L ESSON 7

Multipole Radiation
7.1

Coverage

We look at electric dipole, magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole radiation. Multipole radiation analysis is important since it simplifies the calculation of radiation
fields from time-varying field and since EM multipoles exist in many fields of
physics such as astrophysics, plasma physics, atomic physics, and nuclear physics.

7.2

Formulae used

Fields in far regions from an electric dipole

B rad x 

0 eik x

p 1 k
4 x

E rad x 



1 eik x
p 1 k
k
40 x

Fields in the far zone from a magnetic dipole

B rad x 

E rad x 

0 eik x


m k k
4 x


k eik x
m k
40 c x

Field in the far zone from an electric quadrupole

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53

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L ESSON 7. M ULTIPOLE R ADIATION

B rad 

i0 eik x


k Q k
8 x

E rad 




i eik x
 k Q k k
80 x

7.3
E XAMPLE 7.1

Solved examples

ROTATING E LECTRIC D IPOLE

An electric dipole with constant electric dipole moment magnitude is located at a point in
the xy plane and rotates with constant angular frequency.

(a) Determine the time-dependent electromagnetic fields at large distances from the dipole.

(b) Determine the radiated average power angular distribution and the total radiated
power.

Solution
(a) We can write the time-varying dipole momentum relative the location of the dipole
as
p  t +

p0  cos t x

 sin t y 

(7.1)

which represents a constant dipole moment p0 times unit vector rotating with angular frequency . This can also be rewritten in complex form

p  t +

Re p0 e

p  t +

A
 p0 e

or

i t

i t

 ip0 e A

 ip0 e A

i t

i t

y 

(7.2)
c/ c/

(7.3)

where c.c., stands for the complex conjugate of the term opposite the  sign. In what
follows we use the convention that we write the dipole expression as a complex quantity
but we drop the c.c. term, which is commonplace when discussing harmonic oscillation. It
is easy to identify the Fourier component of the dipole moment in this case
p  t +

p0 x

 ip0 y /

(7.4)

We notice, in this complex space variable space, that the y component has the phase factor
i  ei 2 relative the x component, which is due the circular rotation.
We would like to express (7.4) in spherical components rather than Cartesian components
since the expressions for dipole fields in spherical components are simpler, so we transform

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55

EXAMPLES

the base vectors x and y in the conventional fashion and get

p  t #

 cos cos  sin 

 i  sin sin r  cos sin  cos O+
 p0  r sin  cos  i sin 
 cos  cos  i sin 
   sin  i cos O+ cos  i sin  ei
 p0 ei  r sin  cos  i 
p0 O sin cos r

(7.5)
(7.6)
(7.7)
(7.8)
(7.9)
(7.10)

Now that we have the Fourier component of the dipole moment expressed in spherical
components we insert this into the dipole radiation fomulae:


0 eikr
p k
4 r


1 eikr
E 
p k 
k
40 r 


(7.11)
(7.12)

First we calculate
p

k  p0 ke sin cos i 
1
0
0

 p0 kei  i  cos 
i

(7.13)
(7.14)

from which we get

p

k

k  p0 ke 0 i  cos
1 0
0

2 i
 p0 k e   cos  i 
i

(7.15)

(7.16)

so finally we can write the field in space and time coordinates (remember:
A
B  t 9 x + Re B  x  e i t ),

0
ei C kr t D
Re
p0 kei  i  cos 
4
r
p k
}
 0 0 Re ei C kr A t D ei  i  cos 
4 r

B  t 9 x :

(7.17)
(7.18)

So our final expression is

B

0 2 p 0
sin  kr  t    cos cos  kr  t   
4 cr 
2 p0
cos cos  kr  t    sin  kr  t   
40 c2 r 
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(7.19)
(7.20)

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L ESSON 7. M ULTIPOLE R ADIATION

