Form 5 Chapter 1: MICROORGANISM AND THEIR EFFCTS ON LIVING THING

1.1 Classification of Microorganism

Microorganisms are tiny organisms that can only be seen under microscope
Called as microbe
Found in surround of the air, water, soil, other object and in the bodies of other
organisms.
The characteristics include their appearance, shape, size, method of reproduction,
nutrition and habitat
The Types of Microorganisms:

Virus
Algae

Protozoa

Microorganisms

Bacteria

Fungi

Bacteria
Characteristics
unicellular (one-celled structural level)
prokaryotic cells that lack nucleus (no nuclear membrane) (NO nucleus)
have cell walls NO cellulose in cell walls
A single chromosome:
A closed circle of double-stranded DNA.
With no associated histones.
Larger than virus
Most abundant organism on earth
Live in the air, water, soil, food and in the bodies of animals.
can live in both aerobic
(with O2) and anaerobic
(without O2) environments
Size

Tiny unicellular organisms

Size: 0.2 m 10.0 m.
Only visible using a high
powered microscope

Classification based on shapes

Bacilli: Rod-shaped
Cocci: Spherical
Spirilla: Spiral
Vibrios: Comma-shaped

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Table below shows the structure and function of a bacterial cell.

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Modes of Nutrition
a) Saprotrophic
Feeding on decaying organic matter
b) Parasitic
Obtaining nutrient from another living organisms (host) and causing disease
in them
c) Autotrophic
Able to manufacture its own food using energy from the Sun or inorganic
compound

Reproduction
a) Asexual
Binary fission
Under ideal conditions of warmth humidity and nutrients, bacteria can
multiply rapidly
For example, the common bacteria Escherichia coli doubles in number
every 20 minutes

Formation of spores
Occurs in adverse condition
Spores are very resistant to heat or cold
Spores are protected by a thick wall
b) Sexual
Conjugation exchange of genetic materials.
Conjugation tube forms between a donor and recipient. An enzyme nicks
the plasmid.
Plasmid DNA replication starts. The free DNA strand starts moving
through the tube.
In the recipient cell, replication starts on the transferred DNA.
The cells move apart and the plasmid in each forms a circle.

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Fungi
Characteristics
Eukaryotic (with membrane-bound organelles)
Some are unicellular such as yeast
Some are multicellular such as mucor, moulds and mushrooms
Plant that do not have chlorophyll - Do not photosynthesis
The size ranges from 10 to 100m
Can be found in dark and damp places
Have various shapes, sizes and colours.

Habits of Fungi
Decaying organic matter.
Found in outside / inside of living things.
Reproduction
a) Asexual
Spores formation
Spores disperse when sporangium burst
open.
Spores land on food source and start to
germinate into mycelia

Budding
Cell division takes place inside the sporangium to produce many spores
Shown by unicellular yeast.

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b) Sexual
Conjugation
Occurs when there is lack of water or food
Conjugation occurs in the swollen hypha (two hyphae fuse to form a spore)

Modes of Nutrition
a) Saprophytism
Take their nutrient from dead host. The hyphae secrete enzymes to digest
the organic food substances.
Soluble products of digestion absorbed by fungus through diffusion or
active transport. For example the bread mould which grows on the surface
of bread.
b) Parasitism
Parasitic fungi live on the living tissues of their hosts. For example, the
toadstool fungi live on tree trunks and cause potato blight

Protozoa
Characteristic
Unicellular microscopic organism
They have complex internal structures such as nuclei containing genetic
material
Size: 5 m 250 m.
They are easily seen under low magnification microscope.
Shape: various type round, spherical, spindle-shaped.
Can be found in soil, moist area, fresh water (Amoeba & Paramesium) and
inside the body of organisms (Plasmodium)
Protozoa get their nutrient by parasitism, saprophytism or as autotrophs

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Shape of AMOEBA
Does not have fix shape
Its shapes change when it moves
Use PSEUDOPODIA which help them to move
And use PSEUDOPODIA to capture and engulf food.
SHAPE OF PARAMESIUM
Shape like a slipper
Has a tiny hair called CILIA
CILIA were used to move and draw food into its body.

