
it must
be
But
schools at that time.
never
Taurus
like Musonius, Plutarch, Epictetus,
forgottenthat men

expressed
by

and
the

so

Demonax

high

same

themselves
teachers

as

were,

standard

acted, and

to insist upon
of excellence in others,up to which they
that they had
incessantlyto remind
a

matter

of fact, bound

from
the
still removed
pupilshow far they were
true aim of philosophy,in order to bring them
to it.
nearer
Thus in their writingsthey constantlyrefer to the weaknesses,
trivialities and defects which
instruction
hampered philosophical
and could only be acutelyfelt when
contrasted
with
the
numerous
examples of noble and splendid work and effort

which

and

the age could show.

effects of philosophicalinstruction

The
without

doubt

teachers

and

only

too

often

pupils alike.

hindered

were

through

Vanity, thirst

for

in any
case
the fault of

fame, and

probably
of the

greed of gain often led teachers to think more

of
applause than of the real welfare of their hearers, many
whom
preferredagreeable conversation, the exercise of acute-

acquisitionof a knowledge adapted for show,

to serious study and a difficult and painfulstrugglefor moral
had attended
Hence
who
ennoblement.
philosophical
many
not
did
lectures for years with
even
unwearying industry
culture.
from
them
a smattering of philosophical
carry away
Many, says Seneca, came
only to hear, not to learn, just for
ness,

and

the

recreation,as one goes to the theatre ; for a great part of the

Their
object is
pupils the school is a place of amusement.
rule of life,
but to find
not to throw
oft vice and
adopt a new

something

to

tickle

tablets,to get hold

their

ears.

Others

of the words, not

came

their

with

meaning

writing
; words

266

as
Philosophy

wMck

with

they repeat to others

Lofty

themselves.

to them

some,

like the

excitement

only

of what

few

little profitas

as

in the

is reflected

they

listen

lectures make

in their

an

faces, but,

produced by music, is not permanent

capable of retaining the substance
down.
Consequently,the majority

are

taken

have

they

Educator

passages

which

impression upon
nervous

Moral

which
of mind
Musonius
not
in the frame
garded
repupilswere
if instruction was
to prove
successful.
as
indispensable,
A hearer who
is not quite lost,he said, ought to shiver while
the
philosopher is speaking ; to feel ashamed, repentant,
joyfuland astonished by turns ; the expression of his features
treatment
of the
should change according as the philosopher's
diseased
or
healthy parts of his soul variouslyaffects him and
had
heard
In fact Epictetus,who
his conscience.
Musonius,
that
his
that
he
attests
such
so
forcible,
language was
gave
of

prominence

that every
one
infirmities,
that
to himself, believed

moral

to

applying his words

been
speaking against

him

of his
some

hearers,
had

one

the

philosopher. But it was

for
too much
just this (as Plutarch also complains) that was
the majority of those who
listened to a philosopher's
lecture
if he had
been
As long as he kept
orator.
as
a tragedian or
to

as
generalities,
they willinglyfollowed him, but cis soon
Ije
began to deliver frank and emphatic warnings, they took' it

to

ill

piece of

officiousness

enough

to

touched

them

from
the school
after a speech that
away
the raw, like patients who, after the surgecsjp

as

has

stay
on

the

used

knife,

the

to

ask

clear
even

he

them

had

the

says,

it

with
are

to

members

wants

to

speaks of

really

that

everything was
nothing. Many

understood

the

begin with
nocturnal

for the sake

who

want

to refine their

manner

more

moral

but

society'.

The

become

frightened
too shy
were

"

one

some

of

they

be

lecture, or

pretended

dages.
ban-

'

the Phcsdyus

their life but

not

me

the

to

the

attempt to teach the teacher how

One ',says the Platonist Taurus,
comes
this first,"another,
I want
to learn

"

because

There

'

Teach

waiting for

themselves
or

weak-minded

were

many

to

assurance

this, not that

another

when

even

to teach.
"

Plato

study

explanations, or

to

ought

and

allowed

difficulties of the
for

and

without

away

also

Beginners
by

run

revels

of the

to read

of
to

the

of

of Alcibiades ;

speech

of

Lysias.

Plato, not to
expressingthemselves,
ennoble

become

complaint

Symposium

more

of Taurus

agreeable
that

many

as
Philosophy

teachers, even

wealthy

267

being invited,hastened to the doors of

where
they patientlywaited till midday,
sleptoS their last night's debauch, is a

men

pupils had

that

proof

Educator

without

young

till their

Moral

there

teachers

were

themselves

to

the

who

date
ready to accommounjustifiablerequests of their
his pupils,when
they hear

most

were

pupils. Epictetus recommends

which
shows
that he has not the
any one speakingin a manner
of morality,to ask themselves
vaguest idea of the first principles
Am
I conscious
of this sort ?
seriously: Am I a man
that I know
should be who
nothing, as a man
reallyknows
nothing ? Do I approach the teacher as if he were an oracle,
'

prepared

render

to

school, like

implicit obedience

Or

do

I enter

idiot, only in order to

drivelling
accessories of philosophy,
and to understand

I did

understand

not

at

and

peace

external
with
or

free from

world.

received

is

remittance

anxieties

and

of them

has

an

uproar

then

wretched, it is

his

amongst

is

but

'

one

from

look

to

chatter

want

to

with

ample
?

how

for, that

Do

about

not

you

But

it was

has

to work
;

here

the
as

baths

at home

instruction

did

not

Nico-

'.

'

school.
and

to

you.

needs

fallacies ?

with

the
the

And
But

purge
go to
You

they provide you

ledge
pretended know-

boasting of your
syllogisms,do you

produce

responsibility
lay

at

with

and

what

hard, and

so

will carry away

principles.Do not

reduce

not

progress
certainly like

should

you

the fault of the

not

of

you

sophisms

to manage

has

What

he

what

for

material

neighbours;

discover

opinions, to

home

certainlymaking
I

home

miserable

as

of the

fightat

say : nobody gets any good from the

attends it in order to be cured of his errors

school

the

had

they

who

his

'

anything

me

excitements

greatly annoyed because he

from
home, or is thinking

',he says to himself

sends

explain them

to

the

of him
there, that he
say
and
will return
omniscient.

nobody
polisare

which

The

people
that

books

ternal
ex-

the

caused

foreignstudent

the

he continues, certainly
pupils,
but their soul is not
philosopher,

Perhaps one

slave,which

'

serves

garb of

the

wear

to be able

before, and

others, as occasion

to

learn

the

not

understand

'

pupilsalone

that

desired result.

teachers, eager

philosophical
Often

for

enough

applause,

who, knowing that people were

mostly
all by a brilliant style,
influenced by externalities,and above
The
for form.
orator's grey
hairs, says
neglected matter

fame

and

money,

as
Philosophy

268

sound

all,the

but, above

assurance,

Educator
self-

voice, his gravity and

of his

Plutarch, the modulation

conscious

Moral

applause,

of

inexperiencedhearers ; the expression

deceptive about it. If it is graceful
and
copious, weighty and well-prepared for the occasion.
Phny's eulogy of the highly respectedStoic Euphrates shows
and oratorical skill
the personalappearance
how essential were
hearers.
in the judgment of educated
of the philosophereven
He
disputeswith subtlety,solidityand elegance; often he
sublimity and
goes so far as to reproduce the well-known
His language is rich and
varied, and
copiousness of Plato.
agreeable,so as to lead on and impel those even
particularly
to this that he is tall of stature, of
who fightagainstit. Add
carry

and
young
away
also has something

'

noble

countenance,

and

flowing locks

with

huge white

accidents
of no
thought mere
account, yet they add
greatly to the veneration which he
inspires.There is no squalorin his attire,nothing of moroseabout
: his approach is
ness
him, but much
grave earnestness
able,
His sanctityof life is remarkproductiveof respect,not awe.
beard

all of which

and

individuals

not

follow

affability.He inveighsagainst vices,

less so is his

no

longing to

be

even

[Epistles,i.

you
One

himself

us

call

on

expresses

Epictetus as
charter a ship

we

J.

D.

pass

as

hear

lips,and
in

attention

in

to form.

Epictetus:

what

vincing
con-

translation).

Lewis's

follows

and

his

on

succeeded

has

only paid

rule

as

of them

he

lo,

Naturally, rhetoricians

after

You

chides.

than

attentively,hanging

convinced
'

rather

sinners he reclaims

admonitions

his

be

may

he

has

'

Let

to say

leavingthe philosopher's
blunders
house, There was
nothing in Epictetus; he makes
for coming
in construction and etymology '. Your
only reason
of that kind, is the philosoto school is to criticize mistakes
pher's
rejoinder.
denied
the effect of eloquence
Epictetus,who by no means
in a philosophical
discourse, would scarcelyhave made
pous,
pomflowery language and eagerness for applause the subject
faults
of a lengthy dissertation,if they had not been common
of the
professionalphilosophers of the age. The Uttle
before

we

'

then, when

'

'

'

scenes

life with

admirable

which

his exhortations

illustrations

of the

are

interlarded

self-complacentvanity
ever
Wherthis class of teachers and of their generalbehaviour.
they showed themselves, their desire was to hear people

afford
of

from

Philosophyas

270

Moral

Educator

them, that they may

applaud your fine concluding periods ?
and
Cleanthes
do this ?
Did Socrates, Zeno
But
it may
be
tatory
objected,says Epictetus ; is there not a specialstyle for hortation
speeches ? Certainly,just as there is a stylefor refudidactic
has
and
mentioned
ever
a
style. But who
addition
the
to
fourth
in
a
these,
epideictic(display)
style?
the
In what
does
hortatory style really consist ? In the
clear to one
several the nature
or
of
abilityto make
person
the strugglein which
they are involved, and to convince them
that they think of everythingelse but what
they reallydesire.
They reallydesire what leads to happiness,but seek it in the
To
direction.
attain
this, is it necessary to provide
wrong
of seats

thousands
the

platform

cloak

and

the

gods

that

has

me

heard

the

Does

he

been

death

in

said

ever

on

I must

quick !
rather

say

and

another

communed

or

with

himself

leaving: The philosophertouched

do

some

applauded,What

which

hearers, to mount

shabby philosopher's
?
I implore you by
words
and subjects. Who
disputations has ever felt

or

not

to

of

of Achilles

salvation

own

has

not

to

attire

lectures

your

his

loudly

fine ?

the

thousands

give up spoilingnoble

to

of them
to

invite

elegant

describe

anxiety for
Who

in

and

these

else, even

one

he

said

rejoins.No

things

about
;

any
if you

Xerxes

but

was

about

the

more

have
very
battle

Thermopylae. And this,forsooth,is what one hears from a

philosopher!
The
the sophistsin their style of
philosophersresembled
their hearers
also applauded as if expressing their
lecturing,
executed
piece of music rather than
approval of a brilliantly
of a professorof morality. When
of the serious exhortations
the
Musonius, exhorts, warns,
philosopher,says
advises,
of

reprimands

indulge
shout

instructs

or

in

any
and

unconsidered

in

and

other

hackneyed

roused and
are
gesticulate,
expression,by the rhythmical cadence
feel

sure

that

that

it is not

speaker

and

excited

encored.

then

He

that

dancer

As

praise,

by elegancesof

words, then you may

hearers are
alike worthless,

musical

some

the
any

virtuoso

one

ing
play-

noisy applause
one

side
out-

being
expressions of approval, which
if the old-fashioned exclamations.

also criticizes the

in fashion.

of

of

believe

his hearers

words

philosopherwho is speaking,but
the flute. SimilarlyPlutarch
says that
in the philosophers'
schools would
lead
to

were

both

and

way,

or

was

as
Philosophy

Good

! Wise

! True

were

Divine

! Inspired ! Inimitable

oath.

Agreement

with

old

271

longersufficient,
peoplenow

no

with

Educator

Moral

! and

confirmed

cried.

their words

by

an

expressedby Clever !
in Plutarch's
But certainly,

philosopherwas

by Witty ! or Brilliant !
opinion, the hearer ought not, on the other hand, to sit
and listless,
as if he thought that he had
only, as it were,

an

mum

to take

man

his seat at dinner, while

at lectures

worked

others

hardest.

their

at which

applause was not the rule, the

audience
generallysat upright in their places,not in a careless
or supercilious
attitude, kept their eyes on the speaker,showed
interest and wore
not only
a cheerful,kindlyexpression,
a lively

But

even

free

from

ill-humour, but

nothing to do
wandering looks,

with

had

The

to

were

almost

that

Not

the lecture.

boiu, smihng, yawning,

all these

distractingthoughts

only a gloomy brow,

seemly
stooping attitude, legs crossed in an unalso nodding and whisperingto a neigh-

but

manner,

all

from

air of

an

minute

the

like

"

avoided.

sedulously

be

depression and

precisionof

rules

the

which

by

of

men

recognized importance as Plutarch, Epictetus

others thought it their duty to assist in maintaining the
and
is in itself by no
means
dignity of philosophicalinstruction
the least convincing proof how
deep and widespread must
such

great and

have

been

the

in

taken

interest

philosophicallectures

put forward
efficiencyof these

And, similarly,the claims

schools.

important

writers

to

as

the

by

the

and
most

schools, show

and
that, notwithstanding all the weaknesses, aberrations
still regarded as the
iU-success
of many
teachers, they were
real centres
of moral
extent
education, and to some
justly,
is

as

attested

writers

of the

While
to

the

was

themselves

attention
if the

the

of

publicschools

confined

(althoughextensive)circle of
another
as

to

the

of

class

These

these

'

of

the

were

friars of

mendicant

their bad name,

described, deserved
for the
in their ranks, who
personalities
all

worldly goods, were

equally generaladmiration
the

most

esteemed

and

teachers

activity

respect.
of

pupilsand

morality,devoted

above

renounced

their

followers,
philosophers,who, representing

real missionaries

all mankind.

majority of

mission

philosophical

numerous

age.

directors

limited

there

of

works

the

by

the

yet
sake
the
Dio

second

Cynics.

their
Even

antiquity', as
the

truly noble

of their

lofty

objectsof
and

an

Epictetus,

century, were

Philosophyas

272

Moral

Educator

Cynicism, and ranked Diogenes next to Socrates.

Epictetus in particularhas the highest idea of the mission
of the true Cynics : that no
should adopt it unless he is
one
for it by the divine will.
The Cynic
conscious
of being chosen
all passionsand
desires.
Other
free himself from
must
men
inclined

to

behind

themselves

hide

can

walls

the

of

their houses

the

and lives under

only protectionof the Cynic, who has no home
have nothing to conceal,
the open sky, is modesty ; he must
could
he conceal it ?
for where
and
how
the general
He,
'

and

teacher

of the
But

'

he

could

how

',should

instructor

sent

by

and

evil,to

Zeus

of mankind

rest

; he

seeking the substance of good and

Then
where
it is they never
think.
the

to

What
where

is not

'

strong,

them

have

been

good

on

astray

gone
evil where

he makes

he has

and

it is not

his

are

but

Cynic preach

before

of the
'

wealthy, the powerful, listen

the

latter, he

Where

our

and

and

what

is another's

Had

if it were

as

your

wretches

There

and

preserve

it.

How

uncared

so

you

'

and

you

desired,you

would

would

house

sky

and

Am

I not

children, no

Tell us,

neither

already
be seeking
yourselves,

who

can

home,
a

tute,
desti-

country

show

you

in

sleepon the ground,

estate, nothing but earth and
And
yet what do I lack ?

cloak.
singlecoarse
without anxiety and fear

and

without

servant,

has sent you the man

you, God
practicethat it is possible! Look at me

wife, no

it in

tress
dis-

cultivate it, there

must
you
is it possibleto live happily,

Look

no

not

Seek

own.

chattels,without

for, without

in all this ?
'

this

of

manner

Where

guardian !

unhappy

1 have

their

to

Sardanapalus, or

in the

good, if not

it in yourselves,and

discovered

goods

ask

them

is the

seek it.

have

without

Nero

on

makes

then

messenger

it is nor

cherish

ye

'

his

sermon

are

vividness set aU
Having with dramatic
the constant
hearers, especially
anxiety and

Agamemnon

to instruct

whither

lamentations, look

sighs and

think

that

being hurried ?
wretches
?
Ye
seek happiness
it is not.
Why do ye seek it outside yourselves? It
in the body, in riches,in power, or in sovereignty. Consider
O

people.
ye men,
O
are
ye doing, unhappy

the

sir,

intendent
super-

acquire knowledge

also know

they

wise,
other-

'

should

he

to men,

that

them

warn

must

messenger

as

the

uphold

for himself

freedom

nothing to fear ;
dignityof the office of

sufficient that

it is not

and

have

am

I not

free ?

How

do

as
Philosophy

I treat

those

slaves ? do

not

lord and

own

must

serve

and

whom

you

admire

all,when

they

king ?
Epictetusthen
the deitywith his whole

would

observation

of

'

of

such

would

that

welfare, to whose
whom

so

heart

and

of

herald

who

of

is

the

marriage.

devotes
'

devolve

cares

rance
hind-

himself

; whose

'

special

Where

in

the

to

of

mission

the

gods

protection the people are

many

Cynic

without

not be tied down

he must

abandonment

and

king be

their

see

reiterates that the

; that

engagements

'

upon

the

guardian

messenger,
case

them

they

other

the

mean

think

hke

engagements, the violation

transgressionof the moral law, the

by private obligationsor

instance

me,

see

273

? is it not

honour

and

'

assist his fellow-men

of which

Educator

Moral

this

general

entrusted, and

duty it is to

intend
super-

and
who
fathers
to see
treats his
others, husbands
wife iU or well,who
deserves punishment,whose
house is well
ordered, whose the reverse
; just like a physician who
goes
round
and feels the pulsesof his patients? You
have
fever,
the
gout ; you must fast,you must take
you a headache, you
food, you must not have a bath, you requirethe knife, you
"

must

be cauterized.