(b) We use the formula S 

monochromatic so

1
2 0 E

B where the E and B fields are complex and


1
1 0 1 1
E B 
2 0
20 4 40 r2




k  p k  p
k 

2
2
32 0 r


Y p k Y 2 r 
32 2 0 r2






k

O p
p

k k

k

p

 p

k +

k O~

(7.21)
(7.22)
(7.23)

0 p20 4
1  cos2  r
32 2 cr2 

(7.24)

The total power is then

3





Sr r2 d

(7.25)

0 p20 4
2 3
d sin  1  cos2 +
2
32 c
0
1
0 p20 4
2
2 3
2
A 1 dx  1  x ~
32 c
0 p20 4
6 c

(7.26)
(7.27)
(7.28)
E ND

E XAMPLE 7.2

OF EXAMPLE

7.1 %

ROTATING MULTIPOLE
Two point charges of equal charge q are located in the xy plane at either end of the diameter
of a circle of radius a. The particles rotate with a constant angular speed in the plane of
the circle.
Determine

(a) The Fourier components of p1 , m, and Q

and

(b) The radiation diagram when a

Solution

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7.3. S OLVED

r1=
r2=
v1=
v2=
p

57

EXAMPLES

 a  cos 0t x  sin 0t y 
* r1=
 0 a   sin t x  cos 0t y 
* v1=

(7.29)
(7.30)
(7.31)
(7.32)

 qn rn=  0

(7.33)

1
rn=
2
n

qvn=
1
2

1
r=
2 1

3 A

qv1=

   r1= 

q

 v1= O+ q0 a2 z

 z q0 a2

Qi j

 qn xin= x= jn

(7.36)

Qxx
Qyy
Qxy
Qiz

 q  x21  x22 + 2qa2 cos2 0t  qa2  1  cos 20t 

 2qa2 sin2 0t  qa2  1  cos 20t 
 Qyx  qa2 sin 20t
 Qzi  0

(7.37)
(7.38)
(7.39)
(7.40)

Qxx
Qyy
Qxy

 qa2  1  e A i20t 
A
 qa2  1  e i20t 
 Qyx  qa2 ie A i20t

(7.41)
(7.42)
(7.43)

e i t d

 q0 a2 z  

(7.34)
(7.35)

Fourier transform

Qxx

1
3 A  1  1  2ei20t  1  2e A
2
1
qa2
W   20 O
2  

 qa2

Qyy


Qxy

1
3 A qa2  1  cos 20t  ei t dt 
2
qa2    1  2   20  1  2 

 qa2

1
2

3 A

 qa2   ro

i20 t

(7.44)

 20 O

(7.45)

 ei t dt 

(7.46)
(7.47)

A i C 2 0 A D t
dt  qa2 i   20 

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0

s
u  qa2   20  r
o

(7.48)
1
0
0

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0 0
1 0
0 0

s
(7.49)

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L ESSON 7. M ULTIPOLE R ADIATION


i0 eikr 
k Q
k

8 r


i eikr
k Q
k
80 r O
1
E
2 0 

(7.50)

(7.51)

(7.52)
E ND

E XAMPLE 7.3

OF EXAMPLE

7.2 %

ATOMIC RADIATION
A transition in an atom is described as quantum matrix element of a radiation operator
between the un-normalised eigenstates
f
e

 re A r exp   i E 1 t  cos
 e A r exp   i E 0 t 

(7.53)

At a certain moment, the atom is therefore described by

 c f f  ce e

(7.54)

where cf and ce can be viewed as given constants, chosen such that becomes normalised.
According to semiclassical theory, one can interpret the magnitude squared of the wave
function as a particle density function. Determine, according to this semiclassical interpretation, the power emitted by the atom via the dipole radiation which appears due to the
transition between the two states.
The power from an electric dipole is given by
P

0 4 Y p Y 2
12 c

(7.55)

Solution
The charge density is
q

 q TY c f f Y 2  c f ce e f  c f ce e f "Y ce e Y 2 V 

 q TY c f Y 2 r2 exp   2r  cos2 "Y ce Y 2 exp   2r O

(7.56)
(7.57)

