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Why Studying English Language? What does suppose an effective teacher of EFL?
Content:
-The main aim of studying a FL
-General purposes of studying a FL
-Teaching English as FL
-Qualities of an effective teacher of EFL
Key words: purpose, process, communicative competence, effective qualities, linguistic,
sociolinguistic, personality, flexibility, achievement.
The main task of everybody is to establish why is going to study a foreign language. If
somebody becomes aware of the goal of learning and knows how to answer at the question
Why do need to learn? the methodological task is half solved. The identification of learning
goal by subjects involved in the process of teaching-learning a foreign language is a very
important methodological aspect. Which are the social requirements related to foreign languages
studying? Having no possibility to mention entire spectrum of foreign language possible
application nowadays, we`ll give only some examples:
-EGP (English for General Purposes);
-ESP (English for Specific Purposes);
-EAP (English for Academic Purposes);
English for General Purposes (EGP) covers the teaching of the fundamentals of
grammar, of expression as well as of phonetics and provides a stronger or weaker basis for
possible later language studies. The subjects of teaching ensure that learners are able to
communicate with ease on a variety of topics; from getting directions to buying clothes and even
ordering food in a restaurant. Learning activities are all contextual and during them students
practice different verbal scenarios.
Model: I am looking for a pairs of trousers, sport shoes, a DVD Do you have any? Do
you have these in a size smaller/bigger? Could you tell me whereis/are? Where can I find?
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) refers to teaching language for specific purposes
that are determined by different professional/occupational, social and other needs of the
learner. English for specific purposes includes specialized programmes which are designed to
develop the communicative use of English in a specialized field of science, work or technology.
To be able to speak on a professional subject is not enough to know general vocabulary.
However, a great part of professional vocabulary consists of general words, which either have a
shift of meaning or make a new unit.
Model: The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel
(normally a fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an
integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine (ICE) the
expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct
force to some component of the engine.
English for Academic Purposes (EAP) covers the teaching of language used by the
educated and needed to succeed financially in society. Learners, usually in a higher education
setting, are trained to use foreign language appropriately for study. Academic language includes
cognitive, linguistic, and social/psychological components. Some aspects of those components
can be taught; others are less useful, while still others may be counterproductive to teach.
Cognition is also an important part of academic English. It includes knowledge, higher order
thinking (critical literacy), cognitive, and metalinguistic strategies.
Future teachers of foreign language will study English having another approach
regarding the social need of the language. For students from Pedagogy Field learning English
will rely on how to teach English as a Foreign Language. Teaching English as a Foreign
Language involves the didactic planned actions that enables pupils whose primary language, or
native language is other than English to develop their reading, writing, listening and speaking
skills to a required level. During this process teacher has to form up cognition and competences.
Com m unicative
Com petence
Linguistic
Com petence
Sociolinguistic
C om petence
Strategic
Com petence
Discourse
Com petence
How must be an english teacher? Agood is meant effective teacher of english must
have high language knowledge, teaching, verbal and socio-cultural skills and dedication to
teaching. The mediocre teacher tells. The good teacher explains. The superior teacher
demonstrates. The great teacher inspires (as cited in Think Exist, 2009,William Arthur Ward
Quotes). A good teacher must be helpful for students` learning and sure must hold many
personal traits. Analyzing different students` perception on teacher qualities were selected
eight most important qualities. So an effective teacher is creative and interesting, encouraging
and caring, enthusiastic, flexible and open-minded, knowledgeable, fair, respectful and holding
realistic expectations. All these qualities were grouped into four basic elements that are leading
to the existence of an ideal English teacher. These basic elements are:
-English communicative competence
-Instructional competence
-Personality
-Teacher-pupil relationship
An effective teacher has to hold instructional competence through this is meant the
ability of providing a student-centered instruction, having adequate didactic knowledge (learning
styles and theory) about the subject and being professional (having planning, organizational,
presentation skills and ICT literacy). Broadhead (1987) proposed a blue print for effective
teachers and stated that personality is the essential characteristic for an effective teacher. Some
researchers of pupils` perception reported that such qualities as being patient, kind, friendly,
honest, tolerant, helpful, and seldom shows nervousness and anger shape an effective modern
english teacher. Murphy (2004) described in a qualitative study exploring characteristics for
Effective EFL Teachers as being caring, patient, polite, and amiable, not being boring, shy or
strict. Teachers personality is highly associated with establishing teacher-student relationship.
Davis (2001) emphasized on the relationship between students and teachers and claimed that this
kind of social motivation can promote students learning and achievement. Effective teachers are
that who often adopt communicative theories of foreign language teaching, assign small group
work for negotiation of meaning, and instruct selected strategies for foreign language learning.
In fact, Brown (2000) also proposed that social factors may affect foreign language learning.
Cooperation between students and teachers, such as asking question for clarification, providing
feedbacks, requesting for teachers to paraphrase, explain and repeat, is very important for
language learning. Socio-affective strategies, in this case, facilitate the social-mediating activity
and help with teacher-students interaction.
Personal
qulities:
patience,
confidence, etc
Flexibility
EET
Organization
Planning
Preparation
E CC
Knowledge
of
pedagogical
theory
Achievement
Think and explain the differences between teaching English as a foreign language and English
for specific and academic purpose.
Think and outline qualities of an effective teacher of English language according to the four
basic elements that are mentioned up in the script. (see fig. 1). (to be performed in not less than
ten lines).
Useful words:
Purpose-\pr-ps\-the reason why something is done or used, the aim (goal) or intention of
something.
Process-\pr-ss\-a series of actions that produce something or that lead to a particular result.
Effective-\i-fek-tiv\-producing a result that is wanted, having an intended effect.
Achievement-\ -chv-mnt\-something that has been done or achieved through effort: a
result of hard work.
Linguistic-\li-gwis-tik\-relating to language or linguistics.
Sociolinguistic-relating to the social aspects of language.
Flexibility-\flek-s-biliti\-capacity of being bent, able to change or to do different things.
Fill in the missing with the necessary words (communicative competence, organize,
fluent, trainings, techniques, studies, accurate, changes, teachers, key, progress, qualities,
Unit II
Substantial Methods of Teaching English as a Foreign Language
Content:
-Methods of Teaching English as a Foreign Language
-Method Features
-Advantages/Disadvantages
-Typical Techniques
Key Words: o communicate, teaching style, methods, advantage, disadvantage, features,
teacher`s/pupil`s role, techniques, classroom activity, approach, grammar translation, direct
method, suggestopedia, silent way, communicative teaching.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols which allow all people in a given
culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture to communicate or to
interact. Teaching a foreign language cannot be defined apart from learning it. Teaching a
foreign language refers to guiding and making pupils to learn well. During the years scholars
tried to understand the process of teaching a language (how the learners learn) in order to be able
to determine the philosophy of language education and teaching styles. So, along the years
scholars looked for more effective ways of teaching a foreign language. In their debates and
discussion on teaching process they have often centred on the items such as:
- grammar and its role in the language learning
-the development of accuracy and fluency in teaching
-vocabulary and its role in language learning
-teaching productive and receptive skills, motivating learners
-the role of effective learning strategies, learning tools and materials and technology.
According these ware shaped more methods of teaching a language. Some examples of them are:
Grammar Translation Method, Silent Way, Direct Method, Audio-lingual , Situational Approach,
Communicative Language teaching. All the existing methods may be necessary to different
contexts of teaching a foreign language. There is no single method strongly recommended in the
teaching English. An effective teacher must know methods, their advantages and disadvantages
to be able to blend them or apply the relevant method in his classroom activity.
The Grammar Translation Method is an old method which was originally used to teach
dead languages which explains why it focuses mainly on the written form at the expense of the
oral form. It was designed according to the faculty psychology approach which was very popular
during the 18th and 19th century.
Method Features:
Use of mother tongue.
Vocabulary items are taught in the form of word lists.
Elaborate explanations of grammar.
Focus on the morphology and syntax.
Reading of difficult texts early in the course. Practice focuses on exercises translating
sentences or texts from mother tongue to the target language and vice versa.
It is surprising to see that the Grammar Translation Method was still in use in some classrooms
during the late decades of the 20th century. May be, its because it has some advantages.
Advantages
Translation is the easiest and shortest way of explaining meaning of words and phrases.
Learners have no difficulties to understand the lesson as it is carried out in the mother
tongue.
It is a labor-saving method as the teacher carries out everything in the mother tongue.
Criticism
What the method is good at is teaching about the language, not teaching the
language.
Speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing from the curriculum.
Students lacked an active role in the classroom.
Very little attention is paid to communication.
Very little attention is paid to content.
Typical Techniques
Translation of a Literary Passage-translating target language to native language;
Reading Comprehension Questions-finding information in a passage, making inferences and
relating to personal experience; Antonyms/Synonyms-finding antonyms and synonyms for
words or sets of words,; Grammar-understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then
applying them to new examples, students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning
and use of new words.
The Direct Method, also called Natural Method, was established in Germany and France
around 1900. It is a method for teaching foreign languages that uses the target language, getting
rid of any use of mother tongue in the classroom. As teachers became frustrated with the
students inability to communicate orally, they began to experiment with new techniques. The
idea was that foreign language teaching must be carried out in the same way people learn their
mother tongue!
Method Features:
Translation is completely banished from any classroom activity. Classroom activities are carried
out only in the target language.
Oral teaching comes before any other kind of reading and writing activities.
Use of chain activities accompanied by verbal comments like: I go to the door. I open the door. I
close the door. I return to my place. I sit down.
Grammar is taught inductively (ex. having learners find out rules through the presentation of
adequate linguistic forms in the target language).
Use of context to teach concrete vocabulary. Abstract vocabulary is taught through association if
ideas.
Emphasis is put on correct pronunciation and grammar.
Teaching through modeling and practice.
Advantages
It is a natural method which teaches language the same way the mother tongue is
acquired. Only the target language is used and the learning is contextualized.
Its emphasis on speech made it more attractive for those who have needs of real communication
in the target language.
It was one of the first methods to introduce the teaching of vocabulary through the context.
Disadvantage
Hard for public schools to integrate (constraints of budget, classroom size, time, and teacher
background made such a method difficult to use).
Typical techniques
The teaching techniques based mostly on reading aloud, question answer exercise, selfcorrection, conversation practice, fill-in-the-blank exercise, dictation and paragraph writing.
The Audio-Lingual method of teaching had its origins during World War II when it
became known as the Army method. It is also called the Aural oral approach. It is based on the
structural view of language and the behaviorist theory of language learning. The audio-lingual
approach to language teaching has a lot of similarities with the direct method. Both were
considered as a reaction against the shortcomings of the Grammar Translation method, both
reject the use of the mother tongue and both stress that speaking and listening competences
preceded reading and writing competences. But there are also some differences. The direct
method highlighted the teaching of vocabulary while the audio-lingual approach focus on
grammar drills.
Method features:
Use of grammar patterns.
Mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they are considered bad habits.
Language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally first, then in
written form.
Meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context.
Advantages
It aims at developing listening and speaking skills which is a step away from the Grammar
translation method.
The use of visual aids has proven its effectiveness in vocabulary teaching.
Disadvantages
Teaching a language tends to rely mainly on repetition less on creation something new.
Boring mechanical drills.
Typical techniques
The main activities include reading aloud dialogues, repetitions of model sentences, and
drilling. Key structures from the dialogue serve as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds.
Lessons in the classroom focus on the correct imitation of the teacher by the students.
The Silent Way
The Chomskyan criticism of the theories upon which the audio-lingual method was
founded led to an interest in not only the affective factors but also on the cognitive factors. In
Fact, Caleb Gattegno, the founder of the Silent Way, devoted his thinking to the importance of
problem solving approach in education. He contends that the method is constructivist and leads
the learners to develop their own conceptual models of all the aspects of the language. The best
way of achieving this is to help students to be experimental learners.
