Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 183: 1-19

Springer-Verlag 2004

Mercury Contamination in Chile: A Chronicle

of a Problem Foretold
Carlos A. Barrios-Guerra
Contents
1. Introduction
A. Historical Use of Mercury in Chile .............................................................. .
B. Geography and Sources of Mercury in Chile ................................................
C. Present Conditions ... ... ... .... ........ ..... ...... .... .... ... ....... ... ... ........ ... ... ........ ...... ......
II. Environmental Contamination .............................................................................
A. Plants. Animals, Soil, and Bays .....................................................................
B. Rivers ..............................................................................................................
III. Human Contamination .. ... ...... ...... ... ..... .... ... ... ....... ...... ...... .... ........ ..... ...... ... .........
A. Occupational Exposure ...................................................................................
B. General Population Exposure .........................................................................
C. The Case of a Small Mining Industry and Independent Mining ..................
IV. Government Limits for Mercury Contamination ................................................
V. Conclusions ..........................................................................................................
Summary ....................................................................................................................
References ...... ... ................. ... .... ... ........ ......... ...... ... ....... .................. ... ... ...... ........... ....

2
4
6
6
9
11

II
II
13
14
15
16
17

1. Introduction
A. Historical Use of Mercury in Chile
The Incas and the people they dominated, some of which lived in the northern
central region of Chile, used mercury for a long time without understanding
much about it. At first, its usage was only as an adornment on objects utilized
in their sacred ceremonies. The mercury was found along with other metals in
a rock that was known as Llimpi (Quechua = color, paint). After the arrival of
the Spaniards to America, between the years 1566 and 1567, a Portuguese recognized that the rock called Llimpi was the same as a rock from Castilla (Spain)
known as "bermel/un." This finding led to the search and eventual discovery of
mercury mines. The mercury extracted from these mines in Chile was distributed all over the Spanish empire as far north as Mexico to obtain gold and
silver. Even the residues from old mines were reused to acquire additional gold
and silver.
In this process, the mineral was ground and then sifted into boxes where

Communicated by Lilia Albert.

C.A. Barrios-Guerra
Laboratorio de Toxicologfa. Facultad de Farmacia. Universidad de Concepci6n (Chile), Casilla 237,
Barrio Universitario, Concepci6n, Chile.

C.A. Barrios-Guerra

saturated salt water was added to extract the mud. The amalgamated metal was
placed into tubs containing water where the mud was further extracted using
presses that precipitated the amalgam. This mixture of mercury and metal was
then put into a cloth and squeezed under pressure, resulting in a residue (pella)
with only one sixth part being pure metal and the other being mercury. To
separate the metal, the residue was put into clay jars and covered with charcoal,
which was ignited to produce the necessary amount of heat. Under this condition, the mercury evaporated and then condensed as it came in contact with the
walls of the jar. This condensation was then distilled resulting in a pure metal
of the same form and size only five parts less in weight than the original. As
the Scriptures say, Secut argentums probatum terrae, purgatum septulum (to
remove silver from the earth and mud where it resides, it must be purged and
purified seven times). What was never recorded during this time was how many
people became ill or died as a result of extracting gold and silver by amalgamation of mercury in South America.
According to Encina and Castedo (1956), the exploitation of gold and silver
has developed industrially in Chile since the 17th and 18th Centuries in gold
panning areas from Tiltil and Peldehue (Metropolitan Region, M.R.), Limache
(Marga-Marga), Petorca, La Ligua, Vallenar (Agua Amarga), Illapel, La Serena
(Arqueros), and Copiapo (Regions V, IV, and III), Alhue, Rancagua (Region
VI) and Magallanes (Region XII). By the end of the 18th Century, 253 mines
and permanent panning areas were in existence where gold and silver extraction
was being accomplished with the use of mercury. In 1832, Juan Godoy, a miner,
discovered the silver mine of Chafiarcillo in the south of Copiapo, and soon
afterward other miners discovered the Three Point mine and free and fixed
streams of silver. However, when the metal was exhausted, mercury extraction
was incorporated to remove the remaining silver. The amount of mercury released into the environment as a result of this exploitation is unknown. However, it is estimated that 21,000 kg pure silver was produced in Chafiarcillo
alone during its peak production period.
B. Geography and Sources of Mercury in Chile
Chile is geographically located in the extreme southwest of South America,
between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes Mountains (parallel 17 30' and 90 00'
S latitude), with a meridian axis of 70 W. Chile occupies an area of 756,626
km2, the length of which is 4,270 km, from the border with Peru to Cape Hom,
and a width of 200 km (90-445 km), with 80% of the country being mountainous (Fig. 1). Its landscape varies from desert areas in the north to valleys, mountains, and polar zones in the south. The short distance between the Andes Mountains and the seacoast prevents good development of the rivers. Chile is a
country with a high amount of seismic activity and several active volcanoes. It
has a population of 15 million with an annual demographic growth rate of
1.15%. Thirty-nine percent of the people are younger than 20 years of age and
the life expectancy is 75.4 years. Illiteracy afflicts 4.8% of the total population,
and the degree of urbanization is 85%.

Mercury in Chile

B 0 LIVI
South
Pacific
Ocean

Isla San
Ambrosio

..

Isla
San Felix

NT I N A

Ocean

Easter Island and

Isla Sala y Gomez
are nol shown.

o
I
o

200
,

200

400 km
I

400 ml

Fig. I. Geographic location of Chile in South America.

