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Field Theory
Handouts from the course
July 9, 2010
Preface
These notes are from the transparencies written for the course Field Theory.
The parts related to Electrodynamics were based mainly on the book by
For the parts related to General Theory of Relativity we have used the
books
General Relativity: An Introduction for Physicists by M.P.Hobson, G. Efstathiou & A.N. Lasenby
A first course in General Relativity by B.F. Schutz.
Gravity: an Introduction to Einsteins General Relativity by James B. Hartle
Contents
Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Green Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Laplace Equation in Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Legendre Equation and Legendre Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Legendre Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Associated Legendre Functions and Spherical Harmonics . . . . .
1.6.1 Spherical Harmonics Ylm (, ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.2 Addition Theorem for Spherical Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 Multipole Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.1 Monopole moment l = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.2 Dipole moment l = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.3 Quadrupole moment l = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.4 Multipole Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Energy of a Charge Distribution in an External Field . . . . . . . .
1.8.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9 Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Biot & Savart Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10.1 Diff. Equations for Magnetostatics & Amperes Law . . .
1.11 Vector Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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VIII
Contents
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Contents
IX
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Contents
Contents
XI
1
Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****)
1.1 Electrostatics
The behavior of an electrostatic field can be described by two differential
equations:
E = 4
(1.1)
(Gauss law) and
E=0
(1.2)
the latter equation being equivalent to the statement that E is the gradient
of a scalar function, the scalar potential :
E =
(1.3)
Eqns (1.1) and (1.3) can be combined into one differential equation for a single
scalar function (x):
2 = 4
(1.4)
This equation is called Poisson equation.
In the regions of space where there is no charge density, the scalar potential
satisfies the Laplace equation:
2 = 0
(1.5)
1 Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****)
(x) =
3 0
(x )d x
1
|x x0 |
(1.7)
|x x0 |
By definition, if the integration volume contains the point x = x0
Z
3 (x x0 )d3 x = 1
otherwise is zero. This way we recover Poisson s equation
2 (x) = 4(x0 )x0 =x
(1.9)
Thus, we have not only shown that the potential from Coulombs law satisfies
Poissons eqn, but we have established (through the solution of Poissons eqn)
the important result that :
the potential from a distributed source is the superposition of the individual
potentials from the constituent parcels of charge.
We may consider situations in which is comprised of N discrete charges
qi , positioned at x0i so that
(x0 ) =
N
X
qi 3 (x0 x0i )
(1.10)
i=1
In this case the solution for the potential is a combination of terms proportional to 1/|x x0 |.
n =
n
(1.12)
(1.13)
da .
(1.14)
2 + d3 x =
n
V
S
If we rewrite (1.14) with and interchanged, and then subtract it from
(1.14) we obtain Greens 2nd identity or Greens Theorem:
Z
I
3
2
2
d x =
da
(1.15)
n
n
V
S
Now we can apply Poissons equation (1.8) for discrete charge, substituting
for = 1/|x x0 |
Z
4(x0 ) 3
3
0
0
4 (x x )(x ) +
d x
|x x0 |
V
I
1
1
da0
(1.16)
=
0
n |x x0 |
|x x0 | n0
S
Integrating the Dirac delta function over all values of x0 within V and for
x within the volume V yields a nonzero result
Z
I
(x0 ) 3 0
1
1
1
(x) =
d x +
0
da0
0
4 S |x x0 | n0
n |x x0 |
V |x x |
(1.17)
The (blue) correction term goes to zero as the surface S goes to infinity
(because S falls of faster than 1/|x x0 |)
If the integration volume is free of charges, then the first term of equation
(1.17) becomes zero, and the potential is determined only by the values of the
potential and the values of its derivatives at the boundary of the integration
region (the surface S).
Physical experience leads us to believe that specification of the potential on a closed surface defines a unique potential problem. This is called
Dirichlet problem or Dirichlet boundary conditions.
Similarly it is plausible that specification of the electric field (normal
derivative of the potential) everywhere on the surface (corresponding to a
1 Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****)
1
+ F (x, x0 )
|x x0 |
(1.20)
(1.21)
(x) =
(x0 )G(x, x0 )d3 x0 +
G(x, x0 ) 0 (x0 ) 0 G(x, x0 ) da0
4 S
n
n
V
(1.22)
The freedom in the definition of G means that we can make the surface integral
depend only on the chosen type of BC.
For the Dirichlet BC we demand:
GD (x, x0 ) = 0
for
x0 S
1
(x0 ) 0 GD (x, x0 )da0
(x) =
(x0 )GD (x, x0 )d3 x0
4
n
S
V
(1.23)
(1.24)
for x0 S
(1.25)
for x0 S
(1.26)
S is the total area of the boundary surface. Then the solution will be:
I
Z
1
0
0 3 0
GN (x, x0 )da0
(1.27)
(x) =
(x )GN (x, x )d x + hiS +
4 S n0
V
where hiS is the average value of the potential over the whole surface
I
1
(x0 )da0
(1.28)
hiS
S S
In most cases S is extremely large (or even infinite), in which case hiS 0.
The physical meaning of F (x, x0 ) : it is a solution of the Laplace eqn
inside V and so represents the potential of charges external to the volume V
chosen as to satisfy the homogeneous BC of zero potential on the surface S.
It is important to understand that no matter how the source is distributed, finding the Green function is completely independent or (x0 ).
G(x, x0 ) depends exclusively on the geometry of the problem, is a template, potential and not the actual potential for a given physical problem.
In other words G(x, x0 ) is the potential due to a unit charge, positioned
arbitrarily within the surface S consistent either with GD = 0 or GN /n =
4/S on the surface.
The true potential is a convolution of this template with the given
(x0 ).
1
2
(r)
+
sin
+ 2 2
=0
(1.29)
2
2
2
r r
r sin
r sin 2
If we assume
=
1
U (r)P ()Q()
r
(1.30)
1 Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****)
+
U dr2
r2 sin P d
d
Q d2
We see that the therms depending on have been isolated and we can set
1 d2 Q
= m2
Q d2
(1.32)
Q = eim
(1.33)
with solution
U =0
2
dr
r2
(1.34)
(1.35)
(1.36)
(1.37)
This is the generalized Legendre equation and its solutions are the associated
Legendre functions.
We will consider the solution of (1.54) for m2 = 0
dP
d
(1 x2 )
+ l(l + 1)P = 0
(1.38)
dx
dx
The solution should be single valued, finite, and continuous on the interval
1 x 1 in order that it represents a physical potential.
The solution can be found in the form of a power series
P (x) = xk
X
j=0
aj xj
(1.39)
(k + j)(k + j + 1) l(l + 1)
aj
(k + j + 1)(k + j + 2)
(1.40)
(1.41)
if a1 6= 0 then k(k + 1) = 0
(1.42)
(1.43)
1 dl 2
(x 1)l
2l l! dxl
(1.44)
2
l 0 l
2l + 1
(1.45)
1 Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****)
Since the Legendre polynomials form a complete set of orthonormal functions, any function f (x) on the interval 1 x 1 can be expanded in terms
of them i.e.
X
f (x) =
Al Pl (x)
(1.46)
l=0
where (how?)
Al =
2l + 1
2
f (x)Pl (x)dx
(1.47)
Thus for problems with azimuthal symmetry i.e. m = 0 the general solution
is:
h
i
X
(r, ) =
Al rl + Bl r(l+1) Pl (cos )
(1.48)
l=0
where the coefficients Al [it is not the same as in eqn (1.47)] and Bl can be
determined from the boundary conditions.
1.4.1 Example
Boundary Value Problems with Azimuthal Symmetry
Lets specify as V () the potential on the surface of a sphere of radius R,
and try to find the potential inside the sphere.
If there are no charges at the origin (r = 0) the potential must be finite
there. Consequently Bl = 0 for all l. Then on the surface of the sphere
V (r = R, ) =
Al Rl Pl (cos )
(1.49)
l=0
(1.50)
Fig. 1.1.
l
X
r<
1
=
Pl (cos )
(1.53)
l+1
0
|x x |
r
l=0 >
where r< (r> ) is the smaller (larger) of |x| and |x0 | and is the angle between
|x| and |x0 |.
Fig. 1.2.
X
1
l
(l+1)
=
A
r
+
B
r
Pl (cos )
l
l
|x x0 |
l=0
on the z-axis
10
1 Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****)
l
1
1 X r<
=
|x x0 |
r>
r>
on the x-axis
l=0
dm
Pl (x)
dxm
(1.55)
If Rodrigues formula is used an expression valid for both positive and negative
m is obtained:
m
(1)m
2 m/2 d
Plm (x) =
(1
x
)
Pl (x)
(1.56)
2l l!
dxm
There is a simple relation between Plm (x) and Plm (x) :
Plm (x) = (1)m
(l m)! m
P (x)
(l + m)! l
(1.57)
For fixed m the functions Plm (x) form an orthonormal set in the index l on
the interval 1 x 1. The orthogonality relation is
Z 1
2 (l + m)!
m
Plm
l 0 l
(1.58)
0 (x)Pl (x)dx =
2l
+ 1 (l m)!
1
We have found that Qm () = eim , this function forms a complete set of
orthogonal functions in the index m on the interval 0 2.
The product Plm Qm forms also a complete orthonormal set on the surface
of the unit sphere in the two indices l, m.
From the normalization condition (1.58) we can conclude that the suitably
normalized functions, denoted by Ylm (, ), are :
s
Ylm (, ) =
2l + 1 (l m)! m
P (cos )eim
4 (l + m)! l
11
(1.59)
and also
(1.60)
(1.61)
l
X
X
Alm Ylm (, )
(1.62)
l=0 m=l
dYlm
(, )g(, ) .
(1.63)
l
X
h
i
X
Alm rl + Blm r(l+1) Ylm (, )
(1.64)
l=0 m=l
1
4
r
3
l = 1 Y11 =
sin ei
8
r
3
Y10 =
cos
4
r
1 15
l = 2 Y22 =
sin2 e2i
4 2
r
15
Y21 =
sin cos ei
8
r
5 3
1
Y20 =
cos2
4 2
2
12
1 Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****)
r
1 35
l = 3 Y33 =
sin3 e3i
4 4
r
1 105
Y32 =
sin2 cos e2i
4 2
r
1 21
sin (5 cos2 1) ei
Y31 =
4 4
r
1
7
Y30 =
sin 5 cos3 3 cos
2 4
(1.65)
Fig. 1.3. Schematic representation of Ylm on the unit sphere. Ylm is equal to 0 along
m great circles passing through the poles, and along l m circles of equal latitude.
The function changes sign each time it crosses one of these lines.
13
Fig. 1.4.
Pl (cos ) =
l
X
4
Ylm
(0 , 0 )Ylm (, )
l(l + 1)
(1.66)
m=l
Pl (cos ) =
l
X
X
l0 =0 m=l0
Al0 m0 (0 , 0 )Yl0 m0 (, )
(1.67)
14
1 Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****)
The addition theorem offer the possibility to extend the expansion valid
for a point charge (axially symmetric distribution) to an arbitrary charge
distribution.
By substituting (1.66) into (1.53) we obtain
X
l
l
X
r<
1
1
=
4
Y (0 , 0 )Ylm (, )
l+1
0
|x x |
2l + 1 r> lm
(1.68)
l=0 m=l
This equation gives the potential in a completely factorized form in the coordinates x and x0 . This is useful in any integration over charge densities, when
one is the variable of integration and the other the observation point.
X
l
X
l=0 m=l
1
4
qlm l+1 Ylm (, )
2l + 1
r
Fig. 1.5.
(1.69)
15
X
l
X
l=0 m=l
1
4
Ylm (, )
l+1
2l + 1 r
Ylm
(0 , 0 )(x0 )r0l d3 x0
qlm = Ylm
(0 , 0 )(x0 )r0l d3 x0
(1.71)
(1.72)
q00 = (x )r Y00 ( , )d x =
(x0 )d3 x0 =
4
4
(1.73)
(1.74)
NOTE:
The moments with m 0 are connected (for real charge density) too the
moments with m < 0 through
(1.75)
(1.76)
16
1 Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****)
q11
= (x0 )r0 Y11
(0 , 0 )d3 x0
r
Z
3
(x0 )r0 (sin 0 cos 0 i sin 0 sin 0 ) d3 x0
=
8
in Cartesian represantation
r
r
Z
3
3
0
0
0 3 0
(x )(x iy )d x =
=
(px ipy )
8
8
(1.77)
also
r
3
=
4
r
r
Z
3
3
z 0 (x0 )d3 x =
pz
=
4
4
q10
(x )r
Y10
(0 , 0 )d3 x0
q22
=
(x)r02 Y22
(0 , 0 )d3 x0
r
Z
1 15
2
=
(x) [r0 sin 0 (cos 0 i sin 0 )] d3 x0
4 2
r
Z
1 15
(x)(x0 iy 0 )2 d3 x0
=
4 2
1 02
because (x0 iy 0 )2 =
(3x r02 ) 6ix0 y 0 (3y 02 r02 )
3
r
15
1
=
(Q11 2iQ12 Q22 )
(1.79)
12 2
(1.80)
Analogously
q21
and
Z
=
r
0
02
Y21
(0 , 0 )d3 x0
(x )r
r
1 15
=
(Q13 iQ23 )
3 8
15
8
q20
=
5
4
17
From eqn (1.60) we can get the moments with m < 0 through
(1.83)
4
1
1
E =
qlm l+2
Ylm
2l + 1
r
sin
Er =
(1.85)
2p cos
,
r3
E =
p sin
,
r3
E = 0
(1.86)
3n (p n) p
|x x0 |3
with
n=
r
r
(1.87)
(p x)
(p x)
r3
1
r3
=
3n (p n) p
|x x0 |3
(1.88)
18
1 Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****)
W =
(1.89)
The external field (if its is slowly varying over the region where (x) is non-
Fig. 1.6.
2
1 XX
xi xj
(0) + . . .
2 i=1 j=1
xi xj
(1.90)
Ej
1 XX
xi xj
(0) + . . .
2 i=1 j=1
xi
(1.91)
Ej
1 XX
3xi xj r2 ij
(0) + . . .
6 i=1 j=1
xi
(1.92)
19
When this inserted into (1.89) the energy takes the form:
3
W = q(0) p E(0)
1 XX
Ej
(0) + . . .
Qij
6 i=1 j=1
xi
(1.93)
Notice, that:
1.8.1 Examples
EXAMPLE 1 : Show that for a uniform charged sphere all multipole moments vanish except q00 .
If the sphere has a radius R0 and constant charge density (x) = then
Z
Z Z R0
Rl+3
Y (0 , 0 )d 0
qlm
=
r0l Ylm
(0 , 0 )r02 dr0 d 0 = 0
l + 3 0 lm
0 0
qlm
= 0
4
Ylm
Y00 d 0 = 0
4l0 m0
l+3
l+3
0
EXAMPLE 2: Perform multipole decomposition of a uniform charge distribution whose surface is a weakly deformed sphere:
!
2
X
qlm
=
Z
0
R( 0 ,0 )
02 0
r0l Ylm
r dr d 0
Rl+3
= 0
l+3
Z
0
Ylm
(0 , 0 )
1+
2
X
m=2
!l+3
a2m Y2m
(0 , 0 )
d 0
20
1 Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****)
qlm
Rl+3
0
l+3
Z
0
Ylm
(0 , 0 ) 1 + (l + 3)
2
X
a2m Y2m
(0 , 0 ) d 0
m=2
Apart from the monopole moment q00 of the previous example, we find
qlm
=
Z
2
X
X
R0l+3
(l + 3)
a2
Ylm
Y2 d 0 = R0l+3
a2 m l2 (l > 0)
l+3
0
=2
1.9 Magnetostatics
There is a radical difference between magnetostatics and electrostatics :
there are no free magnetic charges
The basic entity in magnetic studies is the magnetic dipole.
In the presence of magnetic materials the dipole tends to align itself in
a certain direction. That is by definition the direction of the magnetic flux
density , denoted by B (also called magnetic induction).
The magnitude of the flux density can be defined by the magnetic
torque N exerted on the magnetic dipole:
N=B
(1.94)
(1.95)
(1.96)
21
d` x
|x|3
(1.97)
Fig. 1.7.
22
1 Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****)
(x x0 )
=
|x x0 |3
1
|x x0 |
1
r
= 3
r
r
as
(1.101)
J(x0 ) 3 0
d x
|x x0 |
(1.102)
(1.103)
4
J
c
(1.105)
I
B d` =
C
4
c
Z
J nda
(1.107)
Since the surface integral of the current density is the total current I passing
through the closed curve C, Amperes law can be written in the form:
I
4
B d` =
I
(1.108)
c
C
1
Remember : ( A) = ( A) 2 A
23
Fig. 1.8.