P c f ce exp   i  E1  E0  t  c f ce exp  i  E1  E0  t  R r cos exp   2r  (7.58)

V

Only the two last terms contribute because they are non-static. Via inspection we find the
Fourier components for   E1  E0 OU

 r9 + qc f ce r cos exp   2r 

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(7.59)

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59

EXAMPLES

Consequently, the corresponding Fourier component of the dipole moment p

is
p

 3

qc f ce r cos exp 

 2r  r r r2 dr d 


 qc f ce 3 r4 exp   2r  dr ! 3
1
2

 qc f ce 4! 3

2
0

 12qc f ce  0 9 0 9 3

0
2
0

 12qc f ce  0 9 0 9 2 3

 r d3x

2
0

(7.60)

cos sin r d d

(7.61)

cos sin  sin cos 9 sin sin 9 cos  d d

3
0

cos2 sin d d +

1  2  sin

(7.62)
(7.63)

 sin cos 2  d +

(7.64)

 12 qc f ce  0 9 0 9 1  1  2 3  sin 3  sin  d @

0
 12 qc f ce  0 9 0 9 1  1  2  1  3  1 O +
 8 qc f ce  0 9 0 9 1 
 8 qc f ce z

(7.65)
(7.66)
(7.67)
(7.68)

and a similar integral for the complex conjugate term. The power from the electric dipole
radiation due to the transition between the two states is given by
P

0 4 Y p Y 2

12 c

16 q2 0  E1
3c 4

 E0  4

2
 c f ce  /

(7.69)
E ND

OF EXAMPLE

7.3 %

C LASSICAL P OSITRONIUM

E XAMPLE 7.4

Calculate the radiation from a positron-electron head-on collision and subsequent annihilation, classically by assuming that the particles travel at a constant velocity v 0 c up until
the time the annihilate.

Solution
Background Consider a system of localised charges in motion. If we assume that we
are observing at a distance Y x Ym R much greater than extension Y x = Y of the charge system
and further that v c, it can be argued that the source time t = is approximately t  R  c
(where R Y x Y ) instead of t ,Y x  x=Y  c. This is because, due to the first assumption
 x
(7.70)
Y x  x= Y R  x=
R
Since the timescale for the system is of the order T Y x =Y  v and since v c we have that

Y x=Y
c

(7.71)

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L ESSON 7. M ULTIPOLE R ADIATION

and this allows us to write

t=

t  R c

(7.72)

The vector potential is this case

0
3 j  t  R  c  d3x
A
(7.73)
4 R
since the denominator in the integrand is now not dependent on the source coordinates.
Substituting j  v, we rewrite the vector potential as
0
A
qv 
(7.74)
4 R 
Observe that the summation can be written as
d
qx=  p
(7.75)
qv 
dt
where p is the electric dipole. Thus,
0
A
p
(7.76)
4 R
Deriving the EM field in the usual manner we get

 R  R



1
p
40 rc2 O

(7.77)

 R
0
p

4 rc2 
R
It can be shown that the angular and spectral distribution of energy is
B

d
d d

O p 

R R
2 c3

(7.78)

(7.79)

The Calculation The dipole electric moment of the positronium is

p

2qe v0t z

t
t

 0

z 0
; 0

We take the second time derivative of this

p
 2qe v0   t  z
t

2p
 2qe v0  t  z
t2
For the spectral and angular distributions of the radiation we have

(7.80)

(7.81)
(7.82)

d
R R 2
p
 
(7.83)
d d
2 c3
where subscript denotes the Fourier transform of the dipole. Now the Fourier transform
of the dipole is simply p  2qv0 z   2  1 2 , so that
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61

EXAMPLES


d
 q2e v20  z R  2  2 c3
(7.84)
d d
In the final result we notice that there is no dependence on so the spectral density is
white noise.
E ND

Draft version released 15th November 2000 at 20:39

OF EXAMPLE

7.4 %

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62

L ESSON 8

Radiation from
Moving Point
Charges
8.1

Coverage

In our series on deriving fields from given sources we have come to the most fundamental case: the moving point charge. The fields are derived from the LinardWiechert potentials. In what follows we will assume that the motion x
t
is known
in advance. We find that accelerating charges radiate. We also look other mechanisms for a point charge to radiate such as Cerenkov emission.