C.A. Barrios-Guerra

Large industrial growth within the past 50 years, especially in the areas of
mining, forestry, and production of cellulose and paper, has increased the level
of environmental contamination in the more industrialized zones of the country,
which have a higher population density. Two situations arise from this: (1) an
uncontaminated ocean 100 miles off the coast, and (2) a greatly contaminated
coastline due to human activity. The majority of the large cities and industrial
centers are no farther than 90 km from the coast, which results in 75% of their
wastes being eliminated into the ocean, specifically between the Aconcagua and
BioBio Rivers (Regions V and VIII) (Fig. 2). Despite the fact that the Chilean
coast possesses many beneficial conditions, such as open areas, low temperatures, circulation of large currents, and a narrow continental plate that helps in
absorbing and decreasing the concentration of chemical substances, there exist
specific areas with extremely high levels of pollution (Barrios 1979; Gutierrez
1991; Arcos et al. 1992).
Existing information shows that in the Chilean coastal zone, from Regions I
and II, the main sources of contamination are heavy metals and industrial residues coming from the mining industry or from storage in territorial zones with
the subsequent contamination of rivers and streams. This situation is aggravated
by the climatic phenomenon known as "Bolivian winter," which brings heavy
rains during the summer months that cause flooding and subsequent spillover
of large amounts of deposited minerals, along with overflowing of wastes abandoned by mining companies in the area.
Due to the high population and industrial density found from Regions IV to
VIII, there is a significant concentration of heavy metals, as well as sewage and
untreated industrial liquid residues, in the rivers and other water sources. The
area presenting the highest levels of industrial and domestic contamination, resulting from forestry debris and cellulose (Chuecas 1989; Barrios 1994), is the
coastal zone from the Aconcagua and Maipo rivers (Region V, M.R.) to the
BioBio river and the Bays of Concepcion, San Vicente, Coronel, and the Gulf
of Arauco (Region VIII). The Chilean Oceanographic Administration has reported that this is the most contaminated area of the country. The zones least
contaminated by metals are located from Regions IX to XII, as well as Antarctica, due to the large expanse of virgin soil and strict controls maintained on the
activities involved to avoid future deterioration of the environment in this area
(Chiang 1992).
C. Present Conditions

For many centuries, the problem of contamination was never seen in its true
perspective because the objective was to demonstrate the efficiency of mercury
in different industrial processes. Nowhere else was this more apparent than in
developing countries where it was necessary to exploit the natural resources to
elevate the quality of life. The principal concern of their governments was to
explore and exploit new sources of minerals. The increase in exploitation of raw
materials in Latin American countries has had, as a consequence, the elimination

Mercury in Chile

Tarapaca

"

Antofagasta

III

Atacama

IV

Coquimbo

V l """-

R.M

J. ~--1

VIIV~
VIII
IX

tI.
-..=

Valparaiso
Region
Metropolitana
Liberlador General
Bernardo O'Higgins
Maule
Biobefo

I Araucanfa

Los Lagos

Aisen del General

Carlos Ibanez del Campo

Magallanes y Anlarlica
Chilena

Fig. 2. Regional map of Chile.

c.A. Barrios-Guerra

of large amounts of mercury, resulting in contamination problems in the air,

ground, and water (Barrios 1985, 1994; Martinelli et al. 1988; MaIm et al. 1990;
Branches et al. 1993). For years, Latin America has viewed the environment,
especially the oceans, as one large garbage dump that is capable of processing
anything that goes into it. For that reason, the coastal zones have been laden
with chemical wastes, minerals, and industrial liquids with the passing of the
years. Worst of all, humankind seems to be unconscious of the fact that not
only are they destroying the plants and animals, both on land and in water, but
that these toxic substances are returned through the air, water, and food, which
subsequently endangers their own health.

II. Environmental Contamination

A. Plants, Animals, Soil, and Bays
The first work carried out on the environment in relation to mercury (Hoffmann
1978) was done in the Lenga Estuary (33 44' S; 73 9' W), located in Region
VIII. This estuary and its surrounding waters in the San Vicente Bay (11.5 km2;
36 44' S, 73 09' W; Fig. 3) represent a very important ecosystem for the breeding of different fish species, as well as providing a seasonal resting area for
breeding of local and other aquatic birds from the northern hemisphere. Hoffman's results showed that the concentration of total mercury in the water of
Lenga Estuary ranged from 6.0 to 140.1 J..lgIL, whereas from San Vicente Bay
the values were 0.8-5.8 J..lgIL. In plankton from San Vicente Bay, the concentration of total mercury ranged from 0.213 to 4.70 J..lg/g, with mercury concentrations in sediment ranging from 0.042 to 167.6 J..lg/g WW (0.045-265.6 J..lg/g
DW).
In Gracilaria chilensis algae found in the Lenga Estuary, the mercury concentration was 1.627 ppm WW, whereas Iridaea laminarioides had a concentration of 0.344 ppm WW. San Vicente Bay, on the other hand, showed a
G. chilensis average mercury concentration of 0.048 ppm (38.22 J..lg/g WW).
The mercury concentration measured in the Cyperaceae plant Scirpus sp., which
grows along the edge of this body of water, ranged from 0.045 to 265.6 J..lg/g
DW (0.04-38.22 J..lg/g WW).
Mercury concentrations found in Aulacomya alter (a mussel) from Concepcion Bay (160 km2; 36 40 S, 73 02 W), San Vicente Bay, and the Gulf of
Arauco (492.5 km2; 36 48 S, 73 10 W), were 0.19, 0.14, and 0.24 mg/g DW,
respectively. Concholepas concholepas (abalone), however, showed mercury
concentrations ranging from 0.003 to 0.780 J..lg/g DW. These results show that
mercury concentrations increase the higher one moves up in the food chain.
A study carried out by the University of Concepcion for the Regional Secretariat for the Ministry of Planning in Region VIII (SERPLAC 1980) found mercury concentrations in marine sediment at 0.15 ppm from Concepcion Bay, 0.38
ppm from San Vicente Bay, 0.25 ppm from the Gulf of Arauco, and 72.9 ppm
from Lenga Estuary. Water samples taken from Concepcion Bay, San Vicente
Bay, and the Gulf of Arauco had mercury concentrations of 1.50, 0.31, and 0.31

Mercury in Chile

74.00

73.00

72.00

N~
36.30

Bahia San Vicente

37.00

Isla
Santa

Maria~

Punta de

Lavapie

37.30

()

u:

C3

il:

38.00

z
..:
w

o
Isla
l;jMOCha
38.30

20

40

km.