4
J
c
and B = 0
(1.109)
(1.110)
(1.111)
4
J
c
or ( A) 2 A =
4
J
c
(1.113)
24
1 Electrostatics-Magnetostatics (****)
2 A =
4
J
c
(1.114)
2
Classical Field Theory: Maxwell Equations
2.1 Introduction
26
Fig. 2.1.
(2.2)
dF
dt
(2.3)
That is, the induced electromotive force around the circuit is proportional
to the time rate of change of magnetic flux linking the circuit.
The sign is specified by Lenzs law, which states that the induced current
(and accompanying magnetic flux) is in such a direction to oppose the change
of flux through the circuit. For SI units k = 1, Gaussian units k = 1/c.
2.2.1 Faradays law for a moving circuit
Z
I
d
E0 d` = k
B n da
dt S
C
(2.4)
27
Fig. 2.2.
If the circuit C is moving with a velocity v in some direction the total time
derivative in eqn (2.4) must take into account the motion e.g. convective
derivative
d
=
+ v and
dt
t
dB
B
B
=
+ (v ) B =
+ (B v) + v ( B)
dt
t
t
The flux through the circuit may change because:
(2.5)
(2.6)
(2.7)
With the present choice of units for charge and current, Galilean covariance
requires that k = 1/c (why?).
Finally, the transformation of the electromotive force integral into a surface
integral leads to (how?)
Z
1 B
n da = 0
(2.8)
E+
c t
S
28
Since the circuit C and the bounding surface S are abritrary, the integrant
must vanish at all points in space. Thus the differential form of Faradays
law is:
1 B
= 0.
(2.9)
E+
c t
Note that for time-independent electrostatic fields : E = 0.
KELVIN-STOKES THEOREM :
relates the surface integral of the curl of a vector field over a surface S in
Euclidean 3-space to the line integral of the vector field over its boundary
Z
I
F dS =
F d`
(2.10)
S
n
da
C
x
Fig. 2.3.
29
For such time-varying fields there are induced electromotive forces which
cause the sources of current to do work.
Since the energy in the field is by definition the total work done to establish
it, we must consider these contributions.
1
IF
c
We can express the increment of work done against the induced electromotive force in terms of the change of the magnetic induction through the
loop:
Z
J
(W ) =
n Bda
(2.11)
c
S
the extra is because we consider only one elementary circuit.
30
Fig. 2.4. Distribution of current density broken up into elementary current loops
(2.13)
but Jd` Jd3 x since l is parallel to J. Evidently the sum over all such
elemental loops will be the volume integral.
Hence the total increment of work done by an external source due to a
change A(x) in the vector potential is
Z
1
W =
A J d3 x
(2.14)
c
By using Amp`eres law
4
J
c
we can get an expression in terms of the magnetic fields. Then
Z
1
W =
A ( H) d3 x
4
H=
(2.15)
(2.16)
If the field distribution is assumed to be localized, the 2nd integrant vanishes (why?) and we get
Z
1
W =
H Bd3 x
(2.17)
4
31
which is the analog of the electrostatic equation for the energy change
Z
1
W =
E Dd3 x
(2.18)
4
where D = E + 4P is the electric displacement and P the electric
polarization (dipole moment per unit volume).
If we bring the fields from zero to the final values the total magnetic
energy will be (why?)
Z
1
H B d3 x
(2.19)
W =
8
which is the magnetic analog of the total electrostatic energy
Z
1
E D d3 x
W =
8
is:
(2.20)
The magnetic equivalent for this expression i.e. the magnetic energy is
Z
1
W =
J A d3 x
(2.22)
2c
(2.24)
(2.25)
32
4. Amp`eres law:
Z
4
J nda
(2.26)
H dl =
c S
C
The basic laws of electricity and magnetism can be summarized in differential form:
I
Coulombs law D = 4
4
1 D
Amp`
eres law ( J = 0) H =
J+
c
c t
1 B
Faradays law E +
=0
c t
no free magnetic poles B = 0
(2.27)
(2.28)
(2.29)
(2.30)
Ha = Ba 4(Ma + . . . )
H = B 4M + . . .(2.32)
The above equations without the red term in Amperes law are inconsistent. While Amperes law ( J = 0) is valid for steady - state problems, the
complete relation is given by the continuity equation for charge and current
J+
= 0.
t
(2.33)
33
1 D
4 t
(2.34)
(2.36)
1 B
c t
= 0 can be written
1 A
E+
=0
c t
(2.37)
Thus the quantity with vanishing curl can be written as the gradient of a
scalar potential :
E+
1 A
1 A
= or E =
c t
c t
(2.38)
The definition of B and E in terms of the potentials A and satisfies indentically the 2 homogeneous Maxwell equations. While A and are determined
by the 2 inhomogeneous Maxwell equations.
If we restrict our considerations to the vacuum form of the Maxwell equations the inhomogeneous form of Maxwell equations can be write in terms of
the potentials as:
1
2 +
( A) = 4
c t
1 2A
1
4
2 A 2 2 A +
= J
c t
c t
c
(2.39)
(2.40)
These eqns are equivalent to Maxwell eqns but they are still coupled. Thanks
to the abritrariness in the definition of the potentials we can choose transformations of the form
34
A A0 = A +
1
0 =
c t
(2.41)
(2.42)
1
=0
c t
(2.43)
This way we uncouple the pair of equations (2.39) and (2.40) and leave
two inhomogeneous wave equations, one for and one for A
1 2
= 4
c2 t2
4
1 2A
2 A 2 2 = J
c t
c
2
(2.44)
(2.45)
(2.46)
(2.47)
are called gauge transformation and the invariance of the fields under these
transformations is called gauge invariance.
The relation between A and :
A+
1
=0
c t
(2.48)
is called Lorenz condition 1 . [Prove that there will always exist potentials
satisfying the Lorentz condition].
The Lorenz gauge is commonly used because:
The condition is from the Danish mathematician and physicist Ludvig Valentin Lorenz (1829-1891) and not
from the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz (1853-1928)
35
(2.49)
From eqn (2.39) we see that the scalar potential satisfies the Poisson eqn :
2 = 4
with solution
Z
(x, t) =
(x0 , t) 3 0
d x
|x x0 |
(2.50)
(2.51)
The scalar potential is just the instantaneous Coulomb potential due to the
charge density (x, t). This is the origin of the name Coulomb gauge.
From eqn (2.40) we find that the vector potential satisfies:
2 A
4
1
1 2A
= J+
2
2
c t
c
c t
d3 x0
4
|x x0 |
(2.52)
(2.53)
1 2A
4
= Jt
c2 t2
c
(2.54)
1 A
,
c t
and B = A
(2.55)
1 2
= 4f (x, t)
c2 t2
(2.56)
36
f (x, t)eit dt
(2.58)
When the representation (2.57) are inserted into (2.56) it is found that the
Fourier transform (x, ) satisfies the inhomogeneous Helmholtz wave
equation for each value of and k = /c
2 + k 2 (x, ) = 4f (x, )
(2.59)
Equation (2.59) is an elliptic PDE similar to Poisson eqn to which it reduces
for k = 0.
The Green function G(x, x0 ) appropriate to (2.59) satisfies the inhomogeneous equation
2 + k 2 Gk (x, x0 ) = 4(x x0 )
(2.60)
If there are no boundary surfaces, the Green function can only depend on
R = x x0 , and must be spherically symmetric, that is depend only on
R = |R|. This means that in spherical coordinates Gk (R) satisfies
1 d2
(RGk ) + k 2 Gk = 4(R)
R dR2
(2.61)
()
Gk (R) =
eikR
R
(2.62)
(2.63)
37
kR0
1
R
(2.64)
|x x0 |
1
0
t t
(x, t; x , t ) =
|x x0 |
c
0
(2.68)
? The infinite space Green function is thus a function only of the relative
distance R and the relative time between the source and the observation
point.
The Green function G(+) is called the retarded Green function and G()
is called the advanced Green function
Particular integrals of the inhomogeneous wave equation (2.56) are
Z Z
() (x, t) =
G() (x, t; x0 , t0 )f (x0 , t0 )d3 x0 dt0
to either of these maybe added solutions of the homogeneous equation in order
to specify a definite physical problem.
EXAMPLES
Z Z
|x x0 |
1
0
d x dt
0
|x x |
c
c
38
(2.71)
The terms with the time derivatives can be interpreted as the time derivatives
of the electrostatic and magnetic energy densities.
If we also remember that the sum/integrals
Z
Z
1
1
WE =
E Dd3 x and WB =
H Bd3 x
(2.72)
8
8
represents the total EM energy (even for time varying fields). Then the total
energy density is denoted by
1
1
1 2
2
u=
(E D + B H)
0 E +
B
(2.73)
8
2
0
Then equation (2.71) can be written (how?):
Z
Z
u
c
J Ed3 x =
+
(E H) d3 x
t
4
V
V
(2.74)
Since the volume is abritrary, this can be cast into the form of a differential continuity equation or conservation law
u
+ S = J E
t
(2.75)
39
The vector S represents the energy flow and is called Poynting vector
S=
c
(E H) (E H)
4
(2.76)
(2.78)
40
1
=
E,
4
c
J=
4
1 E
B
c t
(2.82)
After some manipulations we can show (how?) that the rate of change
of mechanical momentum of eqn (2.81) can be written
Z
dPmech
d
1
+
(E B) d3 x
(2.83)
dt
dt V 4c
Z
1
=
[E( E) E ( E) + B( B) B ( B)] d3 x
4 V
We can identify the volume integral on the left as the total EM momentum Pfield in the volume V
Z
1
(E B) d3 x
(2.84)
Pfield =
4c V
The integrant can be interpreted as the density of EM momentum
g=
1
(E B)
4c
(2.85)
(2.87)
also
( T)a =
X
Tab
xb
(2.88)
Z
V
Tab d3 x
xb
(2.89)
41
(2.90)
is the a-th component of the flow per unit area of momentum across the
surface S into the volume V .
In other words it is the force per unit area transmitted across the surface
S and acting on the combined system of particles and fields inside V .
(2.91)
(2.92)
(2.94)
Lfield = r g
(2.95)
where
has the interpretation of being the EM field angular momentum density
In integral form since
42
r T = (r T)
and r = 0
(2.96)
we get
d
dt
Z
Lmech +
V
Lfield d3 x
Z
(r T) nda
(2.97)
The right-hand side of this equation represents the integrated torque density
due to the fields over the boundary surface S.
3
Electromagnetic Waves (****)
1 B
=0
c t
E
B
=0
c t
E+
(3.1)
1
B
(3.2)
2 B
=0
c2 t2
and 2 E
2 E
=0
c2 t2
(3.3)
44
2 u
1 2u
=0
v 2 t2
c
where v =
(3.4)
iknxit
(3.5)
and B(x, t) = Be
iknxit
where the relation between the frequency and the wave vector k is
2
or k k =
k = =
v
c
v
(3.6)
(3.7)
(3.8)
which represents waves traveling to the right and to the left with propagation
velocities v which is called phase velocity of the wave.
? From the divergence relations of (3.1) by applying (3.6) we get
nE =0
and
nB =0
(3.9)
This means that E (or E) and B (or B) are both perpendicular to the
direction of propagation n. Such a wave is called transverse wave.
? The curl equations provide a further restriction
B=
n E
1
and E = n B
(3.10)
The combination of equations (3.9) and (3.10) suggests that the vectors n, E
and B form an orthonormal set.
Also, if n is real, then (3.10) implies that that E and B have the same
phase.
It is then useful to introduce a set of real mutually orthogonal unit vectors
(1 , 2 , n).
In terms of these unit vectors the field strengths E and B are
E = 1 E0 , B = 2 E0
(3.11)
or
E = 2 E00 ,
B = 1 E00
(3.12)
45
Fig. 3.1.
E=
B=
(3.13)
E00 1 )eiknxit
(3.14)
(E0 2
Thus the wave described by (3.6) and (3.11) or (3.12) is a transverse wave
propagating in the direction n.
Or that E and B are oscillating in a plane perpendicular to the wave vector
k, determining the direction of propagation of the wave.
Fig. 3.2.
1 c
1 c
E H =
[ER HR + EI HI + i(EI HR ER HI )]
2 4
2 4
46
where E and H are the measured fields at the point where S is evaluated.1
The time averaged flux of energy is:
r
c
S=
|E0 |2 n
(3.15)
8
The total time averaged density (and not just the energy density associated with the electric field component) is:
1
1
u=
E E + B B =
|E0 |2
(3.16)
16
8
The ratio of the magnitude of (3.15) to (3.16) is the speed of energy flow i.e.
E2 = 2 E2 eikxit
with
Bi =
(3.17)
k Ei
, i = 1, 2
k
Can be combined to give the most general homogeneous plane waves propagating in the direction k = kn,
E(x, t) = (1 E1 + 2 E2 ) eikxit
h
i
E(x, t) = 1 |E1 | + 2 |E2 |ei(2 1 ) eikxit+i1
1
(3.18)
(3.19)
47
Fig. 3.3.
The amplitudes E1 = |E1 |ei1 and E2 = |E2 |ei2 are complex numbers in
order to allow the possibility of a phase difference between waves of different
polarization.
LINEARLY POLARIZED
If the amplitudes E1 = |E1 |ei1 and E2 = |E2 |ei2 have the same phase
(3.18) represents a linearly polarized wave with the polarization vector
making an angle = tan1 (<(E2 )/=(E1 )) (which remains constant
as the
p
field evolves in space and time) with 1 and magnitude E = E12 + E22 .
ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED
If E1 and E2 have the different phase the wave (3.18) is elliptically polarized and the electric vector rotates around k.
3.3.1 Circular Polarization
E1 = E2 = E0
1 2 = /2 and the wave becomes
E(x, t) = E0 (1 i2 ) eikxit
(3.20)
At a fixed point in space, the fields are such that the electric vector is constant
in magnitude, but sweeps around in a circle at a frequency .
Fig. 3.4.
48
The components of the electric field, obtained by taking the real part of
(3.20)
Ex (x, t) = E0 cos(kz t) ,
Ey (x, t) = E0 cos(kz t)
(3.21)
For the upper sign (1 + i2 ) the rotation is counter-clockwise when the
observer is facing into the oncoming wave. The wave is called left circularly
polarized in optics while in modern physics such a wave is said to have
positive helicity.
For the lower sign (1 i2 ) the wave is right circularly polarized or it
has negative helicity.
3.3.2 Elliptically Polarized EM Waves
An alternative general expression for E can be given in terms of the complex
orthogonal vectors
1
(3.22)
= (1 i2 )
2
with properties
= 0 ,
3 = 0 ,
= 1 .
(3.23)
(3.24)
49
Fig. 3.5. The figure shows the general case of elliptical polarization and the ellipses
traced out by both E and B at a given point in space.
Fig. 3.6. The figure shows the linear, circular and elliptical polarization
A useful tool for this are the four Stokes parameters. These are
quadratic in the field strength and can be determined through intensity measurements only. Their measurements determines completely the state of polarization of the wave.
For a wave propagating in the z-direction the scalar products
1 E ,
2 E ,
+ E ,
E
(3.25)
50
(3.26)
E2 = a2 ei2 ,
E+ = a+ ei+ ,
E = a ei
(3.27)
(3.28)
(3.29)
51
? The kinematic properties follow from the wave nature of the phenomena and the need to satisfy certain boundary conditions (BC). But not on the
detailed nature of the waves or the boundary conditions.
? The dynamic properties depend entirely on the specific nature of
the EM fields and their boundary conditions.
Fig. 3.7. Incident wave k strikes plane interface between different media, giving
rise to a reflected wave k00 and a refracted wave k0 . The media below and above the
plane z = 0 have permeabilities and dielectric constants
, and , respectively.
B=
kE
k
(3.30)
REFRACTED
0
B0 =
p
k 0 E0
0 0
k0
B0 =
(3.31)
REFLECTED
E00 = E000 eik
00
xit
0 0
k00 E00
k 00
(3.32)
52
,
c
|k0 | = k 0 =
p 0 0
c
(3.33)
(3.34)
0 0
n0
=
n
(3.36)
(3.37)
53
E0 + E000 E00 = 0
s
0 0
E cos r = 0
(E0 E000 ) cos i
0 0
(3.38)
Fig. 3.8. Reflection and refraction with polarization perpendicular to the plane of
incidence. All the E-fields shown directed away from the viewer.