The Method Features:
Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. The learner is not a bench bound
listener but an active contributor to the learning process.
Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects. The Silent Way uses
colorful charts and rods (cuisinere rods) which are of varying length. They are used to introduce
vocabulary (colors, numbers, adjectives, verbs) and syntax (tense, comparatives, plurals, word
order).
Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned. This can be
summarized by Benjamin Franklins words:
Tell me and I forget
Teach me and I remember
Involve me and I learn
A good silent way learner is a good problem solver. The teachers role is only in giving
minimum repetitions and correction, remaining silent most of the times, leaving the learner
struggling to solve problems about the language and get a grasp of its mechanism.
Advantages
Learning through problem solving looks attractive especially because it fosters: creativity,
discovery, and increase in intelligent potency and long term memory.
The indirect role of the teacher highlights the importance and the centrality of the learner who is
responsible in figuring out and testing the hypotheses about how language works. In other words
teaching is subordinated to learning.
Disadvantage
Harsh method. The learner works in isolation and communication is lacking badly in a
Silent Way classroom.
With minimum help on the part of the teacher, the Silent Way method may put the learning
itself at stake.
Typical techniques
Below are a few examples of specific techniques that can aid foreign-language students
in monitoring their own speech.
Silent-Way Finger/Hand Techniques for Self-Correction
Fingers Representing Words: an easy way to zero in on one word that needs changing
(See Figure 1, below).
Twisting Two Fingers: indicates that the word order must be inverted (Figure 2).
Scissors Gesture: tells the students to cut off the last part of a word or phrase (Figure 3).
Silent-Way Self-Correction Techniques for Written Work
Mark Homework: use simple symbols to indicate bad spelling, a missing word, etc.
(Figure 4).
Group Correction: before the students arrive, rewrite some of their incorrect sentences (taken
from homework) on handouts or on the board. Have the whole group analyze each sentence,
trying to find the mistakes (Figure 5).
Silent-Way Oral Techniques for Self-Correction
The Grunt: the teacher repeats what the student just said, but replaces the word(s) that need
correction with a grunt or hum.
Humming to Indicate Stress: this can be used to indicate which words must be stressed in a
phrase or where the accent falls in an individual word.
These are only a few examples of many techniques which teachers can invent in order to
give foreign-language students feedback on their spoken and written production. Silent-Way
hand gestures, marking systems and oral techniques impel students to develop the habit of
correcting themselves and put them on the road to independence in a foreign or second language.
Teachers authority. The teacher plays a central role and he/she is the source of all information.
Method Description-In the classroom
The arrangements and the physical atmosphere in the classroom are paramount for making
sure that the students feel comfortable and confident. The use of various techniques including art
and music, are used by the trained teachers.
Introduction: The teacher teaches the material in a playful manner instead of analyzing lexis
and grammar of the text in a directive manner.
Concert session (active and passive): in the active session, the teacher reads with special
intonation as selected music is played. Occasionally, the students read the text together with the
teacher, and listen only to the music as the teacher pauses in particular moments. The passive
session is done more calmly.
-Elaboration: The students sing classical songs and play games while the teacher acts
more like a consultant.
-Production: The students spontaneously speak and interact in the target language without
interruption or correction.
Advantages
Through Suggestopedia we learn to trust the power of the mind.
Teachers learn that deliberately induced states of relaxation can be valuable at times in the
classroom.
We can also benefit from the use of music to get students sit back and relax.
Disadvantages
It is not a practical method as teachers face the problem of the availability of music and
comfortable chairs.
Lozanov refers in a number of occasions to the importance of memorization, excluding any
reference to comprehension and creative problem solving. In fact language is not only about the
power of the mind to memorize. Its about understanding, interacting and producing novel
utterances in different unpredictable situations.
The Communicative method-also known as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
emphasizes learning a language through communication. Learning a new language is easier and
more enjoyable when it is truly meaningful. Communicative teaching is based on the work of
sociolinguists who said that an effective knowledge of a language is more than merely knowing
vocabulary and rules of grammar and pronunciation. Learners need to be able to use the language
appropriately in any business or social context. Grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary are
necessary parts of effective communication. With the communicative method two primary
approaches may be taken. Some teachers prefer to teach a rule, and then follow it with practice.
Most, though, feel grammar will be naturally discovered through meaningful communicative
interaction.
Method features:
An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning
process itself.
It supposes enhancement of the learners own personal experiences as important contributing
elements to classroom learning.
An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.
The teacher facilitates the communication in the classroom, and he also acts like an adviser and a
guide. The students` role is to be communicators. They are actively engage in trying to make
themselves understood and in understanding others.
The mother tongue can be used. However, whenever possible the target language should be used.
Advantages: Focuses on fluency, engages children, and allows children to express
themselves.
Disadvantages: Student may not see the value in learning English through group work,
games, and activities; communicative method does not focus on error correction; Students dont
feel challenged; CLT focuses on fluency not accuracy. Thus student may produce incoherent and
grammatically incorrect sentence.
Typical techniques
Communicative Language Teaching uses almost any activity that engages pupils in
authentic communication. Typical activities that suppose communication and social interaction,
such as conversation, discussion sessions, role play, language games, and picture strip play stories
are welcome.
Useful words:
Paramount- \per--mauunt/ very important.
Emphasis- \em(p)-f-sz\ to give special attention to (something), to place emphasis on
(something).
Feature- \f-chr\ an interesting or important part, quality, ability, characteristic.
Analyse- \a-n-lz\ to study (something) closely and carefully, to learn the nature and
relationship of the parts of (something) by a close and careful examination.
Method- \me-thd\ a way of doing something a careful or organized plan that controls ,
the way something is done or a procedure or process for attaining an aim.
Spontaneously- \spn-t-n-sli\ done or said in a natural and often sudden way and
without a lot of thought or planning.
Unpredictable- (adj.) /an-predik-t-bl\-unexpected or not known in advance.
Playful manner- full of fun and high spirits way.
Unit III
Linguistic and Psycho-pedagogical Principles in Teaching-Learning English as a
Foreign Language
Content:
-Teacher effectiveness accomplished through principles
-Linguistic principles-guidelines aimed at linguistic area
-Psycho-pedagogical principles-fundamental ideas derived from sociolinguistic and
psychological aspects
Key words: principles, communicative competence, guidelines, syntax, phonology,
lexicon, language patterns, imitation, spiral approach, automaticity, intrinsic motivation,
cognition, skills.
Teacher effectiveness is measured by the level of communicative competence in a foreign
language developed at pupils involved in learning. This requires a long teaching-learning work. In
this academic work are implicated both sides teacher and students and supposes complex
activities that involves cognitive, sociolinguistic and psychological aspects. That is why the study
of English language cant be considered only the memorization of some vocabulary and sentence
structures with good pronunciation. The study of English language is a complex process that
demands preparation the dedication day by day work and systematic evaluation-improvement.
The success can be achieved if the teaching-learning process is guided and built on some
principles. Principles are fundamental rules, ideas that serve as the foundation for teaching
learning process. Teaching-learning principles will be as guidelines that will help teachers in
planning their activities and contribute to English communicative competence progress. There are
more types of principles outlined according different aspects of the teaching-learning process. The
most important are linguistic and psycho-pedagogical principles of teaching-learning English
language. Linguistic principles are derived from Linguistic science and aim at linguistic
components: syntax, phonology, lexicon and meaning.
Principle 1. Give Priority to Sounds. The sounds of English should receive priority.
Sounds should not be presented in isolation. They should appear in proper expressions and
sentences spoken with the intonation and rhythm which would be used by a native speaker.
Principle 2. Present Language in Basic Sentence Patterns. Present, and have the
students memorize, basic sentence patterns used in day to day conversation. From small
expression the students can easily pass on to longer sentences. In case of learning mother-tongue,
the students memory span can remember by heart much longer sentences than those of a foreign
language. The facility thus gained in a foreign language enables the learners expand the grasp of
the language material in respect of sounds and vocabulary items.
Principle 3. Language Patterns as Habits. Real language ability is at the habit level. It
does not just mean knowing about the language. Make language patterns as habit through
intensive pattern practice in variety of situations. The students must be taught to use language
patterns and sentence constructions with appropriate vocabulary at normal speed for
communication. In fact the habitual use of the most frequently used patterns and items of
language, should be present more than simple accumulation of words.
Principle 4. Imitation. Imitation is an important principle of language learning. No
leaner by himself ever invented language. Good speech is the result of imitating good models.
The model should be intelligible. Imitation followed by intensive practice helps in the mastery of
the language system.
Principle 5. Controlled Vocabulary. Vocabulary should be kept under control. Vocabulary
should be taught and practiced only in the context of real situations. This way, meaning will be
clarified and reinforced.
Principle 6. Graded Patterns. To teach a language is to share a new system of complex
habits, and habits are acquired slowly. (R.Lado) So, language patterns should be taught
gradually, in cumulative graded steps. This means, the teacher should go on adding each new
element or pattern to previous ones. New patterns of language should be introduced and practiced
with vocabulary that students already know.
Principle 7. Selection. Selection of the language material to be taught is the first
requisite of good teaching. Selection of language items should involve: frequency (how often a
certain item or word is used), range (in what different contexts a word or an item can be used),
coverage (how many different meanings a word or an item can convey), availability (how far an
item is convenient to teach), learnability (how far an item is easy to learn), teaching hability (how
far and item is easy to teach - in the social context).
Principle 8. The Oral Way. Experts believe that the oral way is the surest way to language
learning. Prof. Kittson rightly observes,. Learning to speak a language is always the shortest road
to learning to read and write it. Prof Palmer also writes,. We should refrain (hold back) from
reading and writing any given material until we have learnt to use its spoken form.
Principle 9. Priorities of Language Skills. Listening (with understanding), speaking,
reading and writing are the four fundamental skills. Listening and speaking are primary skills,
while reading and writing are secondary skills. Reading and writing are reinforcement skills. They
reinforce what has been learnt through understanding and speaking. In fact, understanding and
speaking speed up the reading process. Writing should be introduced after reading.
Principle 10. Multiple Line of Approach. The term multiple line implies that one is to
proceed simultaneously from many different points towards the one and the same end. Teacher
should reject nothing except the useless material and should select judiciously and without
prejudice all that is likely to help in his work. In teaching a language, it implies attacking the
problem from all fronts. Say, for example, there is a lesson on Holidays in the text book. The
teacher can have a number of language activities connected with the topic such as oral drill,
reading, sentence writing, composition, grammar, translation, language exercises etc.
Principle 11. Language Habit through Language Using. A language is best learnt
through use in different contexts and situations. Prof. Eugene A. Nida rightly observes,
Language learning means plunging headlong into a series of completely different experiences. It
means exposing oneself to situations where the use of language is required. Another scholar
expresses a similar opinion by saying: Learning a language means forming new habits through
intensive practice in tearing and speaking. The emphasis should always be on language in actual
use.
Principle 12 Spiral Approach. The spiral approach to language learning should be
followed. Previously taught vocabulary and structures should be reintroduced in subsequent units
whenever logical or possible. This is spiral approach.
Principle 13. Use Mother-tongue Sparingly. The mother-tongue should be sparingly and
judiciously used during teaching English. Of course, at the early stage, some explanations will
have to be given in pupils mother tongue. It is important that students do not use their mothertongue in the classroom.
English language learning is a complex process, the mastery of which requires to be taken
in account all factors. It is important to note that foreign language learning is never a linguistic
phenomen only. It is affected by more sociolinguistic and psychological factors. The pupils prior
knowledge, attitudes, personality, learning styles, skills and motivation, learning environment, are
all factors related to the eventual outcome of the language study. The well-known scholar H.