Fig. 3. Sketch of Biobio (Region VIII) the first industrial region of Chile.

/lg/L, respectively; normal levels are from 0.05 to 0.19 /lg/L. Two investigations
by Salamanca et al. (1986, 1988) from Concepcion Bay, San Vicente Bay, and
the Gulf of Arauco reported mercury concentrations in surface sediment of
0.16 0.08, 0.38 0.05, and 0.25 0.15 ppm DW, respectively.
Another study by Diaz (1992) in Region VIII determined that the concentration of metals, one of which was mercury, in Tagelus dombeiii (clams, sea asparagus) was representative of the marine life on the seashore from the area under

c.A. Barrios-Guerra

study and, therefore, a good indicator of water quality. Concentrations of total

mercury and methyl mercury were measured in ocean water, suspended solids,
sediments, industrial effluent, and in the liver from clams in samples taken at
four seasonal periods during the year. A similar zone from Nercon (Region X)
having little human influence was chosen as a control population. The results
revealed significant differences in total mercury and methyl mercury concentrations, not only between sample locations but also between seasonal periods. In
liquid and suspended solid samples, for example, the highest average concentration corresponded to the sampling site of industrial effluent (3.75 JlglL, n = 8
in liquid; 44.58 Jlglg in solids). The highest concentration for methyl mercury
corresponded to the liver of T. dombeii (0.87 Jlg [CH3Hglg] DW). The results
showed that the concentrations of total mercury and methyl mercury were less
in the control zone than in the zone under study, with the exception of total
mercury concentration in sediment from San Vicente Bay, because the quality
of water from this area does not meet international standards. Concerning human
health risks, the concentration of total mercury and methyl mercury found in
the liver organ from T. dombeii (1.96 1.42 JlgHg/g and 0.81 0.43 Jlg CH3Hg/
g) exceeded the recommended standard set by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (1 Jlg/g) and the guidelines of the World Health Organization (200 Jlg
CH3Hg/personlwk).
In a study carried out by Encina (1993), metal concentrations were measured
in water from San Vicente Bay, Coliumo, and Quidico (Region VIII). The results demonstrated that San Vicente Bay had the highest mercury concentration
in its water (X = 0.26 Jlg/L, SD = 0.16) as compared to Coliumo (X = 0.17 Jlg/
L, SD = 0.06) and Quidico (X = 0.12 SD = 0.03 JlglL), these last two bays being
located far from the centers of industrial water effluents. This same study also
measured mercury concentration in algae that are important for the economy
and ecology: G. chilensis, l. laminarioides, and Iriadaea ciliata (Table 1). With
the exception of G. chilensis in Quidico, none of the samples exceeded the
recommended standard for Chile (1 Jlg/g]); however, they did exceed those used
by the European Economic Community and the United States (0.1 Jlg/g).
Because exportation of marine products has important economic implications
for Chile, the majority of mercury research has been carried out in fish to quantify contamination levels and evaluate human health risks related to seafood
Table 1. Mercury levels (ppm) in algae versus location.
San Vicente
Alga

Gracilaria chilensis
Iridaea ciliata
Iridaea laminarioides
n.d.: not detected.

Quidico

Coliumo

SD

SD

SD

0.l8
0.14
0.21

0.23
0.11
0.07

0.05
0.06
0.09

0.06
0.04
0.07

n.d.
0.07
0.04

n.d.
0.04
0.04

Mercury in Chile

consumption (Chiang and Nunez 1983; Bore et al. 1987, 1988; Chiang 1988;
Diaz et al. 1989; Chuecas et al. 1991; Gonzalez 1994). A summary of these
studies is presented in Table 2.
Another study by Gonzalez (1994) investigated heavy metals in the trophic
food chain: organic material found in sediment (particulate material), red shrimp
(Pleuroncodes monodon), and black cusk-eel (Genypterus maculatus) from the
Gulf of Arauco. The concentration of mercury found in sediment was 0.39 ppm,
which was less than that found in neighboring Coronel Bay, 0.46 ppm. Particulate material in suspension at the bottom of the Gulf of Arauco revealed a mercury concentration of 10 ppb whereas on the surface the concentration increased
to 37 ppb, indicating that the source of mercury was principally discharges from
the BioBio River. Mercury concentration in red shrimp was 0.31 0.29 ppm,
which was similar to that found in muscle tissue from black cusk-eel (0.33
0.26 ppm), with 86% of the mercury present in the sediment being found in
both species. Black cusk-eel possessed 110% of the mercury found in its principal source of food, red shrimp, which, in turn feeds off the organic material
contained in marine sediment. all of which is reflected in these mercury concentration factors: black cusk-eel/shrimp, 1.01 and black cusk-eel/sediment, 0.94.
In the city of Antofagasta (Region 11). another region with high contamination
levels, an environmental study carried out by a consulting company (Dames &
Moore) between the years 1993 and 1996 reported the following mercury concentrations in marine sediment from the seashore of Antofagasta: 1993, 8.6
ppm; 1994, 20.0-23.8 ppm; 1995. 19.5-25.4 ppm; and 1996, 20.5-28.4 ppm.
The high concentrations found in these sediments during this time was attributed
to wastes from an old gold refinery located in the northern section of the city
that stopped operating in the year 1970.
B. Rivers