The relative amplitudes of the refracted and reflected waves can be found
from (3.38)
E00
2n cos i
2
2 sin r cos i
p
=
=
=
i
E0
sin(i + r) =0
1 + 0 tan
n cos i + 0 n02 n2 sin2 i
tan r
p
i
n cos i 0 n02 n2 sin2 i
1 0 tan
E000
sin(r i)
tan r
p
=
=
=
(3.39)
i
E0
sin(i + r) =0
1 + 0 tan
n cos i + 0 n02 n2 sin2 i
tan r
p
Note that n02 n2 sin2 i = n0 cos r but Snells law has been used to express
it in terms of the angle of incidence.
For optical frequencies it is usually permitted to put = 0 .
54
0 0
(3.40)
Fig. 3.9. Reflection and refraction with polarization parallel to the plane of incidence.
The condition that normal E is continuous, plus Snells law, merely dublicates the 2nd of the previous equations.
The relative amplitudes of refracted and reflected fields are therefore
(how?)
E00
=
E0
2nn0 cos i
p
02
n
cos
i
+
n
n02 n2 sin2 i
0
0
2 nn0
2 sin r cos i
=
=
i
sin(i + r) cos(i r) =0
1 + 0 tan
tan r
p
02
2
02
2
E000
0 n cos i n n n sin i
p
=
02
2
02
2
E0
0 n cos i + n n n sin i
i
1 0 tan
tan(i r)
tan r
=
=
i
tan(i + r) =0
1 + 0 tan
tan r
(3.41)
55
(3.42)
0
EXERCISES:
What are the conditions for:
Total reflection
Total transmision
Fig. 3.10. The conversion of an incident circularly polarized wave into an elliptically
polarized wave. The ratio of semimajor to semiminor transmitted amplitude for this
example in 1.3
4
Simple Radiating Systems (****)
J(x, t) = J(x)eit
(4.1)
The physical quantities will be taken from the real part of such expressions
while the EM potentials and fields assumed to have the same time dependence.
In the Lorentz gauge the solution (provided no boundary surfaces are present)
for the vector potential A(x, t) is
Z
Z
1
J(x0 , t0 )
|x x0 |
3 0
0
d x
t +
t dt0
(4.2)
A(x, t) =
c
|x x0 |
c
Using the sinusoidal dependence (4.1) we get (k = /c)
Z
1
J(x0 ) ik|xx0 |
A(x) =
d3 x0
e
c
|x x0 |
(4.3)
Given a current distribution J(x0 ) the fields can be determined by calculating the integral (4.3). The magnetic induction will be given by
B=A
(4.4)
i
B
k
(4.5)
58
dr
dr
dr
d3 x0
J(x0 ) ik|xx0 |
e
|x x0 |
(4.6)
For the near zone where r (or kr 1) the exponential in (4.6) can
be replaced by unity.
Then by using:
X
l
`
X
r<
1
1
=
4
Y (0 , 0 )Y`m (, )
`+1 `m
|x x0 |
2` + 1 r>
(4.7)
`=0 m=`
kr0
1 X 4 Y`m (, )
c
2` + 1 r`+1
(4.8)
`,m
This shows that the near fields are quasi-stationary, oscillating harmonically
as eit , but otherwise static in character.
4.2.1 The Far Zone
In the far zone (kr 1) the exponential in (4.3) oscillates rapidly and determines the behavior of the vector potential.
In this region is sufficient to approximate
|x x0 | r n x0
(4.9)
59
I.e. in the far zone the vector potential behaves as an outgoing spherical wave.
It is easy to show that the fields calculated from (4.4) and (4.5) are transverse to the radius vector (how?) and fall like 1/r. Thus they correspond to
radiation fields.
If the source size is small compared to a wavelength one can expand in
powers of k:
Z
eikr X (ik)n
J(x0 )(n x0 )n d3 x0
(4.11)
lim A(x) =
kr
cr n
n!
The magnitude of the n-th term is given by
Z
1
J(x0 )(kn x0 )n d3 x0
n!
(4.12)
Since |x0 | d and kd 1 by assumption, the successive terms in the expansion of A fall off rapidly with n.
Consequently the radiation emitted from the source will come mainly from
the first nonvanishing term in the expansion (4.11).
4.2.2 The Intermediate Zone
In the intermediate zone neither kr 1 or kr 1 can be used; all power of
kr must be retained. For points outside the source, eqn (4.3) becomes
Z
4ik X (1)
A(x) =
h` (kr)Ym` (, ) J(x0 )j` (kr0 )Y`m
(0 , 0 )d3 x0
(4.13)
c
`,m
eikr
1 + a1 (ikr) + a2 (ikr)2 + al (ikr)l
`+1
r
(4.15)
The coefficients ai come from explicit expressions for the spherical Hankel
functions.
1
60
q(t0 = t r/c)
r
where q(t) is the total charge of the source. Since charge is conserved and a
localized source has not charge flowing into or away from it, the total charge
q is independent of time.
? Thus the electric monopole part of the potential (and fields) of
localized source is of necessity static.
? The fields with harmonic time dependence eit with 6= 0 have no
monopole terms.
eikr
cr
J(x0 )d3 x0
(4.17)
Examination of (4.13) and (4.15) shows that (4.17) is the ` = 0 part of the
series and that it is valid everywhere outside the source, not just in the far
zone. Integrating by part we get
Z
Z
Z
3 0
0
0
3 0
Jd x = x ( J)d x = i x0 (x0 )d3 x0
(4.18)
since from the continuity equation
J = i
(4.19)
eikr
p
r
x0 (x0 )d3 x0
(4.20)
(4.21)
The electric dipole fields from (4.4) and (4.5) are (how?)
ikr
e
1
2
B = k (n p) 1
ikr
r
ikr
ik
1
e
2
2 eikr
+ [3n(n p) p]
E = k (n p) n
r
r3
r
61
(4.22)
(4.23)
Note that the magnetic induction is transverse to the radius vector at all
distances, but the electric field has components parallel and perpendicular to
n.
In the radiation zone (kr 1) the fields take the limiting form
B = k 2 (n p)
eikr
,
r
E=Bn
(4.24)
1
,
r2
E = [3n(n p) p]
1
r3
(4.25)
? The electric field apart from its oscillation in time is just the static
electric dipole field seen earlier
? The magnetic induction is smaller than the electric field by a factor
(kr) in the region where kr 1.
? Thus the fields in the near zone are dominantly electric in
nature.
? The magnetic induction vanishes, in the static limit k 0.
? The following identities might be useful for future derivations
[p (p n)n] (n p) = p (n p) (p (n))n (n p) = 0
(4.26)
(n p) n = (n n) p (n p) n = p (p n) n
(4.27)
eikr
e
r
and E = k 2 p sin
eikr
e
r
(4.28)
62
c 4
dP
2
=
k |(n p) n|
d
8
(4.31)
If all the components of p have the same phase, the angular distribution is a
typical dipole pattern (where is measured from the direction of p )
dP
c 4 2 2
=
k |p| sin
d
8
(4.32)
The total power radiated, independent of the relative phases of the components of p, is
1
2
P = ck 4 |p|
(4.33)
3
4.4 Examples
4.4.1 Example I
For p = pez we can substitute (4.28) into (4.29) and we get (how?)
S=
c 4 2 sin2 2ikr
k p
e
n
8 2
r2
(4.34)
Since the energy flux oscillates in time after averaging over a complete wave
cycle we get (hcos2 (kr)i = 1/2)
hSi =
ck 4 p2 sin2
n
16 2 r2
(4.35)
4.4 Examples
63
hSi da
(4.36)
4.4.2 Example II
A simple example of an electric dipole radiator is a centerfed linear antenna
whose length d is small compared to a wavelength. The antenna is assumed to
be oriented along the z-axis, with the narrow gab at the center for purposes
of excitation. The current is in the same direction in each half of the antenna,
with a value I0 at the gap and falling linearly to zero at the ends:
2|z| it
e
(4.38)
I(z)eit = I0 1
d
From the continuity eqn (4.19) the linear charge density 0 (charge per unit
length) along each arm is constant with value
0 (z) =
2iI0
d
(4.39)
64
Fig. 4.2. Electric field lines of an oscillating dipole p(t) = p0 cos(t)ez at selected
moments of time for = 1. Witness the transition between near-zone behavior and
wave-zone behavior which occurs near r = = 2c/ 1.
Fig. 4.3. Electric field lines of an rotating dipole p(t) = p0 [cos(t)ez + sin(t)ey ]
at selected moments of time, for = 1. Witness the transition between near-zone
behavior and wave-zone behavior which occurs near r = = 2c/ 1.
65
Fig. 4.4.
(4.40)
(4.41)
I02
(kd)2
12c
(4.42)
We see that for a fixed input current the power radiated increases as the
square of the frequency, at least in the long-wavelength domain (kd 1).
The coefficient of I02 /2 has dimensions of a resistance and is called the
radiation resistance Rrad of the antenna.
66
The next term in the expansion (4.11) and (4.15) leads to a vector potential
Z
eikr 1
A(x) =
ik
J(x0 ) (n x0 ) d3 x0
(4.43)
cr r
This vector potential can be written as the sum of two terms, one of which
gives a transverse magnetic induction and the other who gives a transverse
electric field.
This can be achieved by writing the integrand as the sum of a part symmetric in J and x0 and a part that is antisymmetric.
1
1
1 0
(n x0 )J =
[(n x0 )J + (n J)x0 ] +
(x J) n
c
2c
2c
(4.44)
(4.47)
The fields can be determined by noting that the vector potential (4.46) is proportional to the magnetic induction (4.23) for an electric dipole. This means
that the magnetic induction will be equal to the electric field for the electric
dipole, with substitution p m
eikr
1
ik
2
B = k (n m) n
+ [3n(n m] m]
2 eikr
(4.48)
r
r3
r
Similarly, the electric field for a magnetic dipole source is the negative of
the magnetic field for an electric dipole:
eikr
1
E = k 2 (n m)
1
(4.49)
r
ikr
67
All the arguments concerning the behavior of the fields in the near and
far zones are the same as for the electric dipole source, with the interchange
E B, B E, p m.
Similarly the radiation pattern and total power radiated are the same
for the two kinds of dipole. The only difference in the radiation fields is the
polarization.
For an electric dipole the electric vector lies in the plane defined by n
and p, while for a magnetic dipole it is perpendicular to the plane defined by
n and m.
The total power radiated, can be estimated (how?) by substituting
p m in (4.33)
c
2
(4.50)
PM = k 4 |m|
3
Thus
2
PM
m0
vc 2
=
(4.51)
PE
p0 c
c
2
Thus the magnetic dipole radiation power is by a factor vcc 1 smaller
compared with electric dipole radiation power.
Note that: p (r)(r3 ) r4 while m (Jr)(r3 ) Jr4 vc r4 .
4.5.2 Electric Quadrupole Fields
The integral of the symmetric term in (4.44) can be transformed by an integration by parts and some rearrangement (how?):
Z
Z
ik
1
[(n x0 ) J + (n J) x0 ] d3 x0 =
x0 (n x0 ) (x0 )d3 x0
(4.52)
2c
2
where the continuity eqn (4.19) has been used to replace J by i. Since the
integral involves second moments of the charge density, this symmetry
part corresponds to an electric quadrupole source. The vector potential is
Z
k 2 eikr
1
A(x) =
1
x0 (n x0 )(x0 )d3 x0
(4.53)
2 r
ikr
Since the complete fields are complicated to write down, we will study fields
in the radiation zone. Then it is easy to see that
B = ik(n A)
and E = ik(n A) n
(4.54)
(4.55)
68
(4.56)
(4.57)
(4.58)
ik 3 eikr
n Q(n)
6 r
(4.59)
(4.60)
and the direction of the radiated electric field is given by the vector inside the
absolute value.
The general angular distribution is complicated. But the total power radiated can be calculated in a straightforward way. We can write the angular
dependence as
2
a,b,c,d
X
X
X
4 X
4
|[n Q(n)] n| d =
|Qab |2
Qaa
Qcc + 2
|Qab |2
3
13
a
c
2
a,b
a,b
(4.63)
69
As we have mentioned earlier the trace of Qab is zero and thus the total
power radiated by a quadrupole source is
c 6X
P =
k
|Qab |2
(4.64)
360
a,b
Notice that the radiated power varies as the 6th power of the frequency for
fixed quadrupole moments, compared to the 4th power for dipole radiation.
In orders of magnitude Qab k 6 (r2 )(r3 ) k 6 r5 then
v 2
PEQ
PED
c
(4.65)
For slowly-moving distributions, the power emitted in electric-quadrupole radiation is smaller than the power emitted in electric-dipole radiation by a
factor of order (v/c)2 1.
4.5.3 Example : Electric Quadrupole Fields
An oscillating spheroidal distribution of charge is a simple example of a radiating quadrupole source.
The off-diagonal elements of Qab vanish (why?).
The diagonal terms may written
1
1
Q11 = Q22 = Q33 = Q0
2
2
(4.66)
(4.67)
c
k 6 Q0
128
(4.68)
1 2
I
2
(4.69)
70
71
The energy carried away by the radiation will then come to the expense of
the stars rotational energy. For this we need the fields orientation to differ
from stars rotational axis (oblique rotator model).
If the NS maintains a magnetic dipole moment
m(t) = m0 (sin cos tex + sin sin tey + cos ez )
Because the NS is located within the near zone
1
B(t) = 3 [3(m n)n m]
R
(4.72)
(4.73)
(4.75)
(4.76)
we get
Bmax sin 5 1012 Gauss
which is large but not unreasonable. A main sequence star typically supports
a magnetic field of 103 G if the field is frozen in the star during the collapse
the magnetic flux 4R2 B is conserved. Thus because R decrease by a factor
105 then B increases by a factor 1010 .
5
Radiation by Moving Charges
5.1 Li
enard - Wiechert Potentials (**)
The Li
enard-Wiechert potential describes the electromagnetic
effect of a moving charge.
Built directly from Maxwells equations, this potential describes the complete, relativistically correct, time-varying electromagnetic field for a pointcharge in arbitrary motion.
These classical equations harmonize with the 20th century development of
special relativity, but are not corrected for quantum-mechanical effects.
Electromagnetic radiation in the form of waves are a natural result of the
solutions to these equations.
These equations were developed in part by Emil Wiechert around 1898
and continued into the early 1900s.
We will study potentials and fields produced by a point charge, for which
a trajectory x0 (t0 ) has been defined a priori.
It is obvious that when a charge q is radiating is giving away momentum
and energy, and possibly angular momentum and this emission affects the
trajectory. This will be studied later. For the moment, we assume that the
particle is moving with a velocity much smaller than c.
The density of the moving charge is given by
(x0 , t0 ) = q(x0 x0 [t0 ])
(5.1)
where
v(t0 ) =
dx0
dt0
(5.2)
74
Z
(x, t) =
A(x, t) =
1
c
(x0 , t |x x0 |/c) 3 0
d x
|x x0 |
J(x0 , t |x x0 |/c) 3 0
d x
|x x0 |
(5.3)
(5.4)
It is not difficult to see that these retarded potentials take into account the
finite propagation speed of the EM disturbances since an effect measured at
x and t was produced at the position of the source at time
|x x0 (t)|
t = t
c
(5.5)
Thus, using our expressions for and J from eqns (5.1) and (5.2) and putting
v/c,
Z
(x0 x0 [t |x x0 |/c]) 3 0
(x, t) = q
d x
(5.6)
|x x0 |
Z
A(x, t) = q
(t |x x0 |/c)(x0 x0 [t |x x0 |/c]) 3 0
d x
|x x0 |
(5.7)
Note that for a given space-time point (x, t), there exists only one point
coresponding to the reon the whole trajectory, the retarded coordinate x
tarded time t defined in (5.5) which produces a contribution
= x0 (t) = x0 (t |x x0 |/c)
x
(5.8)
(5.9)
(5.10)
(5.11)
Because the integration variable x0 appears in R(t0 ) we transform it by introducing a new parameter r , where
x = x0 x0 [t R(t0 )/c]
(5.12)
75
Fig. 5.1.
|x x x0 (t)|(1 n )
and
Z
A(x, t) = q
(t) (x ) d3 x
|x x x0 (t)|(1 n )
(5.15)
which can be evaluated trivially, since the argument of the Dirac delta function
restricts x to a single value
q
q
(x, t) =
=
(5.16)
| t
(1 n )|x x
(1 n )R t
A(x, t) =
q
|
(1 n )|x x
=
t
q
(1 n )R
(5.17)
t
q
q
(x, t) =
=
| t
(1 n )|x x
(1 n )R t
q
q
=
A(x, t) =
| t
(1 n )|x x
(1 n )R t
(5.18)
(5.19)
76
Fig. 5.2.
x1 x
1
v
=
xx
1
c
and
x2 x
2
v
=
xx
2
c
(5.20)
x
by setting L
2 x
1 and L x2 x1 and subtracting we get
L = vL
L
c
=
L
L
1 v/c
(5.21)
5.2 Li
enard - Wiechert potentials : radiation fields (****)
The next step after calculating the potentials is to calculate the fields via the
relations
1 A
B = A and E =
(5.22)
c t
and we write the Lienard - Wiechert potentials in the equivalent form
Z
(t0 t R(t0 )/c) 0
(x, t) = q
dt
(5.23)
R(t0 )
Z
(t0 )(t0 t + R(t0 )/c]) 0
A(x, t) = q
dt
(5.24)
R(t0 )
where R(t0 ) |xx0 (t0 )|. This can be verified by using the following property
of the Dirac delta function (how?)
