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A TOOL KIT
adapted from Potter, J 1996 Representing reality: Discourse, rhetoric and social construction, Sage, London
by D. Freesmith 2007
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COW
Language as mirror
Category entitlement
We accept that certain categories of people are entitled to make specific knowledge
claims, so we give special credence to their accounts. In the claim the psychologist told
me my child is gifted a parent presents this information as coming from a reliable source.
The psychologist belongs to the category of expert, and is thus is entitled to decide that
the child is gifted. Citing the psychologist builds the credibility of this parents claim.
Concession
Consensus
One way of transforming a description into a fact is to produce the agreement of
reliable witnesses. An account appears more believable if more than one person agrees
(we all knew he was nervous), and all witnesses provide the same account of events.
It wasn't just me and the United States. The world thought he [Saddam Hussein] was
dangerous and needed to be disarmed.
George W. Bush 8.2.2004 - defending the invasion of Iraq
The term speaker has been used in this document for simplicity, but most of the devices also apply to written texts.
Disclaimer
A disclaimer is an explicit disavowal of the very stance or opinion a speaker
subsequently advocates. A speaker may use this when they know that what they are about
to say may attract criticism. This way they deny the criticism before it can even be made.
Im not sexist, but I just think women belong in the kitchen because its natural.
Im not racist, but I just think black people cant be trusted.
Footing
When presenting information, a speaker can present themselves as the source of that
information, or relay it as someone elses message. A speaker can shift footing depending
on what suits their argument. Depending on your footing, you can limit or extend the
extent to which you can be held responsible for the account you are presenting.
He is innocent. vs His solicitor alleges that he is innocent.
Stake management
A version of events could be undermined if the speaker can be shown to have a vested
interest in the particular account they provide. For example, if a parent says my child is
gifted, they are open to the charge well, you would say that, wouldnt you, because all
parents think their children are smart. This means that the parent can be seen to have a
stake in the matter that undermines the objectivity of their account. To get around this,
a speaker can employ one of two tools: stake inoculation or stake confession.
Stake confession
Stake inoculation
Categorisation
When a speaker offers a description, choices are available to them about how to name or
categorise their subject. These choices affect the audiences perception. For example, the
words terrorist and freedom fighter may both be accurately used to describe the same
person, but to very different effect.
terrorist / freedom fighter
refugee / asylum seeker / boat person / illegal immigrant
bushranger / legend / hero / criminal
Detail
Vagueness
Generalisation
Generalisation allows a speaker to stretch a particular interpretation across an indefinite
number of instances.
Girls used to fall for him and then he would just dump them.
When I spoke to her she would look at me with those eyes.
The use of would in these sentences may be seen to generalise the behaviour across
multiple occasions and/or to suggest that the behaviour is characteristic of the person.
Gerrymandering
Gerrymandering means offering a very selective description of something that includes
particular details as relevant, while omitting or ignoring other potential aspects, so as to
support a specific argument.
Gerrymandering is a favourite of politicians. For example:
Government politician: The economy is healthy just look at the high growth rate of
gross domestic product.
Opposition politician: The economy is unhealthy just look at the increasing number of
families below the poverty line.
These politicians do not disagree about the facts themselves they are both telling the
truth. The problem is that they have each selected different criteria for determining the
health of the economy. They selected these criteria according to which one helps to tell
the story about the economy they need to present to the electorate.
! The word gerrymandering has an interesting history which helps to explain its meaning.
Try researching it on the internet.
Intention-promoting verbs
Certain verbs can be chosen to make intention explicit. For example, James tripped, so
the team lost does not necessarily imply that James intended to lose, while James
helped the team lose implies intention.
Maximisation &
minimisation
Extreme case
formulation
Nominalisation
Passive voice
Pronoun selection
Pronouns are words that stand in the place of nouns, including: I, me, my, we, us, our,
you, your, he, she, him, her, his, it, its, they, them, their.
Careful selection of pronouns can be a convenient way for speakers to include or exclude
themselves and/or others, according to the requirements of the argument.
For example, by calling Aboriginal people them a speaker separates these individuals
from white Australians (us/your audience) and potentially presents them as all the
same.
Statistics
Using numerical representations is not a neutral process. Rather, statistics may be
selected so as to support particular arguments. For example, a speaker can choose
percentages, fractions, absolute figures or non-numerical representations (a vast
majority) according to the needs of a particular case.
In the last year in Australia 284,000 new jobs were created. - Peter Costello 13.7.07
The Treasurers presentation of the number 284,000 in this case has greater impact than a
percentage (2.5% increase in jobs) or a vague term like many.
Wetherell, M and Potter, J 1992 Mapping the Language of Racism: Discourse and the Legitimation of Exploitation,
Columbia University Press.
Repetition
This can be used effectively to emphasise and to evoke emotion.
Free at last! Free at last! Thank God almighty, we are free at last!
Martin Luther King 23.8.1963
We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the
fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender.
Winston Churchill 4.6.1940
Saddam Hussein was dangerous with weapons. Saddam Hussein was dangerous with the
ability to make weapons. He was a dangerous man in the dangerous part of the world.
George W. Bush 8.2.2004 - defending the invasion of Iraq
Rhetorical questions
What is a rhetorical question? They are questions that are not really asking the listener
for a response. They can be used either:
- to make a point which is so obvious it does not require an answer (these are often
sarcastic); or
- to raise an issue which the speaker will answer themselves; or
- to encourage the listener to reflect on the question in their own mind.
The fundamental question is, do you deal with a threat once you see it?
George W. Bush 8.2.2004 - defending the invasion of Iraq
If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison
us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge?
Shylock in Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice
Three-part list
Lists of three sound particularly complete, satisfying and convincing.
Ein volk, ein reich, ein fuhrer! (One people, one empire, one leader!)
Adolf Hitler