Investigations in rivers and effluents from the central zone of the country (Regions V, VI, and M.R.) in 1989 found mercury concentrations of 2.2 /-lg/L, much
higher than those allowed by national and international standards, in one of the
canals (Zanjon de la Aguada) in Santiago city (Villalobos 1989; Salas 1991). This
contamination resulted from domestic and industrial residues from the southern
section of the city and posed a health risk to the popUlation because these waters
were used for irrigating nearby crops used for human food. The mercury concentration from the principal river that crosses the city of Santiago (Mapocho), on
the other hand, was <0.1 /-lg/L.
In rivers from two neighboring regions (Aconcagua, Region V, and Chachapoal, Region VI), the average mercury concentration was also found to be <0.1
/-lg/L. Nevertheless, it is interesting to note that the highest values were in the
high elevated areas located in the mountain range, 1.0 /-lg/L, most probably due
to the mines situated in this area.
Three investigations carried out in the BioBio River and the water treatment
plant for the city of Concepcion (Region VIII) reported values for river water

20
20
20
20

0.06
0.13
0.48
0.13
0.02
0.096
0.002
0.017
0.047
0.04
0.34
10
10
n.r.
n.r.
n.r.
n.r.
n.r.

Sample

Hg (/.1g!g)
I/Iquique
IUCaIdera
IUCaIdera
IV/Coquimbo
V IV alparaiso
V IValparaiso
V IValparaiso
V IV aIparaiso
V IV aIparaiso
V IV aIparaiso
VIII/Concepcion

Region/place

Authors
Bore et aI.
Bore et aI.
Chuecas et aI.
Bore et aI.
Chiang and Nunez
Chiang and Nunez
Chiang
Chiang
Chuecas et aI.
Chuecas et al.
Gonzalez

Date

1986
1986
1991
1983
1883
1983
1988
1988
1991
1991
1993

1988
1988
1991
1987
1983
1983
1988
1988
1991
1991
1994

Year

n.r.: not reported; Sardinops sagax: Chilean sardine, Pacific sardine; Engraulis ringens: anchovy; Merluccius gayi: Chilean hake, Pacific hake; Trachurus murphyi: jack mackerel; Genypterus maculatus (II): black cusk-eel.

Sardinops sagax
Sardinops sagax
Engraulis ringens
Sardinops sagax
Merluccius gayi
Trachurus murphyi
Merluccius gayi
Trachurus murphyi
Trachurus murphyi
Merluccius gayi
Genypterus maculatus

Species

Table 2. Mercury concentrations (/.1g!g muscle tissue) in fish, Chile (1983-1999).

=t

6'"$::=

3.

t:xl

?>

......
o

Mercury in Chile

11

at 1.0-7.0 J.lg/L and those for drinking water at 0.1-0.2 J.lg/L (SanIes 1983,
1984; Sanies et al. 1987).

III. Human Contamination

A. Occupational Exposure
A study by Maureira (1977) in an occupational group exposed to mercury vapors in a chioro-soda factory located in the Region VIII revealed mercury concentrations of 0.010-0.225 ppm in urine samples taken from workers, levels
below the Chilean standard of 0.30 ppm. These concentrations correspond to an
average environmental air value of 0.005 mg/mJ, with an SD of 0.001-0.026 mg/m3
and a maximum environmental air concentration of 0.040 mg/m 3 A followup study (1978-1998) on environmental concentrations of mercury vapor in
electrolytic cells of this factory showed a maximum average value of 0.046 mgl
m) with an SD of 0.0012-0.1 10 and a minimum average value of 0.007 mg/m3
with an SD of 0.001-0.02.
In addition, there exist many sources of contamination in Chilean workplaces
that have not been studied, such as dental offices and hospitals, not to mention
the massive use of batteries in domestic appliances and toys that are thrown
away directly into the domestic trash.
B. General Population Exposure
The first investigations that studied the general population exposure to mercury
were done in the years 1976 and 1982 in Region VIII and involved the comparison of people living in fishing villages and their relation to mercury (Nunez et
al. 1976; Barrios et al. 1982). One of these studies showed that exposure to
mercury came about as a result of diet only (Tumbes), while the other (Lenga)
demonstrated that the exposure was through diet and industrial contamination
by the cloro-soda factory (see Fig. 3). The results from a total of 280 permanent
residents from these villages showed an average of 19 ppb in those living in
Tumbes and 71.02 ppb in those from Lenga, the latter demonstrating the incidence of industrial contamination. In the Lenga fishing village, an analysis done
on the variation of mercury concentration according to age revealed an increase
in mercury values until 30 yr of age, with a subsequent decrease and stabilization of these values between 34 and 40 yr (in ppb), without any significant
difference between sexes. Milk samples taken from 5 women living in Lenga
who were breastfeeding their children during the study showed an average mercury concentration of 4.9 ppb (SD = 1.8-16.2).
The objective of a study done between 1986 and 1988 (Interamerican Group
for Research Environmental Epidemiology 1990) was to generate a hypothesis
concerning the possible relationship between mercury, lead, and arsenic concentrations and human health in communities living alongside rivers from seven
Latin American countries. In Chile, the BioBio River and three riverside communities were chosen for study based on previous contamination background