Z
g(x)[f (x)]dx =
X
i
g(x)
|df /dx|
77
(5.25)
f (xi )=0
which holds for regular functions g(x) and f (x) of the integration variable x
where xi are the zeros of f (x).
The advantage in pursuing this path is that the derivatives in eqn (5.22)
can be carried out before the integration over the delta function.
This procedure simplifies the evaluation of the fields considerably since,
we do not need to keep track of the retarded time until the last step.
We get for the electric field
0
Z
(t t + R(t0 )/c)
dt0
E(x, t) = q
R(t0 )
Z
q
(t0 )(t0 t + R(t0 )/c)
dt
(5.26)
c t
R(t0 )
Thus, differentiating the integrand in the first term, we get (HOW?)
Z
n
R(t0 )
n 0 0
R(t0 )
0
E(x, t) = q
t t+
t t+
dt0
R2
c
cR
c
Z
q
(t0 )(t0 t + R(t0 )/c)
(5.27)
c t
R(t0 )
But (HOW?)
R(t0 )
R(t0 )
0 t0 t +
= t0 t +
(5.28)
c
t
c
Z
Z
n
R(t0 )
(n )
R(t0 )
0
0
0 q
E(x, t) = q
t
+
t
+
dt
+
dt0
R2
c
c t
cR(t0 )
c
(5.29)
We evaluate the integrals using the Dirac delta function expressed in equation (5.25). But we need to know the derivatives of the delta functions arguments with respect to t0 . Using the chain rule of differentiation
R(t0 )
d
0
t
t
+
= (1 n )t
(5.30)
dt0
c
with which we get the result (HOW?):
n
q
n
E(r, t) = q
+
(1 n )R2 t c t (1 n )R t
(5.31)
Since
R
=
t
R
t0
t0
t
= n v
t0
t
t0
t
1
=c 1
=
t
t
(1 n )
(5.32)
78
Thus
n
(1 n )R
1
=
(1
t
t
n
(1 n )R2
(5.33)
t
(5.34)
c
[n(n ) ]t
R
d
(1 n )t = n + n
dt
n |t =
(5.35)
(5.36)
(n )(1 2 )
(1 n )3 R2
h
i
n (n )
c(1 n )3 R
(5.37)
t
(5.38)
When the particle is at rest and unaccelerated with respect to us, the
field reduces simply to Coulombs law qn/R2 . whatever corrections are
introduced the do not alter the empirical law.
We also see a clear separation into the near field (which falls off as 1/R2 )
and the radiation field (which falls off as 1/R)
Unless the particle is accelerated ( 6= 0), the field falls off rapidly at large
distances. But when the radiation field is present, it dominate over the
near field far from the source.
As 1 with = 0 the field displays a bunching effect. This bunching is understood as being a retardation effect, resulting from the finite
velocity of EM waves.
q n (n )
E=
(5.39)
c
R
ret
79
Fig. 5.3.
Fig. 5.4.
c
c
EB=
|E|2 n
4
4
(5.40)
(5.41)
and if is the angle between the acceleration v and n then the power radiated
can be written as
80
dP
q2
2 sin2
|v|
=
d
4c3
(5.42)
2
sin
d
=
P =
|
v|
|v|
(5.43)
4c3
3 c3
0
This expression is known as the Larmor formula for a nonrelativistic accelerated charge.
Fig. 5.5.
2 e2
2
|p|
3 m 2 c3
(5.44)
(5.45)
81
where d = dt/ is the proper time and p is the charged particles energymomentum 4-vector. Obviously for small it reduces to (5.44)
2
2 2
2
dp dp
dp
1 dE
dp
dp
2
=
2
=
(5.46)
d d
d
c
d
d
d
If (5.45) is expressed in terms of the velocity & acceleration (E = mc2 &
p = mv with = 1/(1 2 )1/2 ), we obtain the Lienard result (HOW?)
2
2 e2 6 2
P =
(5.47)
3 c
dE/dt
3 m2 c3 v dx
3 mc2 dx
(5.50)
Which shows that the radiation loss in an electron linear accelerator will be
unimportant unless the gain in energy is of the order of mc2 = 0.5MeV in a
distance of e2 /mc2 = 2.8 1013 cm, or of the order of 2 1014 MeV/meter.
Typically radiation losses are completely negligible in linear accelerators since
the gains are less than 50MeV/meter.
? Can you find out what will happen in circular accelerators
like synchrotron or betatron?
82
2 e2 c 4 4
2 e2 2 2 2
|p| =
2
3
3m c
3 2
(5.52)
2
4 e2 3 4
P =
c
3
(5.53)
(5.54)
In a 10GeV electron sychrotron (Cornell with 100m) the loss per revolution is 8.85MeV. In LEP (CERN) with beams at 60 GeV ( 4300m) the
losses per orbit are about 300 MeV.
2
2
e
1 n [(n ) ]
[S n]ret =
(5.55)
4c R2 (1 n)3
ret
T2 +R(T2 )/c
E=
T1 +R(T1 )/c
Z
[S n]ret dt =
t0 =T2
(S n)
t0 =T 1
dt 0
dt
dt0
(5.56)
Note that the useful quantity is (S n)(dt/dt0 ) i.e. the power radiated per unit
area in terms of the charges own time. Thus we define the power radiated
per unit solid angle to be
dP (t0 )
dt
= R2 (S n) 0 = R2 (S n) (1 n)
d
dt
(5.57)
If and are nearly constant (e.g. if the particle is accelerated for short
time) then (5.57) is proportional to the angular distribution of the energy
radiated.
For the Poynting vector (5.55) the angular distribution is
2
dP (t0 )
e2 |n {(n ) }|
=
5
d
4c
(1 n )
(5.58)
The simplest example is linear motion in which and are parallel i.e.
= 0 and (HOW?)
dP (t0 )
e2 v 2
sin2
=
d
4c3 (1 cos )5
(5.59)
Fig. 5.6. radiation pattern for charge accelerated in its direction of motion. the two
patterns are not to scale, the relativistic one (appropriate for 2) having been
reduced by a factor 102 for the same acceleration.
(5.60)
For relativistic particles, max is very small, thus the angular distribution is
confined to a very narrow cone in the direction of motion.
For small angles the angular distribution (5.59) can be written
dP (t0 )
8 e2 v 2 8 ()2
d
c3
(1 + 2 2 )5
(5.61)
83
84
The peak occures at = 1/2, and the half-power points at = 0.23 and
= 0.91.
The root mean square angle of emission of radiation in the relativistic
limit is
mc2
1
(5.62)
h2 i1/2 = =
E
The total power can be obtained by integrating (5.59) over all angles
P (t0 ) =
2 e2 2 6
v
3 c3
(5.63)
2 e2 |F|2
3 c3 m2
(5.64)
85
Fig. 5.8.
d
4c3 (1 cos )3
2 (1 cos )2
Although, the detailed angular distribution is different from the linear acceleration case the characteristic peaking at forward angles is present. In the
relativistic limit ( 1) the angular distribution can be written
2
2e2
4 2 2 cos2
|v|
dP (t0 )
3 6
1
(5.66)
d
c
(1 + 2 2 )3
2 (1 + 2 2 )2
The root mean square angle of emission in this approximation is similar
to (5.62) just as in the 1-dimensional motion. (SHOW IT?)
The total power radiated can be found by integrating (5.65) over all
angles or from (5.47)
2 4
2 e2 |v|
P (t0 ) =
(5.67)
3 c3
Since, for circular motion, the magnitude of the rate of momentum is equal
to the force i.e. mv we can rewrite (5.67) as
Pcircular (t0 ) =
2 e2 2
3 m2 c3
dp
dt
2
(5.68)
86
(5.69)
=
v
v
where v is the perpendicular component of the acceleration.
The angular distribution of radiation given by (5.65) and (5.66) corresponds to a narrow cone of radiation directed along the instantaneous velocity
vector of the charge.
The radiation will be visible only when the particles velocity is directed
toward the observer.
Since the angular width of the beam is 1/ the particle will travel a distance of the order of
d=
in a time
t =
v
while illuminating the observer
If we consider that during the illumination the pulse is rectangular , then
in the time t the front edge of the pulse travels a distance
D = c t =
Since the particle is moving in the same direction with speed v and moves a
distance d in time t the rear edge of the pulse will be a distance
1
1
3
L=Dd=
(5.70)
2
behind the front edge as the pulse moves off.
The Fourier decomposition of a finite wave train, we can find that the
spectrum of the radiation will contain appreciable frequency components up
to a critical frequency,
c
c 3
c
(5.71)
L
87
Fig. 5.9. A relativistic particle in periodic motion emits a spiral radiation pattern
that an observer at the point A detects as short bursts of radiation of time duration
T = L/c, occurring at regular intervals T0 = L0 /c. The pulse length is given by
(5.70), while the interval T0 = 2/v 2/c.
This shows that a relativistic particle emits a broad spectrum of frequencies up to 3 times the fundamental frequency.
EXAMPLE : In a 200MeV sychrotron, max 400, while 0
3 108 s1 . The frequency spectrum of emitted radiation extends up to
2 1016 s1 .
88
The general form of the power radiated per unit solid angle is
dP (t)
= |A(t)|2
d
(5.72)
where
c 2
[R E]ret
(5.73)
4
and E is the electric field defined in (5.37).
Notice that here we will use the observers time instead of the retarded
time since we study the observed spectrum.
The total energy radiated per unit solid angle is the time integral of (5.72):
Z
dW
=
|A(t)|2 dt
(5.74)
d
A(t) =
This can be expressed via the Fourier transforms as an integral over the
frequency.
The Fourier transform is:
Z
1
A() =
A(t)eit dt
(5.75)
2
and its inverse:
1
A(t) =
2
A()eit d
(5.76)
(5.77)
89
d2 I
= |A()|2 + |A()|2
(5.80)
dd
If A(t) is real, form (5.75) - (5.76) it is evident that A() = A (). Then
d2 I
= 2|A()|2
dd
(5.81)
which relates the power radiated as a funtion of time to the frequency spectrum of the energy radiated.
NOTE : We rewrite eqn (5.37) for future use
h
i
(n
n
+
(5.82)
E(r, t) = e
2 (1 n )3 R2
c(1 n )3 R
ret
By using (5.82) we will try to derive a general expression for the energy
radiated per unit solid angle per unit frequency interval in terms of an integral
over the trajectory of the particle.
We must calculate the Fourier transform of (5.73) by using (5.82)
"
#
2 1/2 Z
e
n
[(n
]
A() =
eit
dt
(5.83)
8 2 c
(1 n)3
ret
e2
8 2 c
1/2 Z
n [(n ) ]
dt0
2
(1 n)
(5.84)
since the observation point is assumed to be far away the unit vector n
can be assumed constant in time, while we can use the approximation
R(t0 ) x n r(t0 )
(5.85)
where x is the distance from the origin O to the observation point P , and
r(t0 ) is the position of the particle relative to O.
Then (5.84) becomes:
A() =
e2
8 2 c
1/2 Z
ei(tnr(t)/c)
n [(n ) ]
dt
(1 n)2
(5.86)
and the energy radiated per unit solid angle per unit frequency interval (5.81)
is
2
Z
d2 I
e2 2 i(tnr(t)/c) n [(n ) ]
=
e
dt
(5.87)
dd
4 2 c
(1 n)2
90
Fig. 5.10.
n [(n ) ]
d n (n )
=
(5.88)
(1 n)3
dt
1n
then by integration by parts we get to the following relation for the intensity
distribution:
Z
2
d2 I
e2 2
i(tnr(t)/c)
=
(5.89)
n
(n
)e
dt
2
dd
4 c
For a number of charges ej in accelerated motion the integrand in (5.89)
becomes
N
X
i(/c)nr(t)
ee
ej j ei(/c)nrj (t)
(5.90)
j=1
[n
J(x,
t)]
2
3
dd
4 c
(5.92)
a result that can be obtained from the direct solution of the inhomogeneous
wave equation for the vector potential.
91
Fig. 5.11.
5.9.1 Synchrotrons
Synchrotrons are particle accelerators - massive (roughly circular) machines
built to accelerate sub-atomic particles to almost the speed of light.
The accelerator components include an electron gun, one or more injector accelerators (usually a linear accelerator and a synchrotron but sometimes just a large linear accelerator) to increase the energy of the electrons,
and a storage ring where the electrons circulate for many hours.
In the storage ring, magnets force the electrons into circular paths.
As the electron path bends, light is emitted tangentially to the curved
path and streams down pipes called beamlines to the instruments where scientists conduct their experiments.
92
Fig. 5.12. Components of a synchrotron light source typically include (1) an electron gun, (2) a linear accelerator, (3) a booster synchrotron, (4) a storage ring, (5)
beamlines, and (6) experiment stations.
The storage ring is specifically designed to include special magnetic structures known as insertion devices (undulators and wigglers).
Insertion devices generate specially shaped magnetic fields that drive
electrons into an oscillating trajectory for linearly polarized light or sometimes
a spiral trajectory for circularly polarized light.
Each bend acts like a source radiating along the axis of the insertion
device, hence the light is very intense and in some cases takes on near-laserlike brightness.
Fig. 5.13. The largest light source facilities are campuses onto themselves with
administrative, office, and laboratory buildings in addition to the light source itself.
They produce synchrotron radiation - an amazing form of light that researchers are shining on molecules, atoms, crystals and innovative new materials in order to understand their structure and behaviour. It gives researchers
unparalleled power and precision in probing the fundamental nature of matter.
93
vt
= t sin
cos
(5.94)
t
c
c
Since we are dealing with small angle and very short time intervals we
can make an expansion to both trigonometric functions to obtain
94
Fig. 5.14. The trajectory lies on the plane x y with instantaneous radius of
curvature . The unit vector n can be chosen to lie in the x z plane, and is the
angle with the x-axis.
1
c2 3
n r(t)
2
+ t + 2t
t
c
2
2
3
(5.95)
2
Ak ()
+
t
+
dt
t exp i
2
2
32
Z
1
c2 t 3
2
A ()
exp i
+
t
+
dt
2
2
32
(5.96)
(5.97)
(5.98)
(1/ 2
ct
+ 2 )1/2
3c
1
+ 2
2
3/2
(5.99)
3
1
1 3
2
x exp i x + x
+
Ak ()
dx
c 2
2
3
1/2 Z
3
1
1 3
2
+
exp
i
A ()
x
+
x
dx
c
2
2
3
95
Z
(5.100)
(5.101)
2 mc2
96
3
with harmonic number nc =
2
E
mc2
3
(5.107)
For c
2 1/3
d2 I
e2 (2/3)
3
2/3
|=0
dd
c
4
c
(5.108)
3 e2 2 /c
d2 I
|=0
e
dd
4 c
c
(5.109)
These limiting cases show that the spectrum at = 0 increases with frequency
roughly as 2/3 well bellow the critical frequency, reaches a maximum in the
neighborhood of c , and then drops exponentially to 0 above that frequency.
The spread in angle at a fixed frequency can be estimated by determining the angle c at which (c ) (0) + 1.
In the low frequency range ( c ), (0) 0 so (c ) 1 which
gives
1/3
1/3
1 2c
3c
c
=
(5.110)
We note that the low frequency components are emitted at much wider
angles than the average, h2 i1/2 1 .
