IMPACT OF GEOGRAPHICAL PHENOMENA

Caribbean Studies- Module 1

Objectives

Plate tectonics:

(i) definition
(ii) location and movement of the Caribbean plate and its interaction with other plates
(iii) earthquakes and volcanoes: threat of tsunami, social displacement.

Hurricanes social and economic consequences.

Soils erosion, conservation.

Coral reefs coastal protection, sustainability of fishing industry.

Droughts and Floods social and economic impact.

PLATE TECTONICS

Objectives

Overview of Plate tectonics:

Definition of Plate Tectonics

Location and movement of the Caribbean plate and

its interaction with other plates
Earthquakes and volcanoes: threat of tsunami, social
displacement.

The Earths Structure

The Earths Structure

1.
2.

3.

The earth is made up of three distinct layers:

The core
The mantle
The crust

The Core

12% of the Earths density

3480 km thick
4300C
The core is composed of iron and nickel with a liquid
outer region and a solid core.
The core is about half the diameter of the Earth.
The inner core is made of solid iron and nickel and the
outer core is molten iron

The Mantle

84% of the Earths density

2900 km thick
3800C
The mantle is composed of very hot, dense rock, rich
in iron and magnesium.
The movement of the mantle is the reason that the
plates of the Earth move.

The Crust

1% of the Earths density

5-50 km thick
870C
The outer brittle shell of the Earth is the crust that forms
the "skin" of the lithosphere.
The crust is primarily composed of silicate rocks. These
plates ride atop the mantle beneath.

The Crust

The crust is broken into several continental and

oceanic tectonic (lithospheric) plates:
The more dense oceanic crust is primarily
composed of Silica and Magnesium (SIMA).
The less dense continental crust is primarily
composed of Silica and Aluminium (SIAL).

Mohorovicic Discontinuity
Separating the upper mantle from the oceanic crust is
the Mohorovicic Discontinuity or the Moho.
It marks the lower limit of Earth's crust and occurs at
an average depth of about 8 kilometres beneath the
ocean basins and 32 kilometres beneath continental
surfaces.
FYI: The word "discontinuity" is used for a surface at
which seismic waves change velocity. At this
discontinuity, seismic waves accelerate.

Asthenosphere

The Asthenosphere is the thin semifluid layer of the

earth (100-200 km thick), below the outer rigid
lithosphere, forming part of the mantle

Lithosphere

The lithosphere is the rigid cool layer composed of

the crust and the uppermost mantle

Plate Movements

Continental Drift

Continental drift describes the

movements of continents over the
Earth's surface.
The theory was developed by
Alfred Wegener in the early
1900's .
The concept stated that the "shell"
of the Earth's surface was
fractured and these "pieces"
drifted about.
He concluded that the present
configuration of the continents is
not the same as it was in the past
and in fact the continents were one
"super-continent" called Pangea.

Continental Drift

Pangaea then started to break up into two smaller

supercontinents, called Laurasia and
Gondwanaland.
The continents were separated by the Tethys Sea.
Over time, the continents were separating into land
masses that look like our modern-day continents.

Continental Drift- Evidence

Continental Drift- Criticism

Alfred Wegeners hypothesis that the continents

drifted to their present day locations was rejected
by scientists because they couldnt think of a force
strong enough to move the continents.

Convection Currents

In 1928 Scottish geologist called

Arthur Holmes proposed a
mechanism to drive continental
drift.
He believed a fluid mantle
possessed convection
currents created by heat
trapped beneath the Earth's
surface.
Holmes hypothesized that
convection currents moved up
toward the surface and then
dragged continents across the
surface.

Convection Currents

Sea- Floor Spreading

Sea-floor spreading refers to

the creation new oceanic
plate material and movement
away from the mid-ocean
ridge.
It was a hypothesis created
by Harry Hess in 1960.

Sea- Floor Spreading

On the basis of new discoveries about the deep-ocean

floor, Hess postulated that molten material from the Earths
mantle continuously wells up along the crests of the midocean ridges that wind for nearly 80,000 km through all
the worlds oceans.
As the magma cools, it is pushed away from the flanks of
the ridges.
This spreading creates a successively younger ocean floor,
and the flow of material is thought to bring about the
migration, or drifting apart, of the continents.
The continents bordering the Atlantic Ocean, for example,
are believed to be moving away from the Mid- Atlantic
Ridge at a rate of 12 cm per year, thus increasing the
breadth of the ocean basin by twice that amount.

Plate Tectonics

Both of the previous hypotheses and the information

discovered from them led to another theory, called
Plate Tectonics.