How

can

have

man

leisure for all this

by privateduties ? If we truly understand

the greatnessof the true Cynic, we
shall not wonder
why he
He is the father of
takes no wife, why he begets no children.
if he is hampered

all

mankind,

he

cares

for

of

servant
In

all

men

are

them, chides
our

father

common

fact, at that time

there

approximately realized
Demetrius, who
who
lived
Demonax,
to us,

carried
literally
and

luxury and

excessive

to

were

women

father, as

his

daughters;

brother, as

Athens

in Rome

men

lived at Rome
at

all

Zeus.

this ideal.

in

out

return

his sons,
them as

Two

at least

who

of them

known

are

in the first century, and

in the

The

second.

former

of self-sufficiency
practice the principles
state of nature

culture of

amidst

the

splendour,
metropolis

golden Rome, the

of the world, and
obtained
for Cynicism, which
Cicero had
of modesty ', the
the enemy
uncompromisingly rejectedas
The
ragged beggar, who rejected
respect of the Romans.
from Caligula,
with scorn
of 200,000
sesterces (about;^2,ooo)
a gift
who
despisedNero's threats, called forth Vespasian's
tempt
by his ostentatious disdain, and expressedhis condispleasure
for those who
disagreedwith him with unceremonious
bluntness, was
greatlyin request amongst his most distin'

R.L.M.

"

IU.

Philosophyas

274

and

guished
he

immortality

to
and

the

of his

the

greatest.

mind

the

was

great

order

conversation

of this

And

could

how

he

when

even

societyof

the

noble

in his

comparison ;

man

able

be

to

the

on

sincere, since he

more

in

abandoned

Seneca

subject of
flexible
respect for his in-

him

Seneca's

the

was

wealiness

purple,in

in

clothed

world.

next

own

Demetrius

with

was

ment,
judg-

compared

with

those

were

who

constantly to enjoy

whom

man,

devoted

Thrasea

greatest respect.

conversation

strengthof
conscious

the

with

his last hours

whom

highly placed contemporaries,by

most

treated

was

Educator

Moral

help admiring

he

so

him

mired.
greatly adIn

fact he

if he

despised everything,but
left it for others.
if he had
as
Upon those who heard him
speaking as he lay naked on his straw pallethe produced the
not only a teacher, but a witness
double impressionthat he was
has created
him
in
of truth.
According to Seneca, Nature
he be corrupted by
that neither can
time in order to show
our
He is a man
of perfectwisdom,
we
us
nor
improved by him.
resolution
although he himself disclaims it,and of unshakable
while his eloquence is equal to
in carrying out his principles,
the loftiest themes
arranged nor troubled
; it is neither skilfully
about
words, but pursues its subject with powerful flight,
Providence
that
as
inspirationurges it. I have no doubt
with such lofty morality and power
him
of language
has endowed
that our
an
example and
age might not be without
a
livingreproach '.
lacked

nothing

; he lived

not

as

'

of

the work
'

and

of
personification

citizens.

This

life in Athens

Lucian, and

to

contemporary, gives a

example

an

was
a

generallyattributed

treatise

descriptionof

livingreproach

the

the

he

was

the

was

He

it

as

were

and

starved

on

himself

friendlyterms.
of the

to

aid of wit

and

characterized

regarded

assistance
practical

He

death

when

opposed
with

to

nearly a
Demetrius

Epictetus,with

endeavoured

to

smooth

of thought, and especially

Cynic mode
and reproofs of their forbidding harshness

his admonitions

by

age,

man

was

roughnesses

to rob

to his

of his fellowwarning conscience

who
Demonax,
spent the best part of his

Demonax
was
years of age.
those like him, but in agreement

whom

'

case

who

ever

hundred
and

in any

all

intellectual grace

by mildness,
men

to his

as

; his entire

kindliness,and

his kinsmen.

friends,so far

as

it

He
was

sophy
philo-

ness.
cheerfulrendered

;
permissible

Philosophyas
warned

the fortunate

275

transitorynature of the blessings

those who
complained of poverty,

fortune, and consoled

banishment, old age or
who

Educator

of the

of

brothers

Moral

sickness.

He

reconcile

to

strove

husbands
to make
quarrelled,
peace between
and
in political
wives, and
frequently acted as mediator
In
this manner
success.
dissensions, and
generally with
he lived a healthy and
peaceful life of nearly a hundred
he

years

man

any
and

had

was

never

he

helped

he

invitation
the

he

to

eat

the

from

one
every
would
bring her

called him

to

restore

he

went

Towards

mere

quiet;

he

luck

His

held

at the

funeral

he appears

that this

descriptioncannot
the

and

can

did,

as

be

rivalry

first to

serve

that

fruits and

himself
The
of

stone

crowned

seat

fool

Athenians
the
on

city,and
which

all

the

he
his

sophers
philo-

to the

called

as

this,

garlands in

with

body
the

of

grave.
Proteus, is not

so

descriptionof Lucian,
knave.

But

it is clear

possiblycorrespondto the reality,

temporary,
conunimpeachable testimony of another

mistaken

Peregrinuswas
the Hellespont.
several

keen

Lucian's

own

statements.

We

regarding the sordid or shameful

Lucian
attributes
which
to Peregrinus in all that he
of pasthe malicious
assumptions and fabrications
sionate
standing
were
absolutely incapable of underopponents, who
of a fanatic
such
the nature
as
Peregrinus.

hardly

motives

much

as

partly from

but

it

regarded

him

offered

expense

the

carried his

in which

from

largely attended

was

and

portrait of Peregrinus, later

clear,since we only know him from

only

without

loaf believed

word.

The

not

of

highest
his long

to

the

convinced

saying

sacred

present

were

received

had

he

when

magnificent funeral
him
for a long time

honour.

Greece.

without

was

end

came

be

to

children

the

to rest

the
he

the

even

up,

enemy

party quarrel had broken out in

in the assembly was
enough
appearance

away

gave him
mourned

stood

first house

whom

When

father.

Athens, his

an

respected throughout

sold bread

who

women

had

never

sleep there ; the inmates

a
good spirit. There was

or

accused

never

man,

any

and

one

every

the

and

god

used

and

silent.

were

enter

and

visit of

amongst
him

appeared,
all

and
officials,
life,he used

to

his friends

generallybeloved

was

Whenever

as

burden

years,

he

the

in

of

son

In the

citizen

of Parium

on

travels,extending over
he
Palestine, where
joined the

course

visited

well-to-do
of his

Philosophyas

276

Educator

Moral

in his
their doctrines
zealouslyadvocated
that he was
appointed presidentof the community.
writings,
of his conversion, he is
into prison in consequence
Thrown
said to have
begged to be put to death, but the governor of
Syria,not consideringhim of sufficient importance to deserve
Returning to Parium, he
martyrdom, discharged him.
presentedto it what was left of his property, which had been
lowers
supposed by his folplundered during his absence and was
it amounted
to
to be very large (accordingto Lucian
of fifteen talents, ^"3,5369s.),and then
the considerable
sum
recommenced
his wandering life. Having
quarrelledwith
the Christians, he adopted Cynicism in Egypt, and
crossed
Christians

to

over

and

so

where

Rome,

existing order

criticized the

so

then said

was

in Greece.

Romans

In

165

he

put

an

end

to

his life at

the games
were
over, by carryingout
intention of burning himself to death ; on

Olympia, after

his

announced

of

moonlight night, in the presence

of his parents,he
upon the spirits
The
and
a

in

erected

pyre

conversion

of

himself

Cynics, calling
upon

funeral

disappeared in the grave of fire.

Peregrinus to Christianity,his defection
'

internal

like his that, in the

could be
satisfaction,
as

it

was

restless search

for truth

requiredof it '-

But

as

and

dogma

just

was

to
easilyattracted
subsequentlyestranged from it,when

to ecclesiastical
was

threw

crowd

longbright

and

ditch
of

adoption of Cynicism,are quiteintelligible.It

nature

spokenly
out-

expelled by the citypraefect. He is

to have attempted to stir up a revolt against
foolishly
he

that

the

he

and

tianity
Chris-

ordinatio
sub-

ecclesiastical customs

and Cynicism
Christianity

not

were

only in perfectagreement in the absolute contrast which both

of
presented with polytheism,but the Cynic abandonment
all earthlyties and contempt for the world
was
closelyakin
of Christianity,
which
to that element
subsequentlyfound
complete expressionin the life of the hermit and the monk.
Nor did this afl5,nity
in ancient times.
Celsus
pass unnoticed
had
compared the preachers of the doctrines of Christianity
with mountebanks, since they addressed
themselves
by preference
to the uneducated
which
to
masses,
Origen replies
that the Cynic popularpreachersdid exactlythe same.
Julian
the Apostate found
a
those
who
great similaritybetween
'

renounced
and

the

the

world,

Cynics ;

the

as

the

impious Galilaeans

difference

was

that

the

called

them',

latter did

not

as
Philosophy

278
of Lucian's

account, there is

later,they

were

death

his
Athenagoras saw
Marcellinus, in mentioning
him

In addition

to the

in

statue

that, at that time

Parium,

(alsoreferred
philosopher.

to exist tillthe end

of

discourses

Julian,there

or

years after his

and Aimnianus

twelve

his suicide

Cynic school continued

The

About

famous

Educator

evidence

no

doubted.

ever

calls
chroniclers)

Moral

is

of

to

by the

antiquity.

dence
lack of evi-

no

permits us to trace its continuance, and as late as

beginning of the fifth century its adherents were
evidently
which

the

numerous.

very
It

tell

is

far

us

natural

only

that

of the

more

literature

the

morality through philosophy than

all that

we

elevate

to

attempts

time

the

that

as

should

standard

of its effects.

told goes to show

are

of the

of

less,
Neverthe-

of fact

matter

the
world
as
philosophy was then regarded by the educated
true and
of humanity, and
the
even
highest moral educator
viction.
oppositionto it only confirms the universalityof this conThat the zealous and comprehensive efforts hitherto
described reallyproduced important results,is clear from the
of the noblest men
of these
simple fact that so largea number

centuries, on their
of others, were

information

own

indebted

according to

or

the

ment
state-

philosophyfor the formation

of their character
further, from the high respect which
; and
was
paid to distinguished
philosophersby their contemporaries
and posterity. In a world
which
refused slaves the rightsof
the former slave Epictetuswas
of the most generally
one
men,
and
Hadrian, the ruler of this world,
respected personalities,
is said to have
sought his friendship. The most important
teachers
and
writers
of these
centuries, the freedman
tetus,
Epicthe knight Musonius
Rufus, Seneca the consular and
the

Marcus

emperor
classes and

ranks

all strata

to

Aurelius, belonged
of Ufe.

of

to

The

to

the

different

most

philosophy extended
highest to the lowest.

effect of

society, from

the

Philosophy,says Seneca, does not look at a man's pedigree;

the
equestrian order, the senate, and military service are
of
closed to many
to all,and all are
; but knowledge is open
noble
soul

birth
can

in that
But
and

as

reside
of
not

far

as

in the

Roman

only

limitations

did

of

its attainment

body of
knight.

slave

philosophy break
the

orders

and

is concerned.
or

freedman

through
classes

of

as

great
well

as

the barriers

society;

it

as
Philosophy

also

to

national

Moral

Educator

weakened

great extent
consciousness,

the

279

exclusiveness

of

and

by its partial subjection of

this feeling,
so
strongly developed in aU ancient peoples
(and especiallyin the Romans) and so harshly asserted, it
of the most
real and
proved itself to be one
transforming
influences of the period of civilization which

is here

described.

Cynicism and Stoicism, in particular,developed their original

leaning towards
cosmopolitanism and a brotherly love that
included
all mankind, on
the highly favourable
soil of the
Roman
that their theories
world-empire,in such a manner
of the

relation of the

spiritto

the

rupture with
It

was

could

in the

individual
extent

same

to mankind

they

as

breathe

attest

most

tian
Chris-

decided

the

views
of the world.
ancient
specifically
thought by many that this development of philosophy
only be explained by direct Christian influences ; but
of Seneca
such explanationof this phenomenon
case
no

needed, and

the repugnance

'

the

'

Galilaeans

expressed
the assumption
Marcus
Aurelius excludes
by Epictetus
of Christian influences.
The Christians of that period,indeed
(as aheady observed), themselves recognized an independent
morality of the heathen, which they attempted to account
for partly by their acquaintance with
the sacred
writingsof
the Jews, partly by the intervention
of
demons
working
against Christianity. They would
certainlynot have had
to such singularexplanationshad they believed that
recourse
was

to

and

'

'

the

virtues

of the

fcifluences. In
be

must

by
and

their

fact, the
efforts

duties

higher

to

and

of

result

moral

purer

Christian

be

attributed

an

tion
unprejudiced investiga-

to

Cynicism raised themselves

conception of men's rights

and

Stoicism

that

own

could

heathen

than

any

in earlier

antiquity.

principleof the homogeneousness of all men, who,

as
Epictetus expresses it, all have God for their father, and
first followed
out by the
consequently are all brothers, was
The

Stoic

Stoics of this age

in its widest

extent

and

to its ultimate

sults.
re-

They taught, expresslyand repeatedly,love of one's

patienceand indulgence not only towards the erring,
enemy,
with benefits.
but forgivenessof evil done to us and its requital
A

comparison

of the views

in regard
philosophers

criterion of the
the

individual

progress
to

to

of that

age

with

slavery afiords
made

humanity.

in the

Plato

idea

found

those
the

of the older

most

of the

infallible
relation of

nothing oSensive

Philosophyas

28o
in this

cancerous

conceived
future
a

complete

Aristotle

while

of

idea

the

barbarians

the
all

abolition

of

'

as

should

we

slavery

never

in the

that

it is

living chattels

Hellenes.

of the

slaves

born

as

',and

to prove

slaves

regarded

hand, insists that

other

world

endeavoured

even

natiu-al institution,and

and

ancient

affection of the

"

Educator

Moral

Seneca,
slaves

regard

'

on

above

friends,and, in so far as they

beings,as humble
authority as ourselves, as fellowsubject to the same
human

as

are

slaves.

And

there

doubt

no

The

of the

effects

that

the

to
essentially

contribute

slaves.

is

these

did in

theories

the

of

improvement

that

philosophy of

reality
positionof
far

lasted

age

able
days ; the third century affords us the remarkthat while
evidence
of Origen, which
is beyond suspicion,
few stiU read Plato, Epictetuswas
read
by aU
raised itself by its own
efforts to higher and
An
age which
all the ages which
views
of morality than
preceded it,
purer
which
not only produced a Musonius, Epictetus and Marcus
its

beyond

own

'

'

Aurelius, but in which

of ethics

system

scale

it has been

of the

is there

have

often

so

morality of
for these

one

gentle,trulyhuman

generally admired

were

generallyadopted, cannot
decay, as

preachersof

these

been

an

well

so

their doctrines

age

of utter

If there

called.

period

and

centuries,in regard

is

no

moral

graduated
least

known,
to which

we

of all
possess

only isolated statements, partly limited to definite spheres,

To
the latter belong the
partly exaggerated or one-sided.
of the elder PUny
Seneca
and
rhetorical declamations
; to
the

the former
the

of
description

awful

the horrors

of

of the

imperialhouse,
despotism,the fearful

absolute

an
consequences
by Caesarism, in Tacitus
suppressionof the aristocracy

historians, and

other
and
in

which

immorality

in

abundance,

inadmissible
alone

as

to

to

the

the

draw

the

satirists and

general
much

agreeable and
decidedlypredominate in
many

of the
and

Gellius.

And

about
it will be

if

the

we

conclusions

the

other

Pliny, and

younger

every great
in Martial.
from

city,fostered
It wotdd

these

be

sources

if they
period,even
and horrifythat is repulsive,hateful
ing,
which
sublime
even
impressions,

morality of

did not offer,amidst

like

Rome,

the

corruption,filth,

of the

accounts

and

the

leave

whole

authorities,such
works
out

of

of consideration

evidence

the letters

Plutarch
Quintilian,

disappearance of the

difficultto find any

as

'

in the

those

clamation
de-

good old times ',

literature

of the

Philosophy
that

age

thought

men

but

decay,

striking

of

picture

his

own

and

descendants

wickedness
in

deeper

to

that

the

But

in

still

remain

one

direction

or

the

and

forwards

by

the

so,

save

like

other,
ebb

for

and

particular
from

that

much

is

there

view

Stoic

doctrine
an

'

things

he

But

'.

in

the

present.

of

the

good

pleasure
exhibited

was

to

in

the

and
far

from

character

his
as

will

be

seeing

nothing

but

contemporaries,
whole
of

each.

examples

of

the

wickedness
to
his

and

of

Nothing

than

more

seen.

full

found

is

What

often

have

time.

the

history
ness
wicked-

'

present

him

in

saw

same.

you

the

by

the

at

delighted

of

survey

which

history

cities

Nothing

qualities

was

That

modern

and

houses

as

'

Aurelius,

human

regard
the

remained

perhaps

determined
who

was

produced

Marcus

events,
to

had

posterity
And

bound

was
ever

asks.

he

medieval

Ancient,

new

that

of

no

free

been

has

also

by

events.

cycle

repetition,

something

wickedness

is

eternal

the

of

to

everything

age

principally

was

belong

age

that
his

that

of

as

world

No

imitation

of

morality,

the

of

eternal

as

same

of

cycle

but

times,

worthy

was

whose

only

earlier

in

better

in

backwards

Vices

convinced

was

they

mankind.

all

to

Tacitus

'.

guilt

not

but

age,

going

movements

carried

flow.
.

is
where

trifling

waves

and

deeper

remain

they

corrupt,

mankind

of

condition

upon

complain,
are

sinking

are

reality

tion
declara-

we

morals

that
men

responsibility

complained,

that

general

the

with

the

complain,

sway,

worse.

will

and

were,

holds

sinfulness,

bad

from

will

of

concludes

Seneca

fasten

to

281

period

immorality

forefathers

Our

age.

our

that

wish

in

Even

prevailing

not
'

Educator

living

were

reverse.

the

does

he

Moral

they
the

rather

that

as

the

think

greatest
virtues

CHAPTER

BELIEF

IN

THE

and

Wherever

IMMORTALITY

whenever

been

firmly established

and

denial

of

only have

not

eternal

but
with

its

of

others

for whom

death, and

lastingfor

belief in

the

there

existence

also

OF

THE

SOUL

immortality has

not

by belief in revelation, doubt, unbelief

with
the
immortality have been associated
which
It is probable
such belief has assumed.

different forms
that

IV

individual

an

who

been

always
life

endurable

only

was

horror

It is remarkable

ever.

the

appeared unintelligible,

filled with

were

whom

to

men

that

as

the

at

it is

ending
idea

of

of

one

the

of the later Roman

world, the elder
energetic natures
the belief in immortality.
almost passionately,
Pliny, who rejects,

most

He
with

was

untiring perseverance

his life serviceable

of

whose

man

truth, and

that

to the

strove

was

favoured

make

to

state, to humanity,

of his

one,

who

minute

every
to the

pursuit of this objectfound

in the

worthy

was

lot

of

knowledge
noble

end

life.