In the high frequency limit ( > c ), (0) 1 and the intensity
falls off in angle as:
2 2
d2 I
d2 I
|=0 e3 /20
dd
dd
(5.111)
2c
3
1/2
(5.112)
97
dI
= 2
d
/2
/2
d2 I
cos d 2
dd
d2 I
d
dd
(5.113)
e/c
(5.115)
d
2 c
c
A proper integration of over angles yields the expression,
e2 Z
dI
3
K5/3 (x)dx
d
c c /c
(5.116)
In the limit c , this reduces to the form (5.114) with numerical coefficient
13/4, while for c it is equal to (5.115).
Bellow the behavior of dI/d as function of the frequency. The peak
intensity is of the order of e2 /c and the total energy is of the order of
e2 c /c = 3e2 4 /. This is in agreement with the value 4e2 4 /3 for the
radiative loss per revolution (5.53) in circular accelerators.
The radiation represented by (5.104) and (5.116) is called synchrotron
radiation because it was first observed in electron synchrotrons (1948).
For periodic circular motion the spectrum is actually discrete, being composed of frequencies that are integral multipoles of the fundamental
frequency 0 = c/.
98
2
1 c
Pn =
2
dPn
1
=
d
2
d2 I
|=n0
dd
(5.117)
dI
|=n0
d
(5.118)
These results have been compared with experiment at various energy synchrotrons. The angular, polarization and frequency distributions are all in
good agreement with theory.
Because of the broad frequency distribution shown in previous Figure,
covering the visible, ultraviolet and x-ray regions, synchrotron radiation is a
useful tool for studies in condensed matter and biology.
99
Fig. 5.17.
(5.119)
If the propagation vector k0 and its the polarization vector 0 can be written
100
Fig. 5.18.
v(t)
= 0
e
E0 eik0 xit
m
(5.120)
e2
mc2
2
| 0 |2
(5.121)
(5.122)
The incident energy flux is the time averaging Poynting vector for the plane
wave i.e. c|E0 |2 /8. Thus from eqn (5.121) we get the differential scattering
cross section
2 2
d
e
=
| 0 |2
(5.123)
d
mc2
The scattering geometry with a choice of polarization vectors for the outgoing wave is shown in the Figure.
101
102
(5.126)
e2
mc2
2
k0
k
2
| 0 |2
(5.127)
6
Special Theory of Relativity (****)
6.1 Introduction
Einsteins theory of special relativity is based on the assumption (which might
be a deep-rooted superstition in physics) that all physical laws should be
invariant under transformation between inertial systems.
The demand that Maxwells equations should be invariant under transformations, and the failure of Galilean transformations to do it led to the
Lorentz transformations ( = v/c, = (1 2 )1/2 )
x0 = (x00 x01 )
x1 = (x01 x00 )
(6.1)
x2 = x02
x3 = x03
x0 = (x00 + x01 )
x1 = (x01 + x00 )
(6.2)
x2 = x02
x3 = x03
under which for example the equations of a spherical wave
c2 t2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 0
(6.3)
(6.4)
is invariant.
104
1st Postulate : The laws of nature and the results of all experiments
performed in a given frame of reference are independent of the translational
motion of the system as a whole
2nd Postulate : The speed of light is finite and independent of the motion
of the source
From the 1st postulate it follows that the mathematical equations expressing the laws of nature must be covariant, that is, invariant in form, under
the Lorentz transformations.
These demands call for rules on the ways that the scalars, 4-vectors and
4-tensors will transform in a spacetime whose norm is defined by (6.4).
SPACETIME
The space-time continuum is defined in terms of a 4-dimensional space with
coordinates x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 .
6.2 Tensors
If we assume that there is a well defined transformation that yields from the
coordinates x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 a new set of coordinates x00 , x01 , x02 , x03 according
to the rule
x0 = x0 (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) ( = 0, 1, 2, 3)
(6.5)
Here we will defined the tensors under their transformation properties.
A scalar (tensor of rank 0) is a single quantity whose value is not changed
under the transformation. for example the interval s2 in (6.4) is a scalar.
Vectors are tensors of rank 1, and we distinguish two kinds.
The contravariant vector A whose components transformed according
to the rule
3
X
x0
x0
0
A
A
(6.6)
A =
x
x
=0
where the partial derivatives are calculated from (6.5). Explicitly we have 4
equations of the form:
A0 =
x0 0 x0 1 x0 2 x0 3
A +
A +
A +
A
x0
x1
x2
x3
(6.7)
3
X
x
x
B
x0
x0
=0
where the partial derivatives are calculated from the inverse of (6.5).
(6.8)
6.2 Tensors
105
The contravariant tensor of rank 2 F consists of 16 quantities (components) that transform according to
F 0 =
x0 x0
F
x x
(6.9)
x x
G
x0 x0
(6.10)
x0 x
H
x x0
(6.11)
(6.12)
with this definition the scalar product is an invariant or scalar under the
transfomation (6.5):
x
x
x0
B
A
=
B A
x0
x
x
= B A = B A = B A
B0 A0 = B0 A0 =
(6.13)
(6.14)
This norm or metric is a special case of the general differential length element
ds2 = g dx dx
(6.15)
(6.16)
(6.17)
106
(6.18)
where = 0 if 6= and = 1.
From the definition of the scalar product (6.12) and (6.15) we can easily
conclude that
x = g x
(6.19)
and its inverse
x = g x
(6.20)
......
and G...
...... = g G...
(6.21)
From the definition of the flat spacetime metric tensor we can easily prove
that:
A = (A0 , A) , A = (A0 , A)
(6.22)
The scalar product (6.12) of two vectors is
B A B A = B 0 A0 B A
From the transformation property
x
=
x0
x0 x
we conclude that the differentiation with respect to a contravariant component
of the coordinate vector transforms as the component of a covariant vector.
Thus we employ the notation
=
, ,
=
,
(6.23)
x
x0
x
x0
The 4-divergence of a 4-vector A is the invariant
A = A =
A0
+A
x0
(6.24)
107
(6.26)
dx0
dx0 dt
dx
dx dt
=
= c , U
=
= u
d
dt d
d
dt d
(6.27)
p
1
1
ds = dt 1 2 = dt
c
(6.28)
(6.29)
the left hand side is the space part of a 4-vector. The corresponding time
component equation is the rate of change of the energy of the particle
Z
dp0
q
dEmech
= UE
=
J Ed3 x
(6.30)
dt
c
dt
V
The right-hand sides of the previous two equations involve three factors, the
charge q, the 4-velocity and the electromagnetic fields.
If the transformation properties of two of the three factors are known and
Lorentz covariance is demanded, then the transformation properties of the
3rd factor can be established.
The experimental invariance of electric charge and the requirement of
Lorentz covariance of the Lorentz force eqn (6.29) and (6.30) determines the
Lorentz transformation properties of the EM field.
108
For example, the requirement from (6.30) that UE be the time component
of a 4-vector establishes that the components of E are the time-space parts
of a 2nd rank tensor F such that
U E = F 0 U
We will consider Maxwell equations and we begin with the charge density
(x, t) and current density J(x, t) and the continuity equation
+J=0
t
(6.31)
(6.32)
(6.33)
(6.34)
then the wave equations for the vector and scalar potential are
1 2A
4
2 A =
J
2
2
c t
c
(6.35)
1 2
2 = 4
c2 t2
Notice that the differential operator in (6.35) is the invariant 4-D Laplacian
(6.25) while the right hand side are the components of the 4-vector (6.32).
Obviously, Lorentz covariance requires that the potentials and A form
a 4-vector potential
A = (, A)
(6.36)
Then the wave equation (6.35) and the Lorentz condition (6.34) take the
covariant forms
4
A =
J , A = 0
(6.37)
c
The fields E and B are expressed in terms of the potentials as
E=
1 A
,
c t
B=A
(6.38)
109
1 Ax
= 0 A1 1 A0
c t
x
(6.39)
Az
Ay
Bx =
= 2 A3 3 A2
y
z
These equations imply that the 6 in total components of the electric and
magnetic fields are the elements of a 2nd-rank, antisymmetric field-strength
tensor
F = A A
(6.40)
explicitly in matrix form
0 Ex Ey Ez
Ex 0 Bz By
=
E y Bz
0 Bx
Ez By Bx 0
(6.41)
F = g g F
0 Ex Ey Ez
Ex 0 Bz By
=
Ey Bz
0 Bx
Ez By Bx 0
(6.42)
Notice that
1
F F = 2 B 2 2 E 2 = invariant
c
(6.43)
or
dp
dx
= qF
dt
dt
(6.44)
1 E
4
=
J
c t
c
4
J
c
(6.45)
110
B = 0,
E+
1 B
=0
c t
(6.46)
With the above definitions of the various quantities and the reformulation
of the wave and Maxwell equations the covariance of the equations of EM is
established.
Finally, the Lorentz force (6.29) and rate of change of energy (6.30) can
be set in manifestly covariant form
dU
q
dp
=m
= F U
d
d
c
(6.47)
0 Bx By Bz
Bx 0 Ez Ey
=
By Ez 0 Ex
Bz Ey Ex 0
(6.48)
for = 0, = 1, = 2, = 3
and for any even permutation
=
(6.49)
F =
1
F
2
where
+1
E10 = E1
E20
E30
111
B10 = B1
= (E2 B3 )
B20 = (B2 + E3 )
= (E3 + B2 )
B30
(6.52)
= (B3 E2 )
This suggest that for a general Lorentz transformation between two systems
moving with a speed v relative to each other the transformation of the fields
can be written (HOW):
E0 = (E + B)
2
( E)
+1
(6.53)
2
( B)
B0 = (B E)
+1
These transformations show that E and B have no independent existence.
A purely electric or magnetic field in one coordinate system will appear
as a mixture of electric and magnetic fields in another coordinate frame.
Thus one should properly speak of the electromagnetic field F rather
than E and B separately.
Finally, if no magnetic field exists in a frame K 0 the inverse of (6.53) shows
that in the frame K the magnetic field B and the electric field E are linked
by the simple relation
B=E
(6.54)
note that E is the transformed field from K 0 to K.
E10 = qvt
r 03
E20 =
qb
r 03
E30 = 0
qvt
,
(b2 + 2 v 2 t2 )3/2
E20 =
qb
(b2 + 2 v 2 t2 )3/2
(6.55)
112
Then using the inverse of (6.53) we find the transformed fields in the
system K:
qvt
(b2 + 2 v 2 t2 )3/2
qb
E2 = E20 = 2
(b + 2 v 2 t2 )3/2
B3 = E20 = E2
E1 = E10 =
(6.56)
(6.57)
qvr
c r3
113
Fig. 6.1. Fields of a uniformly moving charged oarticle (a) Fields at the observation
point P as function of time. (b) Lines of electric force for a particle at rest and in
motion ( = 3).
7
Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and EM
Fields (**)
(7.1)
dE
= eu E
(7.2)
dt
for a particle with charge e in external fields E and B can be written in the
covariant form (6.47)
dU
e
=
F U
(7.3)
d
mc
where m is the mass, is the proper time, and U = (c, u) = p /m is the
4-velocity of the particle.
The Lagrangian treatment of mechanics is based on the principle of of
least action or Hamiltons principle.
The system is described by generalized coordinates qi (t) & velocities
qi (t).
The Lagrangian L is a functional of qi (t) and qi (t) and perhaps the
time.
The action A is the time integral of L along a possible path of the
system.
The principle of least action states that the motion of a mechanical
system is such that in going from a configuration a at time t1 to a configuration
b in time t2 the action
Z t2
A=
L [qi (t), qi (t), t] dt
(7.4)
t1
is an extremum.
116
=0
(7.5)
dt qi
qi
7.1.1 Relativistic Lagrangian (Elementary)
From the 1st postulate of STR the action integral must be a Lorentz
scalar, because the equations of motion described by the extremum condition
A = 0. Then if we set in (7.4) dt = d we get
Z 2
A=
L d
(7.6)
1
since the proper time is invariant the condition that A is invariant requires
that L is also Lorentz invariant.
The Lagrangian for a free particle can be a function of the velocity (the
only invariant function of the velocity is U U = U U = c2 ) and the
mass of the particle but not its position.
r
u2
2
(7.7)
Lfree = mc 1 2
c
and through (7.5) the free-particle equation of motion (remember that p =
mu)
d
(mu) = 0
(7.8)
dt
Since the non-relativistic Lagrangian is T V and the potential energy for
the interaction is V = e, the interaction part of the relativistic Lagrangian
must reduce in the non-relativistic limit to
R
Lint LN
int = e
e
U A
c
(7.9)
(7.10)
117
e
Lint = e + u A
(7.11)
c
and the combination of (7.7) and (7.11) yields the complete Lagrangian
r
u2
e
2
L = mc 1 2 + u A e
(7.12)
c
c
(Verify that leads to the Lorentz force equation)
? The canonical momentum P conjugate to the position coordinate
x is obtained by the definition
Pi
L
e
= mui + Ai
ui
c
(7.13)
(7.15)
cP eA
2
P eA
+ m2 c4
c
(7.16)
(7.17)
(Verify that from this Lagrangian you can get the Lorentz equation)
Equation (7.17) is an expression for the total energy W of the particle.
Actually, it differs by the potential energy term e and by the replacement
p [P (e/c)A].
These two modifications are actually a conseqency of considering 4-vectors.
Notice that
2
2
2
(W e) (cP eA) = mc2
(7.18)
is just the 4-vector scalar product
p p = (mc)
where
(7.19)
E
1
e
,p =
(W e) , P A
(7.20)
c
c
c
Thus the total energy W/c acts as the time component of a canonically conjugate 4-momentum P of which P is given by (7.14).
p
118
(7.22)
This invariant form can be the starting point for a variational calculation
leading to the equation of motion dU /d = 0. One can further make use of
the constraint
U U = c2
(7.23)
or the equivalent one:
U
dU
=0
d
(7.24)
U d
dx dx
d =
d d
g dx dx
i.e. the infinitesimal length element in 4-space. Thus the action integral can
be written as
Z s2 r
dx dx
g
ds
(7.25)
A = mc
ds ds
s1
where the 4-vector coordinate of the particle is x (s), where s is a parameter
monotonically increasing with , but otherwise arbitrary.
The action integral is an integral along the world line of the particle
The principle of least action is a statement that the actual path is the
longest path, the geodesic. We should keep in mind that
r
dx dx
ds = cd
(7.26)
g
ds ds
and then a straightforward variational calculation with (7.25) leads to
mc
d dx /ds
=0
ds dx dx 1/2
ds
or
ds
(7.27)
119
d2 x
=0
(7.28)
d 2
as expected for a free particle motion.
For a charged particle in an external field the form of the Lagrangian (7.11)
suggests that the manifesltly covariant form of the action integral is
#
Z s2 " r
dx
dx
e
dx
mc g
A=
+
A (x) ds
(7.29)
ds ds
c ds
s1
m
d
L
=0
L
ds (dx /ds)
where the Lagrangian is:
" r
#
dx dx
e dx
L = mc g
+
A (x)
ds ds
c ds
(7.30)
(7.31)
d2 x
e dA (x) e dx
A (x) = 0
+
d 2
c d
c d
dx
d2 x
e
e
dx
=
A A
= F
2
d
c
d
c
d
(7.32)
L
e
= mU + A
(dx /ds)
c
(7.33)
H
the by eliminating U by means of (7.33) leads to the expression
(7.34)
120
s
eA
eA
eA
eA
P
P
c
P
P
c
c
c
c
(7.35)
Then by using the constraint
eA
eA
P
= m2 c2
P
c
c
= 1
H
m
dx
H
1
eA
=
=
P
d
P
m
c
and
H
dP
e
eA
=
=
P
A
d
x
mc
c
(7.36)
121
dE
=0
dt
(7.37)
ecB
eB
=
mc
E
(7.38)
(7.39)
(7.40)
(7.41)
The path is a helix of radius a and pitch angle = tan1 (vk /B a).
The magnitude of the gyration radius a depends on the magnetic induction
B and the transverse momentum p of the particle
cp = eBa
This relation allows for the determination of particle momenta. For particle
with charge equal to electron charge the momentum can be written numerically as
p (MeV/c) = 3 104 Ba(gauss-cm) = 300Ba(tesla-m)
(7.42)
122
Fig. 7.1. This three basic motions of charged particles in a magnetic field: gyro,
bounce between mirror points, and drift. The pitch angle between the directions
of the magnetic field B and the electron velocity v.
