Prelim Ag Notes

Experimental Design
1. Explain the role of control, randomisation, replication and standardisation in Agricultural experiments.
Control is the part of experiment that does not receive treatment, and is used as a standard so that
variations between treatments can be compared.
Randomisation is when treatments are distributed so that plots/animals have an equal chance of receiving
treatment. It assists in preventing bias during sampling and treatment allocation
Replication is the process of repeating each treatment several times within the experiment to help
overcome any experimental error and increase the accuracy of the results.
Standardisation is when all conditions in an experiment (e.g. climate, soil, shape) are as equal as possible. All
plots/animals should be managed in exactly the same way so that the only thing different is the variable or
treatment being tested, e.g. in a fertiliser trial, the only thing that varies is the amount of fertiliser applied.
Plot size and shape, irrigation and planting rate should be the same.
2. Analyse and present data. Calculate the mean, mode, median, range, standard deviation, variance,
coefficient of variation, normal distribution and standard error.
Variance is the measure of how closely values cluster around the mean.
=

( )2

Standard deviation helps observe the spread of results about the mean, and is the square root of variance
Coefficient of variation is the absolute measure of dispersion
=

100
1

Normal distribution is a bell-shaped curve on a graph that is symmetric and asymptotic to the horizontal axis
Standard error determines if differences between two or more sets of data are significant. The significance
of an experimental result is the probability at a chosen level of significance that the result will hold true. 5%
is the normal significance level, which means that the result obtained in the experiment should be
obtainable 95% of the time.
3. Agricultural record keeping broilers
Weekly weight
Deaths
Previous trial records
Feed amounts and costs
Temperatures
4. Measures of performance chick trial
The feed conversion ratio (FCR) is used to calculate an animals efficiency in gaining weight from food eaten.
Animals with low FCR are efficient users of feed, e.g. poultry converts 2-3kg of feed to 1kg of live weight. The
ratio is always in the form of X : 1, i.e. the weight gained by the animal must be in the ratio of 1
=
Feed
Live weight vs. dressed weight (dressing percentage) The dressed weight of an animal is the weight of the
carcass with all the other parts removed. The higher the dressing percentage, the less waste. Broilers have a
dressing weight of about 66%

Mortality rate

100
1

100
1

%
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Prelim Ag Notes
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The gross margin provides an indication of the profitability of an activity on a farm, and includes only
variable costs, not fixed costs.
=
The least cost feed for chickens is calculated by finding the cost of the feed it takes for chickens to put on 1kg
live weight. Data needed to calculate this are the FCR, the cost of the bag of feed and the weight of the bag
5. Farm technology broilers
Electronic scales show an accurate digital reading of the weight of the animal
A brooder is a heated house. It is a chicks first enclosure and keeps the chicks warm
The use of feed formulation is the process of quantifying amounts of feed ingredients to form a single
uniform mixture that supplies all their nutrient requirements
Breeding is the control of the mating and production of poultry offspring e.g. through selection
Marketing includes phone, internet and fax for orders, freezers for undressed chickens, and plastic bags so
that the consumer can carry the chicken with ease
6. Safe handling and management techniques for the care and welfare of animals legal requirements
relating to the care and welfare of the animal
The Code of Practice for the Welfare of Animals Domestic Poultry outlines optimum conditions for birds
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act
Occupational Health and Safety
7. Growth and development
Growth is the increase in size and weight of an animal as it gets older
Development is the changes in proportions of various parts of animals body as it gets older
Carcass components Carcass consists of muscle, bone and fat. The ideal carcass contains the maximum
amount of muscle, an optimum amount of fat and a minimum amount of bone. Proportions of carcass
components change as the animal develops bone and muscle proportions decrease and the fat proportions
increase as the animal becomes heavier
Factors affecting carcass composition are breed (the carcass of dairy cattle are leaner than beef), sex (female
cattle are usually fatter than castrated males, who are usually fatter than entire males), and nutrition (if
growth is restricted because of inadequate feed, fat is the tissue that is affected most, followed by muscle,
while bone is relatively unaffected)