'

last hour
Every man's
brings about exactly the same
before his first hoiur. Souls ajid
state of things that existed
have
after death
bodies no
more
feelingsand consciousness
than
they had before birth. But human
vanity imagines a
prolongationof existence into the future, and invents a life
times
beyond the grave, attributingsometimes
immortality,someconsciousness
change of form to the soul, and sometimes
the earth ; it worships departed spirits
and
to those below
makes

breath

our
or

those

as

man,

sort

What

in any

if other

body

no

could

substance

ceased

differed from

way

things in

for which
of

have

gods, who

one

the
what

nature
has

did

to
that

soul

have

power

men

of all other

as

if

creatures,

last much

after
of

even

longer than
immortality. But what

not

foretold

be

its

thought

emancipation
?

How

could

Belief in the
it see,

hear,

and

taste

What

what

or
gifts,
good would
its place of abode, and
how

after

souls
to

so

pacify children,idle

is anxious
life

be

can

last for

to

renewed

of

by death

them

shadowyfit

only

are

mortality,which
to think that
folly,

absurd
And

is

of

state

these

Where

of

ideas

283

of

number

the

All such

What

it make

without

great is

dreams

ever

could

use

it be

centuries

many

the Soul

ot
Immortality

would

where

there

ever

be rest for the created, if the consciousness

of the soul continued

in

heaven, and

in

In

reality this pretended

faith robs

the

prospect of
it be

can

and

sweet

accept

of the

chief
of

pain

would

his

blessingof
dying

lived ?

it be

experience of

and

the

virtue,

much

how

the

before

whom

easier
in

trust

to

one

live,to

to

birth

and

himself
certain

as

happy

by holding out

But

time

this
of its

nature,

man

for every

underworld

the

if it is sweet

For

have

to

dead

consolation

sweet

life beyond.

certain

more

shades

the

death,

doubles

and

the

'

proof of what will happen in the future !

This
expressionof a longing for annihilation,which
resemblance

some

itself.
denial
as

But

materialistic

the

life,stands
soul and

the

at least
immortality based upon it were
Epicureanism, by which
Pliny's view was

of

the

and

with

by
the

common

as

doubt

no

his materialism

which

also agrees in the idea of a heavenly originof the soul

adherents
its ' kinshipwith the stars '. For the convinced

and

of this doctrine

to

of

conception of

or indirectly
determined,
directly

view

the Buddhist

to

bears

melancholy
reach

the

of

prospect
It

one.

was

for

them

they would

harbour, where

of existence

end

an

was

not

consoling thought,

be

for

removed

ever

disappointments and the caprices of destiny. Their

fancy was taken by the idea of rising calmly from the table
had
had
their fill,
in order to abandon
of life,
like guestswho
of Gains
memorial
dreamless
themselves
to a
sleep. The
survived
Valentius
is dedicated
Matrinius
by his wife, who
of similar
funeral monuments
Other
him, to eternal sleep
from

'

'

character, and
indicate

the

expressed so
of

certain

singerof

the

others

Latin

in

Cos, who

Nicomedes

of

Homeric

poems

'

sleepfrom
I
inscriptionruns :
in

eternal

to

rest

'

'

[securitati),

always
the self-composedepitaph

immortality, although

unequivocally as

I lie here
A

of

denial

'

dedicated

was

not

apparentlya strolling

dities,
having ridiculed absurthere is no awaking '.
which

After

have

lived

and

believed

in

in

Hades,

no

All of
bones
dead

man

stone,

formed

was

take

lent to the
for

death

is

he

death
'

'

of it ;

it does

another

This

Ancarenus
afraid

not

'

'

is the

once

to

it

keep

cannot

'.

nature

I became

Whoever

was

wise,
other-

says

frequentlyadded

It is

and

am

to

last

regret it

not

'

'.

and

in

I know

one

stone
grave-

of

mouth

dead

nothing

', it is said

on

remedy

freedman

named

epitaph that

his

On

beneficial

expressed jestingly. A
says

'.

Death

most

am

now

longer.

no

me

the

into

put

and

not

was

I do
are

matter

Nothus

he

is

'.

longer

no

gout
go hungry ; that he is free from
need
for his lodging,since he is living in manent
not pay
perthe denial
of its continuance
free quarters. With

and

of

is true.

longer be '.

not

was

also

was

berus.
Cer-

'

once

stone,

no

he has become

debt

his

not, but

was

much

no

woman

keys,

rotten
are
away
it is said of the

it, he

restores

pays

longer be
followingwords

the

he

still alive):

were

boat

with life.
ceases
evil, since consciousness
Maecius
Marcus, who in his lifetime built
for himself and his, says in the inscription

no

house

I shall

day

having

is also combined

death

runs

Lucius

eternal

(asif he

'

in

distich

certain

an

carried

no

The
out of which
elements
he
image.
again ; life was only
possessionof their own

am
no
longer ; thus
lies ; for I shall no

'

the

is

an

his

By

favourite

that

holds

has

death

'

man,

ever.

and

one

ashes, nothing else '; in another

that, after having finished his course,

and

tomb,

'

whom

us

There

'

; a Greek
grave
who
Charon, noAeacus

the

nothing beyond

the Soul

Immortalityof

Belief in the

284

to

the

nothing,I

invitation

to

nothing.
eat, drink, enjoy yourselves,come
was

who

read

pain

was

found

who

you
'

'

Do

in

Peter's chiurch,a recumbent

kind

any

'.
the

under

1626

statue

of

man

comrade,

there

is neither

you,

stiU alive,

are

life ; for after death

joy of

laughter,nor

which

Do

am

this,enjoy your

nor

enjoy this transitorylife

ment,
sepulchralmonu-

confessional
with

of St.

drinking-

cup in his hand, excited such disgustby the atrocious nature

of the inscription,
that the statue was
hidden
into
or thrown
the

Tiber.

has
gross
life as

The

erased
with lime, but a copy
was
inscription
been
deceased, notwithstanding his
preserved. The
to have
led an
materialism, appears
orderly,decent
a

citizen.

Agricola,and

he

in

was

which

he

He
had

from

came

had

fond

Tibur

himself
of

; his name

representedin
emptying the bottle

was

Flavins

the

attitude

during

his

286

the

Immortalityof

Belief in the

Soul

spread of Epicureanism,
and
(to judge from
more
modern
amongst the halfanalogies) perhaps even
educated.
Certainly,it is quite impossible to define, at any
particularperiod, the proportion of materialists to believers
to believe that, in spite
in immortality ; but there is reason
of their relatively
only a small
large number, they formed
in the later days of antiquity.
minority even
a
If, further, the denial of immortality was
capitaland
did not possess definite evidence of the
especiallyamongst the uneducated,

principlein

fundamental

the

of
Epicurus, the finite nature
other
philosophicalsystems.
in
in

the

soul

philosophy

of

also assumed

was

Certainly, the
continuance

indeterminate

limited, but

materialistic

Stoic

in

belief

of life after death

value
practical application had essentiallythe same
effect as the belief in immortality. Yet Panaetius, who

its

and

lived about

of the second

the middle

century b.c. in the Scipionic

circle at Rome
and
later at Athens, always enjoyed a great
great influence, especiallyon the
reputation and exercised
inclined
to Stoicism, diverged in this, as
who
Romans
were
in other

points, from

denied

life after

Persius, expressed
soul died

individual

the

^ureliuswavered
soul at death

tradition

death, and

equally

an

and

the

decided

ideas

of

also

denied

who

was

the

continued

existence.

the

result of the

attached

taught by

existence
mixture

of

lutely
abso-

teacher

extinction

an

preference,Dicaearchus,

the

He

of

opinion that the

body, while Marcus

its

pEissage into another

to whom
Panaetius
Peripatetics,

the

school.

Cornutus,

perished with

between

and

of the

of the

Amongst
by

himself

Aristotle

himself,

soul, which

the

he

of the

stances,
corporeal subdependent for its very existence upon the body, and
pervading all its parts. Aristotle himself certainly taught

regarded

as

continued

of the

existence

but not of the

thinkingspirit,
person or individual ; and he expresslyrejectedthe idea that
the dead
(called the blessed ', ol fiaKaplrai,
by the people
Of the later Peripatetics
of Greece) could be happy.
Strato
of Lampsacus, the pupil of Theophrastus, to all appearance
the belief in immortality ; and Alexander
entirelyabandoned
of Aphrodisias (time of the Severi),who
has been
honoured
the

'

with

the

that

Aristotle

But

of

name

there

second

Aristotle,has

also denied

immortality.

also

philosophy which

was

attempted

to show

affirmed

immor-

Belief in the

the Soul

Immortalityof

287

it.
This
emphatically as Epicureanism denied
undertook
to
Platonism, the only philosophy which
it scientifically,
since to the Pythagoreans the theory

tality
was

as

prove
of the

immortality

and

souls

of

transmigration

rather

was

in
dogma than a philosophicalprinciple. As Platonism
set
those
whose
minds
were
general irresistiblyattracted
on
things above the earth, its theory of the soul in particular
a

comfort

was

to

and

consolation

to all who

needed, in addition

belief in

victions.
immortality,a philosophical
proof of their conCato
of Utica, also, the
perfectStoic ', as Cicero

'

calls

death
him, whose
Stoicism, read the Phaedo

him

figure in later
of Plato before committing suicide.
no
one
immortality could convince

made

Certainly Plato's proof of

not
who
was
already convinced,
shown

be

it to

of Plato

were

inconclusive

'

him

with

err

It is

than

but

the

truth

with

much

his

how

estimate

impossibleto

of his

had

reputation

and

doctrine, that

people, who

recognize the

to

criticism

name

truth

certainlymost

and

Strato's

and

of the

guarantee

satisfied Cicero

ideal

an

preferredto
his

opponents.
dialogues have

tality,
strengthen,spread and develop the belief in immorin the course
of centuries, but
with
varying success
to
without
our
own
Posterity
interruption down
days '.
the type of the priestand
has correctlyjudged him
as
sage,
the
immortal
the
to
who with warning hand
upwards
points
way
done

to

'

human

from
spirit,

In his belief that

of the

body by

sects.

gods
cult

Thracian

lived in the

of the

conviction

was

Orphico-Pythagorean

worshipped

rooted

chains

only

of the

developed

the

ecstatic

his
'

that

set free

be

body

other

above

and

conviction

could

imperishability
increasingly

after its life in

and

(Dionysus),

form, and

human

bursting asunder
this

deeply

the
be

to

of its destiny before

of the

light.

eternal

himself

allowed

Bacchus

the

the

to

scientifically
prove

mysticaltheories
Orphic communities

contained

with

earth

the

The
the

soul, Plato

in his ideas

influenced
the

this poor
he could

'.

In

by

god
the

connexion

effort to detach

self
one-

of asceticism
earthly and perishableby means
the direction
determined
which
(the so-called Orphic life),
attitude
of these mystic separatists.
of the belief and
mental
world
is
The
belief in a compensating justice in the next

from

the

also indebted
These

to

them

theories,which

for its elaboration

travelled

from

Thrace

and

by

confirmation.
way

of Greece

Belief in the

288

with those

blended
Italyand Sicily,

to lower

the Soul

Immortalityof

of the

Pythagorean

continued
unaltered
communities, and in that form, which
for centuries, were
widely adopted throughout the Greek

world.

The

dogmas

was

most

the

cycle of

continual

in order

to

and

to

its

in

company

its

is held

corporeal
fallingaway
it
is not
Consequently
be the

wages

judgment

in

to

forward

gods of

the

with

traverse,

to the

pious look

the

soul must

the

nature.

soul awaits

the

which

which

for its

divine

life,which

earthly hfe
with

birth

new

penance

regain
but

death,

do

important of the Orphico-Pythagorean

theory of the transmigrationof souls, the

the

to

of sin.

Hades, in

After
dance
accor-

blessed existence

underworld,

sinners

to

punishments in Tartarus, which in the eschatological

poems
of the Orphists are
described
in all their horror,
with
the
'.
object of terrifying,
converting, and awakening mankind
of the transmigration
Plato appropriated both
the doctrine
of souls and
their punishments, which
were
regarded partly
of
as
fire, a theory also
purificatory(especially
by means
elevated
by Gregory I. to a
adopted by Origen and
dogma) and partly as eternal, and attached great value to
of them.
an
emphatic announcement
Virgilalso was indebted to Orphism for the main features
of his portraitof the underworld, especially
-the descriptions
and the valleyof Lethe
of Elysium, Tartarus
(where the souls'
'

that

are

to

enter

bodies

new

old). Similarly Plutarch

in

first drink
his

forgetfulnessof the

descriptionof

the

ot^er

world, has drawn

Orphic Uterature ; after the exaihple
upon
of Plato, he gives it in the form
of a vision of a dead
man
restored
soul has preserved the recollection of
to life,whose
its

impressionswhile

of the blessed is like

and
that

flowers of every
intoxicates

the

separated from
a

the

grotto of Bacchus, decked

exhales
kind, which
soul like wine, and

The

body.
a

with

abode
verdure

gentle fragrance

is fuU

of Bacchic

pleasure,laughter,jest and song. At the place of torture

the punishments for offences are of three classes.
The mildest
But
for those who have aheady done penance
earth.
are
on
he who
arrives from his life on earth unpunished and unpuriuntil every passion is eradicated
fied,is tormented
by pains
and

tortures, which

and

severityas

clearness.

The

much
scars

those of the flesh in violence

surpass
in
the realitysurpasses the dream
as
and

weals

of the

passions remain

in

Belief
some

cases

souls

are

varied

on.

The

of

sound
the

most

cruel

from

chasm

of the

colour

shows

eradicated, and

purificationand

and

The

tortures.

soul of his father, full of marks

the

forth

the

end

colours

disappeared the soul becomes

At the placeof the severest punishments
of the mournful
of
souls,
wailing

colour.

one

the

been

289

it has

enduring

are

sensualityhas

indicates

after

is heard

sees

and

colour

punishment ;
brightand of
which

in others ; hence the

A blood-red
manifold.

bluish,that

the Soul

Immortalityof

longer than

cruelty;
so

in the

and

narrator

coming

scars,

his hands

stretchingout

him,

to

to fresh
by its tormentors
being dragged away
(he had poisoned certain persons without having
penances
number
of
found
out during his lifetime).He
been
a
sees

while

it is

like snakes, and devouring

two, three or more
each other.
Further, there are three lakes, of boilinggold,
cold lead, and
demons, like smiths,
rough iron, in which
dip the souls of the avaricious,and pullthem out again with
souls in coils of

their

implements.
in the

lake

Having been made

of gold,they become

red-hot
as

hard

and
as

parent
trans-

hailstones

lake of lead, and black and brittle in the lake

and crushed, they assume
broken
new
that, when

of

iron,
forms,

in the
so

and

scribable
again into the lake of gold, sufferingindeduring these changes. Many, who thought

thrown

are

torments

their

punishment

tortures, at the
who

been

had

ended,

was

of the

instance

obliged

to

do

to fresh
away
souls of their descendants,

were

carried

penance

for their

ancestors'

during their lifetime. Finally,he sees the souls of

be born
those who, that they may
again in the bodies of
with
transformed
by their tormentors
animals, are violently
is the soul of Nero,
various
instruments.
Amongst them
crimes

which

in addition
It

nails.

was

to

other

for the

intended

red-hot

piercedwith
body of a viper,but

tortures

is

at the

biddingof a loud voice, which suddenly issued from a blaze

tame
animal, which sings and
of light,the body of some
and
assigned
lakes (perhaps a toad), was
lives by marshes
it

to
for

and

as

habitation

of the

Traces
.are

also to

addressed

to the

R,L,M.

"

for the

gods owed

Nero

reward,

the Hellenes, the

upon
god-favoured people of all his subjects'.

having bestowed
most

'

III,

freedom

best

trine
widespread acceptance of the Orphic docis the prayer
in epitaphs. Such
be found
god of the underworld,Aidoneus or Osiris,
U

Belief in the

290

Egyptian

the
water

the

upon

he

soul, that

of the

lord

the Soul

Immortalityof

deceased, by which

would

bestow

is meant

the

cold
of

water

gold leaves (which the dead appear to have held

and
Petelia
in graves
at Thurii
in their hands), found
(about
in Crete
the third
(about
century B.C.) and at Eleutherae
the
show
that
which
the
second
formulae,
century a.d.),
The

life.

consecrated

the

entry into Hades, in order

into

always put
the

same

but

not

after
not

manner.

death, and the prayer

only to Christ, but also

Also
the

idea

the

for
to

'

',
speculations
doctrines.

It

place under

of Stoic views

soul has

the

for the

have

much

it

leaves

blessed

addressed

which

had

to

its

in

ousted
under

widest

undecided

aether,

philosophical
Orphico-Pythagorean
as

pious,and
the

found

(refrigerium)
of the

into

gods,

compatible with
gradually to have
appears

to

Statius

times.

soul

was

the earth

'

cooling is

of the

neighbourhood of
presentiments as
religious

in

life,were

martyrs.

elevation

an

this

stars, to the

origin

of

of

his

on

with
centuries in
him, for many
grave
also retained
the
The
Christians
idea,

originalsignificance. Cooling
typicaldesignation for the state

with

water

'

in its

them

is with

the

the

obtain

to

familiar

be

obliged to

was

one

the
the

idea

influence

acceptance

whether

his

of

in later

father's

heights above and, sojourningin the

regions of light,is followingthe paths of the stars, or whether
he is dwellingin the fields of Lethe
amongst the heroes of
the past and the shades of the departed. Yet in some
epitaphs
the latter idea is expresslyrejected: the soul of the dead
is not
but

in the

has

Phny

risen

says

is either

down

soared

to the

underworld
to the

of the

amongst

amongst
stars.