Douglas Brown, in Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy,
maintains that English language teaching has moved into a post-methodological era and that
teachers should base our pedagogy on principles that will form the core of an approach to
language teaching (pp. 54-55). He has outlined and divided twelve principles into three
categories: cognitive, affective, and linguistic. These categories are presented below along with
Browns definitions or statements regarding the principles.
Cognitive Principles
Automaticity. Efficient foreign language learning involves a timely movement of the
control of a few language forms into the automatic processing of a relatively unlimited number of
language forms. Over analyzing language, thinking too much about its forms, and consciously
lingering on rules of language all tend to impede this graduation to automaticity (p. 56).
Automaticity is the road to fluency.
Meaningful Learning. Meaningful leaning will lead toward better long-term retention
than rote learning (p.57). What Brown means by meaningful learning is using activities in
class that target and incorporate students needs, personal interests, and goals.
The Anticipation of Reward. Human beings are universally driven to act, or behave,
by the anticipation of some sort of rewardtangible or intangible, short term or long termthat
will ensue as a result of the behavior (p. 58).
Intrinsic Motivation. The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically
motivated within the learner. Because the behavior stems from needs, wants, or desires within
oneself, the behavior itself is self-rewarding; therefore, no externally administered reward is
necessary (p. 59).
Strategic Investment. Successful mastery of the foreign language will be due to a large
extent to a learners own personal investment of time, effort, and attention to the foreign
language in the form of an individualized battery of strategies for comprehending and producing
the language (p. 60).
Affective Principles
Language Ego. As human beings learn to use a second language, they also develop a
new mode of thinking feeling, and actinga second identity. The new language ego,
intertwined with the second language, can easily create within the learner a sense of fragility, a
defensiveness, and a raising of inhibitions (p. 61).
Self-Confidence. Learners belief that they indeed are fully capable of accomplishing a task is
at least partially a factor in their eventual success in attaining the task (p. 62).
Risk-Taking. Successful language learners, in their realistic appraisal of themselves as
vulnerable beings yet capable of accomplishing tasks, must be willing to become gamblers in
the game of language, to attempt to produce and to interpret language that is a bit beyond their
absolute certainty (p. 63).
The Language-Culture Connection. Whenever you teach a language, you also teach a
complex system of cultural customs, values, and ways of thinking, feeling, and acting (p.
64). . . . Especially in second language learning contexts, the success with which learners
adapt to a new cultural milieu will affect their language acquisition success, and vice versa, in
some possibly significant ways (p. 65).
Linguistic Principles
The Native Language Effect. The native language of learners exerts a strong influence
on the acquisition of the target language system. While that native system will exercise both
facilitating and interfering effects on the production and comprehension of the new language, the
interfering effects are likely to be the most salient (p. 66).
Interlanguage. Second language learners tend to go through a systematic or quasisystematic developmental process as they progress to full competence in the target language.
Successful interlanguage development is partially a result of utilizing feedback from others (p.
67).
Communicative Competence. Given that communicative competence is the goal of a
language classroom, instruction needs to point toward all its components: organizational,
pragmatic, strategic, and psychomotor. Communicative goals are best achieved by giving the
attention to language use and not just usage, to fluency and not just accuracy, to authentic
language and contexts, and to students eventual need to apply classroom learning to previously
unrehearsed contexts in the real world (p. 69).
Teacher effectiveness depends a lot on building the teaching-learning process on
principles. This will help teachers to choose such strategies, techniques, activities, learning
sources, and way of work that will help to achieve the learning goal.
Unit IV
Teaching Listening Skills
Content:
-The importance of Listening
-Comprehension and student`s problems
-Listening stages and strategies
-Interactive comprehension, listening techniques
Key words: listening, skills, listening comprehension, information processing, topdown, bottom-up, pre-listening, while-listening, post-listening, meaning, negotiating, interactive
listening.
The importance of Listening.
Speaking does not of itself constitute communication unless what is said is
comprehended by another person. Teaching the comprehension of spoken speech therefore of
primary importance if the communication aim is to be reached affirmed Rivers1 insisting on
more attention to listening comprehension. Listening is used far more than any other language
skill in the classroom. The importance of listening can not be underestimated in learning a
foreign language. The level of communicative competence possessed by a learner depends
mostly on the level of listening skill. That`s why listening is one of the most challenging skill for
our learners and must be developed at a high level. By developing their listening skill well we
develop our pupil`s ability to become more independent learners, as by hearing accurately they
have bigger possibility to reproduce accurately, increase their understanding of grammar and
develop their own vocabulary.
Listening comprehension and learner`s problems.
Listening is not a one-way street. It is not a process of a unidirectional that supposes
only the receiving of audible symbols. The final product of the listening process is information
comprehension that happen due to pupil`s cognitive and affective mechanisms. The listening
process provided in the classroom has two basic aims, mentioned Rost (2001), Richard(2005).
They are: learning to listen (learning to understand spoken messages) and listening to learn
(learning the syntax and lexis of the foreign language through listening). A good listening
comprehension happen when these two aims are achieved. What is listening comprehension? It
is a process of information processing in which the listener is involved into two way
communication, or one way communication, or self-dialog communication. The listening
process can be of two kinds: top-down and bottom up.
Top-down refers to meaning creation by listeners using background information
(knowledge of the topic, general knowledge in attribution of meaning, "the listener's ability to
bring prior information to bear on the task of understanding the "heard" language". (Morley
2001)).
Each activity should have as its goal the improvement of one or more specific listening
skills. A listening activity may have more than one goal or outcome, but be careful not to
overburden the attention of beginning or intermediate listeners.
Recognizing the goal(s) of listening comprehension in each listening situation will help students
select appropriate listening strategies.
Identification: Recognizing or discriminating specific aspects of the message, such as
sounds, categories of words, morphological distinctions
Orientation: Determining the major facts about a message, such as topic, text type,
setting
Main idea comprehension: Identifying the higher-order ideas
Detail comprehension: Identifying supporting details
Replication: Reproducing the message orally or in writing
Principle3. Check the level of difficulty of the listening text.
The factors listed below can help you judge the relative ease or difficulty of a listening
text for a particular purpose and a particular group of students.
How is the information organized? Does the story line, narrative, or instruction conform to
familiar expectations? Texts in which the events are presented in natural chronological order,
which have an informative title, and which present the information following an obvious
organization (main ideas first, details and examples second) are easier to follow.
How familiar are the students with the topic? Remember that misapplication of background
knowledge due to cultural differences can create major comprehension difficulties.
Does the text involve multiple individuals and objects? Are they clearly differentiated? It is
easier to understand a text with a doctor and a patient than one with two doctors, and it is even
easier if they are of the opposite sex. In other words, the more marked the differences, the easier
the comprehension. Does the text offer visual support to aid in the interpretation of what the
listeners hear? Visual aids such as maps, diagrams, pictures, or the images in a video help
contextualize the listening input and provide clues to meaning.
Main stages of listening activities.
-Pre-listening
-While-listening
-Post-listening
The pre-listening stage helps learners to find out the aim of listening and provides the
necessary background information. These types of activities help to focus the learners minds on
the topic, specifying and selecting the items that the students expect to hear, and activating prior
knowledge and language structures which have already been met. If the learner knows in
advance that they are going to make a certain kind of response, they are immediately provided
with a purpose in listening and they know what sort of information to expect and how to react to
it. Such activities provide an opportunity to gain some, even if limited, knowledge which will
help them to follow the listening text. Study types of Pre-listening tasks:
Generating interest: motivate learners by using pictures, personalizing activities, pair work
discussion.
Activating current knowledge - what do you know about?: other questions like: where are
they? What are they? What problems do they face? Why are they important?, etc.
Acquiring knowledge: provide knowledge input to build confidence for dealing with listening by
giving a related text to read, a quiz, etc.
Activating vocabulary/language: role play the situation before listening. Learners brainstorm
language beforehand and then perform the scene.
Predicting content: once we know the context, we are able to predict possible content. Give
learners a choice of things that they may or may not expect to hear, and ask them to choose those
they think will be mentioned.
Pre-learning vocabulary: select some vocabulary for the students to study before listening.
Match words to definitions followed by a filling the gap activity.
Checking/understanding the listening tasks: give learners plenty of time to read and understand
the main listening comprehension tasks.
While-listening activities can be shortly defined as all tasks that students are asked to do
during the time of listening to the text. The nature of these activities is to help learners to listen
for meaning that is to elicit a message from spoken language. Study the following types of
While-listening tasks:
Obeying instructions; where students are given certain instructions and show their understanding
by a physical response (they draw, write, tick, underline etc.).
Filling in gaps; while listening to a dialogue students hear only the utterances of one of the
speakers and are asked to write down those of the others.
Detecting differences or mistakes from a listening passage; students respond only when they
encounter something different or contrary to what they already knew about the topic or the
speakers.
Ticking off items (bingo); where students listen to a list of words and categorize (tick off)
them as they hear.
Information transfer; where students have to fill grids, forms, lists, maps, plans etc.
Sequencing; where students are asked to give the right order of a series of pictures
Information search; that is listening for specific items, e.g. answer a particular question from the
pre-listening stage.
Filling in blanks of a transcript of a passage with the words missing (e.g. lyrics of a song).
Matching the items which have the same or opposite meaning as those the students hear, or
matching the pictures with the descriptions heard.
The post-listening stage comprises all the exercises which are done after listening to the
text. Some of these activities may be the extensions of those carried out at pre-and whilelistening work but some may not be related to them at all and present a totally independent part
of the listening session. Post-listening activities allow the learners to reflect on the language
from the passage; on sound, grammar and vocabulary as they last longer than while-listening
activities so the students have time to think, discuss or write. The following types of postlistening tasks can be used:
Discussing students reactions to the content of the listening selection. Speaking in a form of
debates, interviews, discussions, role-plays, simulations, dramatization etc. as a follow-up
exercise.
Asking students thought-provoking questions to encourage discussion.
Setting students to work in pairs to create dialogues based on the listening text.
Answering multiple-choice or true/false questions to show comprehension of messages.
Problem solving activities during which students hear all the information relevant to a particular
problem and then try to solve it by themselves.
Summarizing, students are given several possible summary sentences and are asked to say which
of them fit a recording. Summarizing can also be done by elaborating the notes made by students
themselves during the while-listening activities.
Jigsaw listening, to describe a listening exercise during which different groups of students listen
to different but connected passages and then the groups exchange information in order to
complete a story to perform a certain task.
Writing letters, telegrams, postcards, messages etc. as a follow-up to listening activities.
Based on:
-general knowledge/life experience
-knowledge of situational routines
Interactive Listening-and-Speaking: Negotiating Meaning through
Questioning/Answering Routines
The focus here is on both product and process of negotiating meaning in interactive
reciprocal listener/speaker exchanges. Negotiation of meaning is a process that speakers go
through to reach a clear understanding of each other (negotiation-to talk, achieve an agreement).
Interactive listening involves meaning negotiation. Interactive listening involves six skills:
paying attention, holding judgment, reflecting, clarifying, summarizing, and sharing.
Model of procedure:
In small groups of 4-10 students, one student can give a brief presentation such as a
brief set of locally relevant announcements, a five-minute how-to talk, a personal story or
anecdote, or an explanatory talk using visual aids. Either during or immediately after the
presentation, each listener is required to ask at least one question in a routine. The type of
question is assigned. Speaker then becomes listener and must make sure she is answering the
question to the satisfaction of the one who asked.
A wide variety of question types can be used, but for each lesson, it is useful to have only a
limited number of question types.
Repetition-asking for verbatim repetition of info (Could you repeat the part about
?).
Paraphrase-asking for restatement in different words that are often simpler and easier to
understand (Could you say that again? I dont understand what you mean by )
Verification-seeking confirmation that info was understood correctly by listener (Did I
understand you to say ? In other words, you mean ... Do you mean ?).
Clarification-seeking more details or an explanation of an item (Could you tell me
what you mean by? Could you explain ? Could you give us an example of
?).
