Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Series
MASTER SERIES
Using the Cognitive
Approach to Improve
Problem-solving Training
by Kenneth H. Silber, PhD
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they tie together all the declarative knowledge in memory; they are the structures into which one organizes
information, put it into memory, retrieve it from memory,
and learn by expanding and restructuring existing structures.
they provide the most meaningful application of declarative knowledge in isolation. Adults rarely spout networks of facts, or run around finding new instances of
concepts, but do frequently try to explain how or why
things happen or work.
they form a bridge between declarative knowledge
(knowledge about) and procedural knowledge (knowing
how); to do procedures (other than rote ones), one has to
know how the system works, that is, have a mental
model of the system.
the structure of the mental model is very different for
expert performers and for novices, with experts having
not only more information in their models, but also different ways of organizing the information to facilitate
retrieval and use in problem solving. This indicates the
importance of developing appropriate mental models if
the learner is going to become a competent performer.
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Teaching Problem-solving
There are many complex issues involved in teaching problem solving. The issues will be discussed during the Masters
Series Presentation at the 2002 International Conference
and are discussed in even greater length in Foshay, Silber,
and Stelnicki (2002). Those issues include the following:
The relationship between mental models and problemsolving
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ers jobs easier, better, faster, more pleasant, more interesting, and more important.
Build the learners confidence by emphasizing, You can do
it. They need to feel they can succeed both at learning the
problem-solving skill in training and at applying it successfully on the job. Selected strategies for doing so include the
following:
Explain how past learners just like them have succeeded
in learning this skill.
Explain how they have already succeeded at doing some
problemsolving very similar to the new knowledge.
Be honest about the initial difficulty of the problemsolving task.
2. Link. Recall existing mental models that form the basis for
the problem solving. If teaching the mental model at the same
time as the problem-solving task, then recall the facts, concepts,
and principles that make up the mental model. It is not enough
to just recall this declarative knowledge in isolation; the lesson
must recall the structures into which the knowledge has been
stored and show the relationships among the declarative
knowledge and its relationship to the problem-solving task.
Relate the mental model and the problem-solving task to problems the learner already knows. Explain or show how the new
problem fits into the existing problem structures or modifies
that structure, and how the new problem structure relates to
the context in which the problem-solving skill will be applied.
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practice and assessments, with scenario-based simulations, games, and projects. Do not teach problem solving
as an independent, abstract, decontextualized skill.
Use direct (deductive) teaching strategies for declarative
knowledge and well-structured problem solving. (This
applies to well-structured problems.)
Use inductive teaching strategies to encourage synthesis of
mental models and for moderately and ill-structured problem solving. (This applies to ill-structured problems.)
Within a problem exercise, help the learners understand
(or define) the goal, then help them to break it down into
intermediate goals. (This applies to ill-structured problems.)
Use the errors learners make in problem solving as evidence of misconceptions, not just carelessness or random
guessing. If possible, determine the probable misconception and correct it.
Ask questions and make suggestions about strategy to
encourage learners to reflect on the problem solving
strategies they use. Do this either before or after the
learner takes action. (This is sometimes called cognitive
coaching and applies to ill-structured problems.)
Provide opportunities to practice similar problem solving strategies across multiple contexts to encourage generalization. (This applies to all, though most important
for ill-structured problems.)
Ask questions that encourage the learner to grasp the
generalizable part of the skill, across many similar problems in different contexts. (This applies to all, though it
is most important for ill-structured problems.)
Use contexts, problems, and teaching styles that will
build interest, motivation, confidence, persistence, and
knowledge about self and reduce anxiety.
Plan a series of lessons that grow in sophistication from
novice-level to expert-level understanding of the knowledge
structures used. (This applies to all types of problems,
though it is probably most important for ill-structured.)
When teaching well-structured problem solving, allow
learners to retrieve it (for example, from a reference
card). If the procedure is frequently used, encourage
memorization of the procedure and practice until it is
automatic. (This applies to well-structured problems.)
When teaching moderately structured problem solving,
encourage the learners to use their declarative (context)
knowledge to invent a strategy that suits the context and
the problem. Allow many right strategies to reach the
solution, and compare them for efficiency and effectiveness. (This applies to ill-structured problems.)
When teaching ill-structured problem solving, encourage learners to use their declarative (context) knowledge
to define the goal (properties of an acceptable solution),
then invent a solution. Allow many right strategies
and solutions, and compare them for efficiency and
effectiveness. (This applies to moderate- to ill-structured
problems.)
NOTE: This article contains material originally published in Silber (1998) and is used by permission.
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Masters
Statement
MASTER SERIES
What defines your mastery?
My mastery is defined by my ability to look at cognitive
ID from the point of view of both an academic and a
practitioner. As an academic, with more than 30 years
in the field, I have the ability to understand the theoretical and research issues under discussion and to sort
out real research-based advances in theory from philosophical fads. As a practitioner with 15 years doing ID
in corporate settings, I have the ability to translate theory into practice and to answer the question, This theory is nice, but what, if any, practical difference does it
make in how I do ID for my client tomorrow?
References
Anderson, J.R. (1995a). Cognitive psychology and its implications (5th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
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