Plate Tectonics Theory

The surface of the lithosphere is fractured into a number

of rigid of rocks or crustal plates (also known as
lithospheric or tectonic plates) which are in constant
motion.
As these plates move and collide, the lithosphere
buckles, warps and is torn apart.

Plate Tectonics Theory

Plate Tectonics proposes that the Earths crust

consists of a number of mobile rigid elements or
plates, that overtime move relative to each other,
resulting in various landforms.

How do Plates Move??

How Do Plates Move?

The movement of lithospheric plates referred to

as continental drift, is believed to be caused by the
radioactive decay of elements in the core and mantle
that produces heat.
The heat in turn creates convection currents in the mantle
which "drive" the plates along their path of movement.
Plates at our planets surface move because of the
intense heat in the Earths core that causes molten rock in
the mantle layer to move.

How Do Plates Move?

It moves in a pattern called a convection cell (in a circular

motion) that forms when warm material rises, cools, and
eventually sink down.
As the cooled material sinks down, it is warmed and rises
again.
The upward movement of the currents causes the plates to
be forced apart, resulting in new crust being formed.
The downward movement of the currents causes the plates
to be forced together, resulting in plate material being
destroyed.

How Do Plates Move?

PLATE
MARGINS/BOUNDARIES

Objectives
1.
2.

3.

4.

Define plate margins

Identify and explain the three types of plate
margins
Identify the different landforms/features and
geographical events at each type of plate
margins
Illustrate the plate margins using diagrams

Plate Margins/Boundaries

1.
2.

3.

Plate Margins/Boundaries: the place where one or more

plates meet or interact
There are 3 types of plate boundaries/margins:
Divergent (Constructive) boundaries
Convergent (Destructive) boundaries
Transform Fault (Conservative) boundaries

Divergent boundaries

Divergent boundaries occur where plates are moving

apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up
from the mantle.
Magma (molten rock) is slowly forced upwards
between the two plates and new crust is created
when the magma hardens.

Divergent boundaries
Features/Landforms formed:

Sea Floor Spreading (ocean growth)

Mid Ocean Ridges (Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
Submarine volcanoes
Islands (Iceland)
Rift Valleys (over land)
Earthquakes

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

This submerged mountain range runs the entire length of the

Atlantic Ocean, extending from the Arctic Ocean to beyond the
southern tip of Africa
The rate of spreading along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge averages
about 2.5 centimetres per year.

Convergent boundaries

The size of the Earth has not changed significantly during the past
600 million years and very likely not since shortly after its
formation 4.6 billion years ago.
The Earth's unchanging size implies that the crust must be
destroyed at about the same rate as it is being created.
Such destruction (recycling) of crust takes place along convergent
boundaries.

Convergent boundaries

Convergent boundaries are where plates move toward

each other (pushed together).
In some cases one plate sinks (is subducted) under
another (the location where sinking of a plate occurs is
called a subduction zone).

Convergent boundaries
The type of convergence that takes place between plates depends
on the kind of lithosphere (crust) involved (continental or oceanic).
There are 3 types of convergent boundaries:
1.
2.

3.

Oceanic-Continental Convergence (Subduction)

Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence
Continental-Continental Convergence (Collision Zone)

Oceanic-Continental convergence

When an oceanic plate pushes into and subducts under a continental

plate, the overriding continental plate is lifted up and a mountain
range is created.
Even though the oceanic plate as a whole sinks smoothly and
continuously into the subduction trench, the deepest part of the
subducting plate breaks into smaller pieces.

These smaller pieces become locked in place for long periods of time
before moving suddenly and generating large earthquakes.
Such earthquakes are often accompanied by uplift of the land by as
much as a few meters.

Oceanic-continental convergence
Features/Events:

Earthquakes
Ocean Trenches
Mountains
Volcanoes

Oceanic-Oceanic convergence

When two oceanic plates converge one is usually

subducted under the other and in the process a deep
oceanic trench is formed.
The Marianas Trench, for example, is a deep trench
created as the result of the Phillipine Plate subducting
under the Pacific Plate.

Oceanic-oceanic convergence

The subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate

convergence also result in the formation of undersea
volcanoes.
Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic
debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine volcano
rises above sea level to form an island volcano.
Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains
called island arcs (example the Lesser Antilles)

Oceanic-oceanic convergence

Magmas that form island arcs are produced by the partial

melting of the descending plate and/or the overlying oceanic
lithosphere.

The descending plate also provides a source of stress as the two

plates interact, leading to frequent moderate to strong
earthquakes.