Elaboration-asking for additional information on a point introduced in the presentation
(Could you tell us more about?)
Extension-asking for information on a new point, one that was not introduced in the
presentation (What about? How is this related to?).
Challenge-challenging points given or conclusions drawn (What did you base xx on?
How did you reach the conclusion of ? How did you? Why did you?).
Rivers
We should listen twice as much as we speak, four times more than we read and five times more than we write.
Foreign language teachers have several responsibilities with respect to the listening
skill. First they have to understand how important role listening plays in the language learning
process to use listening in ways that facilitate this process. Second they must understand the
complex interactive nature of the listening process and how important is the listening experience
for foreign language learners. Finally, teachers must understand how listening skill typically is
developed and help them succeed in it.
Dictogloss
Dictogloss is a classroom dictation activity where learners are required to reconstruct a
short text by listening and noting down key words, which are then used as a base for
reconstruction.
Example
Learners discuss about the sea. The teacher then explains the task, and reads a short text about
the sea to the class, who just listen. The teacher reads the text again, and the learners take notes.
In groups, the learners then reconstruct the text.
In the classroom
Dictogloss is often regarded as a multiple skills and systems activity. Learners practice listening,
writing and speaking (by working in groups) and use vocabulary, grammar and discourse
systems in order to complete the task.
Useful words:
Achieve-\-chiv\ to get or reach (something) by working hard.
Elicit-\i-li-st\ to get (a response, information, etc.) from someone.
Unit V
Teaching Grammar Skills
Content:
-The essence of grammar
-The grammar function
- Aspects of teaching/learning grammar structures
-The main stages of teaching grammar
-Guidelines, questions on grammar presentation
Key words: grammar skills, rules, knowledge, inductive, deductive, approach, meaning,
solation, presentation, practice, explanation, test, grammar exercises.
What is grammar?
Grammar is a system of rules that helps the speaker to put together words correctly to
form longer units of meaning. For example in English the present form of the verb be in the third
person has two distinct forms, one (is) being used with a singular subject, and the other (are)
with the plural; and if the plural (are) is combined with the singular form, and the other (is) with
the plural subject; the result will not be correct or can be called ungrammatical. Thus the
sentence This is a box is grammatical but This are a box is not. According to this Grammar
involves rules that guide how units of meaning can be constructed in a foreign language.
The role of grammar in language teaching
Grammar knowledge is essential for mastery of language. A foreign language learner
cannot use words if he doesn`t know how to put them together. The main goal of teaching
grammar in school is to develop pupils` grammar skills along writing, listening, reading and
speaking skills as components of communicative competence in English language. So a learner
has grammar skills when is able to apply grammar rules to express him or herself in what would
be considered acceptable. Good grammar skills cannot be acquired only through communicative
activities or pure communicative practice in the classroom an efficient teaching involves
grammar practice as well. This means preparing a programme of study-a syllabus-teacher must
involve bits of the total corpus of knowledge that are taught one after the other for gradual,
systematic acquisition, rather than all at once (communication).
Aspects of teaching/learning grammar structures
Grammar structures are different according to their level of difficulties. Some of them
can have exact parallels in the native language and are easily understood, as example future
simple tense; others are quite different and alien as present perfect; while yet others are not so
parallel but very simple and easy for example-indefinite or definite article. Some involved single
word choices as example a/an/some, others entire sentences-conditionals. When the teachers
teach a grammar structure should get pupils to learn quite a large number of different related bits
of knowledge and skills. All these bits may be presented in the form of a table 1: Penny Ur,
Grammar Practice Activities, Cambridge Handbooks for Language Teachers, 1998.
Form
Meaning
Listening
Perception and recognition of the
Comprehension of what the
spoken form of the structure
spoken structure means in
context
Speaking
Production of well-formed examples
Use of the structure to convey
in speech
meanings in speech
Reading
Perception and recognition of the
Comprehension of what the
written form
written structure means in
context
Writing
Production of well-formed examples
Use of the structure to convey
in writing
the meanings in writing
It is very important to have a balance between these bits of knowledge (listening, speaking,
reading and writing) taking in account, of course, the needs of particular group of pupils.
Teaching grammar structure can be done in an inductive or deductive way. In scholastic
literature are called and bottom up or top down approach. Inductive way supposes
discovering grammar rules while working through exercises and deductive-teacher explains
rules to the pupils.
Inductive-for example: A reading comprehension which includes a number of sentences
describing what a person has done up to that period in time. After doing the reading
comprehension, the teacher could begin to ask questions such as: How long has he done this or
that? Has he ever been to Paris? etc. and then follow with When did he go to Paris? To help the
students inductively understand the difference between the simple past and the present perfect,
these questions could be followed with which questions spoke about a definite time in the past?
Which questions asked about the person's general experience?
Deductive-for example: The present perfect is made up of the auxiliary verb 'have' plus
the past participle. It is used to express an action which has begun in the past and continues into
the present moment... Example: The student has passed the examination. After which follows
practice exercises in the context. etc.
Inductive approach: Specific examplesPracticeGeneral rule
Deductive approach: General rule Specific examples Practice
Figure 1: The deductive and inductive approaches (modified after Stern 1992:150)
asts of meaning that it is possible to make within sentences. The 'rules' of grammar tell us how. By one count, there are some 3,
Oxford Univ. Press, 2006)
The main stages of teaching grammar
Teaching grammar must be organised in a way that offer the pupils possibility to observe
the grammar rule, structure and understand how it functions through meaningful practice, so to
achieve the ability to use it freely in their speech.When teachers speak about the best way to
teach grammar they mean the teaching procedures that should be used to a certain grammar
structure, age, level, existed knowledge and skills, so all these features shape our teching styles.
In this case cannot be the best way of teaching grammar but the organization of grammar
teaching is common. According to Ur3 Komorowska (2002), the grammar teaching can be organized in
four stages in which a very wide variety of teaching procedures will fit. They are:
-Presentation
-Isolation and explanation
-Practice
-Test
1. Presentation
The goal of presentation stage is to get the pupils to understand the meaning and form of
the structure in both speech and writing. Usually the structure is presented through a text and
after can be used a short dialogue in which the grammar structure is read aloud by the teacher or
pupils. Often learners can be asked to read, repeat, reproduce from memory, or copy out the
structure.
2. Isolation and explanation
The goal of this stage is to make learners to understand various aspects of the structure.
At this stage the strucutre is moved away from the context, and focus, on the grammatical items
themselves, how they sound and look alike, their meaning and how they function. The teacher
while explanations can use native language and if necessary make a parallel with the native
language structure.
3. Practice
The practice stage consists of many exercises done in the classroom or as a homework tasks,
which aim is to get the pupils aquinted with grammar structure and to achieve accuracy in using
it through training. The grammar practice procedure can involve all aspects: listening, speaking,
reading and writing. Teacher must use different types of exercises that will help him to achieve
the teaching aim. There are many guidelines regarding the use of grammar practice.
Komorowska (2002) attempts to formulate seven rules of conducting grammar exercises:
- must have their subjects and titles;
-must have a clear purpose and instruction;
-should enable repetition of a given pattern in natural situations;
-should be well-paced, varied and short so that they do not become boring;
-learners should be active and motivated during practice;
-the more individuality and personalization during the practice, the better efficiency of
learning grammar;
as brainstorming - where a single impulse may initiate a great amount of responses, chain
exercise - where students ask similar questions to one another, fluid pairs where students
exchange information on the basis of a prescribed dialogue, semi-controlled small group
transactions where learners are encouraged to use certain patterns, but they control the
content, and finally, free discussion the least controlled exercise, where learners have an
opportunity to conduct an authentic conversation in the foreign language.
These three types of exercises must be used in the order given here but sure exist
situations when teachers have to return while practicing communicative exercises to an exercise
that focuses on correct form because the students are making consistent mistakes in a certain
structure, or do not use all types because the structure is easy.
4. Test
Pupils do tests to demonstrate to themselves and to the teacher how they learned the
grammar structure. The aim of this stage is to provide feedback without which neither teacher
nor learner would be able to progress very far. Kinds of testing: current feedback inquiring,
homework tasks, practice exercises, final evaluation, sure they can be done orally or in writing
form. In this case most testing is done automatically almost unconsciously by the teacher and
learners as the teaching activities proceeds.
All stages are important while teaching grammar structures but especially teacher must
insist on practice stage to build up long term knowledge. The same organization in teaching
grammar can be observed in the national English course books. Sure the teacher is free to choose
his own way to teach grammar structures but notional course books respects the same material
organization. This can be easily noticed from the following examples of teaching countable and
uncountable nouns in the 4th form:
The countable and uncountable nouns often are quite difficult for pupils to understand.
Good helpers in understanding the distinction between countable and uncountable (countnoncount) nouns are the usage of article, final-s (nouns that take a final-s, plural form) and
quantifiers or expressions of quantity (many, much, a lot of few, little). The pupils from the 4 th
form can efficiently understand the concept of countable and uncountable nouns with the help of
quantifiers many/much, few/little.
The presentation is given through a text in which appears the new grammar structure. A
dialogue is read by the teacher and the grammar structure is appointed as example and after the
rest examples are discovered with the help of the pupils.
The dialogue:
Andy: Hey, Mum will be home soon.
Let's have a surprise for her.
Vicky: Great! What can we make?
Andy: Let's make some pancakes.
Vicky: That's a great idea! I like pancakes and
Mum will be very pleased.
Andy: What do we need?
Vicky: We need some flour, sugar, salt,
eggs, milk, and oil.
Isolation of the grammar structure from the context it`s translation and explication on the
blackboard Examples is provided by the teacher in unity with pupils: a pancake-some pancakes;
an egg-some eggs; x-some milk; x-some flour.
Visual examples are useful for helping teacher make learners understand the distinction. The
teacher can try to take some food items into class. Show the pupils the items and as a whole
class help them classify the items. They'll soon see the difference between coffee and carrot, for
example. The teacher can then explain or elicit the difference between mass (uncountable) and
unit(countable).
If the teacher thinks his students are up to it, he can explain the use of quantifiers
many/much/a lot of and few/little.
In some classes where the level of knowledge is suitable the teacher explains the use of singular
or plural verbs with countable and uncountable items. Pupils can make sentences using a picture
the teacher gives them the following structures:
There's some
________ on the table
There isn't any ________ on the table
There are 5
________ on the table
There aren't any ________ on the table
The practice stage consists of more classroom exercises whose aim is to make learners to
understand well the grammar structure and transform what they know from short-term to longterm memory for example: UR
1. Look at the picture and name the things. Which of them go with and which go with
much/many, few/little? Write them down in your exercise books.
Model: many pancakes-few pancakes.
2. _________ oil?
3. _________ bananas?
Unit VI
Teaching Reading Skills
Content:
-The role of reading
-Developing reading skills
-Stages of reading comprehension
-Methods of reading
Key words: reading skills, vocabulary development, decoding, meaning, discourse,
comprehension, skimming, scanning, intensive/extensive reading, anticipation, while-reading,
post-reading, reading methods.
The role of reading
Reading has a great impact on learning a foreign language. It is the basis of instruction in
all aspects of language learning: using textbooks for language lessons, writing, revising,
developing vocabulary, learning grammar, editing, and using computer assisted language
activities. Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols in order to construct or
derive meaning (reading comprehension)Wilky pedia. It is a cognitive process because processes
information, applies knowledge and changes preferences. So what is the role of reading in the
foreign language in the learner development?
-Through reading pupils learn language. Reading material is language input. Pupils
doing different tasks during the lesson learn vocabulary, grammar and discourse structure, they
have good opportunity to see how different elements of the language work together to convey
the meaning.
-Through reading learners obtain information about different subjects they are studying,
so they have a good opportunity to enrich their general knowledge.
