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Abstract: The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of fly ash as a filler replacement on the mechanical properties of asphaltaggregate mixtures. Utilization of fly ash, which is the by-product of coal-fired power generation, is of
great importance from an environmental and economical point of view. In this study, a dense bituminous mixture composed of calcareous aggregate was selected as the reference mixture. It was observed that there was a definite increase in
Marshall stability and decrease in flow values, especially when calcareous filler was replaced by Soma-type fly ash, which
was one of the three types of fly ashes used. The mechanical properties, namely elastic strain, elastic modulus, and permanent strain, of the asphalt mixtures were determined by carrying out fatigue tests with a UMATTA tester for three types of
fly ashes, portland cement, lime, and control specimens. The changes in mechanical properties are important in the sense
that they affect the behavior of asphalt concrete pavement under applied loads. This mechanism can be explained basically
by bitumen extension. The fatigue life of fly ash specimens, especially Soma fly ash, was found to be considerably higher
than that of calcareous filler specimens. Based on this study, it is demonstrated that fly ash can be used effectively in a
dense-graded wearing course as a filler replacement.
Key words: fly ash, filler replacement, Marshall method, mechanical properties, fatigue test, performance, bitumen extension, fatigue life.
Resume : Lobjectif de cette etude etait dexaminer limpact des cendres volantes comme matie`re de charge de remplacement sur les proprietes mecaniques des melanges asphalte-granulats. Lutilisation des cendres volantes, le sous-produit des
centrales thermiques alimentees au charbon, est dune grande importance environnementale et economique. Dans la presente etude, un melange bitumineux dense, compose dagregat calcaire, a ete choisi comme melange de reference. La stabilite Marshall a definitivement augmentee et une diminution des valeurs decrasement a ete remarquee, surtout lorsque la
matie`re de charge calcaire etait remplace par les cendres volantes de type Soma, lun des trois types de cendres volantes
utilises. Les proprietes mecaniques, dont la deformation elastique, le module elastique et la deformation plastique des melanges asphaltiques ont ete determinees en effectuant des essais de resistance a` la fatigue par un UMATTA pour trois types
de cendres volantes, du ciment Portland, de la chaux et des echantillons temoins. Les changements aux proprietes mecaniques sont importants en ce quils ont un impact sur le comportement du revetement en beton asphaltique sous les charges
qui y sont appliquees. Ce mecanisme peut etre explique a` la base par lextension du bitume. La longevite a` la fatigue des
echantillons de cendres volantes, surtout la cendre de type Soma, sest averee considerablement plus elevee que celle des
echantillons comportant des matie`res de charge calcaires. La presente etude a demontre que les cendres volantes peuvent
etre utilisees de manie`re efficace comme matie`re de charge dans une couche dusure de categorie dense.
Mots-cles : cendres volantes, matie`re de charge de remplacement, methode Marshall, proprietes mecaniques, essai de fatigue, rendement, extension du bitume, longevite a` la fatigue.
[Traduit par la Redaction]
1. Introduction
With development of infrastructure and increasing transportation demands, construction of better pavements with
longer service lives is required. The development of new
Received 22 January 2007. Revision accepted 5 June 2007.
Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at cjce.nrc.ca on
30 January 2008.
S. Tapkn. Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of
Engineering and Architecture, Iki Eylul Campus, Anadolu
University, 26555 Eskis ehir,Turkey (e-mail: cstapkin@
anadolu.edu.tr).
Written discussion of this article is welcomed and will be
received by the Editor until 31 May 2008.
Can. J. Civ. Eng. 35: 2740 (2008)
doi:10.1139/L07-082
28
.
.
.
Tapkn
29
as an extender on density measurements, voids, and mechanical properties of asphalt. Indirect tensile strength, creep,
and resilient modulus test results showed that the addition
of class F fly ash provided superior fatigue life, rut depth
resistance, and tensile strength.
Also, Tons et al. (1983) investigated the use of class F fly
ash as a bitumen extender. Bitumen was replaced by various
percentages of different fly ashes. Tests were carried out on
asphalt specimens to determine resistance to moisture damage, thermal cracking, rutting, fatigue life, and asphalt hardening in mixtures. Noticeable improvements were observed
for asphalt hardening, moisture and freezethaw damage
resistance, rutting resistance, fatigue life, density, and tensile
strength.