8.2

Formulae used

According to the Formulae (F.2326), the fields from a charge in arbitrary motion
are given by

E t x 

q
Rv 1

40 s3

B t x 

x
x

s

x
x

v2
c2

E t x

c x
x

x
x

 v
c

Draft version released 15th November 2000 at 20:39

 Rv
 x
x

c2

(8.1)

(8.2)

(8.3)

63

64

L ESSON 8. R ADIATION

FROM

M OVING P OINT C HARGES

 x
x
 vc

x
x

Rv 

 
t

t


x

x
x

s

(8.4)

(8.5)

Alternative formulae
x
x


v

c

Rv 

x
x0 

 tt


E XAMPLE 8.1

r
r

s

8.3

(8.6)


x

s

r

r
r 

v
c

(8.7)

rv 

r
r cos 

r0

(8.8)

r 1
cos

(8.9)

1
cos

(8.10)

Solved examples

P OYNTING VECTOR FROM A CHARGE IN UNIFORM MOTION

Determine the Poynting vector for the fields from a charge q which moves with constant
velocity v. Show that no power is emitted from the charge during the motion.

Solution
In general the fields due to a single point charge may be written as
E
B

 Ev  Erad
 Bv  Brad

(8.11)
(8.12)

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65

EXAMPLES

Ev and Bv are known as the velocity fields and Erad and Brad are known as acceleration
fields. These can be derived from the Linard-Wiechert potentials and result in
q
r  r   1  2 
40 s3 


q
T r P  r  r  R
3
40 cs



Ev

Erad

(8.13)

(8.14)

and



Bv
Brad


q
r 1  2
3
40 cs



q
r Pr
r
2
3
40 c s

(8.15)

 R

 r 

(8.16)

- v  c and

s  r   r

(8.17)

 Brad - 0 and that

1 
B
E

(8.18)

where

The big outer square brackets P R indicate that one should evaluate their content at the
retarded time t =  t  Y x  x=  t =HQY  c, where x=  t =H is the given motion of the charged
particle. It is this that makes the equations for the fields difficult to evaluate in general. It
may not be difficult to get an expression for x =  t =H , but then to solve the equation for the
retarded time t =  t Y x  x=  t = QY  c for t =  t =  t 9 x  . In this case it is not necessary to
perform this transformation of variables since we are not interested in the time evolution,
so we drop the brackets.
It is easy to verify that for uniform motion of the charge q, or in other words - 0, that
Erad

c
so the Poynting vector in this case is
S

1
E
0 c

E +


0 
E  E
0

(8.19)

Furthermore, it can be shown that

s

|


 r   r +
r02   r0  2

(8.20)

where we have introduced the virtual position vector r0

we may write
E

q
1
1  2 3
40 
r0  1  2 sin2 

- r  r . With these last relations

r
3 2 0

(8.21)

where is the angle between r0 and . Inserting this relation for E into the relation for S
we obtain

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66

L ESSON 8. R ADIATION

S
So

and

(8.22)

r0

 r0 sin

(8.23)

r0

M OVING P OINT C HARGES



0 q 2
1
1  2 2 6
r0  r0 

2
2
2
2
3
0 16 0
r0  1  sin 




FROM

r0 ~ r02 sin

(8.24)

So finally
S



q2
v  1  2  2 sin

2
16 0 r04  1  2 sin2  3

(8.25)

And now when we integrate the Poynting vector over a spherical surface A with radius R
which encloses the moving charge which results in
P



 S dA  S  r  d  0

(8.26)

since the Poynting vector is not radial, so a charge in uniform motion in vacuo, does not
radiate energy.
E ND

E XAMPLE 8.2

OF EXAMPLE

8.1 %

S YNCHROTRON RADIATION PERPENDICULAR TO THE ACCELERATION

Determine the angular distribution of synchrotron radiation in the plane perpendicular to
the acceleration v for a charged particle moving with velocity v.