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Prelim Ag Notes
Overview of Agriculture
1. Agricultural systems the interaction between subsystems on a farm, resources, plants, animals,
management and microbes. Understand the meaning of the terms system, subsystem, inputs, outputs,
monitoring, feedback and resources. Construct an appropriate model showing interactions between
subsystems on a farm.

e.g. Animals cattle, sheep; plants pastures, orchids; microbes/invertebrates bacteria; manager farmer
A system is a group of parts (subsystems) that interact to achieve a purpose e.g. JRAHS Farm
A subsystem is a system that forms part of the total system e.g. pasture subsystem
Inputs are materials that go into a farming system e.g. fertiliser
Outputs are items or materials produced by a system e.g. hay
Monitoring is the process of checking up on a system over time from time to time
Feedback is the information received by the farmer that reflects the performance of the system
Resources are things available to be used that will aid in the production of outputs e.g. soil, water, climate
2. The patterns of climate and soil resources that influence the distribution of agricultural enterprises.
Influences of distribution include climate (temperature, rainfall, humidity, frost, sunlight, wind), soil
resources (type of soil e.g. clay, texture, acidity, drainage, nutrients) and the social aspect (closeness to
market, transport to market, demand)
The four main agricultural areas of Australia are temperate, subtropical, tropical, and arid/semi-arid

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Prelim Ag Notes
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The temperate region covers most of NSW. It has warm-hot summers with low rainfall, and cold winters with
high rainfall and frosts. Enterprises include wheat, oats, barley and sheep

The subtropical region consists of four major zones, and is south of the tropics. It has similar conditions to
the tropical region, but has cooler winters and rare frosts. Enterprises include avocadoes, bananas, coconuts,
sugarcane and pineapple

The tropical region is north of the Tropic of Capricorn. It has warm-hot summers with high rainfall and cool
winters with low rainfall. It does not experience frosts. However, it has a low population density, which
means that it is a long distance to the market. Enterprises include sugar cane, tobacco, sunflowers and rice

The arid/semi-arid region makes up about 70% of Australia, and is located in central Australia. It has a harsh
environment with hot days, cold nights, and low and erratic rainfall. Cropping is unsuitable due to the low
rainfall. Enterprises include sheep and cattle grazing stations.

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Prelim Ag Notes

There are five main agricultural areas based on the climate in NSW
Western Plains
Western Slopes
Tablelands
Temperature - Very hot and
- Sub-humid
- Humid
dry summers
climate
- Cold in
- Frost in winter
winter
Rainfall
- Unreliable
- 300-600mm
- Ample
- <250mm/year
- North has
- Fairly evenly
summer rains
distributed
- South has
rainfall
winter rains
Soil types

- Low in N
- Sandy to clay

- Heavy texture
- Sandy loams

Enterprises

- Merino sheep

- Merino sheep,
lambs, pigs,
cattle, poultry
and dairy
- Grapes

- Hard
sedimentary
rock
- Alluvial
granite loam
- Potatoes
- Maize
- Vegetable
crops
- Some cattle

Eastern Scarp
- High summer
temperatures
- Less than
north coast

- Stony shallow
soils on hills
- Similar to
coast
- Beef cattle
- Santa
Gertrudis
- Hereford
- Devon

Coastal Zone
- High
humidity
- Mild winters
- North has
summer
rains
- South has
winter rains
- High rainfall
- Alluvial
(fertile)
- Stony soils
- Sedimentary
- Dairy and
poultry
- Sugarcane
- Vegetables

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Prelim Ag Notes
3. The impact of physical, biological, social, historical and economic factors on systems.
Type of factor Factor
Impact on a farm
Physical
Soil
Low soil fertility will dramatically reduce plant growth
Topography
Steep slopes are not suitable for cultivation
Climate rainfall
Drought severely reduces pasture production
temperature
Low temperatures may induce frosts which inhibits plant
growth or kills plants e.g. beans
Biological
Animals e.g. cattle
Overstocking may lead to soil compaction, which reduces
plant growth or death through stampedes
Plants e.g. fireweed
Can cause illness or death in cattle if consumed too much
Micro-organisms e.g.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria that increases soil fertility
Rhizobium bacteria
Social
Anything on or off the farm
Influences farm manager in making decisions
that influences the farm
Historical
Land clearing
Over-cultivation has led to soil degradation e.g. erosion
Rabbits
Rabbits eat large areas of pasture and dig warrens, which
leads to soil degradation
Economic
Costs and prices
The cost-price squeeze have forced farmers to either
economise their farm or be kicked out of the industry