Cabrera and Zoorob (1994) established that, based on a
workability index at various temperatures, the pulverized fly
ash filler hot-mixed asphalt could be mixed and compacted
at temperatures as low as 110 and 85 8C, respectively, without any detrimental effects on engineering and performance
properties. They stated that there might have been considerable savings in energy without an additional asphalt cement
requirement.
4. Experimental program
The idea of using fly ash as mineral filler in asphalt mixtures is not a new concept. Its use in asphalt concrete mixtures has been investigated by many scientists and the
research findings that have been obtained by these scientists
can be summarized as follows.
Carpenter (1952) determined that a class F fly ash resulted in an excellent effect on the retained compressive
strength for asphalt concrete specimens immersed in water.
Warden et al. (1952) stated that fly ash was a suitable filler
material in terms of mixing, placing and compaction, stability, resistance to water damage, and flexibility. Zimmer
(1970) analyzed the effect of carbon content on fly ash. His
results revealed that specimens that are prepared by using
fly ash had higher retained strength after immersing them in
water.
Of significant difference from Carpenters research, Henning (1974) investigated the effect of a class C fly ash on
asphalt mixture properties. He concluded that the addition
of 4% fly ash resulted in the highest stability and flow, but
ended up with lower air voids. Henning also stated that fly
ash created an improvement in the stability after immersion
in water. Sankaran and Rao (1973) made a comparison of
fly ash with other fillers, such as kaolin clay and crushed
dust. They pointed out that fly ash at 2% filler content provided the highest stability among the other fillers.
Rosner et al. (1982) used fly ash as mineral filler and
anti-stripping agent for asphalt concrete mixtures. They
showed that the retained strength of the samples increased
as additional fly ash was used in the prepared mixtures. In
most of their cases, the retained strengths of fly ash mixtures
were considerably greater than those using natural filler
material.
In a study carried out by Suheibani (1986), fly ash was
evaluated as an asphalt extender. Suheibani analysed how
fly ash particle size affects the viscosity of the asphalt to
which it was added. He also examined the effect of fly ash
30
Test value
62.0
+1.0
>100
0.053
1033
57
257
295
Table 2. Physical properties of coarse aggregates, tested in accordance with ASTM C12780 (ASTM 1980b).
Property
Bulk specific gravity (kg/m3)
Apparent specific gravity (kg/m3)
Water absorption (%)
Test value
2754
2821
0.26
Test value
2741
2766
1.43
type and Kangal fly ash is C type. The lime and portland
cement were obtained from local manufacturers. Calcareous
filler was the tail-end product of calcareous aggregate that
was obtained from the local quarry.
The chemical composition of the fly ash was supplied by
the research laboratories of the relevant thermal power
plants. The compositions are given in Table 4 and the apparent specific gravity values are given in Table 5.
4.2. Hot-mixture design using Marshall test method
To determine the optimum bitumen content, it is required
to perform Marshall tests and carry out some analysis on
these test results. The relevant Marshall test data are stated
in a tabulated manner in Tables 7 through 12. These values
are the average of three different sets of specimens. Therefore, each table represents the test results of 30 different
specimens. The standard Marshall specimens were prepared
by applying 50 blows on each face. Also, the optimum bitumen contents obtained for six different types of filler materials at the end of the Marshall design are given in Fig. 1.
Throughout the tests that were carried out, 7% of filler was
replaced solely on a weight basis by the three types of fly
ash, portland cement, and lime.
By using results given in Tables 712, namely for the
three different types of fly ash, portland cement, lime, and
calcareous filler, the optimum bitumen contents have been
calculated and presented in a graphical form in Fig. 1.
The bitumen contents corresponding to the mixtures with
maximal stability and unit weight, 4% air voids and 80%
Standard
ASTM D573 (ASTM 1973)
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
Na2O
K2O
Na2Oeq
LoI
FA Soma
(class F)
50.48
27.64
4.80
82.92
13.08
1.30
0.97
0.30
2.00
1.62
1.07
FA Cayirhan
(class F)
49.74
14.70
9.04
73.48
13.64
5.10
3.64
2.10
1.20
2.89
2.44
FA Kangal
(class C)
27.92
11.96
5.14
45.02
37.86
2.60
12.10
0.40
0.80
0.93
3.15
Test value
2632
2105
2194
2525
2315
3060
Table 6. Type 3 wearing course gradation according to the General Directorate of Highways of
Turkey (2000).