To

the

the

effect the

same

father

Emperor Trajan's dead

the

stars

his son
and
upon
the first centuries

or

near

rejoicesin

of the

shades

them, whence
his

fame

and

departed,
younger
his abode
he

looks

glory.
majority
of the educated
classes of the Roman
world
were
probably
little
affected by the mystical doctrines of religious
sects
as
as
by those of the different philosophicalschools. They
adhered
to no
single philosophicalsystem, but according
to their individual
needs
their opinion of the world
formed
of eclecticism,
and were
by means
or to a small
only indirectly
did not
extent
influenced
by philosophy in general. Some
feel the need of being firmly convinced
the subject
even
on
In

of

the

Christian

era

the

Belief in the
of

the Soul

of
Immortality

immortality,while others had abandoned

The diametrically
oppositeresults at

tendencies
philosophical

had

principlessupported by

bound

in

he

the

was

view

held

naturallyinclined

was

very

the

doubts

as

the

to

delivered

sceptically

that

the

beyond

human

scientific

in

life after

death.

those

that

immaterialityof

Galen, although anything but

the
the

The

soul.

the

and

materialist

the

powers.
like Socrates, although

man

to believe

spair.
de-

upon

the

inquirers,who made
subject of their investigation,should feel

was

natural

by

even

task

in

the different

assault

to lead

conclusion

particularto the
of this subject was
investigation
This

which

reputed teachers

most

by others of equal repute,were

minded

the idea

arrived, the

the

291

It

body

gravest
physician
declared

of the
idea
Epicurus, regarded the Platonic
should
immaterialityof the soul with great suspicion. How
another
be distinguished from
?
one
incorporealsubstances
he asks ; how
can
an
incorporealnature pervade the body ?
how
it be so affected by the body, as happens in regard
can

opponent

the

to

of

soul

in

circumstances
any

'

Quintilian also
when

released
to

decided.

when,
He

'

the

wise

the

for

Tacitus

concludes

does

not

was

mature

equally
years,

the

with

wish

place for
believe, great souls

if there

is

time,
he

that
the
are

as

one

or

that

unconvinced
wrote
the

the

the

soul

at

least

tinues
con-

has

not

at

life of

deceased

of
spirits
not

point,

deny immortality '.

is immortal

body

this

question,whether

the

certain

or

decide

to

presume

to affirm

considers

from

exist

in his

peace,

He

similar

and

drunkenness

madness,

he intends

than

more

of

cases

the

may

the

been
time

Agricola.
rest

in

pious ; if,as

annihilated

with

the

of
he alludes to the doctrine
body '. In these last words
till
Chrysippus,that only the souls of the wise will endure
attached
Even
the conflagration
of the world.
Cicero, who
such high importance to the belief in immortahty, did not
fears of death, in the
consider
it superfluousto allay men's
the body.
of -the soul perishingwith
event
justifiable,
But although Cicero recognizedthat doubt was
immortal.
that the soul was
he was
himself firmly convinced
of the
those
as
His reasons
were
probably exactly the same
classes ; they
educated
the
majority of believers among
were
dogmas or scientific proofs,
based, not so much
upon
as
instincts, needs and feehngs, partly characteristic
upon

Belief in the

292

Soul

the

of
Immortality

partlydeveloped by the
civilization.
For, although
special influences of Roman
Cicero reproduces in detail the Platonic proof of immortality,
he expressly states
(as already observed) that he considers
human

of

the

conviction

of

by argument,
for

more

the

all appearance
satisfaction
of others

of all kindred

with

and

origin could
confirmed

by

point was

as

men

as

divine.

all

of

divine

be

must

this

In

him

to

wisdom,

derived

conviction

peoples,which

its

from

he

was

on

this

belief in divinities ; further,

nation
and
greatest intellects of his own
in

immortality

of

him,

to

best

so

to

were

religiouscult

of

centuries.
many
be found
in the

of them

become

after death,

for

them

and
posterity,!'
for recognition by posterity
Everywhere and at all times

amongst

general and natural desire

and
for posthumous
renown.
who
most
it was
were
just the men

the

acted

had

the
for

alteration

would

to what

intellect who

man

the

on

without

of the

intellect,

writing, associated

appeared
earthly one, it

proofs, according

sacrifice

and

the

possibly

complete as

recognition

anxiety of
the

for its powers

that

of the

the

philosophy, could not

Its power,
perishablenature.

agreement

dead, observed

aU

tion,
civiliza-

therefore
the

above

dignity of

reverence

and

His

own.

stars, created

an

belief of the

Further

his

based

was

memory

be

not

heaven, and

the

for

unsupported
this proof

arts, poetry and

inventiveness

by the
by the

than

and

orbits

the

earthly and

an

adduces

convinced

was

even

greatness and

language

measured

the
of

of the

He

invented

man,

he

natures,

admiration

performances.
had

him,

to

intellect,
upon

which

for

enough

lofty conception

and

be

Plato

and

belief,like that
upon
human

general,and

in

nature

as

in
distinguished
would

men

only

character

with

act

prospect of immortality before them ; and it is in the

most
are
belief held by the noblest and best that we
hkely
the
truth.
Cicero
has
of
to discover
a
expressed
knowledge

the

belief in

his
Dream

personal immortality

of Scipio,in

which

by the mighty dead of

they have been uphfted
true
But
were

vague.

and

eternal

the

past

from

the

in

the

blessedness

the

enjoyed

celestial spheres,after

prison of

the

body

to

the

the

hopes

of

life

beyond

the grave

which

persistently
upon religiousconvictions were
in particular
is shown
by the example of Seneca,

founded
This

describes

poeticallyin

life.

certainlyall
not

he

almost

Belief in the

294
divine

lightonly penetratedto

of the eyes.
If
of the letter,we
he

here

there

we

in

his

whether

is

only

dead.

transition

of

end.
man

no

which

declares

often

whether

continues
the

or

knew

beginning

confidence

effect,if a

and

the

it is doubtful
soul

the

Seneca

But

with

the

medium

narrow

fact, he

writings that

certain of its nature

the

that
In

life,whether

death

be

doubt

assumed.

latest

is another

from

hardly

can

conclusion

Soul

the

the

through

us

the

compare

displayswas

enough

only

Immortalityof

exist,

to

could

We

to rise

were

who

man

had

so

risen.

Philosophicalspeculation could

only give an assurance

with
existence in combination
rehgious beUef,
of Pythagoreanism and Platonism.
Certainly

of continued
in the

as

case

considerable

philosophicalproof
and

consolation
in

number

Timoxena,

from

the

of

peace

religionalone.

wife

of educated

Vast

and

immortaUty.
of mind

in

numbers

of

derived

their

entirelyabandoned

men

sought

regard to
people, such

firm

the
as

in

belief

and

found
Ufe

other

Plutarch's

immortality

were
Orphico-Dionysiac mysteries,
widely
the
entire
world
and
Greek
were
throughout
especially
in
the
But
of all the Greek
in vogue
second
century a.d.
the reputation of being
mysteries the Eleusinian maintained

which

diffused

the

sacred

most

festival

of grace, and
the celebration
perhaps most thronged in the last

sacred

of the

days of
night was
antiquity. Throughout the Roman
empire foreign(Thracian,
Phrygian, Egyptian, Syrian, Persian) secret cults became
and

more

them

'

of the
a

to the

consecrated

were

called

in

the charm

to

mysterious, especiallyif unfamiliar ;

happiness to their
promised immortal

the

who

attractive, owing

more

service

certainly all
votaries.

of Isis and

Mithras

of

Those
were

'

born

again ', born again to eternity'. The essence

worship of Mithras was perhaps the old Persian belief

resurrection

Amongst

the

of the
evidences

dead.

of the

belief in

the

hope of a higher existence must

figurativerepresentationson funeral
and
adorned

by

exercised

other

could

to-do, that
the

monuments,

only

have

been

of which

within

is,generallyspeaking,the

be

immortality

reckoned

urns

numerous

phagi,
altars,sarcomost
artistically

and

the

the

and

reach

better

of the

educated.

welltainly
Cer-

language of these images and figuresis not always

a
intelligible
as
; the artistic production of the age, which

Belief in the
rule endeavoured

to

of
Immortality

satisfythe

borrowing

the

this

case

also

frequentlyemployed

with

so
are

of

from

the

in many

century, and
ordei, but

accordance

representations
mythological scenes,

for

the

sarcophagi
majority

; the

second

the

(perhapsas

cases

executed

were

with

period from

by

art

older

of
meaning. The great mass
rich in figures,
with which
the front sides of
adorned, belongs to these ancient creations
date

295

existingcreations, in

new

of them

to

stock

of

requirements

new

from

immense

Soul

the

buyers

choose

to

made

not

rule)were

fourth

to the

from, in

the

If the connexion
prevailing demand.
of the myths represented with death, immortality and
the
other
world
cannot
always be proved with certainty,and
the only object was
to fill up the empty
perhaps sometimes
spaces with favourite representations,yet in the majority of
there can
be no doubt
of the idea with which
cases
they were
selected for this purpose.
The figuresof the myths are, as it
were,
poeticaltypes for the symbolical expressionof abstract
ideas ; and even
here the prevailingtendency of Greek
art and
existence by elevatingit into the
poetry to transfigurehuman
regionsof the ideal, is manifest.
Only rarely (as in the fable
of Prometheus) is the union
and separation of soul and body
represented; usually the transition to another life and its
happiness or misery is symbolized by the destinies of the
and
The
gcds and heroes.
rape of Proserpineto the shades
her return to the world of light,the death of Adonis succeeded
favourite
by his resurrection, were
subjects; perhaps the
carrying o"E of the daughters of Leucippus by the Dioscuri
to a higher existence had a similar significance.The stories of

Admetus

and

the

of

of

hope

conjugal

after
of
the

and
for

meeting again after

love

incessant

mortality

beyond
proves

over

death.

and

death

victorious

even

in his combats

Achilles

the

over

and

Scyros, who
ingloriousone,

in

is

labours

as

preferreda
and

was

of

powers

real

brief

rewarded

apparently intended

guarantee of the reward which awaits

of Actaeon, Marsyas, Clytaemnestra, and
a

continuance

the

Hercules, the hero who

grave.
infirmities
the
from
frees himself

gloriouslifeto a long and

his choice by removal
to Elysium,

to be

indicate

Laodamia,

the

struggles

and

underworld, appears

victor

and

Alcestis, of Protesilaus

virtue
the

; the stories

battle

of

the

take
perhaps warnings of the punishments which overThe
sinners.
delightsof the blessed are indicated by the

giants,are

the

the

of Bacchus,

retinue

Maenads,

festivities of the

and

joyous meetings, dances,

forms

which

crowd

motley throng

of Bacchants,
of

exuberance

whose

Centaurs,

and

Pans

Satyrs,

the Soul

Immortalityof

Belief in the

296

gets the better of death : ;'the

ashes appear
still to be enjoying life in their peaceful abode
(Goethe). The god himself by his resurrection, accordingto
the Orphic doctrine, guaranteed immortality to thope who
had
been
initiated into his mysteries ; Ariadne,
rajsedby
him to heaven, was
regarded as an example of the soul freed
The
from
to a higher world.
panies
commortality and removed

sarcophagi and

life,on

urns,

'

and

Nereids

of the

bands

ing
divinities,rock-

marine

and

sports of the
dition
love-gods ('EpcuTes,
Cupidines)appear to represent the conof the blessed.
In 1857 and
1858 two stately, twothemselves

the

on

storied

mausoleums

second

century a.d.) were

sea,

(constructedin

of the

opposite sides

of the

waves

the

Latina

chief chamber

three

sarcophagi,is richly ornamented

in the

medallion

as

the

dedicated
as

to Bacchus

satyr in

of

death

reliefs ;

stucco

would

Nereids

Bacchants,
Latin

it is said

boy

poem,

found

that

the

and
near

womdn

take him

now

flowerymeadow,

with

roof

contains

which

one,

on

arched

The

story of

with
twenty-four other medallions
love-godsin small square fields. In

Philippi,on

another

representsthe soul of the deceased

by a grif"n,and is surrounded
by

centre

figurecarried

veiled

lower

of the

half

second

Rome.

at

of the

in the

the

facing one

discovered

Via

and

or

into their company

light
nymphs in their torch-

the

dances.

Whether
than

the

supporters

tion

that

be determined

all times

at

the

amongst

even

cannot

persons,

immortality found

belief in

small
; but

opponemts
cated
minority of edumore

there

can

majority amongst

vast

be

the

no

quelsi!n

masses

firmly to the ideas of the immortality of the

soul, propagated from
primitive times through successive
the

main

held

centuries, notwithstanding all the

been

in the

introduced

his continued
instincts

existence

and

needs

generallyby
and

of the

not

wanting

the

oldest
;

of

of time.

course

is

of the

one

the

human

study of the
civilized

amongst

this belief goes

which

modifications
The

belief of

strongestand
soul.

This

had

man

in

commonest
is confirmed

of

primitivepeoples
peoples,although exceptionsare

the

back

customs

Indo-Germanic
far

beyond

nations, in particular,
the

beginnings of

Belief in the
tradition.
human

Belief

nature

from

the

of annihilation

this

solution

297

keeping with
higher beings ; it springs
impulse of self-preservation
much

as

; the

extends
instinctively

case

awakened

Man,

immortality is

belief in the rule of

as

dread

in

in

Soul

the

of
Immortality

in

the

beyond

grave.

to

consciousness, seeks in the next world the

for his sufferings
enigmas of life,consolation

of the

'

and

disappointments, at the grave he plants the seed of

hope '- Only a minority is capable of reflection,which leads
and
to doubt
denial.
The
longing for annihilation, with
which

for

so

springs from

fear,

of endless

torture

small
of persons

number

much

considerable

death

for

waiting

of

the

or

the

'.

on

so

the other

by

had

reunion

evidence

as

first

course

writers

have

of centuries

grave
I am

is abundant

popular
extended,

culture

and

'

the

that

originalRoman

after

common

died

Graeco-Roman

the

paratively
com-

epitaphs,others

there
But, in particular,

in the

world, which

to such

wife

absolutely trustworthy
far

the

nor

or

immortality and
inscriptionon the

whom

husband

the whole,

times

in

the

couple,of

still determined

was

itself,but

scepticalepitaphs
assumption that
injured positive belief to

In contrast

confidence

for my

and
belief

filled,

the
justifies

progress

example,

married

classes

extent.

firm

modern

of materialistic

lower

made

ever

experiences in

of the

express
bf

immortality

in

been

have

re-births.

similar

analogy of

any

of

not

in Asia

all ages, currents

of materialism
reached
in later Graeco-Roman
antiquity ; but neither the

masses

they

millions

in

Certainly, as
the

centuries

many

ideas of

Greek
had

variously

amalgamated.

Certainly,Roman
that

no

believed

one

No

old
'

be afraid of
of death

childish

wrapped
as

who
that

there

Cocytus
many
true

black

thousands
that

TQfer, were

and

the

the

frogs

cross

Greek

less

the

in the
river

ideas,

to

weak-minded

so

as

pale

Only quite young

to

Stygian abyss,
bark.

which

generallyaccepted

realm

in

these

dren,
chil-

the baths, believe

realms,

subterranean

to

says Seneca, is so
and the ghostly
darkness

money

in

world.
under-

one,

dead.

entrance

of the

of Orcus, the

and
departed spirits,

are

and

no

No

'.

of the

skeletons

yet pay

as

depths

in darkness

to fear Cerberus
the

figuresof

Cicero, is

says
Acherontian

woman,

the

popular fables

old

in the

at different times,

asserted

In

and

any

that
case

so

it is

chiefly
passages
the western

Italy and

Belief in the

298

also the

lands, althoilghthere

reading

of

schools, theatrical
have

underestimated
that

poetry in all the

plastic art, must

performances and the

their propagation, which
was
undoubtedlycould
by the authors cited. Yet Lucretius

favoured

say

the Soul

Immortalityof

life from

troubles man's

the fear of Acheron

its inmost

of death
all and
allows
over
depths, throws the dark shadow
no
pleasureto be pure and unalloyed ; certainlyin his pictures
of the universallydreaded
eternal punishments
tortures and
in Tartarus
the Orphic descriptionsof the underworld
may
'

have

been

Juvenal

before

his mind.

could

hardly

persistenceof
departed

the

elements

coarser

Roman

his idea

have

as

is

been

'

serious

popular belief
to have

seems

been

in

in the
to

denying
spiritsof

the
the
its

represent only

in
entirelyabandoned, and even
Like all enlightened intellects,
he

this

he

is only
certainlywrong.
too ready to assume
the opinions that prevailedin his own
circles to be the only ones
that are
reasonably possible and
But
least
of all was
consequently universally admitted.
tality.
Juvenal in a positionto deny the general belief in immor-

No

about

much

as

one

will

disputethat

the

views

he must

at least have

of his educated

known

contemporaries

as

ourselves.
In

regard to one
Juvenal we know
west.

This

least

at
that

is the

it

fable

of the

Greek

fables ridiculed

believed

was

of the

widely
grim ferryman

in,

"

of the

by

in the

even

muddy
obUged

man
him,
pool ',as
to present his obol in his mouth
That
the
as passage
money.
people in Greek countries generally believed in the existence
of the ferryman of the dead
is expresslyattested by Lucian
:

Juvenal caUs

'

the

is

mass

so

to whom

preoccupiedwith

dies, his relatives hasten

the

ferryman for
finding out what
so

and

Even

on.

Charon

his

to

passage

and

obol

an
across

that, when

still

into his mouth

the

Styx,

survives, although in altered

appears

as

an

under
the

ttie

of

name

underworld

archer, sometimes

man

to pay

without

first

', and
Greece,

form, in the
Charontas

or

times
generally. Someas

times
reaper, someescortingthe hosts of

ghostlyhorseman
as an
dead, sometimes
eagle swooping down upon' its prey,
sometimes
How
(but rarely)as the ferryman of the dead
as

the

this idea

is

is current
in the underworld
money
at the present day this custom
exists in

popular belief and songs

Charos, a god of death and
he

put

the dead

monstrous

Belief In the

tKe Soul

of
Immortality

299

general and deeply rooted must that belief have been, which
has given proof of such indestructible vitality,
in spite of the
fact that, for fifteen hundred
for its continuance

years,

all the conditions

necessary
all appearance,

to
lacking ! Originally,
to take with
given to the dead man
him was
a
purchase of his entire property, which
he was
supposed to take with him intact. This obviously ancient
custom, which
persisted with remarkable
tenacity in many
countries
of the Roman
empire to a late period, indeed,
to our
through the middle ages and down
own
times, was

the

were

piece of money
symbol of the

brought

into connexion

with

dead, and

this

became

popular belief.

to

idea

explanation (of

If, therefore, there

according

the

be

can

Juvenal, only

realitybelieved by
empire, we have as

the

of the

obol

doubt

no

and

of the

passage-money)

as

that

little children

thousands

ferryman

thing which,

believed,

thousands

in the

in

was

Roman

little

rightto doubt the persistenceand

the other popular ideas of the underworld.
propagation
Cicero's,Seneca's and Juvenal's assurances
to the contrary
be confronted
the equally positiveassurance
with
of
may
He
Lucian.
of the common
says that the great mass
people
of

imagined
it.