Reproduction
a) Asexual - Binary fission
In favourable conditions and sufficient food, mitotic division of a single parent
cell occurs

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b) Sexual Conjugation
Two parents of the same species exchange their genetic materials
Each parent divides and forms 4 daughter cells

Virus

Smallest microorganisms
Visible under electron microscope.
Size: 0.0006 m 0.4 m / (6 400 nm)
Different types of viruses have different shapes, maybe in spherical,
rectangular or rod-shaped.
The structure is simple
Viruses consist of strands of nucleic acid (DNA) which protected by a protein
coat
Are non-living things because they do not respire, do not excrete waste
products, and do not possess nucleus, cell membrane and cytoplasm
Do not carry out any characteristic of living things
Is a parasite inside living cells
When outside a cell, it forms a crystal
Only can reproduce or replicate inside the host cells
Taking over biochemical systems of the host cell
They do not need nutrition as well

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Shape of Viruses

HELICAL
head tail.

POLYHEDRAL

T-Phages

Reproduction

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Absorption, injection, replication, assembly and lysis.

Absorption: Phage attaches to cell membrane of host.
Injection: Nuclei acid (DNA) of virus injected into host cell.
Replication: Viral DNA inactivates host cell's DNA and uses host cell raw
materials, ribosome, to make viral DNA, capsids, tails and others.
Assembly: New viral parts are combined to make new phages.
Lysis: Enzymes weaken and destroy the cell membrane causing it to lyse
releasing new viruses to infect other cells.

Algae
Characteristic
Simple organism that make food through photosynthesis.
They have chlorophyll
They didnt have roots, stems and leaves or vascular system
Can be unicellular such as euglena or multicellular such as spirogyra
Size: 1 m 10 000 m.
Have various shapes, sizes and colours.
Microscopic algae live in fresh water, sea water, damp soil and on the barks
of trees
Some have nuclei and chloroplasts (green pigments).
Make their own food by carry out photosynthesis (autotrophs)
Most algae have pigments which use the wavelengths that penetrate water
Algae are the most important members of the aquatic food chain as
phytoplankton
Typically, every animals in the sea depend on (indirectly or directly)
phytoplankton for food
The photosynthetic activities of algae have generated 75% of the molecular
oxygen available on earth
However, excess of algae lead to eutrophication result in large scale death of
aquatic animals and plants species.

Structure
a) A nucleus
b) Cytoplasm
c) A cellulose call wall which gives it a definite shape
d) Chloroplasts of varying shapes which contain pigments (such as green,
brown or red) for photosynthesis
e) Flagella which are found in certain algae for locomotion

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Reproduction
a) Asexual
Binary fission
Spore
Fragmentation
b) Sexual - Conjugation

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1.2 Factors that Affect Growth of Microorganisms.

A. Nutrients
All microorganisms except viruses need nutrients for reproduction and
growing.
For example, carbon source provides energy for the growth of
microorganisms while nitrogen source supplies amino acids for protein
synthesis.
Parasites such as bacteria absorb nutrients from their hosts.
Saprophytes feeding on decaying organic matter.
Autotrophs such as algae manufacture their own food using energy
from the sun (photosynthesis) or inorganic compound.
B. pH Value
Most bacteria prefer slightly alkaline condition (pH=7.4). However,
bacteria can tolerate a wide range of pH
Yeast and protozoa prefer acidic condition (pH<5)
Extreme acidic and alkaline can destroy microorganisms.
The most suitable pH for the growth of microorganisms is the neutral
condition (pH=7)

C. Temperature
Most microorganisms are inactive and do not reproduce at low
temperature such as at 0oC
Optimum temperature for the growth of most microorganisms is
between 35oC and 45oC
High temperature (>50oC) can kills the microorganisms
The spore of microorganisms can be destroyed about 120oC
Temperature affects enzyme activity of microorganisms
D. Light Intensity
Microorganisms prefer dark environment
High intensity of ultraviolet rays can kill microorganisms
However, algae and photosynthetic bacteria need light for
photosynthesis

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E. Humidity
Microorganisms need humid condition for growing
Water is required for hydrolysis reaction and for cell expansion
The relative humidity between 25% to 40% is the most suitable
condition for microbial activity
When the relative humidity drops to 3%, the growth of microorganisms
are inhibited
Most microorganisms will die in dry condition. However, some can
change into spores which can withstand dryness until the
environment becomes humid again