Sieve size
(mm)
12.7
9.52
4.76
2.00
0.42
0.177
0.074
Pan
Gradation
limits (%)
100
87100
6682
4764
2436
1322
410
Passing
(%)
100
93.5
74
55.5
30
17.5
7
Retained
(%)
0
6.5
19.5
18.5
25.5
12.5
10.5
7
Tapkn
31
Table 7. Marshall test results for calcareous filler. V.M.A., voids in mineral aggregate.
Bitumen
content (%)
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
V.M.A.
(%)
17.875
17.241
16.640
15.474
14.063
14.317
14.234
14.752
15.141
15.905
Air void
(%)
11.882
10.546
9.136
6.762
4.084
3.249
2.037
1.516
0.858
0.653
Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2235
2298
2329
2373
2424
2429
2443
2439
2440
2429
Stability
(kg)
1254
1496
1850
2109
2396
2034
1926
1574
1345
1087
Flow
(mm)
2.01
2.14
2.28
2.46
2.60
2.75
3.65
3.89
5.11
6.15
Marshall
quotient
623.9
699.1
811.4
857.3
921.5
739.6
527.7
404.6
263.2
176.7
Table 8. Marshall test results for Soma (class F) fly ash filler. V.M.A., voids in
mineral aggregate.
Bitumen
content (%)
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
V.M.A.
(%)
17.680
17.573
17.201
16.724
16.180
15.987
15.520
15.813
15.982
16.414
Air void
(%)
12.155
10.979
9.512
7.919
6.238
4.941
3.325
2.578
1.691
1.121
Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2247
2261
2282
2306
2332
2349
2373
2376
2383
2381
Stability
(kg)
1388
1717
2207
2385
2649
2476
2432
2119
1755
1358
Flow
(mm)
2.27
2.32
2.40
2.31
2.16
2.41
2.40
2.68
3.50
4.33
Marshall
quotient
611.5
740.1
919.6
1032.5
1226.4
1027.4
1013.3
790.7
501.4
313.6
Table 9. Marshall test results for Cayirhan (class F) fly ash filler. V.M.A., voids in
mineral aggregate.
Bitumen
content (%)
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
V.M.A.
(%)
16.080
15.874
15.931
15.430
14.919
14.846
14.227
14.544
14.880
15.686
Air void
(%)
10.749
9.447
8.427
6.792
5.134
3.957
2.154
1.416
0.708
0.563
Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2290
2307
2317
2342
2367
2381
2410
2412
2414
2402
Stability
(kg)
1524
1834
1909
2123
2062
1902
2047
1597
1342
1122
Flow
(mm)
2.27
2.32
2.40
2.31
2.16
2.41
2.40
2.68
3.50
4.33
Marshall
quotient
671.4
790.5
795.4
919.0
954.6
789.2
852.9
595.9
383.4
259.1
32
V.M.A.
(%)
18.240
18.277
18.577
18.242
18.849
18.339
17.330
16.889
16.251
16.867
Air void
(%)
12.991
11.966
11.207
9.801
9.413
7.782
5.566
3.980
2.153
1.791
Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2257
2267
2270
2290
2283
2309
2348
2372
2402
2395
Stability
(kg)
1499
1815
1930
2091
1989
2073
2219
2268
2231
1863
Flow
(mm)
3.15
2.97
2.85
2.37
2.60
2.67
2.83
2.74
3.53
3.46
Marshall
quotient
475.9
611.1
677.2
882.3
765.0
776.4
784.1
827.7
632.0
538.4
Table 11. Marshall test results for lime filler. V.M.A., voids in mineral aggregate.
Bitumen
content (%)
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
V.M.A.