Solution
We consider only the formulas for the radiation fields, for which the denominator is the
cube of the retarded relative distance


 r  r  r  r cos  r  1  cos 

Now, we have that v r  0, so




r  rv v : rv J  rKML vN   v  r rv 
& 0
 v r  r  r 
 v  r2  r2 cos 
 v r2  1  cos 
 v rs
s

where is the angle between the velocity and r. So that

Draft version released 15th November 2000 at 20:39

(8.27)

(8.28a)
(8.28b)
(8.28c)
(8.28d)

8.3. S OLVED

67

EXAMPLES

0 q
q v r
v rs  0 2
4 s3
4 s
The Poynting vector is given by
Erad



1
Y E Y 2 r
0 c

v2 r
02 q2
2
2
16 0 c r  1  cos 

(8.29)

(8.30)

Remember that the Poynting vector represents energy flux per unit time at the field point
at the time t. The charges energy loss must be related to the time t = , i.e., the time when the
energy was emitted!

U
 Sr r 2
t

(8.31)

but

U

t=

q2
t U
v2
r2
  1  cos  0 2 2
t= t
16 c r  1  cos  4
0 q2 v2
1
16 2 c  1  cos  3

(8.32)

E ND

OF EXAMPLE

8.2 %

T HE L ARMOR FORMULA

E XAMPLE 8.3

Derive the Larmor formula by calculating the radiated power of an accelerating point
charge due to electric dipole emission. Apply the Larmor formula to linear harmonic motion and circular motion.

Solution
The Larmor formula is a very useful equation for deriving the power of emission from
non-relativistic accelerating charged particles. It can be derived from the radiation fields
of a non-relativistic (v c) charged particle, but it can also be seen as an electric dipole
relative a co-moving coordinate system. We shall investigate the latter.
First derive the power emitted by an electric dipole. Using a time domain (non-Fourier)
version of the dipole fields:
1
p
40 rc2 

r 


0
p r 
4 rc 
we find the Poynting vector to be
B

Draft version released 15th November 2000 at 20:39

(8.33)
(8.34)

68

L ESSON 8. R ADIATION
1 
E B
0
1
16 2 0 r2 c3
1
2
16 0 r2 c3
1
2
16 0 r2 c3





 p
T Y p

r 

r Y 2 r

Y p

 p

FROM

M OVING P OINT C HARGES

r +

 

 r  p r   p r  V 

r Y 2 r

(8.35)

So integrating for the power P  t 

P  t #

S r r2 sin d d

1
16 2 0 c3
1
16 2 0 c3

Y p Y 2

80

c3

3
3

0
2
0

Y p

r Y 2 sin d d

Y p Y 2 sin3 d d

sin3 d

Y p Y 2 4




80 c3 3

Y p Y 2

60 c3

(8.36)

p  t +

qx  t 

(8.37)

P  t +

q2 Y x Y 2
60 c3

q2 Y a Y 2
60 c3

where we have identified the acceleration a  t +-

(8.38)
x  t  .