4. Access information relevant for Australian agriculture

Sources of information include textbooks (e.g. Dynamic Agriculture), magazines (e.g. Australian Agriculture,
the Internet, Bureau of Meteorology, Agfact documents and TV programs (e.g. Landline)

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Prelim Ag Notes

Nursery Excursion
Arborglen Nursery, Glenorie (100 acres)
1. How has the nursery modified the environment to improve/increase production? How does the climate
affect what is produced on the nursery?
Topography Before the nursery opened, the area was bushland and undulating (hilly). To create space for
plants to grow, and therefore increase production, the area was cleared, filled and levelled.
Temperature Plants can stand up to certain temperatures until they stress or die. To address this, plants
were placed in glasshouses, where the temperature can be modified through air conditioners and fans.
Rainfall Some plants require certain amounts of water to grow. Irrigation is carried out when there is
insufficient rainfall.
Wind The wind at Arborglen can be extremely rough, especially during the afternoon, and therefore is
extremely likely to knock over some pot plants. Because the nursery is huge, it is possible that the farmers
would miss it and the plant would die. Plants are put into glasshouses and igloos to overcome this.
2. What are the source, availability and quality of the water (i.e. does it have to be treated in any way)? What
is the water used for?
Water sources include town water, dam water and bore water. There are seven dams on the nursery.
Dam water is readily available, as rainfall fills up the dams
As the pH of the water is too high for most plants (pH 7-8), phosphoric acid is used to lower the pH
The water is used for watering plants, propagation (town water only) and cleaning. The water is recycled
back into the dams through run-off.

3. Explain how the nursery is influenced by the topography.

The nurserys topography was designed so that the area would be levelled, filled and cleared, but also
allowing run-off into the dams.

4. What potting mixes/propagating mixes are used for plant production?

Propagating mixes consist of peat moss and perlite. The peat moss retains the moisture and fertiliser while
the perlite gives the mixture a bit of body.

5. Name some capital equipment on the nursery. Name some improvements that have been carried out.
Capital equipment include glasshouses, igloos, maintenance sheds, a dock, pumps, seedling machines and
potting machines
Dish drainage has been installed for quicker drainage, and more igloos, rows and dams have been added

6. How many people work on the nursery? What type of jobs are carried out by these employees?
There are 52 permanent employees and 80 contractors. During peak time, 30-40+ contractors are also hired
There are 4 managers, growers, nursery hands, maintenance crew, office staff, drivers and contractors

7. What are the main types of plants grown? List the fertiliser(s) that are used and the nutrients supplied by
the fertilisers. Is there a Quality Assurance program?
Plants grown include flowers, herbs, trees, shrubs, climbers, cottage plants, bloomers, vegetables, cacti,
succulents and indoor plants
Slow-release fertilisers are used as a solid or liquid, and contain NPK, as well as magnesium and calcium
There is a Quality Assurance program