1.3 Useful Microorganisms

A. Food Digestion
The stomachs of herbivores such as cows and sheep contain bacteria that
produce many useful enzymes. The most important enzyme is cellulase,
which breaks down cellulose, so that herbivores can absorb the nutrients
Human also have microorganisms in gut which help in food digestion and
are fed by certain yogurt drinks.
B. Decaying process
Syrophytic fungi and saprophytic bacteria decompose organic
substances into humus that contains simple minerals for plant
growth.
The elements which released during decay process (e.g. carbon, sulphur
and nitrogen) make soil more fertile
The decomposers play an important role in the decay process by cycling
the elements to prevent the accumulation of wastes of living organisms on
earths
Formation of humus
Some of saprophytic bacteria and fungi decompose organic matter into
humus (as fertilizer)
Production of biogas and fertilizers
Some of saprophytic bacteria decompose organic waste (e.g: waste from
oil palm, paddy and coconut) and turn it into methane gas (as fuel)
Disposal of oil spills
Some of bacteria break up oil spills and decompose it into less harmful
substance.

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C. Medicine
Bacteria and fungi used in the production of antibiotics.
Fungi Penicillin
Bacteria streptomycin & tetracycline
Antibiotics are used to prevent the growth of other microorganisms for the
treatment of diseases such as gonorrhea, syphilis and tuberculosis.
Antibiotics can only kill bacteria.
Dead or very weak bacteria and viruses are used to produce vaccine for
diseases such as chicken pox, cholera, tuberculosis and measles
Insulin produced by genetically engineered bacteria which is used to treat
diabetes mellitus.
D. Agriculture
Bacteria and fungi are used in agriculture to help improve soil fertility by
increasing the contents of nitrates and nitrites
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria produce nitrates which are then absorbed by
plants to produce plant proteins by converting the nitrogen gas in the soil
or air.
Nitrifying bacteria convert the ammonium compounds into nitrites and
finally into nitrates.
Some microorganisms are used in biological control to kill pests.
For example in Australia, the populations of wild rabbits are controlled by
using the Myxomatosis virus.
E. Industry
Food industry
~ Making bread: Yeast is added to the bread dough which contains
carbohydrates such as starch and glucose. Yeast cell carry out anaerobic
respiration and release carbon dioxide which makes the dough to rise.
~ Producing alcohol: Beer, wine and brandy are produced by the
fermentation process using yeast. Yeast is added to fruits (such as
grapes) or cereals (such as malt and barley). Enzyme zymase which is
produce by yeast cells acts on the glucose found in these fruits and
cereals. Ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy are produced.
yeast + sugar

enzyme

carbon dioxide + ethanol + energy

zymase
~ Making yoghurt: Fermentation of milk using bacteria at 46 oC produces
yoghurt which is then chilled at 5 oC. The bacteria which act on the sugar
in milk (or lactose), change it into lactic acid which then curdles the milk
proteins. The acid gives a sour taste to yoghurt.
bacteria
lactose
lactic acid
~ Making cheese: Bacteria act on the sugar in milk (or lactose) to produce
lactic acid which then coagulates the milk proteins and to form cheese.
~ Making vinegar: Bacteria act on ethanol and change it into acetic acid
(or vinegar) by means of anaerobic respiration.
bacteria
ethanol (alcohol) + oxygen
ethanoic acid (vinegar) + water

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~ Making soya sauce: Bacteria and fungi are mixed with wheat and
soya beans. This mixture is then incubated for certain period to produce
soya sauce.
Leather industry
~ The hard skin of an animal is separated from its tissues by
decomposing bacteria to produce leather.
~ Leather for clothing is softened using a protease from bacteria
Petrochemical industry
~ Saprophytic bacteria purify petroleum and metal

Food
Digestion

Medicine
- Antibiotics
- Vaccine

Decaying
Process
USE OF
MICROORGANISMS
Industry
- Petrolchemical
- Food
- Leather

Agriculture

1.4 Harmful microorganisms

Microorganisms that cause disease are called pathogens. They can be either
bacteria or viruses or fungi or protozoa.
Pathogens reproduce rapidly, can slow down the normal growth and metabolic
activities of body cells and tissues.
Pathogens produce toxins that can kill cells.
Diseases caused by bacteria

DISEASE
1.Tuberculosis
(Batuk kering)

METHOD
OF
INFECTI
ON
1. Through
food
2. Through
infected air
breathed
into the
lung

SYMPTOM

TREATMENT/PREVENTION

1. Patient loss weight

and appetite for food
2. Patient coughs
often, and in advanced
he coughs out of
blood.