It

the

was

by

Pluto

the

Acherusian

and

other

judges

hand

over

those

who
the

over

ofiered

exactly as the poets had described

gloomy kingdom of the dead, ruled

monstrous,

and

Proserpine,with

of the
the

Cocytus

lake, the adamantine

Cerberus, the

the

world

wicked

to

send
the

Pyriphlegethon,

gate guarded by Aeacus

asphodel meadow
dead, who

and

with
the

the

good

tortures

of

river

into
the

Elysium

to

the

neither

dead.

the teeth of Cerberus

Plutarch
and

the cask

says

that

of the

and

Furies, while

wicked
wander
good nor
livingupon the giftsand
asphodel meadow,
were

of Lethe,

those

shades

as

sacrifices

who

feared

daughters of Danaus,

and purificasought protection against them in consecrations

tions,
whereby they thought to obtain a guarantee that they
in a clear spot and pure air,
would
continue to live in Hades
of opinion
in the midst
dance.
He certainly
of jest and
was
that

'

not

'
believed
many
his estimate was

these

'

old

subjectiveand

wives'

fables

determined

'

but

dental
by acci-

of

course

of

the number
impressions,like that of Lucian, to whom
believers appeared to be very large. Thus the statements
But
both are equally unreliable.
we
can
hardly suppose

of

Belief in the

300

death

had

lie in the

would

like Aris-

believed
to have
appears
initiated into the Eleusinian

been

not

surrounded

underworld

those

that

mysteries
darkness.

and

mud

by

life after

to

nevertheless

tides, who
who

great miiltitude in regard

enlightened than those of a man

more

were

the Soul

of the

ideas

the

that

of
Immortality

On
his essay
its hallucinations

enumerates
amongst
Superstition,Plutarch
the ideas of the deep gates of Hades, of the
of the Styx, of a darkness
of fire and steep precipices
streams
full of ghosts, where
frightfulforms appear and piteous cries
to be heard, of judges and
executioners, of gulfs and
are
torments
abysses,that conceal a thousand
; and the fact that
he himself regarded superstition
as
a widespread evil, is the
with
he
which
result (as already observed) of the eagerness
In

combats

it.

if not most, Greek

may
suppose that many,
when
into the popular belief of the West, especially

ideas

We

effect exercised

the

From

time

were

of Ennius,

poets,and
both
directly and

old

fables

of

handed

majority of
capable than they are
vast

the

the

schools.

from

ideas

time
as

at

of
as

more

fables

time

were

or

is assumed

immemorial,

the

that

multitude.

vast

departed, such

masses

mankind

of

ideas
that

down
the

widespread amongst

The

the

detailed

to show

existence

less material

as

poets through

indirectly,the
needed

proofs are

in the

Roman

consider

we

of the underworld
descriptions
a favourite
subject with epic (perhapsalso tragic)
that of Virgilbefore all others probably influenced,

the

No

the

by

passed

were

themselves.
even

less

tion,
exercisingthe facultyof abstracwhich
the idea of a purely spiritual
existence
requires.
In every attempt to portray the unknown
life the imagination
and
still is, obliged to work, involuntarily
left to itself was,
and
from
unconsciously, with colours and forms borrowed
it is acquainted, and its most
the life with which
refined and
ethereal images are
most
immaterial than the rudest
no
more
in the nature
of things that the latter
and grossest. It was
should
which
the great multitude
could
be the only ones

comprehend
there
that

to
the

and

doubt
dead

retain.
the

All

assertion

really lived

their

by those who
belongings,clothes

with

them, in the

offered

of

now

them

on

the

of Lucian,
the

survived
and

belief that

less

reason,

therefore, is

believed
many
gifts,sacrifices and meals
them

that

ordered
that many
jewelleryto be burnt or buried

they

would

need

them

in the

of

shown
it is sufficiently

antiquity. Besides,

which

has

hitherto

of
possibility
of the

connexion

in

was

world

ancient

very

of

of the

singlefact

consideration

into

the

consequentlyin

general intimate
world
of the living,

dead, in

with
spirits

the

the latter.
This
upon
both
and
Greeks
Romans
;

former

of the

belief

by

and
apparitions,

in

return

influence

constant

the

taken

been

not

equally widespread belief

the

the Soul

Immortalityof

Belief in the

302

among

knowledge of its development and of the forms which

it assumed
peoples is incomplete. The
amongst the two
of the departed acted as protecting
idea that the good spirits
spiritsof the living,crops up in the oldest Greek poetry.
but

our

For

instance, Hesiod

says

that

the

souls

of

the

of the

men

good spirits('demons
')
golden age, after its close, became
the earth
as
over
who, wrapped in mist, wander
guardians
of mortal
over
justice and injustice,and
keep watch
men,
is heard
of this idea
distribute wealth
nothing more
; but
until the
time
when
the later Platonism
it
amalgamated
The
with
its theory of demons.
corrpesondingbelief in the
selves
themspiritsof the wicked as larvae and lemures, tormented
and
tormenting others ', can, on the other hand, only
to have
be shown
been
general and firmly held amongst
the
Romans.
But
in other
peoples are
respects the two
commonly in agreement as to the belief in spirits.Among
both
with
the
the belief was
chiefly connected
spiritsof
'

those

and

pursues
remained
Roman
of

died

had

who

destroys

unburied.
belief

in

the

latter

Even

and

innocent,

received

from

of

those
Greek

if, in later times, the

support, the
a

definite

form

public cult.

intercourse

mutual
worlds

the

even

implacablewrath

in consequence
spirits,
to approximate more
and

ideas, tended

lacks the firm

death, whose

violent

of

the

former

direction,which

and

the

and

interchange

an

more,

The

between

who

idea

of

upper

an

and

terrupted
uninlower

popular
supported and strengthened in Roman
belief especially
the deep
by the opening of the mundus
(i.e.
in every city was
consecrated
circular pit,which
to the gods
of
spirits

and
on

three

when
out

was

the

days

the lower

in the

hosts

unhindered

gods of sowing)
year (August 24, Octobers, Novembers),

of

'

; then

world, also regarded

the

silent

the

ones

'

could

festival of All

and
in the
the Parentalia
{Feralia)
20),the neglect of which, according to
21

as

go
Souls

in

and

come

February
preceding week (13the legend,was
folon

Belief in the
by

lowed

the Soul

of
Immortality

303

terrible

mortality ; lastly,the usages whereby it

was
attempted to appease and conciliate the ghostly visitants
during the three nights of the Lemuria
(9,11, and 13 May).
a

intimate

The

with
latter
fact

by

in

and

the

belief

in

confirmation

scepticswere

convinced,

apparitions, need
of the

Homilies

ghosts, the

and

support

that

connexion

mutual

doubts

in

to be

ready

or

The

of Rome

Clement

belief

tality
immor-

to accept the
eagerness
of the former, and
the

explanation.

no

so-called

by

tormented

of

convinced,
of

author

relates

the

that, when

immortality, he desired to be
incontestably convinced
by the actual sight of a departed
soul.
He
thought of journeying to Egypt and persuading
a magician to conjure up
a dead
man
; but on
being reminded
not only forbidden
by a philosopher that this was
by law,
but
A

erected

monument

and
vision
and
us,

wife

his

hateful

act

an

was

to

God,

certain

by

Charmosyne

', bears

the

doubtest

and

to

as

thou

wilt

their

to

there

'

by no means
by Lucian in
that
the

Thou

who

Panoptes

'.

after

'

readest

make

truth

But

wager

this
with

cated
in edu-

even

are

and

demons

wander

about

on

This

himself

philosophy.
nists, who

only of
nology, were
not

The

found

was

Platonist
man

in

and

who

and

of

firmest

believers

in

to
a

souls
as

of

many

physician,

holy Pythagorean
thoroughly studied

PythagorizingPlato-

apparitions a guarantee
immortality

the

appear

had
and

slightestdoubt

that

and

consisted

neo-Pythagoreans

their belief in

the

earth

the

not

ghosts,

the

described

of Eucrates

company

company

a Stoic, a
Peripatetic,

Eucrates

in

Philopseudes have

the

they please '.

as
a

dead

The

certain.

'

there

ghosts

and

Claudius

immortality often went

It is true, however,
that not only all those
hand
in hand.
who
held or were
inclined to Epicurean or materialistic
views,
ridiculed
the
nightly wanderings of the Lemures, dreams,
and
miracles, witches
magic, and declared that only women,
children and delirious invalids saw
ghosts,but a large number
of those
who
believed
in immortality (e.g.Seneca) doubted
of ghosts.
or
rejected the idea of the appearance
in philosophiBut
whether
the majority even
cally
they formed
after the second
educated
circles (especially
century),
is

in

the

his intention.

daughters

two

Manes,

are

learn

soon

circles belief

Tiberius

inscription:

whether

abandoned

he

but

of

the

truth

also of their demo-

ghosts.

The

philoso-

Belief in the

304

entirelyupon

of

Maximus

phizingrhetorician

Tyre, whose

who

the

souls, who

associate

to

And

they slip.
earth

visit the

to

real

The

with

them

are

to

take

and

and

good,

those

who

do

doubt, that

evil.

the

Black

in the

Sea

hero
glorified
in

the

he

before
had

the

Ilium

full

at

appeared

of

form

of

sanctuary

a
a

others][heard singing
heard

sailor

and

who

had

saw

him.

the

over

the

where

with

fair hair

him

battle song,

fallen

the

asleep on
hospitality
;

had

of

demons

with

special affection.

in

human

golden

while

others

awakened

island, led him

The

as

ing
advanc-

Patroclus
given him
poured
wine, Achilles
played the cithara, and Thetis and
of demons
the
were
present. Apuleius has handled
and

tent

with

little island

Danube,

himself

least

plain, and

beheld

Achilles

help
punish

to

some

to

Hector

saw

on

of the

man

young

often

speed

mouth

human

expressing the

mariners

to

and

up

divinity

of men,

wrong,

relates,without

them

in every

actions

suSer

him

armour,

both

He

inhabitants

often

Achilles

the

become

the

by

interest

an

who

bounding

glitteringarms
that

have

hold

to

commissioned

they

assist those

to

between

souls that

birth, in the destinies,thoughts and

the

bond

are

says,
present life ;

when

founded

are

grieved at their past and happy in

dred
they are also distressed at the lot of kinstill lingeron earth, and in their love of mankind

he

desire

views

already incliningto neo-Platonism,

his opinions,regards the demons
shared

(includingdeparted souls) as
world.
sensual and super-sensual
their

Soul

Platonism

like all those

demons,

the

Immortalityof

to
out

his
the

band

theory

soul

also

in their capacity of mediators

amongst the demons
the higher world
between
the earthly and
; the souls of the
earth ;
on
good and just after death act as protecting spirits
of the bad
condemned
those
to perpetual wandering as
are
harmless
but
destructive
larvae,
bugbears to good men,
his defence
to bad '. In
against the charge of magic he
the
utters
following imprecation against his accuser,
by
been falselyaccused
whom
of using the figure of a
he had
skeleton
for magical purposes
:
May the God
(Mercury)
is included

'

'

who
and

wanders
the

lower

gods

of both

you

the

backwards

a-nd

forwards

worlds, bring upon

in

requitalfor this lie

figuresof

the

dead,

and

you
;

between
the

the

upper

displeasureof the

before
see
you ever
all the shades. Lemur es.

may

Manes, and Larvae that there are, all the nocturnal

apparitions,

Belief in the
all the

ghosts of

dead

the

have

with
those

of

Dio

those

who

He

the

in

who

of these two

biographies

order

apparitions,
appealed

of

this stone

of the

Senecio, in

cludes
con-

shades

moves

in his dedication

as
philosophical,

Puteoli

of the

wrath

visit him

foretold the end

who

and

at
inscription

Sossius

to

disbelieved

An

May

here

Plutarch,

Brutus

of those

'

lie buried

and

minded

burnt '.

words

its place '-

305

tombs, all the terrors of the placeswhere

been

the

who

from

the

the Soul

of
Immortality

refute

to

to the
so

men,

they themselves

rity
autho-

strong-

admitted.

of others
quotes the statement
(apparentlywithout
it) that a ghost had haunted, and continued

haunt,

bath

murder

had

been

demons

was

also

than
who

of

those

according

the

'

cry,

by night ;

Platonism.
to Lucian

to

and

But

of

the
a

himself

into

and

report that

demon

who

be

doubt

could

there

LucuUus's

time

belief in

the

mother

my

spread
become

The
threw

in

to

and
spirits
other philosophical
opinions
Cynic Peregrinus Proteus,

compatiblewith

had

destined

where

committed.

demons

!'
graciously
was

Chaeronea,

at

believing
dis-

no

the

flames

father, receive
after his death
afforded
that

with
me

he

protection
number

of

people would be simple enough to declare that they had met

him at night or that they had been cured of fever by him.
The
determined
chiefly
by Stoicism
younger Pliny,whose views were
(he had been intimate with the Stoics Euphrates and Artemidorus),begs his friend Licinius Sura (consul 102) to give
there
such
him his opinion as to whether
were
things as
and a superthey had a form of their own
ghosts and whether
human
whether
nature
were
or
they
merely idle
{numen),
fancies, which
believed

the

story, which

received

their

shape

former, and

amongst

is very

that

Uke

from

our

in

the

of the

form

He

proofs told a ghost

Pythagorean Arignotus

Philopseudes. A large house at

uninhabitable
by a ghost that haunted

spiritappeared

fears.

other

in Lucian's

the

own

of

an

Athens

was

dered
ren-

it every
night ;
old man
emaciated

long beard and chains on his hands and feet,which

Athenodorus
rattled terribly. At last a philosophernamed
to him
beckoned
had
the courage
to face the ghost, which
it ; in the court it suddenly
till he took a lightand followed
disappeared. On the followingday the spot was dug up and
been duly buried
found
in chains was
a skeleton
; after it had
the ghost was
never
seen
again. Pliny believes this story,
with

R.L.M.

"

III.

Belief in the

3o6
he

the

on

says,

still

even

others, and

of

assurance

childish,

more

the

Immortalityof

another,

narrates

undoubted

an

as

Soul

which

fact

lifetime.
Pliny's friend Suetonius
during his own
it was
well-known
before
Caligula's interment
says that
that the keepersof the liamian
gardens, whither his body had
alarmed
been
by ghosts, and that the house
brought, were
in which
he died was
regularlyhaunted
by night until it was
burnt
down.
The
writings of Pausanias
provide further
men
examples of a strong belief in spiritsamongst educated
in the second
passed
surcentury ; and yet his belief is, if possible,
and Cassius Dio.
by the ghost-mania of Philostratus
occurred

What

the

of power

former

tells

the

heroes

by

been

having
According
as

to the

herdsman

array,
tesilaus
now

he

also

of the
the

among

Trojan

Hades,

healed

blinded

be

may

from

popular

performed marvels,

who

Greek

heroes, who

in his home

now

sick, and

the

war

exhibitions

regarded
tradition.

heroes
figuresof the Homeric
appeared
Trojan plain,as big as giants,in warlike

imparted oracles),now

midday,
he

the

especiallyHector,
in

was

of the

and

appearances

essentiallyborrowed

him

to

of the

us

Phylace
in

gave
by his

was

Troas

and

Pro-

still aUve.

He

in Phthia

(where
appeared at

he

aid in the

torments

of love

Cassius
Dio
adversary
appearance.
repeatedly reports quite seriouslythat on great occasions

the

dead

an

rose

of Actium

isthmus
which

and

him

Nero's

retinue

Danube

their

attempt

to

He

itself that

in form

from

masse

of Corinth.
called

with

en

and
of

relates

graves, e.g. at the battle

dig a channel
through the

that

of Alexander

features

and

the

wore

dressed

men

400

in the

a
as

spirit,

220

year

Great, exactly resembled

similar dress, marched
Bacchants

from

the

the

Bosporus, where it disappeared; no official

ventured
to stop it, but on
the contrary, lodging and
food
were
everywhere provided for it at the public expense.
A
widespread and absolute belief in ghosts in higher and
circles may
educated
also be inferred from
the frequent mention
of spellsto call up the spirits
of the dead.
These
tions
incantaof horrible
seem
very frequently to have been the cause
to

crimes, since
power

the

over

enchantment
souls

of those

especiallyif premature
children,

Amongst

were

the

only
Roman

too

supposed chiefly to

was

who

hence,

often

had

died

murders,

committed

Emperors

Nero,

violent

have

death,

particularlyof

with

this

object.

Caracalla, Didius

Belief in the

the Soul

of
Immortality

307

Julianus and

Elagabalus (Heliogabalus)practisedthis

kind

of

expressly states that the

Caracalla, who
put to death.

kind

children
of

Dio

magic.

to be
and

magic

of his

divination, in order

father

and

his

former

the

Commodus,

the

same

Nero

reason

He

Agrippina.

of- spirits,
and
human

beings

', he

than

any

his mania
who

to Rome

in

tried every

call

vain

the

up

the

up
; it

appeared with

called

'

since

his dearest

may

well

have

one

else.

offered

retinue

his mother
the

to

to

was

tation
incan-

slaughter

sacrifices to

more

Tiridates, the

in 66 with

of Severus.

that

spiritof

wish

spiritsof
whispered

was

passionatelyaddicted

most

was

to

but

of Geta

caused

get rid of the apparitions

he was
brother, by which

endeavoured

that the shade

in Rome
For

and

last

to

murdered

continuallypursued,

two

Parthian

king

of

magi, initiated him

and
all the secrets of magic, with
into the
magic meals
must
which, however, Nero
already have had some
ance.
acquaintinserted
in
For Lucan
has
his
Pharsalia
(died 65)
came

'

an

episodeof

the

horrible

is Sextus,

dead, described

language, obviously with

condemnation

to

'

of the

incantation

emphasize his
avowed
Emperor, whose
than

'

the

unworthy

of

he

enemy
of

no

had

other

this

been

in luxuriantly

intention

mania
since

the

of

the

64. It
', who

great Pompey
to learn the future
endeavours
daining
by callingup the dead ; disthe aid of sacred
he
prophecy and legitimate means,
had
horrible mysteries of the magi, those
to the
recourse
and
of the underworld
enemies
of the gods
to the terrors
;
omniscient
not
the gods of heaven
were
enough for the
wretch !
The
Erichtho, who
sorceress
complies with his
son

'

'

'

'

wish, is

unnatural

an

to be listened
cruel

and

children

to

by

creature,
the

of the

underworld

crimes, amongst

monstrous

is

gods

establishes

who

expressly mentioned.