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Prelim Ag Notes

8. What pests and diseases affect the nursery? How are they monitored? What control/prevention measures
are carried out?
One full-time employee monitors and controls all the pests, diseases and weeds. A horticulturalist also
comes in fortnightly to advise how to control and prevent pests and diseases.
Rats eat the vegetables, especially the pea seeds. Sparrows pull out the plants and their roots. Physical
barriers such as nets prevent rats and sparrows from accessing the plants, and rat poison (for rats) and
pesticides control the pests.
Aphids pierce and suck the sap out of plants such as roses, which distorts the foliage. Plants can be spot
sprayed with insecticides to prevent aphids, and aphids can be physically controlled by manually removing
9. What methods of propagation are used on the nursery?
Cuttings, tubing, grafting are all carried out.
For cuttings, the cut is made just below a node and the bottom leaves are carefully removed. Rooting
hormones are treated onto the base of the cutting, and the cutting is placed in a propagation mix.
Grafting is the process of taking a rootstock of one plant and a scion of another. The tissues from one plant
are inserted into the other so that the two sets of vascular tissues may join together.
10. What types of technology are there on the nursery?
Technologies on the farm include tractors, forklifts, computer machines that run the irrigation systems,
pumps, seeding machines and potting machines
11. Describe the product preparation and processing. Are there any on-farm value adding, market(s)
targeted, market specifications and selling options?
Plants are picked, prepared (removing dead leaves and weeds), labelled, invoiced and dispatched
Value-adding techniques include using placing plants in colourful plastic pots with labels
The market targeted are people who are interested in buying plants
Market specifications include reaching a certain size, labelled, cleaned and not overgrown
Selling options 80-90% of the plants produced are shipped to the 16 Flower Power retail stores, while the
excess stock are shipped to other areas
12. What types of feedback information are available? How can feedback information be used to monitor
and improve performance on the nursery?
Every day through the phone, owners and directors of businesses provide feedback to the nursery
If there is a problem that the feedback information addresses, the problem is dealt with instantly
13. What management practices are carried out?
Management practices include weeding with pre-emergent chemicals e.g. Ronstar, pruning, fertilising,
watering, pest and disease control, and propagation

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Prelim Ag Notes
Farm Case Study School Farm Prime Lambs
1. List the enterprises on the school farm and briefly describe the marketing and consumer preferences for
each enterprise.
Enterprise
Saleable Products
Marketing
Angus stud
Steers, young bulls, cull cows, cow heifers
Camden Saleyards Auction, Private
sale
Prime lambs
Prime lambs (30-35kg live weight), cull ewes,
Camden Saleyards Auction
cull ram
Broilers
Frozen chicken
School canteen
Egg Production 1 dozen cleaned eggs
School canteen
Apiary
250g or 500g jars
School canteen
Orchard
Washington Navel oranges, peaches, peach jam School canteen, school quadrangle
Vegetables
Sweet corn (cobs)
School quadrangle

2. Describe the physical environment of the school farm.

a. Describe weather measuring instruments used on the farm.
A rain gauge measures the amount of rainfall, but is not very accurate due to the wind.
A maximum-minimum thermometer automatically records the maximum and minimum temperatures daily.
A wet and dry bulb thermometer measures the relative humidity. One thermometer has wet cloth wrapped
around it. If air is dry (and therefore the humidity is low), water will evaporate from cloth, and will cool
thermometer. Relative humidity is the difference between the two readings on the thermometers.
An evaporimeter is a metal container with water surface exposed to air, and measures the evaporating
power of the air.
b. Identify the monthly averages for North Parramatta.
Rainfall 930mm
- Minimum temperature 21.5C
Maximum temperature 23C
- Evaporation 117.7mm
c. Define effective rainfall, growing season, components of soil, soil texture and soil structure.
Effective rainfall is when

Growing season is during the time when there are consecutive months of effective rainfall. The growing
season for North Parramatta is January to August.
The components of soil are 45% mineral parts (gravel, sand, silt and clay), 5% organic parts (dead leaves and
roots, decomposed material), 25% air and 25% water
Soil texture refers to the fineness and coarseness of the soil particles and depends on the proportions of
sand, silt and clay particles. The texture determines the size and spacing of soil pores, and influences
drainage, aeration, water-holding capacity, nutritional and water status, productivity and ease of cultivation
Sand Properties
Clay Properties
- Large particles
- Small particles
- Course texture
- Fine texture
- Poor structure
- Good structure
- Low water and nutrient-holding capacity
- High water and nutrient-holding capacity
- Large pore spaces
- Small pore spaces
- Easy to cultivate
- May be hard to cultivate
- Improved by adding organic matter
- Improved by adding organic matter
Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles (sand, silt and clay) in a soil. The basic unit is a soil
ped. The shape and alignment of the peds, along with the soil texture and number of pore spaces, determine
how much air, water, plant roots, and soil organisms can be found in the given soil.