1. Can be treated by using antibiotics

(i.e streptomycin and isoniazid)
2. Can be prevented through
immunization by BCG vaccine

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2. Cholera

1. Through
contaminat
ed water
and food.

1. Patient has severe

diarrhea and vomits
2. Patient feels giddy
and pain in abdomen
3. His body becomes
dehydrated.

1. Patient given saline drip and

antibiotic
2. How to prevent from being
infected?
i - Get vaccine
ii - Boil all drinking water
iii - Cover all food
iv - Increase the chlorine content in
water supply

3. Gonorrhoea

1. Through
sexual
intercourse

1. For male, his testis

becomes inflamed and
enlarged. He feels pain
during urination.
2. For female, she has
painful vagina and
uterus.

1. Can be treated by using antibiotics

(i.e penicillin)
2. Can be prevented by avoid having
sex with prostitutes.

4. Syphillis

1. Through
sexual
intercourse

1. Patient has fever and

non-itchy rash on the
body.
2. Patient has sores on
the penis or vagina
3. Patient has sore
throat and pain in the
bones and joint.

1. Can be treated by using antibiotics

(i.e penicillin)
2. Can be prevented by avoid having
sex with prostitutes.

5. Tooth decay

1. Through
foods
waste on
the teeths
surface.

1. Patient feels pain for

infected teeth since
teeths pulp is
badly inflamed

1. Can be prevented by:

I - Having a diet low in sugars
ii - Wash your mouth and brush your
teeth after eating.

Diseases Caused by Protozoa

DISEASE
1.Malaria
(Demam kepialu)

METHOD OF
INFECTION
1. Through
Anopheles
mosquito
(inject parasitic
protozoon
plasmodium
into blood)

SYMPTOM
1. Patient has high
temperature at
intervals
2. After fever,
patient feels very
cold and shivers.
3. Got rapid pulse
rate
4. Got very little
urine, which is very
yellow.

TREATMENT/PREVENTION
1. Can be treated by suitable drugs
such as plasmoquine, quinine, or
chloroquine
2. Can be prevented by:
i - fogging
ii - Keep our living place clean

Diseases caused by fungi

DISEASE
1.Tinea

METHOD OF
INFECTION
1. Through
spore of the
fungus

SYMPTOM
1. Whitish patches
appears on the
infected skin
(usually face or
back of the body)

TREATMENT/PREVENTION
1. Can be treated by suitable antifungal drugs
2. Can be prevented by:
i - keep the body clean and dry
ii - avoid direct contact with
infected person .
iii - do not share towel or comb

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2. Ringworm

1. Through
spore of the
fungus

1. A reddish area
appears on the
infected skin
2. Infected skin
becomes itchy

1. Can be treated by suitable antifungal drugs

2. Can be prevented by:
i - keep the body clean and dry
ii - avoid direct contact with
infected person .
iii - do not share towel or comb

Diseases Caused by Viruses

DISEASE
1.Common cold
(Influenza)

METHOD OF
INFECTION
1. Through
contaminated
air (when
people around
sneezes)

SYMPTOM
1. Patient gets cough,
fever, running nose and
red or watery eyes
2. Patient has a sore
throat
3. Patient becomes weak

TREATMENT/PREVENTIO
N
1. NO PROPER TREATMENT
2. Can be prevented by:
i - having proper diet
ii - have fresh and clean air
iii- keep away from the crowd

2. Dengue fever

1. Through
Aedes mosquito
(inject the virus
into patients
blood)

1. Patient has high fever.

2. Bleeding in nose and
gums
3. Pain in the bones,
joints, muscles and eyes
4. Blue marks appear on
the body

1. NO PROPER TREATMENT
2. How to prevent from being
infected?
i - Keep our living place clean
ii - Destroy Aedes mosquitos
habitat
iii - Fogging

3. AIDS
(Acquired
Immune
Deficiency
Sydrome)

1. Through 3
ways:
i -Sexual
intercourse
ii - Sharing of
syringes during
drug addicts
iii- Infected
pregnant
woman to her
baby.
1. Through
contaminated
food
2. Through the
use of
contaminated
syringes

1. Patient has fever and

diarrhea, and coughs
very often.
2. Patient has loss
appetite for food and
weight.