12

C.A. Barrios-Guerra

and selected according to supposed risk, defined as high risk (Nadir, N), medium risk (I), and low risk (Zenith, Z), to compare exposure levels with descriptive and qualitative variables such as social status, geography, age, diet, and
water usage. Mercury concentrations reported in these communities are shown
in Table 3. Although this study concluded that the levels of metals found do not
constitute a public hazard, the results highlight the importance of safeguarding
potentially exposed communities that are localized on the edges of these rivers.
Other investigations by Diaz et al. (1989) and Martini et al. (1993) in heavy
metals reported mercury as a food contaminant, especially in seafood products
such as canned jack-mackerel (Trachurus murphyi), oil, and fish meal from
Regions I, V, VIII, and the Metropolitan Region (M.R.). The results showed
that mercury was the element present in the highest concentration in oil and fish
meal from the Regions I, V, and VIII (0.71, 0.39, and 0.73 mg/kg, respectively).
The concentration measured in canned jack-mackerel from food markets in the
Metropolitan Region was 0.62 mg/kg, a value less than the highest acceptable
limit (1.0 mg/kg) according to the food and health guidelines set by the Chilean
Health Ministry (in 2000), but higher than the European Community and U.S.
standards. A study carried out between 1991 and 1997 in pregnant women (PW)
and nursing women (NW) residing in selected fishing villages along the coastal
zone of Region VIII in Chile assessed the extent of environmental exposure to
mercury through the diet of a population group having higher fish and seafood
consumption (Bruhn et al. 1994a,b, 1995, 1997). The control group was an equivalent group with negligible fish and seafood consumption. The samples were scalp
hair collected from the occipital head region and venous blood. Total mercury
[Hg-T] reported by the first study (1991-1993) in scalp hair for the coastal
group was: n = 153; X = 1.79; SD = 1.50; range = 0.14-9.72 and that for the
control group n = 26; X = 0.42; SD = 0.15; range = 0.20-0.79. The arithmetic
mean for the coastal group was significantly higher than the mean for the control
group. These mercury levels determined in the hair are considered normal for a
population with dietary habits based mainly on seafood products.
The second study (1994b) was done in a high-risk group of newly PW (aged
Table 3. Distribution (%) of total mercury level in blood (J..lg/L).
Children

Adults

163

175

165

102

101

lOS

SI4

<2.0
2.0-5.9
6.0-19.9
20.0-29.9
>30.0

55.S
31.9
11.7
0.6
0.0

4S.0
46.3
5.1
0.0
0.6

61.2
33.3
5.4
0.0
0.0

65.7
23.5
5.9
2.0
2.9

66.3
2S.7
5.0
0.0
0.0

77.S
22.2
0.0
0.0
0.0

60.7
32.6
5.9
0.4
0.5

Community

Total

Z: Zenith (low risk); I: (medium risk); N: Nadir (high risk).

Mercury in Chile

13

17-40 yr) not occupationally exposed to mercury but living in five fishing villages located within the more-polluted area of the coastal zone and consuming
at least one fish meal per week. The control group was made up of nine newly
PW (aged 14-35 yr) residing in a town located inland in the same region far
from the coastal area, with a negligible fish or seafood consumption. The fishing
village represented the largest differences in Hg-T content with respect to the
control group studied in 1991-1993.
The arithmetic mean of Hg-T results in scalp hair from the coastal group
(2.44 l.30 mg/kg) was significantly higher than the mean obtained for the
control group (0.40 0.l6 mg/kg), being almost 35% higher than the mean obtained in the coastal group during the 1991-1993 period, but 20% lower than
the pooled mean (3/06 l.97 mg/kg; n = 46) obtained in that period for the
same five fishing villages. The arithmetic mean of Hg-T in blood from the
coastal group (9.04 5.05 /-lg/kg) was also significantly higher than the mean
of the control group (2.73 l.27 /-lg/kg). One of the conclusions from these
studies was that the concentration obtained for Hg-T and Me-Hg in the scalp
hair from PW, and for Hg-T in the blood of PW, do not suggest that the selected
"high-risk group" is truly at a high risk of adverse health effects due to Hg
because the concentrations are within normal levels found in a population with
fish consumption ranging from once a month to once a week. However, the
appearance of subclinical effects in the fetuses due to low dose dietary exposure
of the mother to Hg and Me-Hg should not be disregarded.
C. The Case of a Small Mining Industry and Independent Mining
The small mining industry and especially independent mining in Chile still continue to exploit gold utilizing the same processes as in Colonial times (flotation,
lixiviation, amalgamation) because this is an inexpensive way to obtain gold.
In a study by Vasters (2001) (ECOMIN, ENAMI, Copiapo) to assess environmental effects of the metal mining industry in Region II, two principal problems concerning the potential high risk for public safety and heath and four
problems regarding general risks for the environment were established. The first
problem concerns the construction, operation, and abandonment of dams after
the extraction and purification process and gravel deposits related to the more
than 90 unused plants and approximately 50 active plants with one or more dams
or gravel deposits. The deposit residues come principally from flotation, lixiviation, and amalgamation processes. Frequently, the design, construction, and operation, as well as the planning of leftover deposits, do not guarantee the physical and chemical stability required to rule out long-term public health and
environmental risks. Leftover spills close to dams, crumbling walls, and ground
filtration were found in this region where the desert climate and the erosion of
dry dam surfaces due to wind contribute to these spills. Mercury contamination
from the amalgamation process in small gold mining is a serious problem in
Region II, IV, and V areas with the highest concentration of small size and
independent mining.

14

c.A. Barrios-Guerra

Mercury measurements taken in agriculture soil and dams in the Copiapo Valley
(Region IV) showed that delta zones had the highest concentrations of mercury.
This contamination of soil and dams poses a direct health danger to nearby populations because mercury is continuously evaporating at normal temperatures.
The total mercury loss in amalgamation by plate, which is often accompanied
by a combination of ground amalgamation in the bowl of trapiche, reaches
between 200 to 800 glHg/d. The annual mercury consumption from small mining operations alone in the Copiapo zone (Region III) is estimated at more than
2 tons of metal mercury. Today, there exist 20 plants in Region III that use
mercury on a regular basis, or sporadically in the recovery of unrefined gold,
where a large part of the mercury is lost in the dams during the amalgamation,
flotation, or accumulation stage.
In the year 2000, mercury concentrations in gold concentrates bought by
ENAMI (National Mining Company) mills were found to be as high as 7.400
ppm. The average in concentrates for the same year was 772 ppm of mercury
and 64 ppm of gold. The maximum value allowed of impurities for mercury
concentrates is 500 ppm according to the Chilean standard. Small mining contributes with 1.1 tons of mercury to the total emission of mercury from the
Paipote mill. The maximum mercury concentration in the flotation dams from
flotation-amalgamation plants was 100 ppm. In liquid residues resulting from
dam drainage, which is frequently used to irrigate crops, the concentration of
mercury was 0.037 mg/L, which exceeds by 37 times the Chilean standard No
1.333. Mercury found in the concentrates is released into the environment from
chimneys during the melting process, part of which precipitates in the dust filters used during this process. The heating of amalgam (pella) to separate gold
from mercury is done, in many cases, in the open air, which allows mercury to
escape directly into the atmosphere. Analysis of environmental concentrations
during the processes of dehydration and separation of mercury with fire found
atmospheric concentrations of mercury at 320-400 )..lg/m3; the limit allowed by
Chilean standards for organic mercury is 0.04 mg/m 3. In factory workers from
amalgamation plants, mercury concentrations measured in urine samples were as
high as 1300 )..lg/L, the normal limit allowed by Chilean standards for biological
tolerance of inorganic mercury in urine is 50 )..lg/L.
Another source of mercury contamination comes from the process of separating the amalgam with nitric acid. There are 10 plants of this type situated in
residential areas located in the community of Copiapo. Mercury left in the acidic
solution damages sewage treatment plants, and it is estimated that 300-400 kg
mercury is eliminated into the environment as a result of this damage, putting
the urban zones of this region at high risk.