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Prelim Ag Notes
-

Types of peds include:

- crumb small individual pieces, porous, best agricultural soil, easily penetrated by roots
- granular small pieces, not as porous as it consists of clay, impaired drainage and aeration
- platy overlapping layers, restricts water flow and root penetration, poor structure
- blocky close fitting, square-shaped pieces
- prismatic elongated pieces with angular tops
- columnar elongated pieces with rounded tops, good drainage
Advantages of good soil structure include less erodability, good drainage and aeration, and needs less
cultivation
Soil structure can be improved by increasing colloids through growing a pasture, adding animal or green
manures and using chemicals such as krillum
Soil structure is destroyed through moving around wet soil, overcropping and too much cultivation
d. Construct a soil profile of the school farm.
Because the farms soil texture is clay loam, it is prone to water logging, that is, it has too much water
retention. This is because it consists of clay, which has a high water-holding capacity.
Soil profile of school farm
Location Aquaculture
Parent Material Shale
Topography Undulating Aspect North-facing
shed, JRAHS farm
from Wianamatta
Vegetation
Land Use Grazing
Erosion Very little, if
Drainage
Predominantly kikuyu
any
Surface: Suitable
pasture
Profile: Poor
Climate
Climate
Soil Type/Texture
Mean annual
Mean annual temp.:
Cumberland Shire clay
rainfall:1141.7mm
12.4-23.0C
loam
Horizon
Depth (cm) Colour
Texture
Structure Organic
No.
Matter
A
30
Brown
Clay loam
Good
Present
B
30-100
Red brown Clay
Poor
Not present
e. Describe the school cultivation implements.
Primary/Secondary Description and purpose
Rotary hoe
Primary
Cultivates vegetable plots for an
extremely fine seedbed
Chisel plough
Primary/Secondary Prongs break up the soil up to 2030cm deep
Deep ripper
Primary
Breaks up soil and any clay pans 5060cm deep
Offset disc plough Primary
Scallops chop up vegetation material
and partially buries it
Diamond harrows Secondary
Breaks up large clods

Roots

pH

Present
Not present

5.5
5

Damage to soil
Maximum compacts
soil and forms hard clay
Average
Average
Average
High

3. Describe the biological environment of the farm.

Plants crops (sweet corn, potatoes), pastures (kikuyu, lucerne, oats), weeds (stinging nettle, thornapple),
trees (macadamia, turpentine)
Animals vertebrates (cattle, sheep, poultry), invertebrates (bees, roundworms, moths)
Microbes rumen micro-organisms found in cattle, rhizobium bacteria found in legumes

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Prelim Ag Notes
4. Calendar of operations for a production system prime lamb enterprise
Month
Operation
January
February
Joining
March
Joining
April
May
Annual 5-in-1 booster vaccine for ewes and ram
June
July
Lambing
August
Lambing
September
Lamb marking vaccination, tail docking, cryptorchid
October
November
Second booster vaccination
December
Sale at Camden Saleyards, shearing, check ewes and ram for
health and fitness
- Lambs are weighed periodically to determine growth rate and when they have reached market weight
- Drenching is carried out when necessary by using a broad spectrum drench like Ivomec. Required in
summer months and for ewes after lambing, as they are most susceptible to roundworms. Alternate
drenches (Ivomec and Synanthic) are used to prevent the development of resistance in worms.
- Supplementary feeding supplied when necessary, such as during the winter months and drought.
- Foot/hoof paring is carried out when necessary
- Crutching and ear marking are not necessary

5. Physical resources on the school farm.

Fences electric and security fences with barbed and plain wire
Buildings feed shed, shearing shed and poultry shed
JRAHS dam
Machinery tractor, cultivation and haymaking equipment
Irrigation infrastructure and water troughs

6. Agricultural record keeping prime lambs

Dates of joining and lambing times
Drenching
Monitoring weight
Deaths

7. Measures of performance prime lambs

Lambing percentage (the percentage of pregnant ewes)
Growth rate (g/day)
Weight and price received at sale
Bees Honey (kg/hive)
Poultry Eggs (eggs/hen/year)