The

which

by
the

her

claim

numerous

murder

description of
impression that

of
the

it is
produce the
a mere
pictureof the imagination. Its details are substantiated
in almost
every essential part by other similar descriptions.
It is almost
indispensablein such cases that the ghost should
being spoken
only answer
questions,and not speak without
to ; and the choice of a dead body, whose
lungs are uninjured,

ceremony

can

itself does

hardly

be

practice of

not

poetical invention,

those

who

certainly
greatlyfavoured

called

by

up

believers.

but

appears
which
spirits,

to

It is also easy

be
was

to

Belief in the

3o8

understand
the

the

of those
the spirits
best

the

of the
he

really born.

of the

other

Protesilaus

as

well

of other

as

the

birthplai

the

not

the

reasc

the

spiritscalled
their

laid in the graves

This

practiceis

living persons
It

world.
these
to

draw

called

conciliated
'

of

fort

enemies

wii

husband
remains

with

thy husband
years longer he

; I

spare

may
fill the

garlands,and
to

dead

not.

With

she
the

relatives
Even

mistress

of the

unde

In

de:

in the

old formu

tl
general dedicated
epitaph erected by

an

declares
as

the

to appease
them, we
Manes) and had to 1

Roman

awe

preserve

spiritsof

also invoked

the

of les

that

he

divinity.

honours
'

deares

implore thee, spare him, that for mai

continually bring thee sacrifices ai

lamp

with

fragrantoil
'

'.

An

addre

'

As long as I \i\
patroness runs :
honour
thee ; what
will happen after my
death, I knc
Spare thy mother and thy father and thy sister Marir

I will

that

friendly[Dei

much

as

the

in order

sacrifices,
are

all

',wherel

devotion

powers

and

earth

to death.
enemy
his dead
wife, he

to

'

the

been

to

widespread belief th;

life,which they endeavor

old

who,

', whereby

of the

army

or

with

devotion

the

them,

good

the

to

authority over

beneath

have
'

the so-called

the

on

exercise

amongst
the

of these

consecrated

were

down

included

speciesof

is founded

powers

number

ze

be abate

apparitions,to inflict pain and sickness upon them,

their tongues, and
Similar magical arts were
so
on.
of incantations
written
tablets
on
practisedby means
and

alio

same

since

would

torture

to

in whi(

spiritdid

Homer

of

use

him

of his

Philostratus

worship of

demons,

ask

to

perhaps for

in

Further, magicians made

Conjurations

the honour

answer,

revii

to

dead

in order

claimed

cities in the

easiest

probably succeed*
Alexandrian
savant
Apic

the

Homer,

the

spiritof

long been

Unfortunately,

communicate

to

the

as

of

be

recently died.

Thus

cities which

seven

was

him

had

who

shade

it would

had

who

witnesses.

without

summons

that

assertion

of those

bodies

the Soul

Immortalityof

be

idea

to pray

for them

same

thee
are

to

honour

when

am

gone
to
upon
preserve thi
gods of the underwor

called
the

only acquainted with the dark and sinisi

aspect of the belief in spiritsat that time, it is enough
prove that the tendency to plunge into the mysteries of t
next

if

able

to pay
the dead

may

or

or

world

we

are

and

the world

of

was
spirits

widespreadand

irres

Belief in the

3IO

LoUius

Titus

Similarly,wanderers

'.

Soul

the

Immortalityof

requested

are

not

to

friendly greeting to the dead,

for the attention :
in return blesses them
who
Mayest thou
readest
these
be
who
lines, enjoy a healthy life, love and
!
Sometimes
even
a
comes
loved, until thine hour
reply
is put into the mouth
of the dead, so that a kind of dialogue
begrudge

and

honourable

an

'

'

between

him

and

the

be

passer-bycould

by

read

the

latter

the

gravestone.
It was
that
the dead
believed
commonly
of sympathy on
pleasure in such indications
on

livingwithout

the

giftsand
of the

meals

distinction, and

ofiered

memorials

'

on

at their
and

rose

that

also

graves,
violet

always
the part
the

found
of all

sacrifices,

the floral decorations

days ', the light of

the

freshly-filled grave-lamp and the smell of its fragrant oil,

would
be equally agreeable to them, if only as proofs that
not
they were
forgotten, by posterity. All such offerings
made

were

it

as

under
to

were

same

the

dead

is

sight of

these

our

affected

the

akin

that

to

had
'

or

comes
even

of the

generations.
past life of
'

monuments

and

stereotyped '.

their
The

and

ancients.

It

these

heaven, but

to

by

side in life,as
blows

to

us

speciallypleased him

that

did

their

gravestones

up

wind, which
those

scenes

the

departed

which
touching representations,
sympathy in the highest degree, most agreeably
spiritof Goethe, which in this respect also was

side

with

from

funeral

continued

were

simple

look

stood

the

it

as

future

amongst

of the

represented on

men

hands

live

to

the desire of the

was

meaning
represented on Greek

existence

the

continue

is the

The

excites

the idea that it

stood

by

loved

had

they

from

side

not

ttie graves

fold

side
one

of the

as

they

another

ancients,

perfumes over a group of rose trees '. And

rejectedor did not need the belief in a personal

sweet
who

immortality have

throughout antiquityattached
to being held
in remembrance
by posterity.
great value
Even
Epicurus, in whose
theory of happiness tiie principle
that
real

2oth

and

existence

consciousness

keystone, ordered
of every

of himself

observed
But

at all times

month

and

by

his

in his will that

should

friend

his followers

although those

firmly to

the

idea

of

be

kept

his

as

Metrodorus

forms

the

birthday and

the

festival in memory
and the custom
was

for centuries

even

who

death

with

ceases

immortality held
personal existence, higher,

believed

continued

after' his death.

in

Belief in the

purer, and consequentlyhappier,they by

such
difference between
a
the Ufe beyond
hfe

earth

on

not

were

the

so

Greeks

it meant
and

the

as

followers

they

disappointments

deliverance, did not

the end

mouth

Christian

neither

and

eternal

an

Christian

to

life of

It considers
existence

belief

next

receives

its

life

as

No

man

must

in

in this

between
Death

is
in

consequently,are

other.

the

the

one,

light,and

true

from

whose

will

Happiness

followed

not

without

which

fall to

not

earthly
it would

beams

the

lot

of

seductions

virtue

is left open

the

soul

an

which

keep

to us,

in

freed

been

has

thing alone

One

extent

can
we

serve

virtue

are

exercises

and

the

rough

pleasures and

sorrows,

must

we

of

philosophershave

small

life,to however

troubles and

which

his

life,but

new

after

imagined.
be happy so long as he lives in the body, which
can
he
necessarilybe dissolved by decay, but only when

the

from

judges

the most

spiritalone, after
companionship of the body.

happy

was

tion
by resurrecunhappy lot imaginable.

lives in the
the

to

this

(inthe Apology)

Plato

to his

regards death,

happiness,as

the

than

blessed ',

if it

evil, even

views,

Both

says Lactantius, in the way

man,

our

put by

passage

so

more

completely dark.

be

"

evil.

an

one

the

When

brought

the
contrast
express
view
of the matter
:

pagan

sleep or

consolatory,but
The

the

is it

case

best

perhaps

'

dead

which
an

appear

words

the

the troubles, sufferings

from

of Socrates, addressed

condemnation,
either

The

doubt.

the

life. Death,

therefore

of existence.

into the

the

of

and

grave

and

called

delivered

were

admitted

means

the

311

Consequently, they

to unbelief

that

no

of Christ.

keenly opposed
in popular language

Soul

the

of
Immortality

and

from

make
must

alone

us

flee
in all

confirmation
difficult

path

leading to happiness. Consequently,

greatestgood, the possessionof which bestows happiness,

can
only be found in religionand doctrine, which include the
hope of immortality. Augustine calls eternal Ufe the greatest
good and eternal death the greatest evil. Only that man
whole being is directed
be called happy here below, whose
can
to that end, and who
keeps it stedfastlyin view in glowing
then
he is happier in hope
affection and loyal hope ; even
is only a false
this hope there
in reality. Without
than
the

happiness,only misery
It is

view

higher value

on

very

and

sorrow.

commonly

held, that

this life,since their

hopes

the ancients

set

of the life beyond

Belief in the

312
the

this.

the

fresh

ever

The

and

Roman

innate

so

and

world

the

on

on

greatness

essential

element
certainly an
view of life. But it is only one
of its two poles,
in the ancient
and oppositebeing a feelingof resignationarising
the second
from
of human
a deep consciousness
misery and helplessness,

beauty

whose

painfuland

literature.
world

afforded

that

the

other

human

only

Biton

stand

death,

It is

there

no

other

the

than

the

by

period of

full of
casks

two

thought
for the air

room

When

goddess

man

believed

one

another.

the

for

occasions

during

was

to

the

grant

her

obtain, the
Herodotus,

could
thing a man
and, according to

better

was

several

if he

even

casks, the

two

asked

best

the

death

on

divinities.

be

And

sufferingand

one

them

that

confirmed

the

gifts,later writers imagine

for the good ; and Simonides

one

and

would

goddess gave
declared

of

idea

the

man.

fvillof evils, that

of Cleobis
what

there

of bad,

penetrate between

sons

than

of Zeus

and

life so

mother

whom

to

miserable

heU

for the bad

Homer,

all ancient

expressionspervade

the supreme
absolutelyno consolation, makes
all thingsthat breathe
and creep upon the earth,

in the

good,

life,is

submissive

Even

god say : Of
nothing is more

to

human

the

nor

existence, nourished

of

love

splendours of

of

clearly
the general impresBut
sion
literature by no
means

firmlyestablished

so

Christians.

Greek

from

confirms

be

of the

those

as

derived

and

neither

could

grave
set forth

the Soul

of
Immortality

life.

This

revelations

was

of other

the

youthful and manly

vigour of the Greek intellect that the idea already expressed
by Theognis and amongst others by Sophocles,and put into
the mouth
of Heracles by Bacchylides, is repeated in various
forms

the

best to go

best

fortune

whence

came

as

soon

(in the oft-quotedwords

Hence

who

pity those
Socrates

find

and

more

Even

in Plato's
the

even

wUl

born, and

are

congratulations.
one,

one

to be born

is not

King,

days

happily as

and

is

the

dead

appeared

the

twin

life ; for every

reflects upon
his life,
nights,which he has spent better

dreamless

'

'

joy and
sleep, says

he

night, can
numbered.
Menander, the wittiest poet of
period,whose fragments give forth the dull
the gods love, die young
says, Whom
a

with

dreamless

preferableto

when

next

possible after birth.

Euripides)we ought to

bury

is

the

as

of

if death

Apology,it

Great

that the

to

all ;

at

sister of human

very easilybe
the Alexandrine
tones
'

life ', and

of

to him

that

tion,
resignasadness
man

the

Belief in the
happiest,

who

'

of the
he

Even

then

Roman

kind.

returned

literature

Thus

Cicero

the

of

looked

in haste

concluded

vanity

according
in
the

that

and

earlier

an

his Hortensius

die.

them

life,and
of soul

the

greatest boon

feeling of unhappiness
and

annihilation,

for

gift of

that

Seneca

nature.

was

mentioned

death

mitted
com-

recognized
their

happy

in

the

man,

positivelonging

appeared

him

to

best

the

delights in describing the

varying aspects, praisesdeath

ever

the

surrounds

fails ; the
death

and

us

often

is death

harbour

'

cruel

stress

'

abyss

that
of

flowing current
rock

world

the

in

the

outside,

demands

or

if a Marcus
'

was

point, before

mere

"

us

tory
vain, transi-

passing

behind

and

yet, amidst

And

die

being our
Aurelius regarded

struggle and

to

only

from

the

us

an

eternally

could, stand

should, and

about

completely untroubled
to fate
respectfulsubmission

he

fast
the

retires

own

of nature, conscious

If with

may

at

come

to

the

being only

of

calmness

cheerful

any

moment,

the

tree

praiseof
which

bore

it.

as

awaits

part
the

aimihilation

whether

nature

small

he

gently parts from life,like

he

in its fall utters

gives thanks

birth

our

its

fetters

if

sea;

in

transformation,

which

of

which

strength
which

is the chain

even

engulfs all.
the past,man

great whole.

end, which

the

it

reflections,as into a strong citadel ;

loyalto the god who dwells there, if he fulfills

remains

of the

'

of life

And

into the stillness of his

if he

slavery, when

life itself

guest ', its duration

endless

rocks, and

the

on

unreal, yet its blessingswere

as

trifling ;

and

us

prevents the fact

alone

evils of life

the

hurls

it is

greatestpunishment.

as

case

to

greatest benefit. Life is absolutelylamentable

resembles
a
city taken by assault ; it is a stormy sea,
as

let

shortness

and

granted

to

and

corpses
that

had

increased

ancient

torture, such

face with

nature

errors

practisedon

have

was

sion
discus-

also, who

of life in

wretchedness

body

mortal

for sins

and

to

similar

justifythat

to atone

to

The

men.

Aristotle, who

they bound face

has already been

opinionno

with

also

said

whose

was

of
to

born

are

piratesare

It

Pliny, in

of life

we

combination

captives,whom

the

grandeur
place whence

to the

unhappiness

to whom

Etruscan

the

as

313

the

upon

suppliesexpressionsof

hardships of life,it is said, appear

sage,

of

has

sorrow

Soul

'.

came

and

without

world, and

the

Immortalityof

the

ripefruit,

its creator

and

INDEX
A
A
A
Ab

COMPLETE

THE

TO

cubiculo,I. 35
libelHs,I. 52

Alexandria, I.

sive

Abascantus, I. 53
Ab epistoUs,I. 53
Abnormal
Abraham

admissionalea,I. 89
; II.

scenery,

212

Altinum, I.
I.

384

worshipped, III.

118

Abonuteichos, II. 299

Abstemiousness,II. 141
Accompaniment, not
always

following

II. 340
Buta, I. 124
Glabrio, III. 208
Acme, I. 61
Acta diuma, I. 154^ 219 ; II. 23
Acte, I. 62
Actors, II. 112 ; limitation of
113 ; earnings,II. 113
AdUcUo, I. Z27
Adoration of emperors,
II. 278
Advocati, I. Z62

pilgrimages to,

355;

361
Alexandrian periodmodel for Roman
II. 316 ; products, I. 314
Almonds, II. 167

I. 51
reUionibus,
admissione

WORK.

335

Alupka, II. 199

Amber
necklaces, II. 183
Ambubaiae, II. 345
Amo^iitas, I. 391
Amphithearte, Flavian, II. 72 S
Androclus, II. 47
Ancient

art, II. 266;

Animals,

rare,

source

hunted, fought

or

music, II. 337 "

of, II. 66 ; at games,
exhibited, II. 69-70

140

fees, II.

I. 335
Anio, the, lined with villas,
An-si, I. 308
Au-ti, King, I. 308
Antistia Pnscilla,I. 54
Antium, I. 331

'Aegyptizing',I."'37

Anthropomorphism,

Aelian, III. 96
Aelian, III. 98

Antinous, worship of. III. izS

Antiocb, II. 239
Antipater of Sidon, III. 10
Antoninus
Pius, III. 96
Antonio
del Pollojuolo,II. 176
Apelles,the. Tragedian, II. 114

Aemilius

Lepida, I.
PauUus'

109

triumph depicted,II.

272

Aesculapius,cures

by,

III. 97

Aesop, the tragedian, II. 140

Aether as abode
of blessed,III. 290
Afranius, comoediaiogaia
Incendium, II. 95
Africa,well watered, II. 225
African
cities,II. 237 ; Central African
travel,I. 325
Afterworld,Ideas of,III. 297 ; Lucian and
Plutarch
on
popular belief in. III. 299
352 ; III.
44 ; of Minerva, II. 121 ; cf. Stadium
Agones, of Provincial centres, I. 318 ;
musical. III. 32
Agriculture,I. 188
Agrippa, great constructions,II. 261 ;
Kmg of Palestine,II. 306
Aken, I. 321
Alabaster,II. 189
Alba, Duke of, II. 207
AlC"ntara, II. 250 ; bridge at, II. 231
II.
Agon, Capitoline,

120,

art

Antygdalum, II. 167

song,
Acilius
Acilius

Aemilia

I.

124,

III. 120,

ff

Apamea, II. 239, 242

Aphrodisias,II. 242
ApoUinarisSidonius, II. 235
Apollodorus of Damascus, II. 324
Stoic tutor of Marcus
Aurelius,
Apollonius,
I. 67

Apollonius,III. 264
Apollonius of Tyana worshipped,III. 118
Apolloniusof Tyana, I. 41 ; III. 122
Apparitores, I. 190

Apuleius,III. 8r, 92, 153, 240

Aqueducts in Africa, II. 225
Aquileia,II. 334, 335
in antiquity.
III. 5
Archaism
Archiatri,I. 169

Aleatorutn conventicula,I. 2x9

Alexander
of Abonuteichos,

III.

Cotyacum, I. 67 ; Severus,
simplicityof life,II. 149*
of

131 ;

his

Architecture, I. 155;
Ardeliones, I. 212

Arelate, II. 235

Aristides,I. 4 ;

11.

186;

H- 233 ;
II. 292,
341 ; opinions,
235.
241
99,
Aristobulus, II. 134
Armatura, II. 56

at

338

234,

324

Athens, I.
;

III.

79,

Index

3i6

despised,

I. 113, 329

Zoticus,I. 45

Avignon, II. 235

Babylonian bagpipe,II.