-Through reading pupils develop their socio-cultural knowledge. Reading different
materials during foreign language lesson and not only, they are introduced into the lifestyle and
worldviews of the nation whose language pupils are studying.
Rivers ( 1981:147 ) stated that reading is the most important activity in any language
class , not only as a source of information and a pleasurable activity, but also as a means of
consolidating and extending one s which are knowledge of the language Reading is essential
in studying a foreign language so that reading skills are components of the communicative
competence and the main purpose of the teaching process in a foreign language is the developing
communicative competence to pupils.
What do learners read?
The main text-types pupils meet in their classroom activities:
-Novels, short stories, tales; other literary texts and passages (e.g. essays, diaries,
anecdotes, biographies, recipes), plays, poems, nursery rhymes
-Newspapers and magazines, advertisements, letters, postcards, notes, emails
- Handbooks, textbooks
-Tasks instructions, problems, rules for games, textbook rules, posters, signs, reports
Why do learners read?
The main reason for reading is understanding a written text. Understanding means text
comprehension. Text comprehension is the process that supposes cognition in studying a foreign
language means language. But this goal is a general one and for it achieving exists few other
reading purposes that have to be accounted during classroom activities.
Purposes for reading:
-Reading to search for simple information (scan the text for a specific piece of
information, e.g. tasks instruction)
-Reading to skim quickly
-Reading to learn from the text
-Reading to integrate the information
-Reading to write (or search for information needed for writing)
-Reading to critique texts (critical evaluation of the information)
Each reading activity must have a certain reading purpose. Knowing the reading
purposes helps a lot both teacher and pupils. It helps them to choose how to approach the
reading text, to choose a proper reading strategy and type of reading.
Main types of reading used for language acquisition:
-Extensive reading: reading longer texts, Brown (1989) explains that it is carried out "to
achieve a general understanding of a text." Long and Richards (1971, p.216) identify extensive
reading as "occurring when pupils read large amounts of high interest material, usually out of
class, concentrating on meaning. The aims of extensive reading are to build reader confidence,
enjoyment and reading fluency.
-Intensive reading: reading shorter texts to extract specific information. Intensive
reading, sometimes called "Narrow Reading", may involve students looking intensive inside the
text. This is more an accuracy activity involving reading for details.
-Skimming: quickly running through the text to get the gist of it, to know how it is
organized, or to get an idea of the tone or the intention of the writer
-Scanning: quickly going through the text to find a particular piece of information.
Scanning is used when a specific piece of information is required, such as a name, date, symbol,
formula, or phrase, is required.
Skimming and scanning are sometimes referred to as types of reading and at other times,
as skills or techniques. Brown (1994) suggested that "perhaps the two most valuable reading
strategies for learners as well as native speakers are skimming and scanning." (p.283), and
Grellet affirms that both skimming and scanning are specific reading techniques necessary for
quick and efficient reading(p.19). In reading activities often skimming and scanning are used
together. For example, the reader may skim through first to see if it is worth reading, then read it
more carefully and scan for a specific piece of information to note.
According to different purposes of the classroom or extra classroom reading, teachers
must try to develop proper activities that will fulfill them. A great contribution to reading
purposes achievement plays pupils skills. Reading involves a variety of skills. The main ones are
listed below.
-Recognizing the script of the language. Automatic decoding, being able to recognize a
word at a glance
-Previewing and predicting. Giving the text a quick look to be able to guess what is to
come.
-Deducing the meaning and the use of unfamiliar lexical items
-Understanding explicitly stated information
-Understanding conceptual meaning
-Understanding the communicative value
-Understanding relations within sentences
-Understanding the relations between parts of the text through lexical connection devices
-Anticipation pre-reading
-Reading--while-reading
-After reading-post reading
Anticipation involves specific exercises that help pupils to predict before they read in
class. Predicting is a specific reading skill. Having this skill reader will be able to use prior
knowledge to think about the topic, make predictions about the probable meaning of the text
using verbal or nonverbal elements, and preview the text by skimming and scanning to get a
sense of the overall meaning.
Many different exercises can help teacher develop anticipation skill at the pupils but they
must be choose according to the teaching goal.
During pre-reading a teacher may:
Assess students' background knowledge of the topic and linguistic content of the text
Give students the background knowledge necessary for comprehension of the text, or
activate the existing knowledge that the students possess
Clarify any cultural information which may be necessary to comprehend the passage
Make students aware of the type of text they will be reading and the purpose(s) for
reading
Provide opportunities for group or collaborative work and for class discussion activities
Talking about the author's background, writing style, and usual topics
Skimming to find the theme or main idea and eliciting related prior knowledge
Reading over the comprehension questions to focus attention on finding that information
while reading
Doing guided practice with guessing meaning from context or checking comprehension
while reading
Pre-reading activities are important at both lower levels of language proficiency and at
earlier stages of reading teaching. As students become more proficient at using reading
strategies, teacher can to reduce the amount of guided pre-reading and allow students to do these
activities themselves.
g. The thief, apparently recognizing his mistake, had abandoned the car in East Boston.
-Stop at the end of each section to review and check their predictions, restate the main
idea and summarize the section.
-Use the comprehension questions as guides to the text, stopping to answer them as they
read and put down some notes.
Post reading activities help pupils to think about and respond to texts they have read.
After reading exercises teach readers to reflect upon the ideas and information in the text, relate
what they have read to their own experiences and knowledge, clarify their understanding of the
text, and extend their understanding in critical and creative ways.
Samples of post-reading activities:
Making big, small books
Using cause and effect worksheet
Making up dialogue journals between students posing as characters
Making up a new ending
Rewriting a paragraph in a new tense
Making up character comparisons/maps
Writing own story using similar plot or style
Writing true/false statements
Developing comic strips which are centered around the topic
Using Graphic and semantic organizers
Recognizing story structure
Summarizing
Read ideas about some exercises listed above:
Graphic and semantic organizers
Graphic organizers illustrate concepts and relationships between concepts in a text or
using diagrams. Graphic organizers are known by different names, such as maps, webs, graphs,
charts, frames, or clusters.
Regardless of the label, graphic organizers can help readers focus on concepts and how
they are related to other concepts. Graphic organizers help students read and understand
textbooks and picture books.
Graphic organizers can:
Help students focus on text structure "differences between fiction and nonfiction" as
they read
Provide students with tools they can use to examine and show relationships in a text
Help students write well-organized summaries of a text.
Here are some examples of graphic organizers:
Venn-Diagrams (used to compare or contrast information from two sources. For
example, comparing two stories).
Storyboard/Chain of Events (used to order or sequence events within a text. For
example, listing the steps for brushing your teeth).
Story Map (used to chart the story structure. These can be organized into fiction and
nonfiction text structures. For example, defining characters, setting, events, problem,
resolution in a fiction story; however in a nonfiction story, main idea and details
would be identified.
Cause/Effect (used to illustrate the cause and effects told within a text. For example,
staying in the sun too long may lead to painful sunburn).
Recognizing story structure
In story structure instruction, students learn to identify the categories of content
(characters, setting, events, problem, and resolution). Often, students learn to recognize story
structure through the use of story maps. Instruction in story structure improves students'
comprehension.
Summarizing
Summarizing requires students to determine what is important in what they are reading
and to put it into their own words. Instruction in summarizing helps students:
-Identify or generate main ideas
-Connect the main or central ideas
-Eliminate unnecessary information
-Remember what they read
For successful summarizing teachers teach pupils to follow these steps:
-Read the passage through.
-Find the topic sentence. If there is no topic sentence, write one of your own.
-Decide the overall pattern of organization.
-Cross out all unimportant information, ideas that are not connected to the topic. Also,
cross out ideas that are repeated.
-If there is a list of details think of a word which names them all. For example, dog, cat,
horse, elephant can be crossed out and the word animal can be used.
-If many actions are listed, think of a word which names them all. For example, Andrew
took the meat and vegetables out of the refrigerator. He got out a pan. He chopped up the
food. You can put these together as, Andrew cooked the dinner.
A summary is always shorter than the original text, often about 1/3 as long as the
original.
(Effect)
Teacher has to teach reader while reading a passage with cause-effect pattern think what
happened first? Then to look or think about the effect. A cause-effect sentence not always put the
cause first.
Example: Because a baby began to cry the mother gave him the bottle.
(Cause)_______________ (Effect)
The mother gave baby the bottle because he began to cry.
(Effect)_______________(Cause)
In both sentences, because is the signal word. It is in the part of the sentence that tells the cause.
Signal or connecting words are used to link the cause and effect. Examples of connecting words
are: because, so, consequently, therefore, due to the fact, since, as a result, the reason for, thus,
nevertheless.
Sometimes one cause has many effect and vice versa.
Example: Fifteen inches of rain fell in Miami in four hours. As a result, all public transportation
stopped, Kim`s car would not start, Bob had to stay at home, and no one came at Ann`s party.
Cause: Fifteen inches of rain fall in Miami in four hours.
Effect: All public transportation stopped.
Kim`s car would not start.
Bob had to stay home.
No one came to Ann`s party.
Pupils can work with following task to develop cause-effect skill:
Match the cause with effect (causes on left; effects on right), write the cause and effect for each
sentence, write a possible effect (cause) for each cause (effect), write a positive (negative) effect
for each cause, write cause and effect reading comprehension questions, identify and write from
the text causes and effects.
To learn to read is to light a fire, every syllable that is spelled out is a spark
Victor Hugo
Using the phonics method, most children will learn to read basic words and sentences within
three to six months.
2. Think and remember which strategies your teachers used in the classroom at foreign
language lessons. Which of them do you find efficient?
3. Set up an activity to help pupils connect sounds with letters. Specify which reading
method you use.
4. Chose a theme, and a text. Set up reading activities for each reading stage, at least one.
Be attentive and put down all what you are going to say as a teacher and pupils answers, too.
Reading comprehension
Reading with a
purpose
Reading applying
a certain type of
reading
Developing
reading activities
according to
didactic norms
General Skills
Unit VI
Teaching Writing Skills
Content:
-The role of writing
-Approaches in Teaching Writing
-Writing process, main stages
-Guidelines in Teaching Writing
Key words: writing, knowledge, communication, thinking, process, coherence, spelling,
writing stages, drafting, revising-editing, publishing, language learning.
The role of writing
Writing is the activity or skill of marking coherent words on paper and composing
text
Writing is the representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set
of signs or symbols, so it supposes communication. In studying foreign language writing does
not have only communication function, it is a way of language learning. There are more reasons
of teaching pupils writing:
xdictionary.
Writing reinforces the grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary that teachers
have been teaching pupils
Give our pupils a chance to be adventurous with the language, to take risks
Enrich knowledge experience
The close relationship between writing and thinking makes writing a valuable part of any
language course. A great deal of writing that goes on in foreign language lessons, especially in
elementary-level class, is sentence writing. Students repeat or complete the given sentences to
reinforce the structure, grammar, and vocabulary they have learned. So why the pupils write
during foreign language lessonRaimes:
-to communicate with a reader;
-to express ideas without the pressure of face-to-face communication
-to explore a subject;
-to record experience;
-to become familiar with the conventions of written English text;
changing questions to statements, present to past, or singular to plural. Overall, this approach
stresses grammar, syntax, and mechanics, and emphasis accuracy rather than fluency.
The Free-Writing Approach
This approach stresses quantity of writing rather than quality. Pupils should put content
and fluency first and not worry about form. Once ideas are down on the page, grammatically
accuracy, organization, and the rest will gradually follow.
The Paragraph-Pattern Approach
It focuses on organization by copying the paragraphs or model passages. The approach is
based on the principle that in different culture or situations, people construct and organize
communication with each other in different way. The stress is put on organization.
The Grammar-Syntax-Organization Approach
The approach stresses on simultaneously work more than composition feature. Writing
cannot be seen as composed of separate skills which are learned one by one. So learners must be
trained to pay attention to the organization while they work on grammar or syntax.