Linear harmonic motion

x  t +

x0 cos  0t 

2
9 a  t + x  t + 0 x0 cos  0t  /
q2 04 x20 cos2  0t 
P  t +
6 c3

(8.39)
(8.40)

q2 04 x20
120 c3

(8.41)

Circular motion
x  t +

R0 cos  0t 

9 y  t + R0 sin  0t  9
Draft version released 15th November 2000 at 20:39

(8.42)

8.3. S OLVED

69

EXAMPLES

q2 04 R20
60 c3

P  t ~

(8.43)

Validity of the Larmor formula The Larmor formula although not covariant in form
can indeed be extended such as to be valid for all inertial frames.
One point that should definitely be raised is power radiated for more than one accelerating
charge. It is not so simple that one may assume that power is proportional to the number of
sources N. What must be understood is whether or not the sources are radiating coherently
or incoherently. For example, consider the above case of circular motion. If we had a
large collection of particles such as the case with in a particle storage ring or in circular
wire, the radiation is not automatically proportional to N. If they are bunched the power is
proportional to N 2 , this is coherent radiation. If the charges are distributed homogeneously
the radiated power is 0. And if the charges are distributed evenly but fluctuate thermally
then power is proportional to N, this is incoherent radiation.
E ND

OF EXAMPLE

8.3 %

VAVILOV- C ERENKOV EMISSION

E XAMPLE 8.4

Show that the potentials at time t at a point inside the Vavilov-Cerenkov

cone receive
contributions from exactly two positions of the charged particle.

Solution
The motion of the charge is given by x =  t =H+

  x  x=  2  y2  x  v  t =  t  2  y2
 x2  v2  t  t =  2  2vx  t  t =  y2

r2

but r

c
n

r2

v  t = t  so that

(8.44)

 t  t =  is the retarded distance so that

c2
t
n2 

 t=  2  0

(8.45)

or, from the expression for r 2 above:

x2

 v2  t  t =  2  2vx  t  t =  y2 


v2

c2
!
n2

c2
t
n2 

 t=  2  0

2
2
2
 t  t =   2vx  t  t =  y  x  0

(8.46)
(8.47)

This is a quadratic equation in  t  t = . For a fixed t we would in other words have two
values of t = . It remains to show that the result is physically reasonable.
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70

L ESSON 8. R ADIATION

 2vx Z

 t  t = #

 vx Z




 t  t= 

4v2 x2  4  x2  y2   v2
2  v 2  c2  n 2 

FROM

M OVING P OINT C HARGES

 c2  n 2 

 x2  y2  v2 y2
2
v2  nc2

c2
n2

(8.48)

c2 2
x  y2 #; v2 y2
n2 
c2
y2
;
n 2 v2
x2  y2
2
sin c ; sin2
8 c

.
.
.
.

(8.49)
(8.50)
(8.51)
(8.52)

where c is the critical angle of the Cerenkov

radiation; it is half of the opening angle of
the shock wave of the radiation. So that, in other words,  x 9 y  is inside the cone! It remains
to be shown that x 8 0

 t  t= 

v2

c2
!
n2

Z
]

c2 2
x
n2 

Z vx
]

 y2  v2 y2  vx

c2  x2  y2 
n 2 v2
x2

y2
x2

 vx

 vx Z sin2 c 2  tan2  1
cos
0 ]
1
 1  cos2 c   1  cos2   1
 vx Z
cos2
0 ]
1
cos2

c
 1
 vx Z 1 
cos2
0 ]
1

 t  t= 
J

v2

c2

(8.53)

cos2

c
 2 !  vx Z 1 
 1
2
n
cos
]
0J
1N
MK L
N
KML

(8.54)

E ND

Draft version released 15th November 2000 at 20:39

OF EXAMPLE

8.4 %

L ESSON 9

Radiation from
Accelerated Particles
9.1

Coverage

The generation of EM fields via Linard-Wiechert potentials are considered simultaneously with the Lorentz force to give a self-consistent treatment of radiation
problems. In the previous lesson we solve radiation problems from given expressions for the motion. Now we consider how charges actually move in the EM fields
and thus present the Lorentz force. We also discuss the effect of radiation on the
motion of the radiating body itself known as radiative reaction

9.2

Formulae used

The covariant Lorentz force

d m v

dt

q E  v

Draft version released 15th November 2000 at 20:39

(9.1)

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