Features:
Ocean Trenches
Island Arcs
Earthquakes

Continental-continental convergence
(Collision Margin)

When two continental plates meet head-on, neither plate

is subducted because the continental rocks are relatively
light and resist any downward motion.
Instead, the crust tends to buckle and be pushed upward
or sideways, creating mountains.

Continental-continental convergence
Features:
Fold Mountains
Earthquakes

Transform Fault boundaries

Transform-Fault Boundaries are where two plates are

sliding horizontally past one another.
These are also known as transform boundaries or more
commonly as faults.

Most transform faults are found on the ocean floor.

They produce zig-zag plate margins and are generally
defined by shallow earthquakes.

A few, however, occur on land. For example, the San Andreas fault
zone in California is a transform fault that connects the East Pacific
Rise, a divergent boundary to the south, with the South Gorda -- Juan
de Fuca -- Explorer Ridge, another divergent boundary to the north.

Transform boundaries
Features/Events:
Earthquakes

The Earths Tectonic Plates

Objectives
1.
2.

Identify the major crustal plates in the world

Identify the crustal plates adjacent to the
Caribbean Plate

Earthquakes

Earthquakes

An earthquake is a sudden vibration or trembling in the

Earth as a result of crustal movement.
Earthquake motion is caused by the quick release of
stored potential energy into the kinetic energy of
motion.

Earthquakes

Most earthquakes are produced along faults, tectonic

plate boundary zones, or along the mid-oceanic
ridges.
At these areas, large masses of rock that are moving
past each other can become locked due to friction.
Friction is overcome when the accumulating stress has
enough force to cause a sudden slippage of the rock
masses.

Earthquakes

1.
2.

3.

The magnitude of the shock wave released into the

surrounding rocks is controlled by:
the quantity of stress built up because of friction,
the distance the rock moved when the slippage
occurred
ability of the rock to transmit the energy contained in
the seismic waves

Earthquakes

Sometime after the main shock wave, aftershocks

can occur because of the continued release of
frictional stress.
Most aftershocks are smaller than the main
earthquake, but they can still cause considerable
damage to already weakened natural and human
constructed features.

Distribution of earthquake epicentres from 1975 to 1995. Depth of the earthquake focus
is indicated by colour. Deep earthquakes occur in areas where oceanic crust is being
actively subducted. About 90% of all earthquakes occur at a depth between 0 and 100
kilometres.

Distribution of earthquakes with a magnitude less than 5.0 relative to the various tectonic
plates found on the Earth's surface. Each tectonic plate has been given a unique colour. This
illustration indicates that the majority of small earthquakes occur along plate boundaries.

Earthquake Waves

Earthquakes are a form of wave energy that is

transferred through bedrock.
Motion is transmitted from the point of sudden
energy release, the earthquake focus, as spherical
seismic waves that travel in all directions outward.
The point on the Earth's surface directly above the
focus is termed the epicentre.

Movement of body waves away from the focus of the earthquake. The epicentre is
the location on the surface directly above the earthquake's focus.

How are earthquakes recorded?

Earthquakes are recorded by instruments

called seismographs.
The recording they make is called a seismogram.

Richter scale

When an earthquake occurs the seismograph

converts the wave energy into a standard unit of
measurement like the Richter scale.
In the Richter scale, units of measurement are
referred to as magnitudes.
The Richter scale is logarithmic. Thus, each unit
increase in magnitude represents 10 times more
energy released.

Relationship between Richter Scale magnitude and energy

released.

The spatial distribution of small and large

earthquakes

Distribution of earthquakes with a magnitude less than 5 on the

Richter Scale.

Distribution of earthquakes with a magnitude greater than 7 on the Richter

Scale.

Earthquake Damage and DestructionFactors

Earthquakes are a considerable hazard to humans.

Earthquakes can cause destruction by structurally
damaging buildings and dwellings, fires, tsunamis and
mass wasting. Earthquakes can also take human lives.
The amount of damage and loss of life depends on a
number of factors. Some of the more important factors
are:

Earthquake Damage and DestructionFactors

The amount of damage and loss of life depends on a

number of factors. Some of the more important factors
are:

Earthquake Damage and DestructionFactors

1.

2.

Time of day: Higher losses of life tend to occur on

weekdays between the hours of 9:00 AM to 4:00 PM.
During this time interval many people are in large
buildings because of work or school. Large structures
are often less safe than smaller homes in an
earthquake.
Magnitude of the earthquake and duration of the
event.