The Communicative Approach
The communicative approach stresses the purpose of a piece of writing and the audience
for it. Learners work with tasks that encourage to behave like writers in real life and to ask
themselves the questions about purpose and audience:
-Why am I writing this?
-Who will read it?
The writing must be truly communicative and writing for a real reader. Readers are
brought into writing assignments through writing back, asking questions, making comments.
The Process Approach
The teaching of writing has begun to move away from a concentration on the written
product to an emphasis on the process of writing. Writers ask themselves not only questions
about purpose and audience, but questions:
-How do I write this?
-How do I get started?
Here, pupils are trained to generate ideas for writing, to think of purpose, audience, ways
of communication and so on. In fact it is a developmental process from generating ideas to
expressing them, drafting, and so on. This process of writing has more stages: prewriting,
drafting, revising, editing.
Stages of Writing Process
Writing is a complex cognitive process. Classmates and others inclusive teacher respond
to drafts. Freeman 2004. Teacher must teach students to see writing as an act of writing and
rewriting to give coherent shape of thoughts. Writing is a thinking intellectual work. That is why
students must understand writing as a process formed up from more stages:
-Prewriting
Pupils discover the topic, purpose, and audience. They organize their ideas while
preparing to write through the use of techniques (free writing, looping, listening, outlining,
charting, mapping. In the classroom work this stage usually takes not more than five minutes.
-Drafting
Pupils write the first piece of writing that is based on prewriting. Drafting is a working
thesis and students must be learned to use sketch to generate new details or provide main ideas
with details. The focus in this stage is on content, not grammar or spelling.
-Revising-Editing
Revising is the act of creation. Students must focus on content and organization, while
revising he expands and clarifies ideas.
While editing pupils focus on spelling, grammar and punctuation. They read for meaning,
complete sentences, and look for grammar spelling. Teachers teach pupils to use actions like:
adding, rearranging, removing, replacing. Check if sentences start with capital letters, proper
nouns capitalized title with a capital letter.
Publishing
Pupils must be taught how to read and share their writing with the rest of the classmates.
Writing is a visual form of communication, either printed in hard-copy or in
electronic form.
Guidelines for teachers in Teaching Writing
Teacher must build strategic writing teaching pupils how to give structure and unity to
their writing of a coherent piece of writing. Teach your pupils how to build a paragraph as the
smallest unity of a piece of writing:
1. Topic sentence (reason, advantages or disadvantages).
-Details that supports the reason.
-Example (s)
2. Supporting sentence (reason advantages or disadvantages).
-Details
-Example(s)
3. Concluding sentence.
Teach your pupils to pay attention at a given tips list while writing and to:
state the purpose of their writing
not focus on spelling and grammar while drafting, they can check later in writing process
think how to arrange the best information
state identify the main idea and its supporting details
read aloud if possible and listen to their words
look for problematic areas
check spelling, grammar, and punctuation
get feedback from their peers
get help from their teacher
Teach your pupils to use checklists for different types of writing. Checklists can be
written by teacher or pupils and contain specific questions (Does your essay contain a title? Is
the first sentence of every paragraph indented?), instruction regarding content and organization
of the text (Does each paragraph have a main idea?). A new checklist can be devised to fit each
writing assignment, focusing attention on the critical features of one particular task:
-Which sentence expresses the main idea?
-Which sentences develop that main idea?
-Is every verb in the correct tense?
-Have you used the correct form of each tense?
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Writing
Process
Highlight one or two types of errors that seem to occur frequently in a student's paper. Explain
the "correct" usage and give a few examples if you can.
Often its best to point out the problem and let the students do the fixing. If you correct the
grammar, do so for only one paragraph so the students can see how to make corrections
themselves.
Ask students to keep a log of errors to consult in order to avoid recurring errors on the next
assignment.
Samples of Practical Writing Activitiesbook
Pictures like drawings, photographs, posters, slides, magazines, diagrams, and maps are
useful resources for teachers. They provide efficient learning experience for pupils and their use
leads to a variety of language activities: guided composition, sentence-combining exercises,
letters, reports, or essays.
Using a sketch of a living room the teacher can design a variety of activities that will
focus pupil`s interest and language use.
Description
Draw the sketch of a room on the board. Students put down words that could be used to
label the items from the room drawn. Through discussion pupils decide how to label the sketch.
In groups they discuss and write down other words that they need to describe the room, e.g., next
to, on the left, etc. The teacher then erases the sketch from the board and the pupils write a
description of the room from their memory. They exchange papers and draw sketch of the room
their partner has described.
Description, comparison, and contrast
a. Divide the class into pairs of students and give the picture to Student 1 of each pair,
who writes a description of it for Student 2. (It might be useful first to review with the whole
class the use of the present tense, the use of there is and there are, prepositions of place, and new
vocabulary words). From the written description he receives, Student 2 tries to draw a sketch of
the room.
b. While Student 1 is writing about the picture, Student 2 writes a description of a room
that he knows well. He gives the description to Student 1, who then tries to draw a labeled
sketch of the room and furniture.
c. The two students look at the sketches and the two descriptions and make lists of the
similarities and differences between the two rooms. Together they write, for the rest of the class,
a composition that points out these similarities and differences. Before they begin to write, they
discuss how to organize the material they have in their lists.
3. Paragraph assembly
Prepare index cards with one sentence on each, which together form a paragraph about
the picture. Use the passage in (5) on page . Hand out one index card to each pair or small
group of students. The task for the whole class is to put the sentences on the cards in order so
they form a paragraph. When asked, Who has a sentence that could be the first sentence of the
paragraph? we expect to hear from the pupils with Debbie Johnson`s bedroom in her home in
Catskill is small but practical rather than from those with It is next to the door.
4. Sentence combining
Index cards can be used as in example 3 above, with the information on the cards
separated so that each card contains a sentence that combines with another to make a new
sentence. For example, two cards, given to two pupils might read:
Debbie Johnson`s room is small (and/but/yet) practical.
Although Debbie Johnson`s room is small, it is practical.
Though small, Debbie Johnson`s room is practical.
Debbie Johnson`s room (though/while) small, is practical.
With the new sentences they have formed, the pupils can discuss how to organize those
sentences to make a paragraph, as in 3 above.
5. Paragraph completion
Prepare a paragraph about the picture and write it on the board but omit the ending (in
brackets).
Debbie Johnson`s bedroom in her home in Catskill is small but practical. The room is
only 10^14, but the furniture is conveniently placed. As you walk through the door, you see the
desk on the right side of the long wall. To the left of the desk, there is a bookcase with four
shelves. In the far left corner of the room, there is chest of drawers. The rest of the short wall on
the left is occupied by the bed. Then, on the wall next to the bed (there is a big closet with two
shelves and space to hang clothes. It is next to the door. On the right-hand wall there are two
windows, which make the room very light and airy.)
The pupils discuss how to end the paragraph. Then they compare their version with each
other`s and with the version above.
6. Controlled composition
Ask the pupils to pretend that they are Debbie Johnson`s. She is now sixty years old and
is writing to grandchild to describe her room in her old family house in Catskill. The pupils
rewrite the above paragraph, using the past tense My bedroom was small.
7. Writing Forms
It is useful to be able to fill out a form in a foreign language. The filling out forms or
questionnaires provides pupils with the opportunity to work with language. Pairs of students
interview each other as they are job applicants and after they transfer information into forms.
Pupils can read a short passage and after extract the necessary information to fill out a
form. The class can be organized in a variety of ways for an activity of this kind. Only one pupil
of a pair has the passage, so that when he presents the information on a form, his partner has to
reconstruct the description; or the pupils fill out a form as they listen to the passage above, and
then fill out a similar form for a person in their family. From this information another pupil
constructs a descriptive paragraph.
8. Letters
Letters are one of the most spread forms of communication. For this teachers teach pupils
letters writing. Teaching letters writing give the chance to deal with a variety of forms and
functions that are an essential part of language mastery. Letters can have different goals: to
congratulate, complain, inquire, order, apply, thank, invite, explain, and apologize. Each of these
language functions has its own associated vocabulary, sentence structures and appropriate choice
of words and tone to fit the audience.
Letter of application for a job
Deal with the addresses, date, greeting, closing, punctuation, and spacing. Show the class
sample of a letter of application, such as the one below:
259 Hill Street
Catskill, NY 12414
June 5, 1984
The Manager
Catskill Bookstore
Water Street
Catskill, NY 12414
Dear Sir:
I would like to apply for the job of summer salesperson, which you advertised in today`s
Daily Mail. I have just graduated from Chisinau State University with good grades in English
and History. I was editor of University newspaper. I read a lot in my spare time and last summer
I even worked in the Main Street bookstore in my grandparents` home town Balti. I was born in
Balti on October 22, 1980.
If you require a letter of reference about my work and ability, please write to Ms. Galina
Adam, the manager of the bookstore from Balti.
Yours truly,
Ion Gindea
Give each pair of pupils an advertisement for job. One of the pair writes his own letter of
application for the advertised job, while the others fill out a registration form like this one:
Summer Employment Agency
Registration Form
Name _________________________________________________________________
Address________________________________________________________________
Date of birth _____________________________ Birthplace______________________
Height____________Weight________________ Health_________________________
Schools attended_________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Previous work experience__________________________________________________
Hobbies________________________________________________________________
References______________________________________________________________
Then pupils exchange their forms and letters and discuss them.
Daily Notes
Daily notes are useful for pupils to write every day, for their own eyes and not to be
judged by others, they often find that they can write more and more and like it.
a. Ask pupils to keep a special book and to write in it in English for few minutes every
day. Reasons can be different: a reaction to something they saw or read, an account of an event,
or a description of a feeling. Teacher can check periodically to see if the pupils do this, and
advise sometimes regarding language errors.
b. Allow a few minutes at the end of each class for pupils to write in their notebooks a
summary of what happened in the class. From what they write, teacher can often discover quite a
lot about own lesson.
c. Begin some lessons by letting pupils write for ten minutes on any topic. They write as
much and as quickly as they can. If they can`t think a word in English can use the native
language. It is good to encourage some of them to read aloud what they have written.
Useful words:
Tasks for students:
1. Design an activity that clearly involves the writing stages.
2. Create a sample of two activities of writing notes.
3. Create a sample of an activity of writing an informal letter. Present the features of an
informal letter.
Unit VII
Language Testing
Content:
-The importance of Language Testing
-Types of Tests
-Test Techniques
-Guidelines in Summative Test Preparation
-Samples of Scoring Profile
Key words: testing, types of tests, initial, formative, summative, to interpret, to design,
curriculum, testing techniques, language skills, assessment, proficiency, feedback, scoring.
The Importance of Language Testing
Test as a word evokes a negative reaction and pupils associate it with a test paper with
traditional questions, timed and where they desperate try to solve it. Sure, testing is more than
this. The forms of testing can be different and over the years they became more humanistic.
Pupils may be required to build up a portfolio or, observed in their normal activities of
classroom communication. They may be asked to carry out activities outside the classroom
context and provide evidence of their performance or, asked to take part in role plays or, in
group discussion as a part of oral assessment. Clearly, forms of testing are very different and
each form is good as long as they correspond to our educational context and help us to achieve
the teaching-learning goal. What are tests? Tests are didactic tools that provide accurate
measurement of pupils language abilities in which the teacher is interested. Abilities here we
mean-what pupils know to do. From here the function of a test is to measure language
proficiency and not only. Language tests are very important tools for teachers because except
function mentioned above they have significant functions that help teacher:
-To discover how successful students have been in achieving the objectives of a lesson,
unit.
-To diagnose pupils strengths and weaknesses.
-To identify what they know and what they don`t know.
-To motivate pupils to learn or review the specific language material.