345
Bacchanalic
process, the. III. 189
Baden, I. 321
Baiae, I. 336 S
Balconies forbidden, I. 6
I. 309
Baltic commerce,
HI. 107,
Barbarous
reUgions despised,
Barbel for 5,000 sesterces,II. 152

iii

Bartolommeo
Scuppi, II. 158
Bath, II. 247
I. 45, 321 ;
and
Baths
bathing-resorts,
II. 226 S
Bathyllus the actor, II. 100, 116, 335

Belgrade, II. 24S

Betel nut oil,price of, II. 179
Benedetto
Salutati,II. 156, 176
I
I.
Bestiarii, 56, 63
Biblical rites,I. 378
Bignonia Catalpa,II. 201
Birds, taming of, I. 154 ; II. 70
Birthday ceremonies, I. 21Z ; III. 310
Bithynian cities,II. 250
Boar-Larding,Sir, I. 159
Bologna, great fire at, II. 255
Bona
dea, III. 141, 146
III. 36-37
and prices,

Bordeaux, II. 236

Bostra, II. 240

Brigandage,I. 294 ff
II. 358
Birtannicus,

Christian idea.III

Bulla, as token of liberty,III. 13

II. 51, 71, 80
Bull-fights,
II.
236
Burdigala,
Byssus, II. 173

Byzantium,

II. 245

II. 2x3
Caecilius Claudius Isidorus,
CaeleUura,II. 2of'
Caenis, I. 62
I. 44, 45 ; II. 135 ; III. 207
Callistus,
III. 53
Calpumius Sictilus,
Calvisius Sabinus, III. 3
Calvisius Taurus, III. 249, 257
Cambac^r^, II. 153
Canius Rufus, III. 67
Cannebae, II. 233
Canticae,II. 338 ff
Canus, II. 342, 357
Canopus, I. 361
CapUoHnus, I. 85
Capri,I. 334
Capucmades, II. 143
Caracalla's improvements of Rome, I. S

Carbasus, II. 173

Cardui, II. 170
Carinus, I. 6z
Carnations, II. 201
II. 247
Camuntum,
Carruca dormitoria,I. 288
Cartagena mines, II. 206
Carthage, II. 238
Cassius Dio, II. 199, 293 ; HI. 136, 224
Cato, II. 167
Catullus' influence on style.III. 70 ff
Celebrative Art, II. 272
Celsus,I. 91 ; III. 123
Cenae pubHcae, II. 296
Centumcellae, I. 330
Centuriones
Cetronius'

Barth, Heinrich, II. 2r7

Book-trade

221

Ashbndge Park, II. 198

Asiatic music, 11. 345
I. 41 ; II. 47
Asiaticus,
Asinius Pollio,III. 29, 30
Asinius Pollio,III. 38
Asparagus, II. 442
Aspendus, II, 244
Assiforanea,II. 53
Astrology,I. 185
Atellanae,II. 48, 90 S
Athenodorus of Tarsus, I. 8^
Athens, I. 391 ; II. 246 ; rejuvenated by
I. 34
Hadrian, II. 258 ; afterflush,
"
126
II.
Athletes,
Attains,III. 249
Attila,II. 268
Auctorati,II. 53
Augustales,II. 296
Augustus, III. 29, 136
Augustan hterature,III. 21 Q, 82
Aulus Pudens, III. 60
Aurelius Channus, I. 319

Symmachi,

man

Art in statuary, II. 302

Artemidorus,I. 185 ; III. 136 fi
Artemidonis,III. 95
Artichokes,II. 170
whence
drawn, I. 319
Artistes,
I. 378 ff ; fedmg, II. 325
Artisticrelics,
largelyslaves,II. 3r8 ; profession
Artists,
II. 321 ; tours, I. 31S

Aurelii
AureUus

of

Brotherhood

Amintius, I. 68
AiTuntius Stella,III. 60, 73
Arsinoe,II. 239

I. 139
primipilareSt
buildingmania, II. 199

Chaeremon, HI. 238

Charicles,I. 68, 84
Chariot-races,II. 21, 37 ff
and obol.III. 298
Charon
Cherries,Chestnuts,II. 167
II. 157
Chigi,Aigostino,
Children's

games,

etc.,I. 229

Choricius,H. 93
Choruses, II. 359
Christian churciies,
opinionsand converts,
I. 307 ; II. 120, 171, 198, 311 ; III. 118,
198,200 ff

Chnstianity,III. 205,
and women,
Christianity

211, 220
I. 257 ; III. 195
to, III. 188 ff
Christians,hostility
Christina of Sweden, II. 177
Chrysogonus,H. 349
his villas,
Cicero as proconsul, II. 287
I. 329 ; on
musicians, II. 358 ; as
"

purdiaser of statuary,II. 263

Cinerary urns, II. 2x2
Cinnamon, priceof, II. 129
Circus,the, II. 19 ff
Cirta,statuary at, II. 263
Cisiia^, I. 279
Cithara, III. iii ; II. 341 fi

Index

3i8
Etna

Gladiators, II. 17, 41 ff,52-3, 57. 59 ff

at funerals,
II. 58 ; combats
as soldiers,
II. 2x4 ; prospectsof,II. 49 ; women
as,
11.50
Glass, how used, II. igx
Claudius Severus, III. 227
Gnaeus

ascended, I. 393

Etniscus,I. 45, 51
Eucrates,III. 303
Eudemus, III. 249
Euphrates,III. 227, 26S
Euphrates the freedbian,I.
Eurhythmus, I. 42

51

God's

Gods

Eusehius, I. 35

acres, II. 2x5

not
originatorsof

moral

law, III.

2x5 ; offeringsto. III. X65

Eutropius,I. 35
Exploration slightin antiquity,I.

323

II.
Gold-plate,
Gordian

ff

205

I. Ill, 250

fees,I. x6o
decadent, I. 340 ; disapproved
venationes,II. 84
Greek
Anti-Semitism, III. 183 ; cities
for
plundered, II. 261 ; enthusiasm
plasticart, II. 335 ff ; philosophy. III.
III.
ff. ; pre-eminence in rhetoric.
222
77-8 ; statuary abundant, II. 262

Grammarians'

Fabullus,II.

323

Greece

Factions, growth of, II. 28 3

Factories of statues, II. 307
Fashion
at Rome, I. 30 ff
Favorinus, I. 84 ; III. 80, 249, 259
11. 121,
Feasts and
Festivals,I. 320;
149

Feralia,III. 302
Figs acclimatized,II. 167
Fires in provinces,II. 255
Firmicus
Matemus, I. 185-6, 237, 339 ;
II. 122
Fiume, II. 235
Flavia DomitUla, I. 63
Flowers in ancient Rome, II. 20X
Flutes, II. 341, 344
Foods acclimatized,II. 165
Forks, II. 143
Foucquet, II. 152
I, 74
Fraier as title,
Fratres Arvales, III. 156
Freaks, I, 367 ff
Freedmen, I. 37, 47 ff,202 ff
of speech, III. 28 ff
Freedom
French
cookery,II. 159 ff
French
estates, II. 197
Fronto, I. 68 ; II. 294, 361 ; III. 7, 56,

80, 139, 233

Fumi, I. 44
Funeral guilds,I. 151
Funerals, II. 210, 213, 217
Ftmdanus, III. 249
Furniture, 11. 269

II. 53
Gregarii,
Grottoes visited,I. 381, 383
Guilds of tradesfolk,I. 146 ff
Gulliver on tea, II. 147
Gymnasia, II. 123 ff
of sophists.III. 78 ;
Hadrian, admirer
leum,
architectural works, II. 257 ff ; MausoII. 2x8 ; piety, III. 96 ; verse,
III. 34 ; villa,II. X96, 265
II.
Hadrianopolis,

257

Hadrianotherae, II. 257

Hamilton, Lady, II. X03
Hanno's

voyages,

I. 324

Haruspices, I. 187; III. 126 ff

Haunted
house, III, 305
Helicon, I. 57
Helius, I. 40
HelvidiusPriscus,III. 223 ff
Henry II of England, anecdote of,II. 140
Herculanemn, VUla at, II. 264
Hermogenes, I. 68
Herodes
Atticus, I. 67-8 ; II. 253, 259,
296 ; III. 75, 80
in honour of Augustus, HI.
Herod's games
9

Heroes, Relics of the, I. 372

Hero worship, III. xx5 ff,142 ff
Gabba, I. 85
Gains Lutorius Piiscus,III. 54
Hippolytus, III. 199 ff
I. 371, 375
Historical relics,
Gains Thoranius, I. 99
Gains Stertinius,I. 69
Histrio,II. 109
Holinshed
on
stoves,II. 144
Galba, dream of. III. 165
Hordearii,II. 56
Galen, I. 68, 78, 170, 173 ; II. 125, 171 ;
I. 4X
his corIII. 135, 208, 219, 249, 291
respondence, Hormus,
Hortensius
I, 303 ; his philosophy,
Hortalus, I. X23
II. 127
III. 95 ; on athletes,
HospUium adventorium, I. 291
House-decorators'
wages, II. 267 ff
Games, II. i ff,121
Hxmian
sacrifices to day ghosts, III. 306
Gardens, I. 418 ff
II. ixi
in. 7, 2r, 80, 94, 237, 249-50,
Hylas flogged,
Gellius,
II.
Hymnologi,
350
257-9
Gemi, belief in, III. 114
Iced food invented, II. X42
Gerasa, II. 241
German
Icelus,I. 4x, 47
cookery,II. 161 ff
of Secimdinii,
II. 2x6
Igel monument
Germanicus, I. 345 ff.III, 30
III. x6 ff
iQon,I. 346
Gesta Romanoruttt,
II. 13
Illumination,
Ghosts,belief in. III ; 306 ff
I. 215
Images of gods. III. X64 ff ; worship of,
Ghouls-in-waiting,
Gifts at banquets, II. 151 ; for disasters
167-70
It,355 ^
to cities,
Immortality of soul,HI, 283 ff
"

Index
Imperialhousehold,I. 66 ; license for new
II. 249 fE ; palaces,II. 191
buildings,
panegyrics.III. 51 fE

Incantation

of dead. III. 307-9

of, II. 211
Indian commercial
I. 306
relations,
Inns, absence
of, I. 289 ; as places of
ill-resort ; I. 293 ; signs of, I. 291 ff
Insignia,I. 127 ff
Irenaeus, III. 206
Isaeus the sophist,III, 79
cut
Isthmus
Hadrian, II. 258
ItaUan coast with its villas,
I. 390

Incense, kinds

b^

Jewellery extravagance in, II. 180 fE

to
Statuary, II. 305
Jews' aversion
of.III. 171 fE ; in Alexandria,
dispersion
III. 176 ; in England, III. i8z ; in
Gaul, III. 180; in Italy, III. 178;

strictures
revolts of. III. 177 ; Roman
by Emperors,
on. III. 184 ; Treatment
III. 182 fE
Joachim I of Brandenbiurg, II. 140
Josephus on scenery, I. 389
Journeys, I. 287 ff, 311
the
I. 287 ;
women,
Judaism among
neutral.III. 171
Julian on Pantomimes, II. 106
II. 152 ; games, II. 41
JuliusCsesEir,
JuliusCanus, III. 261
Jumentarii, I. 279
Junius Mauricus, I. 81
Junius Rusticus, II. 294 ; III. 227
I. 165
Jurisconsulti,
Juristsunder Empire, I. 122
Juvenal's descriptionof a garret-home,

Knighthood, offices incident to,

Knights, 1. 134 S ; wealth
Kostolacz, II. 248
Kublai Khan, II. 174
villa of,II.
Laberii,

I. 137 fE

of, 1. 143

259

Lactantius, III. 194, 215, 31Z

Lambessa, II. 232 ; III. 112
Lanisfae,II. 53
Lanuvium, II. 251
Laodicea, II. 242 ; industries of, I. 315

Macedo,

Lotus, II. 168

Lucan, III. 10, 32; Orpheus, III. xi
out of fashion,III. 7 ; read at school,
III. 4

Lucian's

II. 3x0 ; jibesat polytheism,

11.
X08 ; in Pantomime,
III. 234 ;
Z04, Z07 ; on
philosophers.
his Philopseudes,
III. 301 ff
Lucius Afranius, II, xxo
Lucius Arruntius, I. 213
Lucius
Crassus, house of, II. 185
Lucius Seianus, II. 13
Lucius Valerius Proculus, I. X38 fE
Lucius Verus, II. X45
Lucretius and Epicurean school,III. 86
Lucrezia Borgia, II. X76
LucuUus, II. 15X
II.
Ludi, II. X fE ; religiousceremony,
36 ; times of,II. 11 ; when
held, II. g
Luxury, II. X31 ; afEected by dimate, II.
X4X ; as progress, II. Z43 ; domestic,
II. 202
; in dress in Germany, II. 177 ;
in Germany, II. 133 ; in scents, II. X84 ;
of a Nero abnormal, II, 132 ; of Spanish
grandees, II. 144 ; since 1850 increased,
II. Z3X ; imder Khalifs,II. X55
Lyons, II. 235 ; great fire at, II. 255
Lyre, II. 34X

Dreamf
III.

Maecenas, III. 30, 224:

55
Madeira

I. 99

Largess at ludi,II. 14 "E

Larvae, III. 302, 304
Lateranus, I. 47
Latin,decay of, III. 20 ; rapid spread of
III. 23
language and literature.
Laudiceni, III. 41
Legacies for games, II. 10
Lemures, III. 302
Leo X, Pope, II. 157
Licinius Arcbias, III. xo
Licinius Sura, III. 305
Lilies,II. 167
changes in. III. 7 fE
Literarypopularities,
Local cults,III. 146 ff; of Greece, III.
158 ff ; of Italy, III. 157 ff
LoUia Paulina, II. 182
Longianus, II. 290
Lorenzo de Medici, II. 17^

as

Patron, III.

discovered, I. 324

Magic, belief in, I.

260 ; tales

of.III.

17

Maiestas, III. 187

Makaritai, III. 286

Manilius,his Astrology,I. 2ix
II. 103,

II. 269

Larcius

319

on

mimes,
Panto-

no

Manilius Comutus, I. 172

Manstones
Salionim, III. X55
drawn, II. xgo ff
Marble, whence
II. 287
MarcelU statues of in Sicily,
Aemilius
Marcus
Lepidus, obsequies of,
II. 41
Aemilius Scaunis* theatre,II. 133
Marcus
Marcus
Aquihus Regulus, III. 60
Aurelius Musaeus, II. 333
Marcus
Marcus
Aurelius, III. 96, xo7. X36, 140,
philosophers. III. 240
207, 233 ; and
Fulvius Nobihor, II. 62, 117
Marcus
Marcus
Lollius,II. x82
Marcus
Scaurus, II. izS
Marine, the, I. 189
Marriage, I. 228 fi ; an emancipation, I.
236; betrothals by parents, I. 234;
bridal ceremonies, I. 235 ; remarriages
I. 243 ; sumptuary laws in
of women,
marriage, I. 235
Martial, I. 58 fE,99, 145 ; III. 62
Marius Celsus, I. 8x
of, III. 193
Martyrs, numbers
the brigand, I. 296
Matemus
Mausolea, II. 2x5
Mavortius
Lollianus,I. 186
Maxims
of Tyre, III. 95, X53 ; his philosophy,
III. 93
Medica, II. 167
Medical
I.
quacks, I. 183 ; superstition,
180, Z84 ; wealth,I. 68

Index

320
Meeting-placesin

streets

paper,
replaced news-

I. 209, 217 fl

Melitene, II. 243

Melones, II. 168

MehpeponeSt

II. 168

Memnon, statue of, I. 304

Memphis, I. 362
II. 68
Menageries, imperial,
Menecles, II. 353
Menecrates,

II, 355

I. 313
Merchants, Roman, their origin,
M6rida, bridge at, II. 231
III. 41
Mesoalina, I. 59, 62, 94
Messalla, III. 29 S, 59 ; picture of his
victory,II. 271
Meursius in luxury, II. 131
Milan, I. 273 ; II. 234
I. 136
MiHtta
eguestris,
Mimes, II. 90 ff
Miracles, Pagan, III. 97 ff ; the King's
touch, III. 122 fE ; of Aesculapius,IIIi
III. 196
138 ft ; of Christianity,
III.
Missionaryenterpriseof Christianity,
186
Mitylene, I. 344
Mnester, I. 59 ; II. 114
Moesian cities,
II. 248
Montagu, Lady Wortley, II. i6x
Montanists, III. 192
Mont
Toux, III. 151
Monumental
Art, II. 271
Moralityof music, II. 348
Moschus, I. 41
Mountain
scenery disliked,I. 391 "E
Mucianus, III. 225, 230
Muliones
perpetuarH, I. 288
Mimdus, opening of the, III. 302
Municipalpatriotism,II. 25X
Murrha, II. 202, 203
Music, 11. 337 ; at banquets, II. 350
attempted to depict action, II. 343
II. 364 ; fees,II. 354 "
ecclesiastical,
male and female instruments, II. 342
sacred and
distinction between
no
fane,
proII. 350 ; orchestral,II. 345 ; partSt. Jerome
singing imknown, II. 340;
secular and
Christian,II. 364, ff ;
on
schools, 11. 357 ; spread of among
II. 361-2
Romans,
Musonius
Rufus, III. 223, 243, 247, 256,
26r 270, 278, 280
III. 215 ft
Mythology and religion,

Mesochorus,

Nicanor, I. 83
Nicetes

of

Smyrna,

II. 252

Nicopolis,II. 246
Nicon, II. X44
of the, I. 326
Nile, source
Nomenclatorest II. 220
Noricum, II. 247
Novels
III.
anticipatedby controversitUf
16
Nux
Caloa, II. 167
October Egwts, III. 156
Offeringsto gods. III. 163 ff
I. 290
Officials traveUing billeted,
II. 308
Officinae,
Olives acclimatized,II. 167 ; spread of,
n.

171

Omens, III. 126

Oracles,III. 129
Orange, II. 235
Oriental cults,effect of admission

of, III.

102-103

Origen, III. 193-4, 203, 288

Originalsin, HI. 219
Orpheus worshipped, III. 118
Orphic mysteriesand doctrines,III. 287 ff,
294

Ostia, I. 331
Otho, I. 108
Outspokenness

at

ludi,etc.,II. 6-7

Oyster-beds,II. 165
Paganism,
III.