Earthquake Damage and DestructionFactors

3. Distance from the earthquake's focus. The strength of the
shock waves diminishes with distance from the focus.
4. Geology of the area effected and soil type. Some rock
types transmit seismic wave energy more readily. Buildings
on solid bedrock tend to receive less damage.
Unconsolidated rock and sediments have a tendency to
increase the amplitude and duration of the seismic waves
increasing the potential for damage. Some soil types when
saturated become liquefied.

Earthquake Damage and DestructionFactors

5. Type of building construction. Some building
materials and designs are more susceptible to
earthquake damage.
6. Population density: More people often mean
greater chance of injury and death.

Loss of Life
The greatest loss of life because of an earthquake this century occurred in Tangshan, China in 1976
when an estimated 250,000 people died.
In 1556, a large earthquake in the Shanxi Province of China was estimated to have caused the death of
about 1,000,000 people.

Loss of Life
The UWI Seimic Research Unit stated in June 2014
that
current estimates of seismic hazard suggest that the
likelihood of a person being killed in Trinidad by an
earthquake in the next 50 years is comparable to the
likelihood of being murdered in that same period given
the current murder rate and current estimate of the
seismic hazard.

Property & Infrastructure Damage

Economic Damage

The UWI Seismic Research Unit indicated in June

2014 that if a 7.5 magintude earthquake hit
Trinidad , the economic damage for Port of Spain
will cost US$5 billion (TT$32 billion) and US$6
billion (TT$39 billion) for San Fernando.

Fires

A common problem associated with earthquakes in

urban areas is fire.
Shaking and ground displacement often causes the
severing of electrical and gas lines leading to the
development of many localized fires.
Response to this problem is usually not effective because
shock waves also rupture pipes carrying water.

In the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, almost 90% of the damage to buildings was caused by fire.

Downtown Kobe, Japan at about noon on the day of the 1995 earthquake. Many
areas of downtown Kobe were on fire and there was no water pressure to put out
the flames.

Landslides

In mountainous regions, earthquake provoked

landslides can cause many deaths and severe
damage to built structures.

The town of Yungay, Peru was buried by a debris flow that was triggered by an earthquake that occurred
on May 31, 1970. This disaster engulfed the town in seconds with mud, rock, ice, and water and took the
lives of about 20,000 people.

The Guatemala earthquake of February 4, 1976 had a magnitude of 7.5. This

earthquake killed about 23,000 people, injured 76,000, and caused just over
1 billion dollars in property damage. The earthquake also caused a number of
landslides.

Tsunamis

Another consequence of earthquakes is the generation of

tsunamis.
Tsunamis form when an earthquake causes a sudden
movement of the seafloor.
This movement creates a wave in the water body which
radiates outward in concentric shells.
On the open ocean, these waves are usually no higher
than one to three meters in height and travel at speed of
about 750 kilometres per hour.

Tsunamis

Tsunamis become dangerous when they approach

land.
Frictional interaction of the waves with the ocean
floor, as they near shore, causes the waves to slow
down and collide into each other.
This amalgamation of waves then produces a super
wave that can be as tall as 65 meters in height.

Tsunami

Tsunami

Tsunamis in the Caribbean??

In October 1918, a 7.2 magnitude earthquake on

the north coast of Puerto Rico killed 116 persons
and caused a tsunami.
The active underwater Kick em Jenny volcano
located north of Grenada has the potential to
cause a tsunami if it erupts.

Compare

The 2010, 7.0 magnitude earthquake hit Haiti

killed almost 300,000 persons.
The same year, the 8.0 magnitude earthquake that
hit Chile resulted in the deaths of almost 200
persons.
Why the contrasts??

Social Displacement in Haiti

Check website for journal files.

Volcanoes

What is a Volcano?

A volcano is an opening in the surface of the Earth from

which magma (molten subsurface rock ) and associated
gases and ash erupt.
Volcanoes vary in their structure - some are cracks in the
earth's crust where magma erupts, while some are
domes, shields or mountain-like (conical shaped)
structures with a crater at the summit (built by
accumulations of lava flows, tephra and volcanic ash)

Location of Volcanos

About 95% of active volcanoes occur at the

plate subduction zones and at the mid-oceanic
ridges.
The other 5% occur in areas associated with
lithospheric hot spots.
These hot spots have no direct relationships with
areas of crustal creation or subduction zones and it
is believed that hot spots are caused by plumes of
rising magma that have their origin within
the asthenosphere.