Teacher as a subject of teaching-learning situation has to think of instruction as an
interrelated unity of three activities. Fixing the learning objectives he must:
-Decide what the pupils will learn.
-Communicate to pupils learning goal, provide conditions for learning, monitor pupils
progress, give feedback and improve their achievements.
-Evaluate the learning.
Teacher`s plans for teaching are incomplete if they don`t involve testing plans. Good
testing planning will make teachers` teaching more efficient.
Feedback-The return of information about the result of a process or activity; an
evaluative response: asked the students for feedback on the new curriculum.
Types of Tests
Not all tests are of the same kind. They differ according to how are designed and what
they are for. The form, test method and purpose make them different. According to their form
tests can be orally, written and computer. In terms of method can be distinguished between
traditional paper and pencil language tests and performance tests.
Paper and pencil tests language tests are familiar examination question paper. They are
typically used for the testing of separate components of language knowledge (grammar,
vocabulary) or, of receptive understanding (listening, reading comprehension). Tests involve the
following techniques:
-Questions and answers. Simple questions, very often following reading, or as part of an
interview; may require short or long answers:
What do people prefer colour films to black-and-white ones?
-True/False. A statement is given which is to be marked true or false. This may also be
given as a question, in which case the answer is yes or no.
Pupils are taught artisanship at school.
Pupils are not taught artisanship at school.
-Multiple choices. The questions consist of a stem and a number of options (usually
four), from which the pupil has to select the right one.
We would study English if we to England.
a) Go
b) would go
c) will go
d) went
-Gap-filling and completion. The pupil has to complete a sentence by filling gap or
adding something. A gap may or may not be signaled by a blank or dash; the word that must be
inserted may or may not be given or hinted at.
They (go) to Australia in 1980.
Or
They ____________ to Australia in 1980. (go)
Or
A_______________ is someone who writes books.
Or
I`ve seen that film. (never)
-Matching. The pupils are faced with two groups of words, phrases or sentences; each
item in the first group has to be linked to a different item in the second.
Large
small
Unhappy
many
A lot
big
Little
sad
-Dictation. The teacher dictates a passage or set of words; the pupils write them down.
-Cloze. Words are omitted from a passage at regular intervals (for example, every
seventh word). Usually the first two or three lines are given with no gaps.
The family is all fine, though Leo had a bad boat of flu last week. He spent most of lying
on the sofa watching _____________ when he wasn`t sleeping!
His exams __________ in two weeks, so he is ____________ about missing school, but
has managed to _____________ quite a lot in spite ___________ feeling ill.
-Transformation. A sentence is given; the pupil has to change it according to some given
instruction.
Put into the past tense:
It has a large window.
-Rewriting. A sentence is given. The pupil must rewrite it, making the given change of
expression, but keeping the basic meaning.
He came to the meeting in spite of his illness.
Although
-Translation. The pupil is asked to translate expressions, sentence or entire passage to or
from the target language.
-Essay. The pupils are given a topic like The Country I would like to visit and asked to
write an essay of a specific length. Languge TR UR
In performance based tests, language skills are tested in an act of communication.
Performance tests are most tests of speaking and writing, in which a more or less extended
sample of speech or writing is elicited from the test taker.
Tests also differ according their purpose, so they can be achievement and proficiency
tests. Achievement tests are associated with the purpose of instruction and related to curriculum
aims.
According to period of time achievement tests can be diagnostic, formative and final
testing.
Diagnostic test is given by the teacher at the end or beginning of the year, term and their
function is to identify pupil`s strengths and weaknesses.
Formative Testing focus on the learning objectives, assess current pupil`s work and
provides information that help teacher to adjust teaching and learning while they are still
happening. Formative tests forms are: observation, discussions, questioning, peer/selfassessments, homework, etc. Teacher must record the results of formative testing, giving marks
and appreciating the knowledge progress. This provide to motivational benefits helping pupils to
feel in control of their own learning and improve level if needed.
Final or summative tests focus on final teaching-learning product -result. It is given at the
end of the unit, term, year to check and understand the level of knowledge assimilation.
Summative means to sum up what has been learned. The forms of final testing can be: final
exam, test-paper, portfolio, essay, report, etc.
Guidelines in Summative Test Preparation
Teachers have professional responsibilities in designing a summative test. This test is a
tool that will give information about pupil`s achievement. Each decision the teacher makes will
have a positive or negative influence on his pupils. Thats why is very important to follow some
guidelines for test preparation. Before test a teacher must:
-Announce pupils at least a week in advance about the test, its aim, types of techniques,
and size.
-Tell the pupils the content (material) and abilities that will be tested.
-Inform students about the time, place, and some rules or restrictions that must be
respected.
-Give some tips about the best way to cope with the test tasks (It is very well to be given
some test-tips before the test itself for a better preparation).
-Allow class time for revision, this will encourage pupils and help them with pre-test
learning.
-Speak pupils about the level of performance is expected.
Designing the Test
-Revise the curriculum. Focus on the competences that have been developed at the
provided lessons.
-Choose the best test techniques that would measure the developed competences, be
careful and see if they are of high quality (involve tasks that are known by pupils, have clear
instructions), revise and correct the errors.
-When you choose or select test`s techniques or readymade tests, make sure that they are
appropriate for your intended use.
-Establish the procedure for scoring decide exactly how you will assess each task or item
of the test, and how much weighting, percentage of total grade you will give it.
-Make the scoring system as simple as you can and inform pupils about it: write the
number of points given for each task.
-Try to make the test more motivating for pupils finding interesting contents and tasks as
it is possible.
Giving the Test
-Remind pupils about the test content, format and scoring system before giving papers.
-Read instructions and make sure that everything is clear.
-Help if it is needed pupils who still have difficulties with instructions or have some
misunderstandings.
After the Test
-Interpret pupil`s performance in a positive way.
-Go briefly through the answers in class and comment on them.
-Use test results to evaluate the learning aims not as a weapon for punishing or
controlling pupils behavior.
-Use tests results for future planning, for improving the language knowledge
achievements.
Scoring of Testing Writing
While testing the pupil`s writing work teacher must score and pay attention to the next
factors:
Grammar
6- Few noticeable errors of grammar or word order.
5-Some errors of grammar or word order which do not, however, interfere with
comprehension.
4-Errors of grammar or word order fairly frequent; occasional is reading necessary for
full comprehension.
3-Errors of grammar or word order frequent; efforts of interpretation sometimes required
on reader`s part.
2-Errors of grammar or word order very frequent; reader often has to rely on own
interpretation.
1-Errors of grammar or word order so severe as to make comprehension virtually
impossible.
Vocabulary
6- Use of vocabulary and idiom rarely (if at all) but efficiently.
5- Reach vocabulary.
4-Uses wrong or inappropriate words fairly frequently; the way of expressing ideas are
limited because has a lack of vocabulary.
3-Limited vocabulary and frequent errors clearly hinder expression of ideas.
2-Vocabulary is so limited that reader must often rely on own interpretation.
1- Vocabulary limitations so extreme as to make comprehension virtually impossible.
Mechanics
organisatio
n
vocabulary
Language
use
Mechanics
Tota
l score
Unit VIII
Lesson Planning and Teacher`s Resources
Content:
-The Importance of Lesson Planning
- English Lesson Planning Process
-Lesson Stages
-Finding a Balance between Required and Additional Material
-Benefits of Didactic Material Use
Key words: lesson planning, stages, introduction, presentation, practice, evaluation,
advantages, curriculum, objectives, topic, goal, didactic material.
The Importance of Lesson Planning
Teaching a foreign language is a complex process. It involves teaching-learning
activities that teacher performs in the class room area and not only. The effectiveness of the
teaching-learning process depends on the way how activities are planned by the teacher in
advance. Lesson plan represents a detailed description of activities in which teacher thinks
about the content, didactic material, the way of knowledge assessment, teaching-learning
strategies. What is an English lesson plan?
An English lesson plan is the teacher's guide for a current lesson, and it includes the
goal (what the students are supposed to learn), how the goal will be reached (tasks and
instructional strategies) and a way of measuring how well the goal was reached (assessment,
homework etc.).
A lesson is like a journey and lesson plan for a teacher is like a map. It shows
where to start, where you finish and the route to take to get there.
Another important action while planning is assessment. Pupils` assessment follows from
the objectives. A teacher must design tasks that will measure what pupils know and what they
know to do. From here lesson planning process involves:
-analyzing or reviewing the curriculum
-mapping the competences
-determining the lesson theme
-outlining the lesson goal and objectives
-selecting the didactic material
-structuring the lesson stages
-planning the assessment
A free activity gives the student/s the most freedom with the language and allows them to tie it
to previously learnt language. What happens during a free activity is up to the student. Examples
are debates and role-plays. Note: Free activities don't include general conversations.
When you have ready the lesson plan and you checked it several times take in account
some tips before your lesson and rethink it again each step:
1. Prepare more than you need: it is advisable to have an easily presented light (reserve
activity ready in case of extra time (see Ur and Wright, 1992 for some ideas).
2. Similarly note in advance which component of the lesson you will sacrifice if you find
yourself with too little time for everything!
3. Keep a watch or clock easily visible, make sure you are aware throughout how time is
going relative to your program. It is difficult to judge intuitively how time is going when you
are busy and the smooth running of your lesson depends to some extent on proper timing.
4. Do not leave the giving of homework to the last minute! At the end of the lesson
learners attention is at low ebb, and you may run out of time before you finish explaining.
Explain it earlier on, and then give a quick reminder at the end.
5. lf you have papers to distribute and a large class, do not try to give every paper
Yourself to every student! Give a number of papers to people at different points in the
class, ask them to take one and pass the rest on.
6. lf you are doing group work, give instructions and make sure these are understood before
dividing into groups or even if practicable handing out materials if you do it the other way round
students will be looking at each other and at the materials and they are less likely
Teacher must become researchers inside their classroom and notice which sort of
material will increase learning. Exists a wide variety of didactic material and teacher must know
how to adopt it in a creative way. Due to integration of ICT in language teaching-learning
process this allows a high degree of individualization of learning activity. Starting with
handmade material (charts, pictures, maps, cards) and till multimedia tools (sites with commix,
digy stories, audio, video, movies, e-books) facilities language teaching-learning process.
Benefits of didactic material use are:
- Increases pupils emotions motives, attitudes
- Provides opportunities for language use
- Offer plenty of free practice
- Develops strategic competence
- Helps to develop learners self-confidence
Guidelines for Teacher-Made Didactic Materials
Worksheets and work cards should be:
- be neat: well written, clear margins, different components well-spaced;
-begin with short and clear instruction, usually including an example or model (if is
needed can be used the mother language);
-be clear and attractive to look, have a balanced and varied layout, can be used
underlining and others emphases to draw attention to significant thinks, if possible use colors
and graphic illustration;
-include self-check facilities.
Tasks for students:
-Why do you think the course book is very important and bring more reasons how it
becomes a useful resource in teaching English language at the lesson? Think about readymade
activities, texts, picture, and teaching programme.
-What should do teacher to extend the activities to increase their pupils learning
opportunities?
-Study carefully all lesson stages; choose age, level you intend to plan, theme, goal, time
allowed, etc. and write a plan. Prepare all didactic materials you need for successful learning.
Unit IX
The Management of the English Language Classroom
Content:
-The Role of Classroom Management
-Classroom Management Elements
-Efficient Classroom Management Tips
Key words: classroom management, process, strategies, rules, procedures, discipline,
motivation, English language, attitude, attention.
The Role of Classroom Management
Language knowledge, planning skills are not enough for a good teacher. English good
achievement requires except planning a good classroom management. Classroom management
refers to the ability to deal with problems in different learning-teaching situations. A good
management must be seen as an ongoing-oriented process. English good achievement cannot
happen without a classroom environment that encourages pupil`s motivation, creativity, grows
problem solvers, facilitates feedback, productive activities and leads to the desire to
communicate in English. Good classroom management skills along with the upper mentioned
skills facilitate the process of teaching-learning English.