IV. Government Limits for Mercury Contamination

In Chile, the Supreme Decree No. 745 (daily law registry 08.06.93) established
an Allowable Limit and a Biological Tolerance Limit for mercury concentra-

Mercury in Chile

15

tions in work places at 0.04 mg Hg/m3 and 50 mg/L in urine, and for methyl
mercury 0.008 mg Hg/m3 in vapors and 10 mg/L in blood.
The Chilean Sanitary Health Guidelines (for 2000) and their official modifications, Supreme Decree 897112.1999, 824124.11/1999, 475/12.07.1999 from
the Chilean Health Department in Title IV "pertaining to contaminants," paragraph 1, "Pertaining to heavy metals" in Article 160 states: 'The following elements cannot exceed, in the given food, the maximum limits expressed in mg/
kg of final product": in the case of mercury these are: cereals and legumes ==
0.05; canned fish and shellfish == 1.00; fresh fish, refrigerated and frozen: small
size == 0.50; large size (shark and tuna) == 1.50; fresh shellfish == 0.50. Chilean
Standard No. 1333, concerning requisites for water quality, establishes that the
maximum allowed concentration of mercury in water should not exceed 1 ).lglL.
No values exist for mercury in sediment.

V. Conclusions
Analysis of the present situation of mercury contamination in Chile leads one
to conclude that this problem has worsened over the years. The principal problem of mercury use and contamination is the inappropriate use of small and
independent mining operations, which still employ the same processes of gold
and silver exploitation as in the 16th Century. Therefore, a change of mentality
is needed concerning the environment by means of educational programs geared
toward this population segment, as well as implementation of environmentally
friendly technologies at an affordable cost.
In addition, there has been an increase in mercury use by industry and society
(toys and battery-operated artifacts) that follows an inverse pattern in developing
countries to that in developed countries. Only in the last few decades has man
begun to realize that what is discarded into the environment returns in a more
toxic form in food and water, and especially seafood as in the case of mercury,
by the process of biotransformation through the food chain.
The major source of mercury contamination in Chile is the water. In this
medium, mercury is recycled and can pass efficiently from one biological compartment to another. This bioavailability increases the accumulation of mercury
through all the levels of the food chain up through humans. This finding is what
is revealed by the results from studies done up until now in Chile that show
critical areas of mercury contamination in Regions J, II, III, IV, V, and VIII and
the Metropolitan Region. It is important to note that the most industrialized
region of the country, Region VIII, displayed mercury concentrations in the soil,
river, bays (water, sediment, and material in suspension), and seafood (fish,
shellfish, algae, etc.) higher than those accepted by the international community.
Chile needs to adopt measures to detect mercury contamination in populations at risk. Furthermore, strict controls need to be incorporated to eliminate
the origin of mercury release, something that has only been partially accomplished within the last few years. This type of program requires awareness edu-

16

C.A. Barrios-Guerra

cation for the inhabitants along with appropriate legislative action, measures
that should be applied to all contaminants that threaten the ecosystem and human life.
Summary
This review analyzes the effects of environmental mercury contamination in
Chile. This contamination generates one of the most important environmental
conflicts in the country in that it affects air, ground, and water (rivers and oceans),
which are fundamental in maintaining natural biotic equilibrium and at the same
time important for the nation's economy.
Chile possesses extraordinarily wealthy mining resources between Regions I
and IV that have developed into an extraction industry essential for the economy
of the country. However, waste discharges from this production have created an
environmental problem in that the majority of the mines are located in the Andes
mountain range, or areas close by, and the water used in the extraction process
is deposited into the rivers, significantly increasing the amount of chemical contamination. Therefore, the cities and downstream waters used in agriculture suffer the negative consequences of a natural resource that is becoming more and
more scarce. In addition, minerals released from mills into the atmosphere are
deposited onto the soil, drastically affecting the biological resources of these
areas. One of these affected areas is the Metropolitan region, where one of the
highest contamination levels of mercury in the country was found in one of its
affluents due to industrial and domestic waste discharge. In a country that is
only 200 Ian in width, the gathering of all these contaminants in the rivers
results in a rapid flow to the ocean, thereby contaminating coastal waters and
the biota. In general, this contamination has been detected in semiclosed bodies
of water (bays).
Between Regions VII and IX, the principal sources of mercury contamination
are related to cellulose industrial sites (Regions VII and VIII) and, until the
1980s, the bleach-soda industry. The most important industrial and fishing activity is also found in this area. In San Vicente Bay, waste discharges released into
the ocean include sewage, industrial residues, residues from fishing and mining
industries, hydrocarbons, petrochemical derivatives, oils, and detergents. This
combination of chemical assault makes the San Vicente Bay the most contaminated in the country and the area where the majority of mercury contamination
studies have been carried out. Between Regions X and XII, mercury contamination is reduced due to decreased release of domestic residues, especially batteries and sanitary waste.
Beginning with the decade of the 1990s, Chile made a great effort to decrease
contamination through governmental organizations (CONAMA, SERNAGEOMIN,
DGA, ECOMIN, SONAMI), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), universities, government mining industries (CODELCO, ENAMI), and private mining
industries (EI Indio, La Escondida, La Candelaria, Fachinal, etc). These reduction efforts within the last 10 years exceed $900 million, and in the private