8. Problems associated with production

Climate Cold temperatures during lambing may kill or stress lamb, while high temperatures at joining may
affect the fertility of the ram. Hot and dry weather or frosty and cold weather may reduce pasture growth

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Prelim Ag Notes
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Disease Roundworms, blowfly, foot rot may affect animals on the farm, but can be solved with disease
prevention programs e.g. drenching
Nutrition In winter, pastures may be slow growing and therefore there is inadequate nutrition for the
sheep. To overcome this, supplementary feeding is implemented.
Soil The fertility of soil can affect the nutrition and growth of the crops. The JRAHS farm has a heavy clay
loam instead of the preferable fertile loam
Market Marketing specifications require a full set of milk teeth and 40kg live weight for lambs
Fertility The breeding season is controlled by day length. When the day length is getting shorter, it
stimulates the breeding season. British and European breeds respond to the length of days.
Management expertise Poor management decisions will lead to reduced levels of production
9. Role of the farm manager
A farm manager makes decisions, orders supplies e.g. feed, organises farmhands work, co-ordinates various
work activities on farm, oversees the well-being of livestock, ensures maintenance work is being carried out
e.g. infrastructure and liaises with the farm management committee
10. Current management practices, with reference to sustainability problems and strategies.
Problem
Management Practices
Erosion and structural decline
- Avoid excessive cultivation with rotary hoe
vegetable plot
- Grass strips between each plot to help contain the soil
- Mulch to cover exposed soil from wind erosion
Erosion old sheep night paddock
- Avoid overgrazing by rotating paddocks
- Good vegetative cover
- Fence off bare areas
- Avoid sheep overstock
Erosion orchard
- Grass to stop erosion
- Mulch around peach trees
Compaction around gates
- Rotate paddocks to stop using the same area again and again
- Avoid sheep overstock
Malnutrition in soil
- Rotate crops so that the same nutrients are not all drawn out

11. Farm technology lambs and marketing

Rudweigh electronic scales monitors the live weights of lambs up to the point of sale
Cross breeding Border Leicester ewes are crossed with a Poll Dorset ram
Husbandry equipment such as a drencher, vaccination needle and pack, as well as shearing, tail docking and
hoof paring equipment
The production of a cryptorchid produces larger, more muscular, leaner carcass
Telephone/fax is used to co-ordinate the sales at Camden Saleyards
A saleyard feedback sheet is supplied by the stock and station agent
13. The agricultural workplace potential hazards and safe work practices employed
Enterprise Operation
Potential hazard
Safe work practice employed
Oranges spraying for citrus leaf miner
Chemical poisoning
Wear protective clothing e.g.
boots, gloves, respirator, mask
Cattle placing cows into the cattle crush
Being kicked (broken leg) Handle cattle quietly and carefully
Haymaking mowing the pasture
Injury sustained from
Follow comprehensive instruction
machinery (loss of limb)
on the use of machinery
Broiler Lifting bags of broiler feed
Back injury
Use correct lifting technique
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Prelim Ag Notes

14. Animal welfare requirements sheep

Welfare Requirement - Description
Adequate nutrition To sustain good health
and vigour
Sufficient water Access to suitable quality
water to meet physiological needs
Social contact With other sheep, but with
sufficient space to stand, lie down and stretch
Protection from predation
Protection from pain, injury and disease
Protection from extremes of weather which
may be life-threatening
Precautions against the effect of natural
disasters provisions
Appropriate handling facilities Under
normal usage, does not cause injury and
minimises stress to the sheep

Management operation(s) to help meet requirements

- Supplementary feed
- Irrigate and fertilise pasture
- Grow winter-growing pastures e.g. oats, ryegrass
- Clean and refillable water trough
- Include a dam on the property
- Keep sheep in the same paddock at the recommended
stocking rate
- Stable electric fences
- Set traps and baits
- Get professional shooters
- Vaccinations once a year
- Drenches
- Crutching (against blowflies) and mulesing
- Shelter
- Wind brakes
- Move sheep to higher ground in case of flood
- Backup supply of water and supplementary feed in case
of drought
- Well-built and designed sheep yards

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