Volcanoes along Plate Margins

Volcanoes are most likely to occur along the margins

of tectonic plates, especially in subduction zones
where oceanic plates dive under continental plates.
As the oceanic plate subducts beneath the surface,
intense heat and pressure melts the rock. Molten rock
material, magma, can then ooze its way toward the
surface where it accumulates at the surface to create
a volcano.
Volcanic activity can be found along the Mid-ocean
ridge system as well. Here, oceanic plates are
diverging and magma spreads across the ocean floor,
ultimately being exposed at the surface.

Pacific Ring of Fire

The Pacific Ring of Fire is an area of frequent

earthquakes and volcanic eruptions encircling the basin
of the Pacific Ocean.
The Ring of Fire has 452 volcanoes and is home to over
50% of the world's active and dormant volcanoes.
90% of the world's earthquakes and 81% of the world's
largest earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire.

Hot spots

Hot spots are places where a chamber of magma has

accumulated at depth beneath the surface.
The volcanic islands of Hawaii are a notable example of
this.
The Hawaiian Islands ride atop the Pacific plate as it
moves in a north-westerly direction over the hot spot that
creates the volcanoes. Therefore, the oldest volcanic island
is found at the northwest end of the chain and the
youngest to the southeast. Volcanic activity ceases as the
older islands move off the hot spot.

What are the different stages of

volcanoes?

Scientists have categorized volcanoes into three main

categories: active, dormant, and extinct.
An active volcano is one which has recently erupted and
there is a possibility that it may erupt soon.
A dormant volcano is one which has not erupted in a long
time but there is a possibility it can erupt in the future.
An extinct volcano is one which has erupted thousands of
years ago and theres no possibility of eruption.

Volcanic Features/Landforms

Volcanic Features/Landforms

Volcanic features/landforms can be either intrusive

or extrusive.
Intrusive features are formed by magma beneath
the Earths surface while extrusive features are
formed at the Earths surface (mainly by lava)

Volcano Hazards

Volcano Hazards

Volcanic eruptions, especially explosive eruptions, eject

fragments of volcanic rocks and lava collectively
called tephra.
Pyroclastic flows are fast-moving gas and fragments
of rock having temperatures of 500oC that can rush
down the flanks of a volcano at speeds reaching 100
km/hr, carbonizing all in their path.

Volcano Hazards

Acid Rain: Volcanic eruptions are accompanied by the

release of noxious and sometimes lethal gases.
Steam makes up the majority of gas that is released by a
volcano followed by carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and
hydrogen chloride.
When lava spills into the ocean, the intense heating of salt
water produces a noxious steam cloud of hydrochloric acid.
Sulphur dioxide combines with water in the atmosphere to
produce acid rain.
Naturally produced acid deposition around the top of
Mauna Loa has devastated the local vegetation.

Volcano Hazards

Lahars - A mixture of ash with rain or glacier melt

water which forms a deadly river of mud
Lava Flow - A river of molten rock 1000oC that
can travel at 40mph
Ash Fall - Millions of tons of ash can bury buildings,
roads etc.
Volcanic bombs - Rocks and lava the size of houses
and cars can be hurled into the sky

Tephra

Pyroclastic flows

Lahars

Lava Flow

Ash Fall

Volcanic bombs

Montserrat

Prior to July 1995, the island of Montserrat, located

in the Northern Leeward Islands, had achieved
significant growth in its economic, social and health
sectors.
This level of growth heightened the quality of life
and health status of the indigenous population and
visitors alike.

Soufriere Hills Volcano

Soufrire Hills volcano is a complex stratovolcano that forms the northern

half of the small Island of Montserrat in the British Lesser Antilles.
After 350 years of being dormant, it came back into life in 1995 and
started to build a new lava dome.

The eruption alternated between less or more intense phases including

rapid dome growth with associated powerful explosions and large
pyroclastic flows from dome collapse.
The eruption, in particular the effects of pyroclastic flows and lahars
caused by heavy rains have destroyed a large part of the island,
including the capital Plymouth, and the population has been relocated to
the northern part of the island and has been fighting, with the help of the
UK government, to maintain life on the island.

Soufriere Hills Volcano

The volcanic eruption began on 18 July 1995 and has

devastated Montserrat.
By 26 December 1997, the most extreme explosive
event took place, resulting in approximately 90% of the
resident population of over 10,000 having to relocate at
least once and over two-thirds had to leave the island.
Virtually all the important infrastructure of the island was
destroyed or put out of use for the short to medium term.
The private sector collapsed and the economy became
largely dependent on British aid.

Before & After

Aftermath

Check website for PDF files

Question

How do natural hazards, such as earthquakes and

volcanoes affect people in the Caribbean
economically and socially? Give examples, using
events in the Caribbean countries.

THE END