1. NO PROPER TREATMENT
2. Can be prevented by having
healthy clean life.

1. Patient has fever,

jaundice
2. Patient loss appetite &
tired
3. Patients has swollen
liver

1. NO PROPER TREATMENT
2. Can be prevented by
maintaining personal hygiene

4. Hepatitis

Transmission of Diseases

Method of spread
Infection Through Air
Also known as droplet infection
When the infected person sneezes, coughs or talks,
the pathogens that present in the respiratory tract
and nasal cavities are sprayed into the atmosphere
and hence infecting healthy person nearby
Examples of diseases: common cold (influenza),
tuberculosis (TB), measles and chicken pox

Ways of Prevention

Covering the
mouth/nose when
sneezing/ coughing
Do not spit
Avoiding crowded
area
Home is brightly lit
and airy

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Infection Through Water
It occurs when water from ponds, river and sea
always contaminated with faeces of infected person,
carcass and poor sanitation which usually contains
pathogens. So, these pathogens can spread into
water supplies due to unsanitary conditions /
seeped through the soil
Example of disease: cholera, typhoid fever, amoeba
dysentery and hepatitis A
Infection Through Food
It occurs when food contaminated by pathogens
due to unhygienic handling or houseflies presence
Example of disease: cholera, typhoid fever, food
poisoning, bacillus dysentery and hepatitis A
Infection Through Contacts
Through direct contact such as sexual activities,
sharing of syringe, blood transfusion and mother to
baby during delivery. Diseases: syphilis, gonorrhea,
AIDS and Hepatitis B
Through indirect contact of sharing towels, clothes,
shoes or combs. Diseases: tinea and ringworm
Infection Through Vector
Animals carry pathogens from an infected
individual to a healthy individual is called vector
Example: rat causes typhoid fever, housefly causes
cholera and dysentery, mosquitoes cause malaria,
dengue fever and filariasis

Improve sanitary
system
Drink boiled water
Adding chlorine to
tap water

Covering the food

Wash hands after
using toilet
Cook food
thoroughly
Maintaining ones
personal hygiene
Avoid sharing
personal belongings
such as towels and
shoes
Eliminate breeding
ground of vectors

1.5 PREVENTION OF DISEASES CAUSED BY

MICROORGANISMS
1. Prevention through the Control of Vectors
Common vectors, their pathogens and diseases transmitted by them can be shown
as following table:
Vector
Aedes mosquito
Anopheles mosquito
Housefly
Rats

Pathogen
Virus
Protozoa (plasmodium)
Bacteria
Fleas

Disease
Dengue fever
Malaria
Cholera
Plague

Control of vectors
A. Control of Mosquitoes
To control mosquitoes, we must:
a) drain marshes and unused ponds
b) clean the house from opened empty tins and coconut shells
c) put anti-larva chemicals (Abate) into ponds, drains and stagnant water
d) carry out fogging around living places
e) fix wire gauze at doors and windows
f) sleep under a mosquito net
g) rear larvae-eating fish as biological control
h) spray insecticide to kill the adult mosquitoes

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Egg are laid singly in stagnant water

Egg are
hatched and
becomes larva

Adult mosquito has

black stripes on the
abdomen and legs

Larva grows and becomes pupa

B. .Control of houseflies
To control houseflies, we must:
a) keep our surrounding cleans
b) cover our foods
c) throw organic waste into plastic bags and tied it up for disposal
d) spray insecticides to keep away the adult fly away
e) keep manure and compost heaps far away from houses.
f) cover rubbish bin

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2. Prevention through Sterilization

Definition of Sterilization:
Destruction of pathogens and their spores in a substance or object

2.1 Sterilization using Heat

a) Boiling
- Boiling a substance or an object in water at 100C for 20 minutes will kill all bacteria
cells but cannot destroy their spores.
- Surgical instruments in clinics or hospital are usually sterilized in this way by boiling
for 6 hours in boiling water.
b) Autoclave
- An autoclave is a steam sterilizer. The things to be sterilized are kept in closed
container and steam under high pressure and temperature of 120C for 15-20
minutes
- All the bacteria and spores will be destroyed in this way.
- Used to sterilize laboratory apparatus, culture medium and surgical instruments.
c) Dry air oven
- It can be used to sterilize glassware and metal objects.
- The things to be sterilized are kept in dry air oven at 170C for 15-20 minutes
- Effectiveness of sterilization using this way is less compare to using autoclave.