210

its

persecutionand

survival,

ff

Pagi, II. 232

Painting, Italian artists,II. 322
honoured
than statuary, II. 323
Palanquius, I. 288

more

Palfurius Sura, III. 239

Pallas,I. 44, 47, 51 ; 11. i^S
Palmyra, II. 240
Pamtaenes, I. 185
II. 243
Pamphylian cities,
Panaetius, III. 286
Pannonia
settled,II. 247
of Smyrna, I. 63
Panthea
Pantomimes, II. 60, 345 ; and infamy,
II. Ill ; Hylas, 11. 105 ; morality of,
II. 106 ; owned
by families,II. 107 ;
restrictions on, II. 117 ; themes
of, II.
loz,

103

Paper of Alexandria,I. 314

Paradoxonicae, II. 128
Parentalia, III. 302

vius,
333 ; before eruptionof VesuI. 334
Napoleon, busts of, II. 284
Narcissus,I. 47 ; II. 135
Narcissus the Athlete, II. 125
Native cults.III. Z12 ; 146 fiE
Nature, ancient feelingfor, I. 421, 424
in, I. 395 "
Nature, the Romantic
Naumachiae, the, II. 74 ff
Nemausus, II. 235
Nero, as professionalmusician, II. 362 ;
rhetor and poet. III. 31 ; as trageas
dian,
his favourite parts, II. 99
Nerva, III. 60 ; as poet, III, 33

Naples, I.

Parenzo, II. 235

Paris,the Pantomime, II. Z14 ff ; III. 49
Parthenius, I. 41, 47 ; III. 73 ; and
Sigerus,I. 57
Parthian
Commerce, I. 308
Patronage of poets. III. 56 fi

Pausilypon,I.

333

Peach-almonds, II. 168

Peacocks
acclimatized,II, 165
Pearls, II. 181 ; in modem
Europe, II.
182 ff

Periegetai,I. 373
Peregrinus Proteus, III. 275 ff
I. 141
Perfectissimus,

Index
Perga, II. 243
Pergamus, II.

242 ; temple at, II. 323

Persecutions of Christians,
III. 190 fE
Pessimism,Greek and Roman, III. 312-3
Petrus de Crescentiis on Gardens, I. 424
Pharos,I. 352
PhUippopoUs,II. 241
II. 308
Philosophi,
Philosophersand pupils,III. 256, 258 ff ;
as
consolers.III. 261 ; attached to a
family. III. 262 ; attached to court,
III. 263 ; lectures at Rome.
III. 249 ;
mostly Greeks, III. 247 ; quarrels,III.
241 ; wealth, III, 235
Philosophy,advocates of, III. 245 ; as
ff ;
unpractical,,111. 223
breaking
III. -279 fE ; course
of study in,
barriers.
III. 250 S ; m vogue,
III. 227 fE
not Roman,
I. 225
Pkilostorgia
Phonaskos,II. 353
Phrygiatlunlypopulated, II. 243
Physidans,I. 168 fE
Physics,III. 254
Pictorialbegging-letters,
II. 273
II. 329
J^icturegalleries,
Pictmres as legalevidence,II. 273 ; of old
masters, II. 330 fE ; of tyrants destroyed,
II. 275 fi
I. 321 ; III. 130
Pilgrimages,
Pisidian cities,
11. 243
Piso as lyrist,
II. 361 ; as patron, III, 57
Piso Caesoninus
and aedile games, II. 44
Plague under Tiberius,I. 168
Plastic art, II. 267
Plate,gold and silver,II. 205 fE
Platonism and immortality. III. 287 "E
Pliny the Elder, I. 139 ; against popular
III. 88 ; on actors, II. 1x3 ; on
belief.
as
ator,
refriger^ttony, II. 165 ; on snow
II. 142-3 ; on Trajan's accession,
III. 227 ; on the protesters.III. 42 fE
Plinythe Younger, I. 30, 31, 42, 72, 89, 95,
ii5" 199. Z09. 232* 235 ; II. 44, 128, 214,
257,
224,
249, 252, 281, 324 ; III. 7h
305 ; and Como, II. 252 ; his properties,
II. 193 ; his villa,I. 331 ; on
Isaeus,
III. 79 ; OD. plundering of provinces,
I. 121.

Plums, II. 167

Plutarch on applause in a philosopher's
school.III. 270 ; on art, II. 334 ; on
II. 321 ; on
demons, III. 91 ;
artists,
on
polytheism,III. 109
Poetical improvisation.III. 10 ; prose,
III. 19

Poetry ^ways

II. 338 ; decline of,

Latin competitions,
cation,
read. III. 25 ff ; in eduto eloquence,
; introduction

sung,

III. 34 ; Greek
II. 120 ; much
III. I
III. 2
47

and

not

profitable.III,

Poets* first attempts. III.

counts
10
; life,acof. III. 48-49 ; not immune
like teachers.III. 47 ; read in schools,

III. 3

Polemo, III. 78

; his pomp

1.288
Pollius Felix,III. 67, 73
R.L.M.

"

III

in travelling,

321

Polycletus,I. 40, 42
Polyphthongon, II. 342

Polytheism,III.

104

Pomegranates, II. 167

Pompey'svillas,I. 329
Pompihus Vopiscus, I. loi
Pons Aelius,II. 357
Font du Gard, II. 231
funeral,II. 212 ; retitme,I. 288
Popi"aea's
Portions Xi^sti,I. 169
Portraits,Authors', II. 277
Posides, I. 45
Potamophylacia of Nice, III. 176
Potteries of Greek Islands,I. 315
Praecones, I. 154,

191-2

Praefectusarcendis latronibus,I. 294

Praetorian re^ment, I. 193
Prayer, efficacyof, III. 444 fE
Ptolemy's Geography, I. 307
Ptolemy Mennaeus, II. 134
I. 162, 166-7
Pragtnatici,
Priesthood, I. 141
Procurators
Procuratores
Proceres, I.
Proletariate

for married

women,

I. 237

castrenses,I. 50

71
of Rome, II. 2
Propertius Celer,I. 123
Provincials and Roman
honours, I. zoofE
Prunus
avium, II. 167
Public libraries,
III. 38
Publius Decimius
Eros Merula, 1. 173
Publius Egnatius Celer, I. 201
Publilius of Sjma, III. 11
PubUus
Servilius RuUus, II. 153
Publius SulpiciusQuirinius,I. 109
Pueri eminentes,I. 82
Purple wool, cost of, II. 175
Puteoli,I. 333
Pylades,I. 59 ; II. 100 ff,346
Pyres, II. 212
Pyrrhic dance, II. xoS
II. 308
Quadratarii,
Quaestorship,I. 126
Quintilian,I. 158, z6x,

III. 291;
251;
false philosophers. III. 237 ; on
oratorical dibutant.III. 40 ; on rhetorrcal courses. III. 11 ; on the philosophic,
III. 223 ; his religion,III. 87Quintus Catulus, II. 185
Quintus Haterius, I. 213
Quintus Metellus Macedonicus, I. x
Quintus Metellus Pius, II. 151
Quintus Pedius, II. 323
Quintus Servilius Cspio, II. 134
Quintus Sextius, III. 247
Quintus Sextius Niger, I. 142
Quintus Stertinius,I. 68
on

Rabirius, II, 324

Race-horses, where bred, II. 25
Ravenna, II. 234
Reading, III. 38
Receptions, I. 207 ff
III. 36, 39 ff,48, 67
lUcitationes,
Redae, I. 279

Rederijkerskamers,III. 44
of saints,III. 290
Rfffrigerium

Index

322
Regulus, I. 132
193
Religion^evidence

properties, II.

his

ot. III. 84 ; in seccmd

of, III. loi
century, III. 94 ; stability

of, I. 1x3,

of books

sent

Senatorship,degradationfrom,

to

III.
provinces.

24
Rents

II. 185
at Rome,
Resurrection, ideas of, III. 294 fE
I. 2x2
Reversionaryspeculators,
Rheims, II. 232
Rhetoric, effect on style.III. 18

157, x6i ff ;

Rhodes, I. 345

12

as

cises
exer-

I. 318
periodeutai,

;
;

117

colonies, scheme
of, II. 247 ;
terest
copying of Greek works, II. 326; inin art, II. 328, 333 ff ; love of
rusticity,I. 384 ; music ecUpsed by
Greek, II. 337 ; nabobs, II, 134 ;
nobles and their estates, II. 200
; ritual,
living,II. 146;
111.155-7; simplicityof
spread of luxury,II. 147 ; world poorer,
II.

S
Rome, her
force, X.
221

garrison, I. 19 ; her police

her
20
water-supply, I.
;

II

II. 167
acclimatized,
Rothschild, II. 170, ig8
Rubellius
Plautus, III. 261
Roses

Russian

cookery,II.

162

Samfices as Thanksgivings, III. 162 fE

St. Augustine, II. 79 ; III. 311
St.
St.

Chrysostora on music, II. 363

Rfimy mausoleum, II. 2i6
luxurious
SaUust on
villas,II. 194 ; on
music, II. 359
SaluiaHo publicasive promiscua,I. 87
Salvidienus
Rufus, I. 29, 107
Sambuca, II. 342, 343
Sta Maria in Capitoleat Cologne, II. 249
Saoteros, I. 58
Sarcophagi, costly,II. 212
Sarmentus, I. 83, 143
Sasema, II. 171
Scabellumt II. 346
Scents, II. 184 fE; at funerals, II. 21X
Scepticism,III. 87
Scorpus the charioteer,II. 22
Scribonius Largus, I. 168, 178
Sculptorsmostly Greeks, II. 322
Sculptuary in the Quarries, II. 307-8
Sculpture, II. 311 ff
I. 333
Scyllacium,

Secretariate,the, I. 53
Selge, II. 244

1. 133

on

philosophy.III. 243-6 ;

III. 228 ; on ill-builthouses,

politics.
I. 2X ; on travelling,
I. 381, 383
Sensual music, II. 349
Sergius Julius Frontinus, I. 332
Seven
Wonders, the, I. 367
Seviri,I. 350
Sextus VistUius,I. 80

Shalots,II. 16S
SicUy, I. 339 fE

; II.

goddess.III.

of, I.

Seneca, I. 83, X19, 208 ; III. 5, 32, 144,

2x6, 220, 264 ; and St. Paul, III. 209 ;
making a poor man's journey, I. 287 ;
on
artists,II. 321 ; on astrology,I. 69 ;
on
Claudius, I. 39 ; on ostentation,IL
132-3

362
Richard
II of England, II. 156
Rimini, bridge at, II. 23X
Roads, African, I. 275 ; Alpine, I. 273
Stephen Heiiuich on Roman, I. 268
system of Roman, I. 271
Roma
Roman

fate

on

importance of, III. 2 ;

in poetical form, III. x8 ; professorships
oft III. 2
Rhetorician's travels, I. 3x7;
fees, I.
ia. III.

"E; fan^es,

122

109 "E

fE ; utmty of, III. 85

Religious art, II. 298 fi
Relligioloci,I. 383
Remainders

Semi-circular sofas,1. 2x1

Senators as money-loaders,1. 119 ; wealth

Sidon, II. 240

Sierra Leone, I. 324
Sigerus, I. 41
Sigilla,II. 270
Sihus Halicus, I. 333 ; III. 60, 67
Silk, value of, II. 179

Sillyon,II. 244
II. 205
Silver-plate,
extensivelyused,
Sirmium, II. 248
values, II. 193
Slaves, II. 21S fiE;

as

II.

II.
capital,

208 ;

210

Site

as

memory-guardei^,

III. 3

Smyrna, I. 348 ;
I. 301-2
Soldiers,

II. 242, 232

Sophistic influences.III. 74, 76

Spartacus, II. 55
Staberius, II. 214
Stadium, II. 117 ft
I. 278, 280
State-port,
Stationes,I. 291

Statins,I.
Statuary,

61 ; II. 194 ; III. 60 fE

ancient
wealth
in, II. 300 ;
of divine figures,II. 299 ; to the dead,
II. 296
Statues as honours, II. 289 fE ; as marks
of gratitude,
II. 293 ; in Rome, II. 301,
II. 286, 290 ;
307 ; of celebrated men,
priceof, II. 319
Ships,great size of, I. 331
Stoicism, III. 90, 220, 230 ; doctrine of
immortality of sold. III. 286 ; popular
at Rome, III. 248
Stoics suspected.III. 223
Strabo, I. 327 ; II- 66
Stratonicea, II. 242
Strenaej I, 87
Stucco relief,
II. 266
Stylesin statuary, II. 303
Suasoriae, III. 12, 17
Suicide, III. 221
Syllogisms,captious. III. 232
Symmachus, II. 33, 59
Symphomaci, II. 345
Synthesis,II. 173
Syriansas bankers, I. 313 ; as merchants,
III. ixi ; at Rome, I. 36
Syringe,II. 201

Index
Tacitus, II. 130 ; III. 223 ; his religion,
III. 87; on art, II. 334 ; on luxury,II.

323

Ummilius

Quadratus, I, 64
Unctores,II. 36

145

Talleyrand,II. 163
Tarraco, II. 337
Tarragona funeral monument, II. 2x7
Ta-Tsin, I. 308 ; II. 179
Tempe, Vale of, I. 387
Temple at Tolosa, II. 134
Temples, building of, III. 161 ; visited,
I. 368 ff
Terentius

Prisaus,III.

249

TertuUian, III. 218

Thallus the charioteer,II. 24
Theagenes, III. 249
of song and dance, II.
Theatre, severance
98
Theatrical music, II. 347, 351
Thebes, I. 363
Theodoras
of Gadara, I. 67
Theodoretus, III. 2x4
Thessalonica,II. 245
Thrasea, II. 359 ; III. 225, 261
Thrasyllus,I. 84
Tiberius,III. 30
Tiberius Optatus Elipertius,
II, 165
I. 83 ; II. 333. 356
Tigellius,
Timotheus
the citharist,
II. 343
Titinius Capito, I. 53
Titus, II. 358 ; III. 33
Titus Castricius,
III. 238
Titus Flaminius, II. 41
Titus Labienus,III. 28
Titus Petronius, III. 261
Toga as sign of advocate, I. X63
Tokbaristan,I. 308
Toll-keepers,I. 293
Tomb-stones, decoration of, II. 270-x
interest in, I. 368
Touring, Roman
Tragedy, II. 97 ; and comedy, II. 338 ;
costumes, II. 99
Tragoedi,II. 351
Trajan no poet. III. 33 ; not honoured as
a god. III. 96 ; the Forum
of,II. 26X
Transformation of statues in subject,11.
3x3
Travel

for culture,I. 3r6

Travellinginside Empire,

I. 328
Travertine
stone, II. 185
Trebizond
(Trapezus),II. 243
Trees venerated,I. 382
Trieste,II, 235
Trigonon, II. 345
Trimalchio, II. 332, 361 ; III. 1x5 ; his
tomb, II. 274
Troy, I. 346 fl
Tubae, II. 342
TuHps, II. 201
TuUus
and Lucanus
as tile manufacturers
,
I. 120
Tunica molesta, II. 73
Twelve
Tables, the,on Funeral Pomp, II.

Ulpian
Umbonius
Ummidia

on

loi

Valerius

Homullus, I. 77
Varro, I. 229; II. 167; on art, II. 327;
on
luxury, II. X47 ff ; on music, II. 358

Vedius

PoUio, I. 99, 103, 143, 333

Velleius Paterculus, III. 23

Venaiiones,II.

62 ; decline and spread

of,
II. Sz fi ; sumptuary laws against,II.
82
Venetian luxury, II. 196
Verecunda, II. 232, 251
VerginiusFlavus, I. 161
VerginiusRufus, I. 209, 330
Verrius Flaccus, I. 67, 81
Verulamium
(St.Alban's),II. 246
III. 33
Vespasian as patron of literature.
Vestal Virgins allowed in stadium, II. 119
Vestricius Spuriana, III. 73
Via Aemilia, I. 273
Via Appia, I. 270
Via Egnatia, I. 271
Via Flaminia, I. 272
Vibius Crispus, I. 122
Vienne, II. 235
I. 169
Vigiles,
I. 126
VigintivircUus,
VUleggiaturein Italy,I, 329 S
Villas in provinces,II. 239-60
Vindobona
(Vienna), II. 247
Vines, II. 166, X71
of divination. III. 23 ;
Virgil as book
Eclogues, success
of.III. 24 ; influence
on
style.III. 69 "E ; read at school,II.
for sixth book
of Aeneid,
4 ; reward
III. 53
Viroconium
(Wroxeter),II. 246
Vitellius as gourmet^ II. 148
II.
Vitruvius, II. 324 ; on architecture,
near
Z87 ; on (juarries
Tarquinii,II. 262
Vocal music, II. 347
Vopiscuo, II. 22, 195, 329 ; III. 67
Votive tablets,II. 299
Voyages for health,1. 32X ; how made and
length of, I, 283 fE

Walcheren, III. X4.6

Walnuts
acclimatized,II. 167
II. 267
Wall-paintings,

of,II. 139 ; in
Wealth, deterrent causes
modem
Europe, II. 136 ; obligations
II. 133 ; under
of,II. 228 ; of antiquity,
KhaUfs, II. 135
William

of

Malmesbury,

II. 144

Windfech, II. 237

Silio,I. 133

Abbey, II. X97

ambitions of,1. 230 fE ; as artists,
II. 50 ff ;
II. 323 fi -, as gladiators,
as
musicians, II. 339 ; cruelty of, to
slaves,I. 244 ; education of, I. 230 ff ;
emancipated,I. 249 ; in nursery, I. 228 ;
moraUty of,1. 241 ; passion for theatre,
1. 335 ff ; virtues
1. 243-6 ; superstitions,
of, I. 261 ; mistresses in their own

I. xo6
Qua(hratilla,

homes, I, 236

210

Tyre, II.

Valerius Asiaticus,I.

240

fees.III. 237
philosopher's

Wobum

Women,

Index

324
Wrecking, practiceof, I. 28a
v. Viroconium, II. 246
Wiirtemberg, II. 247

in, I. 146
Yorkshire,inscription

Wroxeter

Xanten, II. 233

Xystarchus, II.

126

Zabulon, II. 240

Zenodorus, II, 315, 320
Zosimus
on
Pantomimes,

II. 107