The angle between the direction of the magnetic field and a particles
spiral trajectory is referred to as the pitch angle, which in a non-uniform
magnetic field changes as the ratio between the perpendicular and parallel
components of the particle velocity changes. Pitch angle is important because
it is a key factor in determining whether a charged particle will be lost to the
Earths atmosphere or not.
123
EB
B2
(7.43)
1
B=
c
B2 E
B2
2 1/2
B
In the frame K 0 the only field acting is a static magnetic field B0 which points
in the same direction as B but is weaker by a factor 1/ . Thus the motion in
K 0 is the same as in the previous section, namely spiraling around the lines
of force.
As viewed from the original frame, this gyration is accompanied by a
uniform drift u perpendicular to E and B.
The direction of the drift is independent of the sign of the charge of the
particle. The drift can be understood by noting that a particle that starts
124
= 0,
E00
1
= E=
E2 B2
E2
1/2
E
(7.46)
u0
B00k = 0 , E00 = 0 B
E =0
c
Thus the particle, in the system K 00 , is acted on by a purely electrostatic field
which causes hyperbolic motion with ever-increasing velocity.
q1 q2
r
(7.47)
(7.48)
1X
1 X
mi vi2 + 2
mi vi4
2 i
8c i
1 X qi qj
1 X qi qj
+ 2
[vi vj + (vi rij )(vj rij )] (7.49)
2 i,j rij
4c i,j rij
where rij = |xi xj |, and rij is the unit vector in the direction xi xj and
the tilde () in the summation indicates omission of the self-energy terms
i = j.
125
(7.50)
d
dt
L
qi
=
L
L
L
=
qi
( k )
k
1
1
F F J A
16
c
(7.52)
1
1
g g ( A A ) A A J A
16
c
The term
L
( A )
(7.53)
( A )
4
4
(7.54)
126
(7.55)
(7.56)
1
2
1
F F +
A A J A
16
8
c
(7.58)
The parameter has dimensions of inverse length and is the reciprocal Compton wavelength of the photon ( = m c/~). Instead of (7.56) the Proca equations of motion are
4
F + 2 A =
J
(7.59)
c
with the same homogeneous equations F = 0 as in Maxwell theory. In
contrast to the Maxwell equations the potentials have real physical (observable) significance through the mass term. In the Lorentz gauge (7.59) can be
written
4
J
(7.60)
A + 2 A =
c
In the static limit takes the form
2 A 2 A =
4
J
c
(7.61)
127
If the source is a point charge q at rest in the origin then the only non-vanishing
component is A0 = . the solution will be the spherically symmetric Yukawa
potential
q
(x) = er
(7.62)
r
i.e. we observe an exponential falloff of the static potentials and fields, with
1/e distance equal to 1/.
Notice that the exponential factor alters the character of the Earths (and
other planets) magnetic fields sufficiently to permit us to set quite stringent
limits on the photon mass from geomagnetic data.
2 2 er
2 r2 er
m 3
B(x) = [3r(r m) m] 1 + r +
3
r3
3
r
The result shows that the Earths magnetic field will appear as a dipole angular distribution plus an added constant magnetic field antiparallel to m.
Measurements show that this external field is less than 0.004 times the
dipole field at the magnetic equator which leads to < 4 1010 cm1 or
m < 8 1049 g.
L
qi
(7.63)
X
k
k
L
L
(k /t) t
(7.64)
128
The first factor in the sum is the field momentum canonically conjugate to
k (x) and k (x) is equivalent to the velocity qi .
The Lorentz transformation properties of H suggest that the covariant
generalization of the Hamiltonian density is the canonical stress tensor:
T =
X
k
L
k g L
( k )
(7.65)
1
F F
16
Lem
A g Lem
( A )
1
g F A g Lem
4
(7.66)
With L = E2 B2 /8 and (6.42) we find (how?)
1
1
E2 + B2 +
(E)
8
4
1
1
=
(E B)i +
(Ai E)
4
4
1
1
(E B)i +
(Ei )
=
( B)i
4
4
x0
T 00 =
T 0i
T i0
(7.67)
If the fields are localized in some finite region of space the integrals over
all 3-space at fixed time in some inertial frame of the components T 00 and
T 0i can be interpreted as the total energy and c times the total momentum
of the EM fields in that frame:
Z
Z
1
T 00 d3 x =
E2 + B2 d3 x = Efield
8
(7.68)
Z
Z
1
i
T i0 d3 x =
(E B)i d3 x = cPfield
4
The previous definitions of field energy and momentum densities suggests
that there should be a covariant generalization of the differential conservation
law (2.75) of Poyntings theorem. That is:
T = 0
(7.69)
129
Consider
T
X
=
L
k L
( k )
L
L
k +
k L
( k )
( k )
but because of the equation of motion (7.50) the first term can be transformed
so that
X L
L
T =
k +
( k ) L
k
( k )
k
since L = L(k , k ) the term in the square bracket is an implicit differentiation, hence
T = L(k , k ) L = 0
The conservation law (or continuity equation) (7.69) yields the conservation of total energy and momentum upon integration over all of 3-space at
fixed time
Z
Z
Z
0 = T d3 x = 0 T 0 d3 x + i T i d3 x
If the fields are localized the 2nd integral (divergence) gives no contribution.
Then with the identification (7.68) we get
d
Efield = 0 ,
dt
d
Pfield = 0
dt
(7.70)
The results are valid for an observer at rest in the frame in which the fields
are specified.
(7.71)
130
M = 0
(7.72)
TD
(7.74)
(i) TD
= 0,
Z
0 3
(ii) TD
d x=0
Thus the differential conservation law (7.69) will hold for the difference (T
TD
) if it holds for T .
If we define the symmetric stress tensor
1
1
g F F + g F F
(7.75)
= T TD
=
4
4
then the differential conservation law (7.69) will hold if it holds for T . The
explicit components of are:
1
E2 + B2
8
1
i
=
(E B)
4
1
1 ij
i j
i j
2
2
=
E E +B B E +B
4
2
00 =
0i
ij
(7.76)
u
cg
(M )
cg Tij
131
!
(7.77)
where the time-time component is the energy density (2.73) the time-space
component is the momentum density (2.85) while the space-space components are the negative of the Maxwell stress tensor (2.86).
The various covariant or mixed forms of the stress tensor are
!
!
u cg
cg
u
=
=
(M )
(M )
cg Tij
cg Tij
cg
u
(M )
cg Tij
(7.78)
0 = i =
gi X (M )
T
t
xj ij
j=1
(7.79)
132
1
1
=
F F
+ F F
4
4
1
1
=
( F )F + F F + F F
4
2
3
1
gi X (M )
T
= Ei + (J B)i
t
xj ij
c
j=1
(7.82)
These are the conservation of energy and momentum equations for EM fields
interacting with sources described by J = (c, J).
The negative of the right hand side term in (7.80) is called the Lorentz
force density,
1
1
1
f F J =
J E, E + J B
(7.83)
c
c
c
If the sources are a number of charged particles then the volume integral
of f leads through the Lorents force equation (7.1) to the time rate of change
of the sum of the energies or momenta of all particles:
Z
f d3 x =
dPparticles
dt
Pfield + Pparticles
=0
(7.84)
d3 x + f =
dt
8
A Short Introduction to Tensor Analysis
x
x
and A 0 =
x
0
|
0 det |A
(8.1)
134
Studying the way in which these values change with the coordinate system
leads to the concept of tensor.
With the help of this concept we can express the physical laws by tensor
equations, which have the same form in every coordinate system.
1- Scalar field : is any physical quantity determined by a single numerical value i.e. just one component which is independent of the coordinate
system (mass, charge,...)
2- Vector field (contravariant): an example is the infinitesimal displacement vector, leading from a point A with coordinates x to a neighbouring point A0 with coordinates x + dx . The components of such a
vector are the differentials dx .
and
v =
X x
X x
dx
d
x
=
=
v
d
x d
x
(8.4)
X x
(8.5)
135
(8.7)
x x
(8.8)
Then the transformation formulae for the components of the tensors of order
2 are (why?):
x
x
x
x
= x x T
T =
T
,
T
=
T
&
T
x x
x x
x
x
(
0 if 6= ,
=
1 if = .
x
(a + b )
x
(8.9)
or T = A B
or T = A B
(8.11)
136
(8.12)
x
=
x
x
x
we will use:
= ,
x
x
x
x
A
=
A
=
A
A ,
x
x x
x x
x
2 x x
x x
A
=
A
+
x
x
x
x
x x
(8.13)
(8.14)
Without the first term in the right hand side this equation would be the
transformation formula for a mixed tensor of order 2.
8.2.3 Tensors: Connections
The transformation (x x
) of the derivative of a vector is:
A , =
x x
2 x x
[A, +
A ]
x
x
{z
x
x}
| x
(8.15)
137
x x0 0
[A , + 0 A0 ] .
x0 x
(8.16)
(8.17)
2 x x0
x x x0
+
.
0
0
x x x
x0 x0 x
(8.18)
A ; = A , + A
or A = A + A
(8.19)
T; =
T
=
+
A,
a
T , + T +
T
T , +
T
T
T, T T
T ,
T +
T +
T
T
(8.20)
(8.21)
(8.22)
(8.23)
(8.24)
(8.25)
The connection
helps is determining a vector A = a + a , at a point
0
P , which can be considered as equivalent to the vector a given at P .
a = a (P 0 ) a (P ) = a (P ) + a, dx a (P ) = a, dx
138
Fig. 8.1.
a (P 0 ) A (P 0 ) = a + a (a + a ) = a a
{z
}
| {z }
| {z } | {z }
|
vector
vector
at point P at point P
= a, dx a = a, C a dx i.e. a = C
a dx
|
{z
}
vector
a = a dx
a =
dx
(8.26)
(8.27)
a (A) = a (P )
(P )a dx
(8.28)
139
Fig. 8.2.
(A) (P ) + , (P )dx .
(8.29)
Thus we have estimated the total change of the vector a from the point P
to B via A (all terms are defined at the point P ).
a (B) = a
a dx
a x +
a dx x + ,
a dx x
, a dx dx x
If we follow the path P C B we get:
a (B) = a a x a dx + a x dx + , a x dx
and the effect on the vector will be
+ , (8.30)
a a (B) a (B) = a (dx x dx x )
By exchanging the indices and we construct a similar relation
a = a (dx x dx x ) + ,
(8.31)
and the total change will be given by the following relation:
1
a = a R (dx x dx x )
2
(8.32)
where
R = , + , +
is the curvature tensor.
(8.33)
140
If u = dx
d is the tangent vector at P the parallel transport of this vector
will determine at another point of the curve a vector which will not be in
general tangent to the curve.
If the transported vector is tangent to any point of the curve then this
curve is a geodesic curve of this space and is given by the equation :
du
+ u u = 0 .
(8.34)
d
Geodesic curves are the shortest curves connecting two points on a curved
space.
x
d
x
x
(8.36)
(8.37)
g =
g T = T ,
g T = T ,
g g T = T
(8.39)
2
ds = dt + dr + r d + r sin d
(8.40)
141
(8.41)
ds2 = a2 d2 + (b + a sin ) d2
(8.42)
g g =
where
g =
1
G minor determinant
det |g |
(8.43)
T = g T = g g T
(8.44)
The angle, , between two infinitesimal vectors d(1) x and d(2) x is:
cos() = p
g d(1) x d(2) x
p
.
g d(1) x d(1) x g d(2) x d(2) x
(8.45)
det
g = det g = det g = det g det
x
x
2
x
= det
g = J 2g
(8.46)
x
(8.47)
(8.48)
142
Fig. 8.3.
|a|2P = |a|2P 0
or g (P )a (P )a (P ) = g (P 0 )a (P 0 )a (P 0 )
0
(8.49)
a (P ) a (P )
(P )a (P )dx
(8.50)
(8.51)
g, g
g
a a dx = 0
(8.52)
This relations must by valid for any vector a and any displacement dx
which leads to the conclusion the the relation in the parenthesis is zero. Closer
observation shows that this is the covariant derivative of the metric tensor !
g; = g, g
g
= 0.
(8.53)
1
g (g, + g, g, )
2
(8.54)
143
ds =
S=
A
1/2
dx dx
g (x )
ds
ds ds
Fig. 8.4.
A neighboring curve x
(s) connecting the same points will be described
by the equation:
x
(s) = x (s) + (s)
(8.55)
where (A) = (B) = 0. The length of the new curve will be:
S =
1/2
x d
x
d
g (
x )
ds
ds ds
(8.56)
u = x
= d
x /ds = x +
(8.57)
144
ds +
=
ds
x
ds u
u
A
A ds
The last term does not contribute and the condition for the length of S to be
an extremum will be expressed by the relation:
Z B
d
f
f
ds = 0
(8.58)
S =
x
ds u
A
Since is arbitrary, we must have for each point of S:
d
f
f
=0
ds u
x
(8.59)
Notice that the Langrangian of a freely moving particle with mass m = 2, is:
L = g u u f 2 this leads to the following relations
f
1 L 1/2
=
L
u
2 u
and
f
1 L 1/2
=
L
x
2 x
(8.60)
d
ds
L
u
L
= 0.
x
(8.61)
Since L = g u u we get:
u
L
u
L
x
= g
+ g u
= g u + g u = 2g u
u
(8.62)
= g, u u
(8.63)
thus
dg
du
du
d
(2g u ) = 2
u + 2g
= 2g, u u + 2g
ds
ds
ds
ds
du
= g, u u + g, u u + 2g
(8.64)
ds
1
f (
x
,u
) = f (x
+
,u
+
ds
) = f (x , u ) +
f
=
f
f
+
x
u
ds
2
+ O( )
145
du
1
+ [g, + g, g, ] u u = 0
ds
2
or u ; u = 0
(8.65)
because du /ds = u , u .
8.5.1 Euler-Lagrange Eqns vs Geodesic Eqns (***)
The Lagrangian for a freely moving particle is: L = g u u and the EulerLagrange equations:
d
L
L
=0
ds u
x
are equivalent to the geodesic equation
d2 x
du
dx dx
+
u u = 0 or
+
=0
2
ds
ds
ds ds
Notice that if the metric tensor does not depend from a specific coordinate
e.g. xk then
d
L
=0
ds x
which means that the quantity L/ x is constant along the geodesic. Then
where |u|2 = g u u
If g 6= then the light cone is affected by the curvature of the spacetime.
For example, in a space with metric ds2 = f (t, p
x)dt2 + g(t, x)dx2 the light
cone will be drawn from the relation dt/dx = g/f which leads to STR
results for f , g 1.
146
Fig. 8.5.
d2 x
dx dx
+
=0
2
d
d d
and obiously:
g
(8.66)
dx dx
= 0.
d d
(8.67)
d2 x
d2 /ds2 dx
dx dx
+
=
2
d
d d
(d/ds)2 d
(8.68)
and
d2 x
d2 x
=
ds2
d 2
d
ds
2
+
dx d2
d ds2
(8.69)
The new geodesic equation (8.68), reduces to the original equation(8.66) when
the right hand side is zero. This is possible if
d2
=0
ds2
147
(8.70)
R = ,
+ ,
(8.71)
1
(g, + g, g, g, )
2
+ g
(8.72)
= ,
,
+
(8.73)
(8.74)
148
G ; =
1
R R
2
= 0.
(8.76)
R [;] = 0
(8.77)
Fig. 8.6.
Prove that :
a ;; a ;; = R a
S = S = g S = 0 .
(8.78)
149
R = C +
C = R
(8.79)
(8.80)
(8.81)
R
6= R
while C
= C
(8.82)
A1
= sin cos A2
A2
= cot A1
150
Fig. 8.7.
sin(2 cos )
e
sin
2
+ sin2 A2
2
sin2 (2 cos )
=1
sin2
Question : What is the condition for the path followed by the vector to
be a geodesic?
9
Physics on Curved Spaces
152
Fig. 9.1.
F , = k j
153
(9.2)
j , = 0
(why?)
+j=0
t
which is similar to the non-relativistic equation of charge continuity, but we
should use the relativistic expressions for and j.
- Do we have a viable theory?
The field equations are given by eqn (9.2). But F has 6 independent
components and from eqn (9.2) we get only 4 field equations.
Our theory is underdetermined as it stands and this suggests that one can
use a 4-vector potential A to construct F . In Cartesian coordinates we
may write:
F = A, A,
(9.3)
i.e. F is antisymmetric by construction and contains ONLY 4 independent fields A .