Mercury in Chile

17

mmmg sector alone more than 1,100 monitoring stations have been installed
and more than 100,000 environmental measurements have been carried out each
year. Furthermore, an important educational program on the use of mercury has
been implemented in the small mining area to decrease contamination to the air,
water, and soil.
However, the consequences of mercury accumulation are seen in their damaging effects to the rivers that deliver water to crops and cities, in the bays
where food is extracted, and in the air of some cities where there exist mills
that release chemical substances into the atmosphere.

References
Arcos D, Furet L, Nunez S (1992) Zona Costera y Contaminacion Industrial. Programa
Hidrologico Internacional. Gestion de los Recursos Hidricos y Medio Ambiente Segundas lornadas de Trabajo. pp 133-134.
Bargallo M (1955) La Minerfa y la Mctalurgia en la America Espanola Durante la Epoca
Colonial. Ed. Fondo de Cultura Economica, Buenos-Aires, Argentina.
Bargallo M (1969) La Amalgamacion de los Minerales de Plata en Hispanoamerica Colonial. Ed. Compania Fundidora de Fierro y Acero de Monterrey S.A., Mexico, D.F.
Barrios C (1985) Contribucion al Estudio de la Toxicidad del Pentaclorofenol. Tesis
Doctoral. Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain.
Barrios C (1994) EI Hombre y los Productos Quimicos. Revista. Ecologfa y Medio Ambiente 7:50-54.
Barrios C, Rodriguez A, Nunez E (1982) Contribucion al Estudio de la Contaminacion
Mercurial en la Poblacion Humana de Talcahuano (Chile). Libro de Actas Primer
Congreso Iberoamericano de Toxicologfa. Ed. Instituto Nacional de Toxicologfa,
Sede Sevilla, Spain, pp 661-665.
Bore D, Robotham H, Trucco R, Fernandez M, Inda 1 (\ 987) Evaluacion Preliminar de
la Presencia de Metales Pesados en Recursos Pesqueros de Importancia Comercial de
la III Region. Tnstituto de Fomento Pesquero. Santiago, Chile.
Bore D, Robotham H, Trucco R. Fernandez M, Inda 1 (1988) Evaluacion de la Presencia
de Meta1es Pesados en Recursos Pesqueros de Importancia Comercial de la VIII Region de Chile. Comision permanente del Pacifico Sur (CPPS). Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente (PNUMA), pp 21-25.
Branches Fl, Erickson TB, Aks SE, Hryhorczuk DO (1993) The price of gold: mercury
exposure in the Amazonian rain forest. 1 Toxicol Clin Toxicol 31 (2):295-306.
Bruhn C, Rodriguez A, Barrios C, et al (l994a) Determination of total mercury in scalp
hair of pregnant and nursing women resident in fishing villages in the eighth region
of Chile. 1 Trace Elem Electrolytes Health Dis 8:79-86.
Bruhn C, Rodriguez A, Barrios C, et al (1994b) Determination of total mercury in scalp
hair of humans by gold amalgamation cold vapour atomic absorption spectrometry. 1
Anal At Spectrom 9:535-541.
Bruhn C, Rodriguez A, Barrios C, et al (1995) Mercurio en Cabello de Embarazadas y
Madres Lactantes Chilenas. BolOS P 119(5):405-414.
Bruhn C, Rodriguez A, Barrios C, et al (1997) Total mercury and methyl mercury levels
in scalp hair and blood of pregnant women residents of fishing villages in the eighth
region of Chile. Environ Monit Am Chern Soc 14: 151-177.