2.2 Sterilization using Chemicals

a) Antiseptics
- It can be used to prevent the growth of some bacteria and destroy some others.
- It usually used for cleaning wounds
- Example: iodine solution, hydrogen peroxide solution, boric acid and potassium
manganate (VII) solution
b) Disinfectants
- Powerful chemicals to destroy pathogens
- Cannot be applied on the surface of human skin, can damage human tissues.
- It used for sterilizing instruments, containers, cloths, floors, walls and etc.
- Example: lysol, chlorine, carbolic acid, formalin, formaldehyde, phenol and sodium
hypochlorite

2.3 Sterilization using Radiation

a) UV light
- The main source of ultraviolet (UV) light is sunlight
- Can kill bacteria and viruses
- Suitable for instruments which cannot stand with high temperature.
- Applied to lamp in surgical operating theatre and lab for air sterilizing.
b) Gamma rays
- Destroy microorganisms and spores
- High penetrate power
- It used for sterilizing surgical instruments and certain foods
- This method is more reliable, quicker and cheaper than sterilization by heat.
- Materials which are sensitive to chemical or heat can be sterilized by using gamma
rays
- Foods that have been sterilized in this way can be kept for a long period of time and
it is safe to eat.

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3. Prevention through Immunization

Definition of Immunization:
Process which increases the bodys defence against diseases
Definition of Antibodies:
- A type of protein which is made by white blood cells called lymphocytes to fight
against pathogens.
- Antibodies are produced when antigens (foreign bodies) or vaccines enter the body.
- One type of antibody fights only one type of pathogen (specific)
Definition of Antibodies:
- The ability of the body to use antibodies to combat invasion by pathogens
Importance of Immunity
- To prevent humans from being infected by certain diseases
- To help the infected person recovers fast.
- To prevent the disease from getting worst
- To prevent an outbreak and spread of certain diseases.
There are two types of immunity: Active immunity (body produces antibodies) and
Passive immunity (body received antibodies)
i. Natural Active Immunity
- Develops naturally after a person is infected with a pathogen.
- Very effective and may last for life.
- Examples: recovery from diseases such as chicken pox and mumps.
ii. Artificial active immunity
- acquired through immunization.
- Involves the use of vaccine that contains weakened pathogen.
- Examples: injection of vaccine.
iii. Natural passive immunity.
- acquired by the transfer of maternal antibodies to her offspring via the placenta or
breast milk.
- Examples: Breast-feeding. An infant receives from the mother because antibodies
are present in the mothers milk.
iv. Artificial passive immunity
- Induced by injection of serum taken from an individual already immune to a
particular antigen.
- Examples: Antiserum is injected to give immediate protection or to give rapid help in
treating a disease.

Comparison between Active Immunity and Passive Immunity

Similarities of Active & Passive Immunity
- Both help to fight pathogens
- Both involve antibodies

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Difference between Active & Passive Immunity

Active Immunity

Difference

To prevent the occurrence of

diseases temporarily or
permanently
Vaccine which contains
weakened/ dead pathogens
Body produces own
antibodies
Healthy people
Slow response

Purpose

Last long or permanent

Substance injected
into body
Source of
antibodies
People involved
Rate of immunity
response after an
injection is given
Lasting effect

Passive Immunity
To cure a person/ treat
disease immediately
Serum which contains
antibodies/antiserum
Body receives antibodies
from outside sources
Sick/ infected people
Immediate/ quick response

Temporary, does not last

long

1.6 Treating Diseases Caused by Microorganisms

Treatment of diseases
Modern cures
Use of synthetic medicines, antiserum, antibiotics, antifungal drugs,
radiotherapy and surgery.
Antibiotics:
Chemical compound obtained from microorganisms or synthesized.
Use to destroy or inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
Can be taken orally in pill or liquid or injected.
Common antibiotics include penicillin, aureomysin, streptomysin and
tetracyclines.
Viral diseases cannot be cured by using antibiotics.
Malaria can be cured by using drugs such as quinine, paludrine and
chloroquinine.
Antiserum:
Serum containing specific antibody which provides immediate immunity
against pathogen
It is normally extracted from horses blood
A horse is injected with weakened bacteria or viruses of a certain
disease
White blood cells in the horse will produce antibodies which attack the
bacteria or viruses.
The blood sample is retrieved from the horse and processed to
separate plasma from the blood.
The plasma is used to prepare an antiserum.
Traditional cures
Made from leaves, stems, roots, barks and flowers of plants or body parts of
animals.
Examples: Tongkat Ali root.
Danger of using drugs without medical advice and through unauthorized
prescription:
Can produce side effects.
Can cause allergies
Can lead to the development of resistant strains of microorganisms.

pg. 22