(%)
17.933
17.825
18.417
17.434
17.609
16.999
16.474
16.295
16.105
16.528
Air void
(%)
12.597
11.417
10.999
8.859
7.985
6.230
4.556
3.267
1.962
1.376
Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2252
2266
2261
2299
2305
2334
2360
2376
2392
2392
Stability
(kg)
1225
1577
1687
2065
1889
1824
1774
1675
1579
1329
Flow
(mm)
2.88
2.84
2.20
2.04
2.21
2.12
2.44
2.51
3.38
4.57
Marshall
quotient
425.3
555.3
766.8
1012.3
854.8
860.4
727.0
667.3
467.2
290.8
Table 12. Marshall test results for portland cement filler. V.M.A., voids in mineral
aggregate.
Bitumen
content (%)
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
V.M.A.
(%)
17.681
17.082
15.945
15.681
14.777
14.171
14.308
14.741
15.391
16.092
Air void
(%)
12.285
10.552
8.217
6.817
4.692
2.882
1.907
1.278
0.914
0.627
Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2303
2331
2375
2394
2431
2460
2468
2467
2460
2451
Stability
(kg)
1722
2014
2232
2151
2280
2420
2162
1860
1549
1327
Flow
(mm)
2.71
2.70
2.57
2.25
2.43
2.37
2.97
3.97
4.25
4.58
Marshall
quotient
635.4
745.9
868.5
956.0
938.3
1021.1
727.9
468.5
364.5
289.7
Tapkn
33
Fig. 3. Particle size distribution of portland cement, lime, and calcareous filler.
specimens. The reasons why Soma fly ash specimens perform better than the other two types of fly ashes can be
stated as follows:
(1) Soma fly ash (class F) is the coarsest of the three types
of fly ashes (Fig. 2). Therefore, the stiffening effect aris-
34
Test value
322.9
249.4
242.7
277.0
582.2
265.3
Tapkn
35
Table 14. Volumetric mix properties of mixtures with maximum stability based on
different types of filler materials.
Filler type
Calcareous filler
Soma fly ash
Cayirhan fly ash
Kangal fly ash
Lime
Portland cement
Air void
(%)
4.084
6.238
6.792
3.980
8.859
2.882
Unit weight
(kg/m3)
2424
2332
2342
2372
2299
2460
Stabilitymax
(kg)
2396
2649
2123
2268
2065
2420
Flow
(mm)
2.60
2.16
2.31
2.74
2.04
2.37
Marshall
quotient
921.5
1226.4
919.0
827.7
1021.3
1021.1
Table 15. Mixture properties and the adjusted bitumen content values.
Filler type
Calcareous filler
Soma fly ash
Cayirhan fly ash
Kangal fly ash
Lime
Portland cement
Adjusted
bitumen content
5.0
3.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.0
Stability
(kg)
2034
2207
2123
2091
2065
2014
Flow
(mm)
2.75
2.40
2.31
2.37
2.04
2.70
Marshall
quotient
739.6
919.6
919.0
882.3
1012.3
745.9
Gain in
bitumen (%)
0
+30
+20
+20
+20
+40
36
Fig. 5. Elastic strain versus pulse count of specimens prepared with different fillers.
tester (ELE-UMATTA 1994). The aim of these experiments was to model the fatigue or alligator cracking on
the pavement structure.
In this study, repeated indirect loadings were applied on
Marshall specimens and lateral deformations were measured.
The experiment was terminated when visible cracks started
to occur on the specimen surface.
Tapkn
37
Fig. 6. Elastic modulus versus pulse count of specimens prepared with different fillers.
Fig. 7. Permanent strain versus pulse count of specimens prepared with different fillers.
eo
(e)
300
152
254
174
289
201
emaximum
(e)
766
561
711
641
742
674
efinal
(e)
540
510
560
601
587
604
Pulse
count
48 222
65 947
51 336
58 520
50 558
54 223
Eo
(MPa)
350.1
580.0
401.9
466.2
372.8
433.3
Emin
(MPa)
101.1
321.4
137.5
263.3
115.8
174.5
Pulse
count
48 222
65 947
51 336
58 520
50 558
54 223
38
Fig. 8. Region of crack initiation for permanent strain versus pulse count (Tapkin 1998).
Tapkn
39
Fig. 9. Fatigue lives of specimens prepared with different fillers according to permanent strain records.
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