18

c.A. Barrios-Guerra

Calvo F (1985) Albaro Alonso Barba, Metalurgo del Siglo de Oro. Anal Real Acad Farm
51:159-222.
Chiang J (1988) Estudio Basico para evaluar la presencia de metales pesados en agua,
sedimentos y organismos marinos en la V Region, Chile. Comision Permanente del
Pacifico Sur (CPPS). Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente
(PNUMA), p 13.
Chiang J (1992) Metales Pesados en Sedimentos y Organismos Marinos provenientes de
las zonas Norte y Centro-Sur de Chile. Niveles de Mercurio en organismos marinos
provenientes de bahfa Terra Nova (Antartica). En: Gallardo VA, Ferretti 0, Moyano
HI (eds). Oceanograffa en Antartica, Concepcion, Chile, 7-9 marzo 1991, Concepcion, Chile: ENEA, Proyecto Antartica, Chile, pp 99-105.
Chiang J, Nunez C (1983) Estudio comparativo sobre metales pesados en especies marinas, V Region. Alimentos 8(2):23-27.
Chuecas L (1989) Contaminacion por metales pesados en el litoral de Ia Octava Region
del Bio-Bio, Concepcion, Chile. EI caso del mercurio y el cadmio. Ambiente y Desarrollo 5(1):237-345.
Chuecas L, Balavanoff L, Silva M, Zemelman R (1988) Programa de Vigilancia de
Contaminantes en la Bahfa de Concepcion. VIII region, Chile. Comision Permanente
del Pacifico Sur (CPPS). Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente
(PNUMA), p 20.
Chuecas L, Chiang J, Bore D (1991) Evaluacion de la Presencia de Metales Pesados en
Muestras de Sedimentos y Organismos Marinos Provenientes de la zona Norte,
Centro y Centro Sur de Chile. Comision permanente del Pacifico Sur (CPPS). Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente, Comision Oceanografica
Intergubemamental (COl), p 12.
Diaz 0 (1992) Tagelus dombeii como organismo indicador de la calidad del agua marina
en la zona costera de la bahla San Vicente (VIII region, Chile) y del riesgo de contaminacion por mercurio y metilmercurio de origen antropico. Tesis doctoral. Centro
Eula, Chile.
Diaz 0, (1989). Metales Pesados; Aspectos Ecologicos y Tecnologicos-Alimentarios.
Contribuciones XIX:84 (abril):5-1O.
Encina F (1993) Estudio de metales en Iridaea laminarioides, Iridaea ciciliata y Gracilaria chilensis (Rhodophyta-Gigartinales) en las bahfas de San Vicente, Coliumo y
Quidico (Octava Region Chile). Tesis doctoral; Centro Eula, Chile.
Encina F, Castedo L (1956) Resumen de la historia de Chile, Torno I. Zig-Zag S.A.,
Santiago de Chile, pp 396-402.
de Ercilla y Zuniga Alonso (1589) La Araucana. Madrid, Spain, pp 1-5.
Garrido J (1979) Estudio Preliminar sobre Plomo, Cadrnio y Mercurio en Aerosoles
Atmosf6ricos Urbanos e Industriales de Santiago (Chile). Tesis de Grado para optar
al titulo de Qufmico-Farmac6utico, Universidad de Chile.
Gonzalez F (1994) Metales pesados en la cadena trofica, materia organica contenida en
sedimento, langostino colorado, congrio negro del Golfo de Arauco. Tesis doctoral,
Centro Eula-U de C, Concepcion, Chile.
Gutierrez F (1991) Diagnostico de la Contaminacion Marina en el Pacifico Sudeste por
metales pesados, pesticidas y eutroficacion, Comision Permanente del pacifico Sur
CPPS, Programa de la Naciones Unidad para el Media Ambiente-PNUMA. Comision Intergubemamental, COl, p 59.
Hoffmann W (1978) Distribucion del Mercurio como Contarninante en el Agua, Sedi-

Mercury in Chile

19

mentos y Organismos del Estero de Lenga. Tesis de Grado, Universidad de Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile.
Interamerican Group for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (1990) The health of
Latin Americans exposed to polluted rivers: a triple-blind observational study. Int J
Epidemiol 10: 1091- I 099.
Maim 0, Pfeiffer W, Souza C (1990) Mercury pollution due to gold mining in the Madeira River Basin, Brazil. Ambio 19:11-15.
Martinelli LA, Ferreira JR, Forsberg BR, et al (1988) Mercury contamination in the
Amazon: a gold rush consequence. Ambio 17:252-254.
Martini M, Garrido F, Rojas S (1993) EI Mercurio como Contaminante en los Alimentos.
Alimentos 8(4):38-45.
Maureira N (1977) Excrecion Urinaria de Mercurio en Grupos Ocupacionalmente Expuestos a Vapor de Mercurio de Celdas Electroliticas de una Planta de Cloro-Soda.
Tesis de Grado para obtener Licenciatura en Salud Ocupacional, Instituto de Salud
Ocupacional, Ministerio de Salud Publica, Chile.
Nufiez E. Barrios C, et al (1976) Estudio de nifios expuestos a mercurio en la Bahia de
Lenga. Actas de Congreso de Pediatria, Vifia del Mar, Chile.
Padilla 0 (1980) Tesis. Contaminacion con Mercurio de Productos del Mar Procesados.
II Contribuciones. Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Ciencias Basicas y Farmacologicas, Santiago de Chile.
Salamanca MA, Chuecas L, Carrasco F (1986) Heavy metal in surface sediments from
three embayments of Central-South Chile. Mar Pollut Bull 17( 12):567 -568.
Salamanca MA, Chuecas L, Carrasco F (1988) Heavy metal content and distribution in
surface sediment from three areas of the Chilean Coast. Gayana 9(1-4):3- I 6.
Salas C (1991) Mercurio, Cadmio. Plomo y Arsenico en Aguas de las Cuencas de los
Rios Aconcagua y Maipo. Tesis de Grado, para optar al titulo de Quimico-Farmaceutico, Universidad de Chile.
Sanies C (1983) Contaminacion por mercurio en agua y en Aulacomya ater (Cholga) de
la cuenca del rio Bio-Bio. Tesis de Magister, Universidad de Chile.
Sanies C (1984) Contaminacion por mercurio del agua de consumo en comunidades
urbanas de la region del BioBio. 3er Encuentro Nacional Universitario sobre medio
ambiente, Universidad de Chile, pp 459-468.
SanIes C, Weiner 0, Godoy S (1987) Cali dad del Agua de Puntera, VII Congreso Chileno de Ingenieria. Sanitaria y Ambiental, Vifia del Mar, pp 1076-1085.
SERPLAC (Secretaria Regional Ministerial de Planificacion) Octava Region, Chile
(1980) Tercer Informe, Evaluacion de la Contaminacion del Litoral de la Octava
Region, Chile. Universidad de Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile, pp 32-45.
Vasters J (200 I) Los avances de ECOMIN. Programa de Manejo Ambiental en la
Pequefia y Mediana Minerfa. 10m ada Intemacional sobre c\ Impacto Ambiental del
Mercurio utilizado por la Mineria Aurffera Artesanal en Iberoamerica, 26-28 de septiembre de 2001, GAMA, CYDET, Lima, Peru.
Villalobos J (1989) Arsenico, Cadmio y Mercurio en Aguas de Rios de la Zona Central.
Tesis de grado, para optar al titulo de Quimico-Farrnaceutico, Universidad de Chile.
Manuscript received May 28. accepted June 3, 2003.