Thus we can write the field equations (9.2) in terms of the 4-vector potential A
(A, A, ) = k j
(9.4)
Alternatively, we can express electromagnetism entirely in terms of the EM
field tensor and in this case, we require the 2 field equations:
F , = k j
F[,] F, + F, + F, = 0
(9.5)
(9.6)
The last equation can be easily derived from equation (9.3) (how?).
Finally, the constant k can be found by demanding consistency with the
standard Maxwell equations. In SI units we have k = 0 , where 0 0 = 1/c2 .
(9.7)
This is not a coordinate transformation. The new EM field tensor will be:
(new)
(new)
F
= A(new)
A,
= A, A, + Q, Q,
,
(9.8)
154
(9.9)
and still recover the same EM field tensor and the same EM field equations.
This is an example of a gauge transformation, which is not a coordinate
transformation.
In the field equations
(A, A, ) = 0 j
(9.10)
the 2nd term in the left hand side can be written as A , thus this term can
become zero by choosing a scalar field such that
A , = 0
(9.11)
This condition is called Lorentz gauge1 and simplifies the EM field equations
A, = A , , = A = 0 j
(9.12)
The last 2 equations are the EM field equations in the Lorentz gauge.
In the absence of charges and currents A has wave solutions traveling
with the speed of light.
This is also true for the components of F since in this case we also have
F = 0.
1
=0
c t
A = 0 j
and =
0
155
(9.13)
In terms of and A, the electric and magnetic fields in S are given by:
B=A
and E =
A
t
(9.14)
,
0
B = 0,
E=
B
t
B = 0 j + 0 0
(9.15)
E
t
(9.16)
Finally, by using eqns (9.3) and (9.14) we can find (how?) that the covariant
components of F in S are:
0
E 1 /c E 2 /c E 3 /c
E 1 /c 0 B 3 B 2
F =
E 2 /c B 3
0 B 1
E 3 /c B 2 B 1
0
The corresponding electric and magnetic fields E0 and B0 in some other
Cartesian inertial frame S 0 are most easily obtained by calculating the components of the EM field tensor F or the 4-potential A in this frame.
(9.17)
(9.18)
(9.19)
(9.20)
These new equations are fully covariant and if they are valid in one system of
coordinates then they will be valid in all coordinate systems.
In the same way we can write the EM field equations in terms of the
4-potential A
(A, A, ) = k j
g (A; A; ) = 0 j
(9.21)
156
(9.22)
x0
A
x
and F 0 =
x0 x0
F
x x
(9.23)
du
= q F u
d
d2 x
q
dx dx
dx
+
=
F
d 2
d d
m0
d
(9.24)
157
Conclusion
The general procedure for converting an equation valid in Cartesian inertial
coordinates into one that is valid in an arbitrary coordinate system is as
follows:
(9.25)
T 00 =
T 0i
T ij
c
(E B)
4
(9.26)
1
|E|2 + |B|2 2 E i E i + B i B i
8
1
EiEj + BiBj
4
gives the shear stresses that act parallel to the faces of an infinitesimal
region of the EM field
158
EXAMPLE: The EM stress energy tensor for a constant electric field in the
x direction will be (prove it):
E2
E2
E2
, T xx =
, T yy = T zz =
8
8
8
0
what will be the components of this tensor in a frame S moving with a velocity
v at the x-direction?
To construct the gravitational field equations, we must find a covariant
way of expressing the source term.
We must find a tensor that describes the matter distribution at each event
in spacetime.
Lets start with dust, this is a time-dependent distribution of electrically
neutral non-interacting particles, each of rest mass m0 .
At each event P of the spacetime we can characterize the distribution
completely by giving the matter density and 3-velocity u as measured in
some inertial frame.
For example in an instantaneous rest frame S at a given point P , u = 0
while the proper density is given by 0 = m0 n0 , where m0 is the rest mass of
each particle and n0 is the number of particles in the unit volume.
T 00 =
(9.27)
In a local Cartesian coordinate frame the components of the 4-velocity for the
fluid is u = u (c, u). In this frame the components of the enrgy-momentum
tensor are:
159
k0
ij
0 k
0 u u = u2 cuk
ui uj = u2 ui uj
2
c 0 0 0
0 p 0 0
T =
0 0 p 0
0 00p
while we can show that for inertial observers (or in STR)
T = ( + p/c2 )u u + p
(9.28)
(9.29)
besides the bulk motion of the fluid, each particle has some random (thermal) velocity
there may be various forces between the particles that contribute potential
energies to the total.
In this case the components of the energy momentum tensor will be:
T 00 : is the total energy density, including any potential energy contributions from forces between the particles and kinetic energy from the random
thermal motions.
160
(9.30)
We will show that this relation leads to well known equations of motion and
continuity for a fluid in the Newtonian limit. Substituting eqn (9.28) into
equation (9.30) we get:
+ p/c2 , u u + + p/c2 [(u , )u + u (u , )] p, = 0 (9.31)
from the normalization condition for the 4-velocity u u = c2 by differentiation we get the relativistic equation of continuity for a perfect fluid in
local inertial coordinates at a point P :
(u ) + (p/c2 )u = 0
(9.32)
and equation (9.31) becomes the the relativistic equation of motion for
a perfect fluid in local inertial coordinates at some point P :
+ p/c2 (u , )u = u u /c2 p,
(9.33)
A slowly moving fluid is the one for which we may neglect u/c and so take
u 1 and u (c, u) and the proper density becomes the normal density.
In this limit we get
T 0 , = 0
eqn (9.32)
+ (u) = 0
t
(9.34)
eqn (9.33)
u
1
+ (u ) u = p
t
(9.35)
161
We can easily obtain the condition for energy and momentum conservation
in arbitrary coordinates by replacing the partial with the covariant derivative,
and we get:
(9.36)
T ; = 0
This is a fundamental equation which imposes tight restrictions on the possible forms that the gravitational field equations may take.
(9.37)
From Gravitation & Spacetime H. Ohanian & R. Ruffini, W.W. Norton (1994)
Can you find a good reason why the trace of T alone cannot be the source of
the gravitational field?
162
,
,
+ h, , + h , = T
h , , + h, h , + h ,
(9.38)
where , , , and are arbitrary constants.
Then by rearranging the terms on the left hand side we get the
following set of equations for the constants: + = 0, 1 = 0 and
+ = 0. (How?)
Thus the relativistic field equation for gravitation in the linear approximation becomes:
,
,
h , , + h, h , + h ,
h, , + h , = T (9.40)
while is the coupling constant of the theory and will be estimated from the
Newtonian limit of the above equation.
Besides the tensor field h one may consider extra scalar, vector
or even tensor fields and to construct endlessly complicated theories.
Jordan (1951) and Brans-Dicke (1961) suggested the least complicated
scalar-tensor theory containing only an extra scalar field. This new scalar field
has the effect of making the gravitational constant dependent on position. The
experimental evidence (up to now) speaks against the scalar-tensor theory
h
+ Q, + Q,
(new) = h
(9.41)
h h
=0
(9.42)
2
,
If the Hilbert gauge condition holds; the field equations simplifies to:
5
,
1
h h
= T
2
,
163
(9.43)
By substituting
1
= h h
2
(9.44)
= , , = T
(9.45)
, = 0
(9.46)
According to eqn (9.45) matter acts on the gravitational fields and changes
the fields, but there is no reciprocal action of the gravitational fields on
matter, and the energy-momentum of matter is conserved T , = 0 ! This
is an incosistency.
Gravitational energy does not act as source of gravitation, in contradiction
to the principle of equivalence.
T = T(m)
+ t
(9.47)
where T(m)
and t are the energy momentum tensors of of matter and gravitation.
The field equations become:
= , , = T(m) + t
(9.48)
164
(9.51)
t(1) , =
2
,, , , , 2, T(m) , T(m) +. . .
4
4
(9.53)
we can obtain (how?):
1 ,
,
T(m) , T(m)
=0
(9.54)
2
2
or
(9.55)
T(m) , h, T(m) = 0
2
This equation tells how much energy and momentum the gravitational field
transfers to the matter on which it acts.
In other words it determines the rate at which the momentum of a particle
changes and therefore it determines the equation of motion of a particle
acted upon a gravitational field.
To derive this equation of motion we integrate equation (9.55) over the
volume of the particle (a small system of finite size).
The 1st term gives:
Z
d
d
T(m)0 d3 x = P
(9.56)
dt
dt
For the 2nd term we should remember that:
T(m) = 0 u u + . . .
(9.57)
then6
p
h, T(m) d3 x =
1 u2 mh, u u
2
2
Thus we finally get (how?)
Show that
0 u u d3 x = mu u 1 u2
(9.58)
165
P = mh, u u
d
2
which has the right form for an equation of motion
If we assume that :
L
= mh, u u
x
2
and
L
= P
u
(9.59)
1
m u u
2
1
u u
m + h
2
(u + h u ) h, u u = 0 .
d
2
(9.60)
166
This can be understood by counting how many transformation equations are available, n and how many are the unknown independent components
of g (x) i.e. n(n + 1)/2.
However, it is always possible to make a coordinate transformation
such that in the neighborhood of some specific point P the line element takes
the Euclidean form. In other words, we can always find coordinates x0a such
0
that at the point P the new metric functions g
(x0 ) satisfy:
0
g
(P ) = ,
and
0
g
x0
= 0.
(9.61)
(9.62)
x
+
x
x
P
P
2 x0 x0 P
0
1
3 x
0
0
+
x0 x0
x x0
x
x
P + ...
P
P
6 x0 x0 x0 P
Fig. 9.2. Construction of local geodesics coordinates near a point P on the surface
of a sphere. A small flat patch is placed tangent to the sphere at P . The rectangular
coordinates give us the local coordinates.
x02
P
x
0 x0
x
N 2 independent values
3 x
x0 x0 x0
0
g
(P )
0
g
x0
167
0
2 g
x0 x0
0
g
(P ) =
0
g
= 0.
x0 P
(9.64)
(9.65)
if the first of the two relations is valid (and not the 2nd) in the new coordinate
system then from the definition of the Christoffel symbols they have to vanish
i.e.
0 (P ) = 0.
(9.66)
If the 2nd of the above relations is valid (and not the 1st) then since g, =
g + g (remember that g; = 0) this leads again to equation
(9.66).
Coordinates for which equation (9.66) holds are referred to as geodesic
coordinates about P .
If we start with some arbitrary coordinates x and lets a point P has
0
coordinates x
by
P and then we define a new coordinate system x
1
x0 = x x
P + (P ) (x xP ) (x xP )
2
(9.67)
by differentiation we get
x0
= +
(P ) (x xP )
x
thus at the point P we get: x0 /x = (or x /x0 = ).
One more differentiation will give:
2 x0
= (P ) = (P )
x x
and if we substitute these two relations in the formula for the transformation
of connections (Chapter 1):
0 (P ) = (P ) (P ) = 0 (P ) 0 (P ) = 0
Thus in the new primed coordinates the Christoffel symbols are zero at P
and thanks to condition (9.66) we constructed a system of geodesic coordinates
at P .
168
The metric function at this coordinate system will not satisfy necessarily
the first condition (9.64). Thus one more transformation of the form
x00 = A x0
00
which is linear and thus the coefficients of A will bring the metric g
(P )
in these coordinates into the form (9.64) without affecting the derivatives and
the equation (9.65) will still be satisfied.
Fig. 9.3. (Left) Two neighbouring geodesics. (Right) Converging geodesics on the
surface of a sphere.
d
x d
x
=
0
,
+
=0
d 2 P
d 2
d d Q
But since is small:
(Q) = (P ) + [ , ]P = [ , ]P
by subtracting the two equations in (??) we get (to 1st order, at P ):
d2
dx dx
+ ,
=0
2
d
d d
(9.68)
169
However, in our geodesic coordinates the 2nd order absolute (intrinsic) derivative of at P is:
d d
dx dx
d2
D2
x
=
,
D 2
d d
d 2
d d
D2
dx dx
+
[
=0
,
,
D 2
d d
D2
dx dx
+
R
=0
(9.69)
D 2
d d
because the term in the square brackets is the Riemann tensor in local geodesic
coordinates.
2
d2
=
j
(9.70)
dt2
xi xj
(why?) where is the Newtonian gravitational potential.
Tidal effects can be also estimated in GR for two particles moving along
timelike geodesics x ( ) and x
( ) ( is the proper time of the 1st particle).
170
Fig. 9.5. The basis vectors of the instantaneous rest frame (IRF) at P .
e is a set of orthonormal basis vectors at P that define the IRF of the first
particle (observer) with e e = .
is a general connecting vector with e = (
e )
is the orthogonal connecting vector.
For an observer sitting on the one of the particles it can be shown that in
any orthonormal freely falling frame becomes:
d2
= c2 R 00 .
d 2
(9.72)
2
xi xj
(9.73)
10
Einsteins Theory of Gravity
d3 x0
(x)
|x x0 |
Fig. 10.1.
172
k l
1 XX
1
1 X xk x0k
0k 0l
02 l x x
+
+ ...
=
+
3x
x
k
|x x0 |
r
r3
2
r5
k
U (x) =
GM
G X k k G X kl xk xl
+ ...
3
x D
Q
r
r
2
r5
k
Gravitational
Z
M =
Z
k
D =
Z
Qkl =
kl
Multipoles
(x0 )d3 x0
Mass
3x0k x0l r02 kl (x0 )d3 x0
The Earths polar and equatorial diameters differ by 3/1000. This deviation produces a quadrupole term in the gravitational potential, which causes
perturbations in the elliptical Kepler orbits of satellites. Usually, we define
the dimensionless parameter
J2 =
Q33
2M R2
(10.1)
Fig. 10.2.
173
Galileo (1610)
Fig. 10.3.
(E)
GM mG
R2
(E)
m v2
= I
R
GM
v =
R
2
mG
mI
(E)
174
(j)
(j)
m v2
GM mG
= I
+
2
R
R
(j)
(j)
GM mI
=
R2
"
mG
mI
and the total torque applied is: L = F (1) F (2) ` =
here we assumed that :
(1)
mI
(2)
mI
(E)
GM
R2
(1)
mG
mI
(j) #
(2)
mG mG
= m.
d2 x
dx dx
+
= 0.
ds2
ds ds
The 2nd term appeared due to the use of a non-inertial frame, i.e. the
inertial accelerations will be described by the Christoffel symbols.
But according to Einstein the gravitational accelerations as well will
be described by the Christoffel symbols.
This leads to the following conclusion: The metric tensor should play
175
Since the source of the gravitational field is a tensor (T ) the field should
be also described by a 2nd order tensor e.g. F . Since the role of the gravitational potential is played by the metric tensor then F should be a function of
the metric tensor g and its 1st and 2nd order derivatives. Moreover, the law
of energy-momenum conservation implies that T ; = 0 which suggests that
F ; = 0 Then since F should be a linear function of the 2nd derivative
of g we come to the following form of the field equations (how & why?):
F = R + ag R + bg = T
where =
8G
c4 .
(10.2)
(10.3)
which is possible only for a = 1/2. Thus the final form of Einsteins equations
is:
1
R g R + g = T .
(10.4)
2
where =
8G
c2 v
Geodesic equations:
d2 t/ds2 dx
d2 x
dx dx
=
dt2
dt dt
(dt/ds)2 dt
d2 xj
g00,j
dt2
(10.5)
U
If g00 00 + h00 = 1 + h00 = 1 + 2 cU2 then ddtx2 x
k
Einstein equations
1
1
R = T g T
2 U =
2
2
(10.6)
where = 8G.
Here we have used the following approximations:
j
00
1
g00,j
2
j
and R00 00,j
2 U
176
x dx rdr,
dx dx dr2 + r2 d2 + r2 sin2 d2
ds2 = A(t, r)dt2 B(t, r)dt (x dx) C(t, r) (x dx) D(t, r)dx2
= A(t, r)dt2 B(t, r)r dt dr C(t, r)r2 dr2
D(t, r) dr2 + r2 d2 + r2 sin2 d2
(10.7)
2
2
2
2
2
r)dt dr C(t,
r)dr D(t,
r) d + sin d
= A(t, r)dt B(t,
= A0 (t, r)dt2 B 0 (t, r)dt d
r C 0 (t, r)d
r2 r2 d2 + sin2 d2 (10.8)
and C.
The next
where we have set r2 = D(t, r) and we redefined the A, B
step will be to introduce a new timelike coordinate t as
1 0
0
r
dt = (t, r) A (t, r)dt B (t, r)d
2
where (t, r) is an integrating factor that makes the right-hand side an exact
differential.
By squaring we obtain
1
r + B 02 d
dt2 = 2 A02 dt2 A0 B 0 dtd
r2
4
from which we find
A0 dt2 B 0 dtd
r=
1
A0 2
dt2
B0 2
d
r
4A0
= C + B 0 /(4A0 ) the
Thus by defining the new functions A = 1/(A0 )2 and B
metric 10.8 becomes diagonal
t, r)dt2 B(
t, r)d
ds2 = A(
r2 r2 d2 + sin2 d2
(10.9)
or by dropping the hats and tildes
177
(10.10)
02
0 0
0
2
00
+
+
+e
+
R11 =
2
4
4
r
2
4
4
00
02
0 0
0
2
R00 = e
+
+
+
2
4
4
r
2
4
4
R10 = /r
i
h
r
R22 = = e 1 + ( 0 0 ) + 1
2
2
R33 = sin R22
(10.12)
(10.13)
(10.14)
(10.15)
(10.16)
Neutonian limit:
g00 00 + h00 = 1 +
2U
c2
U=
GM
r
178
+ r sin cos 2 =
r
cos
2
=
+ r + 2
r
sin
t + 0 r t =
(10.17)
(10.18)
(10.19)
(10.20)
(10.21)
(10.22)
(10.23)
(10.24)
(10.25)
Then from equations (10.23) and (10.24) we can easily prove (how?) that:
d 2
r = 0 r2 = L = const : (Angular Momentum) (10.26)
d
d
e t = 0 e t = E = const : (Energy)
(10.27)
d
For a massive particle with unit rest mass, by assuming that is the
affine parameter for its motion we get p = x . Thus
p0 = g00 t = e t = E
and p = g = r2 = L
(10.28)
179
Finally, by substituting eqns (10.27) and (10.26) into (10.25) we get the
energy equation for the r-coordinate
e 2
L + e = E 2
(10.29)
r2
which suggests that at r we get that E = 1.
By combining the 2 integrals of motion and eqn (10.25) we can eliminate
the proper time to derive an equation for a 3-d path of the particle (how?)
r 2 +
2
E 2 1 2M u
d
u + u2 =
+
+ 2M u3
d
L2
L2
(10.30)
dr
dr d
L dr
=
= 2
d
d d
r d
(10.31)
(R)
(10.34)
r
R
180
which is again similar to the Newtonian formula for the gain of kinetic energy
due to the loss in gravitational potential energy for a particle (of unit mass)
falling from rest at r = R.
For a particle dropped from the rest at infinity E = 1 and the
geodesic equations are simplified
r
dr
2M
dt
=e
and
=
(10.35)
d
d
r
The component of the 4-velocity will be
r
dx
u =
=
d
!
2M
,0,0
r
(10.36)
(10.37)
=
3 2M
3 2M
q
r03
which suggests that for r = 0 we get 32 2M
ie the particle takes finite
proper time to reach r = 0.
If we want to map the trajectory of the particle in the (r, t) coordinates
we need to solve the equation
r
dr d
dr
2M
=
= e
(10.38)
dt
d dt
r
The integration leads to the relation
!
r
r
r
r
2
r03
r3
r0
r
t=
+ 4M
3
2M
2M
2M
2M
p
! p
!
r/2M + 1
r0 /2M 1
p
+ 2M ln p
r/2M 1
r0 /2M + 1
(10.39)
=
3 2M
3 2M
t =
0v
1
v
u 3
u
u r3
2 Bu
C
t r0
t
@
A + 4M
3
2M
2M
r0
2M
r
2M
+ 2M ln
p
p
r/2M + 1
r/2M 1
r0 /2M 1
p
r0 /2M + 1
181
Fig. 10.4. Radial fall from rest towards a Schwarschild BH as described by a comoving observer (proper time ) and by a distant observer (Schwarschild coordinate time t)
r2 M
r 3M
(10.41)
(10.42)
Circular orbits will be bound for E/(m0 c2 ) = E < 1, so the limit on r for an
orbit to be bound is given by E = 1 which leads to
2
(1 2M/r) = 1 3M/r
true when
r = 4M or r =
Thus over the range 4M < r < circular orbits are bound.
From the integral of motion r2 = L and eqn (10.41) we get
2
d
M
= 2
d
r (r 3M )
(10.43)
(10.44)
NOTICE : This equation cannot be satisfied for circular orbits with r <
3M . Such orbits cannot be geodesics and cannot be followed by freely falling
particles.
182
Fig. 10.5. The variation of E = E/(m0 c2 ) as a function of r/M for a circular orbit
of a massive particle in the Schwarzchild geometry
Fig. 10.6. The shape of a bound orbit outside a spherical star or a black-hole
d
dt
2
=
d d
d dt
2
=
e2
E2
d
d
2
=
M
r3
(10.45)
1
2
dr
dt
2
183
+ Veff (r) = E 2
(10.46)
M
L2
+ 2
r
2r
(10.47)
Veff (r) =
Fig. 10.7.
The bound orbits have two turning points while the circular orbit corresponds to the special case where the particle sits in the minimum of the of
the effective potential.
In GR the energy equation (10.29) is
r 2 +
e 2
L + e = E 2
r2
(10.48)
e 2
M
L2
M L2
L + e =
+ 2 3
2
r
r
2r
r
(10.49)
(10.50)
rISCO = 6M and L = 2 3M
184
Fig. 10.8. The dots indicate the locations of stable circular orbits which occur
at the local minimum of the potential. The local maxima in the potential are the
locations of the unstable circular orbits
185
and it is unique in satisfying both dVeff /dr = 0 and d2 Veff /dr2 = 0, the latter
is the condition for marginal stability of the orbit.
The upper shows circular orbits. A stable (outer) and an unstable (inner) one.
The lower shows bound orbits , the particle moves between two turning
points marked by dotted circles.
The upper shows a scattering orbit the particle comes in from infinity
passes around the center of attraction and moves out to infinity again.
The lower shows plunge orbit , in which the particle comes in from
infinity.
(10.51)
(10.52)
(10.53)
186
r 2 +
e 2
L = E2
r2
(10.54)
(10.55)
2M
dr
= 1
dt
r
(10.56)
(10.58)
where
= L/E
andVVefefff has
= ea/r
WeDcan
see that
single maximum at r = 3M where the value
2
of the potential is 1/(27M ). Thus the circular orbit r = 3M is unstable.
There are no stable circular photon orbits in the Schwarzschild
geometry.
187
p = g p = g t pt + g p
and pt = g t p = g tt pt + g t p
188
Useful constants
Useful Constants in geometrical units
Speed of light
Plancks constant
Gravitation constant
Energy
c =299,792.458 km/s = 1
~ = 1.05 1027 erg s = 2.612 1066 cm2
G = 6.67 108 cm3 /g s2 =1
eV=1.6021012 erg = 1.16 104 K
=1.78231033 g =1.3241056 km
Distance
1 pc=3.091013 km=3.26 ly
Time
1 yr = 3.156107 sec
Light year
1 ly = 9.461012 km
Astronomical unit (AU)
1AU = 1.5 108 km
Earths mass
M = 5.97 1027 g
Earths radius (equator)
R = 6378 km
Solar Mass
M = 1.99 1033 g =1.47664 km
Solar Radius
R = 6.96 105 km
(10.31)
M
[1 + e cos( + 0 )]
L2
(10.60)
189
Now since the term 3M u2 is small we can use perturbation theory to get
a solution of equation (10.31).
d2
M
3M 3
M
3M 3
6eM 3
2
u + u 2 + 4 [1 + e cos()] 2 + 4 +
cos()
2
d
L
L
L
L
L4
Because, 3M 3 /L4 M/L2 and can be omitted and its corrections will be
small periodic elongations of the semiaxis of the ellipse.
The term 6eM 3 /L4 cos() is also small but has an accumulative effect
which can be measured. Thus the solution of the relativistic form of Keplers
equation (10.61) becomes (k = 3M 2 /L2 )
3eM 2
M
M
sin
2 {1 + e cos[(1 k)]}
(10.61)
u = 2 1 + e cos +
2
L
L
L
Fig. 10.13.
2n
1k
n+1 n =
2
6M 2
2(1 + k) = 2 +
1k
L2
(10.62)
6M 2
L2
(10.63)
190
6M
r0 (1 e2 )
(10.64)
Gause
Coordinate ( precession of the equinoxes)3
Gravitational tugs of the other planets
Oblateness of the Sun
General relativity
Total
Observed
1
cos( + 0 )
b
(10.66)
191
Fig. 10.14.
Fig. 10.15.
Since the term 3M u2 is very small we can substitute u with the Newtonian
solution (10.66) and we need to solve the non-homogeneous ODE
3M
d2 u
+ u = 2 cos2 .
d2
b
(10.67)
cos M
+ 2 1 + sin2
b
b
(10.68)
(10.69)
192
2M
(10.70)
b
Since, /2 + 2M/b for r on the one side & 3/2 2M/b on
the other side the total deviation will be the sum of the two i.e.
4M
=
.
(10.71)
b
For a light ray tracing the surface of the Sun gives a deflection of 1.7500 .
The deflection of light rays is a quite common phenomenon in Astronomy
and has many applications. We typically observe crosses or rings
Fig. 10.16. Einstein Cross (G2237+030) is the most characteristic case of gravitational lens where a galaxy at a distance 5 108 lys focuses the light from a quasar
who is behind it in a distance of 8109 lys. The focusing creates 4 symmetric images
of the same quasar. The system has been discovered by John Huchra.
Fig. 10.17. Einstein rings are observed when the source, the focusing body and
Earth are on the same line of sight. This ring has been discovered by Hubble space
telescope.
193
Fig. 10.18.
Lets assume 3 static observers on a Schwarszchild spacetime, one very close to the source of
the field the other in a medium distance from the source and the third at infinity.
who measures the so called coordinate time i.e. d1 = 1
1/2
d2 = 1 2M
dt this means that
r2
d2
=
d1
1
1
2M
r2
2M
r1
1/2
dt and
1/2
M
M
1/2 1 + r r .
1
2
2M
(10.72)
r1
1
r1
r2
2 1
M
M
=
=
.
1
1
r1
r2
(10.73)
A similar relation can be found for the frequency of the emitted signal:
1/2
2M
1
r2
1
=
(10.74)
1/2 .
2
1 2M
r1
While the photon redshift z is defined by
1+z =
1
2
(10.75)
QUESTION : What will be the redshift for signals emitted from the
surface of the Sun, a neutron star and a black hole?
10.7.4 The Classical Tests : Radar Delay (***)
A more recent test (late 60s) where the delay of the radar signals caused
by the gravitational field of Sun was measured. This experiment suggested
and performed by I.I. Shapiro and his collaborators. The line element ds2 =
g dx dx for the light rays i.e. for ds = 0 on the equatorial plane has the
form
1 2
2
2M
dr
d
2M
1
r2
(10.76)
0= 1
r
r
dt
dt
194
Fig. 10.19.
For the study of the radial motion we should substitute the term d/dt from
the integrals of motion (10.26) and (10.27) i.e. we can create the quantity:
D=
1
L
2M
d
= r2 1
E
r
dt
(10.77)
2M
1
r
2M
1
r
1
dr
dt
2
D2
2
r
2
2M
1
= 0.
r
(10.78)
At the point of the closest approach to the Sun, r0 , there should be dr/dt = 0
r02
. Leading to an equation for the
and thus we get the value of D2 = 12M/r
0
radial motion:
r 2 1 2M/r 1/2
dr
2M
0
= 1
1
(10.79)
dt
r
r
1 2M/r0
leading to
Z
r1
dr
q
2 12M/r
r0
1 2M
1 rr0 12M/r
r
0
" p
#
r
q
2
2
r1 r1 r0
r1 r0
2
2
= r1 r0 + 2M ln
+M
r0
r1 + r0
2r1
+M
r1 + 2M ln
r0
t1 =
T = 2 t1 + t2 = 4M 1 + ln
.
(10.80)
r02
195
Fig. 10.20. Comparison of the experimental results with the prediction of the
theory. The results are from I.I. Shapiros experiment (1970) using Venus as reflector.
Fig. 10.21.
11
Solutions of Einsteins Equations & Black
Holes
dr
2M
= 1
.
dt
r
198
(dt + dr)
2M
1
r
2M
dt 1 +
dr = 0
r
0
dr
= 1
dt0
and
199
dr
r 2M
=
dt0
r + 2M
200
A =
Q
, 0, 0, 0
r
201
(11.1)
(11.2)
p
M 2 Q2
(11.3)
2 2 2
sin2 2
2
2 2
2
+
dt
a
sin
d
(r
+
a
)d
adt
+ dr + 2 d2
2
2
= r2 2M r + a2
and 2 = r2 + a2 cos2
(11.4)
here a = J/M = GJ/M c3 is the angular momentum per unit mass. For our
Sun J = 1.6 1048 g cm2 /s which corresponds to a = 0.185. Obviously for
a = 0 Kerr metric reduces to Schwarszchild.
The coordinates are known as Boyer-Lindquist coordinates and they are
related to Cartesian coordinates
x = (r2 + a2 )1/2 sin cos
y = (r2 + a2 )1/2 sin sin
z = r cos
11.3.1 Infinite redshift surface
g00 = 1
2M r
2
d
dt
2
at
= /2
+ 2g0
d
dt
then at
202
d
=0
dt
and
d
g
=
dt
2g0
=
=
dt
grr
4
(11.5)
(11.6)
r = M
p
M 2 a2
(11.7)
E = p0 = mg0 u = m g00 u0 + g0 u
203
(11.8)
Inside the ergosphere g00 < 0 while g0 > 0 thus with an appropriate choice
of u0 and u it is possible to have particles with negative energy.
This can lead into energy extraction from a Kerr BH. Actually, we can
extract rotational energy till the BH reduces to a Schwarzschild one.
Starting from outside the ergosphere particle m0 enters into the ergosphere
and splits into two parts. One of them follows a trajectory of negative energy
and falls into the BH, the second escapes at infinity carrying more energy
than the initial particle!
A=
gdd =
0
0
2
=
0
g g dd
2
2
2
(r+
+ a2 ) sin dd = 4(r+
+ a2 ) = 8M r+ = 16Mir
204
where
u =
dx
ds
Then the law for conservation of energy and momentum leads to:
T ; =
g +
[(p + )u u ] + ( + p) u u = 0
x
x
(11.10)
p
g + ( + p) 00 u0 u0 = 0
x
(11.11)
where 00 = 12 g g00, = 21 e 0
...multiplying with g we get
p
1
= ( + p)
x
2
x
dp
1
d
= ( + p)
dr
2
dr
(11.12)
which is the relativistic version of the equations for hydrodynamical equilibrium, since in the Newtonian limit g00 = e 1 + 2U and >> p which
leads to:
U
p
=
(11.13)
r
r
Still we need to find a way, via Einsteins equations
1
(11.14)
R = 8 T g T
2
to estimate (r) in the same way that we need to solve Poisson equation to
estimate the gravitaional potential U .
{}
{rr}
{tt}
h
i
r
1 e 1 + ( 0 0 ) = 4r2 ( p)
2
00
( 0 )2
0 0
0
+
= 4e ( p)
2
4
4
r
00
( 0 )2
0 0
0
+
+
= 4e (3 + p)
2
4
4
r
(11.15)
(11.16)
(11.17)
r0 + e 1 = 8e r2 or re
e(r) = (1 2M/r)
205
Z
where
M (r) = 4
0
(11.18)
or
d
M + 4r3 p
=2
.
dr
r(r 2M )
(11.19)
4 3
r for
3
rR
and M (r) =
4 3
R for
3
rR
The we get:
p
(1 2M r2 /R2 )1/2 (1 2M/R)1/2
=
.
(11.20)
1
.
(11.21)
e/2 =
2
R
2
R3
Maximum allowed mass when p(r = 0) :
4
M
=
R
9
A
Useful constants in geometrical units
Speed of light
Plancks constant
Gravitation constant
Energy
c =299,792.458 km/s = 1
~ = 1.05 1027 erg s = 2.612 1066 cm2
G = 6.67 108 cm3 /g s2 =1
eV=1.6021012 erg = 1.16 104 K
=1.78231033 g =1.3241056 km
Distance
1 pc=3.091013 km=3.26 ly
Time
1 yr = 3.156107 sec
Light year
1 ly = 9.461012 km
Astronomical unit (AU)
1AU = 1.5 108 km
Earths mass
M = 5.97 1027 g
Earths radius (equator)
R = 6378 km
Solar Mass
M = 1.99 1033 g =1.47664 km
Solar Radius
R = 6.96 105 km