Classroom Management Elements
A classroom is like a micro society in which pupils are citizens, who have needs and
interests. Teacher should know that a good classroom management can be built due to strategies
application. These strategies involve classroom rules, routines, and procedures. An efficient
teacher should know how to manage with them to get good results. Down are given some useful
strategies for English classroom management:
-creating a welcoming classroom environment;
-establishing discipline rules;
-making a special teaching style, interesting and varied;
-praising and encouraging good behavior and learning;
-showing pupils that he cares out them and respect.
teaching-learning process and as one of the key of pupil`s success in studying English. The
establishing of lesson rules is very evident. Some tips listed down can be very helpful.
"Praise should deal, not with the child's personality attributes, but with his efforts and
achievements." said Haim Ginott.
"It takes me about two to four weeks at the beginning of school to establish the policy. I
just lay down the law that no one will call anyone names, and I just push respect, respect, and
respect. I believe that if I respect my kids, they will respect me and I have never found that to be
any different. I am not saying I get the best kids, but by the time they leave my classroom
everybody wants to have my kids because they have learned respect and manners."
Show you care about them. When you have chance ask pupils how they are, congratulate on
birthday, ask about difficulties, so they feel that you care about them.
Good classroom management also supposes specific classroom procedures like:
Do something different so that everyone knows it`s time for English, eg, a poem, a song, a
special greeting.
-Wear something special during the lesson, eg. badge, a hat.
-Stand in different place or arrange the room differently.
-Find pictures, symbols that pupils associate with English.
-Have a clear view of all students.
-Use signals to gain student attention.
-Develop routines and procedures for the beginning and end of class.
-Develop efficient processes for assigning and monitoring class work.
-Make sure frequently used materials are readily accessible.
-Avoid unnecessary distractions.
-Consider and plan for flexible grouping needs.
Efficient Classroom Management Tips
While teaching-learning English language the teacher should apply different forms of work
(pair, individual, group). Study some useful tips for group, pair work to make it more effective.
-Explain the activity. Make sure pupils know exactly what they have got to do. Go over the
instructions carefully and encourage pupils to ask questions.
-Arrange the groups. Often you must clearly indicate to students who they should work
with. Allow students to work with their friends most of the time, but explain that in some sessions
you are going to organize them so they get a chance to work with everyone in the class. This is
also a good strategy for controlling discipline.
Pupils can be regrouped using techniques such as counting off, categorizing according to
the color of their clothing or their shoes size, giving them pieces of a puzzle, to put together, labels
with type of inscription, etc.
-Set a time limit. Establishing a time limit gives a sense of urgency to an activity. It is also
a good idea to stop an activity after most of the groups have finished so that the whole class is not
left waiting.
-Give examples of demonstrations. Before you divide the class into pairs or groups, give as
many examples as necessary to make sure students understand what they are supposed to do. You
can model the activity with a pupil and then ask some stronger students to demonstrate it. This
ensures that the class understands exactly what to do and how to do it and that you do not have to
interrupt pupils in the middle of the activity to repeat the instructions.
-Circulate. As pupils are working, circulate around the classroom and make sure they all
understand and are participating in the activity. Provide assistance when they needed.
-Follow up. Invite pupils to report to the class on what their group discussed or what their
partner told them.
- Rules. Establish the rules for the group/pair work before you start the activity:
Plan your work before you start.
Distribute the tasks.
Don`t shout and talk over one another.
Listen to each others opinions.
Everyone must contribute to the final task.
When you assess the work, make it clear that this is a group/pair assessment and that they
are all responsible for each other`s work.
Useful words:
Teaching styleBehavior-\bi-h-vyr, b-\ the way a person acts or behaves.
Procedure-\pr-s-djr\ a series of actions that are done in a certain way or order, an
established or accepted way of doing something.
Label-\l-bl\ a piece of paper that is attached to something to identify or describe it.
Tasks for students:
-Which are classroom management elements presented in the text and can you add
additional facts that seems to you as being important in having a good class management? Give
your reasons.
-Imagine you are a teacher, its a beginning of a new learning year, think in advance which
rules you`ll fix so to have a good classroom environment for an efficient English learning. Write
them down and present it as a poster.
-Study carefully the group/pair work tips and think about an activity, choose one type of
work (pair/ group), imagine all steps and after describe on a paper it as clear as possible.
Anexa
Suggestopedia Method
Lesson Plan
MY DAY
th
-Class- 5
-Language skill: speaking
Lesson goal:
-At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to talk about what they do every day.
I get up / She gets up
What time do you.?
What times does she?
Vocabulary:
Ten oclock, half past ten, a quarter past eleven,
Noon, one oclock, four oclock, a quarter past eight, a quarter to eleven, to get up.
Introduction:
Poem with doing different movements that imitates the clock striking hours.
Presentation:
First concert: This involves the active presentation of the material to be learned.
Second concert: The students put aside their scripts and the teacher reads at normal speed
according to the content (Beethoven, Concerto No. 5 in E flat major for Piano and Orchestra, Op.
73 ("Emperor")).
Text:
Far away there is a wonderful town. There must be something skittishly in what they
decided to do. So peeling potatoes till the end was a pleasure more than a dislike. This annoyed
because the more they peeled the more it seemed to be. That won`t be. Scraping can be painful
sometimes and not only. Once I`ve pushed the knee through theses bushes sure in advance I
should guess how it could be.
Scraping sometimes can serve as getting up from dreaming to reality. Oh, you know from
hot feelings or emotions usually don`t realize the real gravity of things. Then the more you think,
the more frightening becomes. When trying to find the thread through deeds and words become
heavy we consume our self so much and provoke deeper bad emotions. I hate thinking anymore I
am tired and I am lost in this \There is a big palace there. A young man is the Emperor of the
place. He usually gets up at ten oclock in the morning. He takes a bath at half past ten. He has
breakfast at a quarter past eleven. Then he goes out at noon. At one oclock he has lunch. At four
oclock in the afternoon he goes shopping. He has dinner at a quarter past eight. Then, he goes to
bed at a quarter to eleven. What a life!
The pictures will be put up in the classroom to create a good environment.
The teacher presents the pictures telling the time and the actions, and then asks to the students to
repeat after her/him. For example:
Teacher: ten oclock
Students: ten oclock
After practicing the vocabulary, the teacher shows another picture and asks to the students a
question. For example:
Teacher: What time it is?
The teacher writes the answers on the whiteboard.
Practice:
The students will have to complete a puzzle (see Annex 8).
As the next activity, the students have to complete a chart with some information about their
classmates. They have to walk around the class asking the correct question according to the
pictures, and complete the chart (see Annex 9). Students are going to watch a video. They have to
pay attention to it because later the teacher will ask some questions. Also students have to work in
groups of three. They have to ask and answer questions about them. For example:
Student A: What time do you get up?
Student B: I get up at 7:00
Student A: What time does he get up?
Student C: He gets up at 7:00
Production:
A short story will be given to the students, so they have to read and complete the information
below.
Homework:
The students have to write their daily routines. They have to write about what they do from
morning to night and the time they do each activity.
Grammar Activities
The use of present continuous tense.
1. Look at the pictures below. Using the present continuous tense, describe what
these people are doing.
Example: He is playing tennis.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Tense revision.
Game: Verb tense jump!
Divide the class into three teams. Assign a tense for each team: present continuous, past
simple, future with going to.
Say a sentence using one of the tenses: I read a book last night.
The group with the corresponding tense jumps up and says the tense of the sentence.
The teacher continues in the same manner with different sentences. Award a point for each
correct answer.
called Jon. She was in town on business and would be leaving town again tomorrow. She asked
Jon if they could meet tonight. They had not seen each other since they split up two years ago.
They agreed to meet at a local restaurant for dinner. Anna and Jon met at the local restaurant,
and they sat down for a meal together. They were half-way through their meal when in walked
Kate with her friends. Kate was shocked to see her boyfriend having dinner with his ex-girlfriend!
She walked over to Jons table What is it possible for Jon, Kate and Anna to do in this situation?
Write a sentence for each person using modal verbs of possibility could, might and may.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Discuss your possibilities with your classmates. Do they agree with you?
TEACH-THIS.COM
Advice Game
This is a great game for practicing giving advice. The students get to practice various
phrases for giving advice in different situations.
Procedure
Divide the class into teams of three. Appoint one student in each team to do the writing. Write on
the board the following sentence.
I had an accident in my car.
Explain that the teams have to write down as many pieces of advice as they can think of using the
phrase: You should For example:
You should call the police.
You should check the damage to your car.
Tell the teams that they shouldnt write sentences, which simply say the same thing in a different
way, e.g. You should check for damage to your car. You should look to see if your
car has any dents.
Set a five-minute time limit. Then get the teams to swap papers. Ask each team to read out their
list in turn. As the other teams read out their sentences, the teams should tick any duplicate
sentences on their list.
All the sentences should give appropriate advice for a car accident. Each team gets one point for
each correct sentence.
Play further rounds using other phrases for giving advice and situations.
Other phrases:
You ought to
You need to
My advice is to
You could try
Sample printable
Story map. Anexa
LESSON PLAN
SCHOOL: school-kindergarten nr.152 Step by Step
DATE:
TEACHER:
SUBJECT: English
FORM: 2C
MODULE: 2
THEME: Tims New Toys
SPECIFIC COMPETENCE INDICATORS (SCI) and SUB COMPETENCE (SC):
Listening
Spoken
Interaction
Listening
Spoken
Interaction
Teaching aids:
Magic Box
Toys
Sheets of paper
A die
Markers
Organisational forms:
Group work
Individual work
Bibliography:
1. Ignatiuc Iu. Aladin L. Foca L. Puiu D. Magic English Pupilss Book 2nd Form
2. Ignatiuc Iu. Aladin L. Foca L. Puiu D. Magic English Workbook 2nd Form
3. Klementieva T. Sunny English Workbook Forms 1-3
4. Paidos C. Paidos Cr. Grammar Is Fun
5. Keyes Joan Ross The Oxford Picture Dictionary
6. Banta A: Dicionar Englez-Romn Romn-Englez
7. Vleanu D. Practice English with Speedy Workbook 2nd Form
Evocation
The pupils
will:
Greet the pupils
-Good morning, pupils.
-Good morning, teacher.
Magic Box
The pupils will guess the object in the box asking questions:
e.g. Is it big?
Is it a ......?
Describe
an object
using the
learned
words
Realisation of
Sense
Evaluation
Teaching
aids
Forms
Methods
Teacher-pupils activity
Time
Instructional
events
Objectives
Strategies
Teaching-Learning
Chain
Brainwriting
A poster
with the
word
BALL
on
BALL
e.g This is a ball.
The ball is orange.
Write all the ideas on a poster.
What toys do you know?
The pupils will take a sheet of paper with the name of a toy on and
will stick it to the toy.
e.g. lorry- camion
A box
A ball
Brainstormin
g
3
Group
work
Sheets of
paper
with the
name of
Gro
up
Learn new
words
New Vocabulary
The pupils get cards with the new words:
Toy- jucrie
Plane- avion
Train- tren
Lorry- camion
Bus- autobus
Car- main
Kite- zmeu de hrtie
Rope- coard
Bike- biciclet
Roller skates- patine cu rotile
Doll- ppu
The pupils will repeat the new words after the teacher. Then they
will read the words by themselves.
Look at the toys and see if you stuck the names of the toys
correctly.
The pupils will write their names under the toy they like.
the toys
on
Toys
5
Cards
with the
new
words
Use the
vocabulary related
to toys
Lorry
Doll
Bike
Rope
The four
corners
Group
work
A sheet
of paper
with a
grid on
Markers
Sheets of
paper for
each
group
Gro
up
Learn to
show the
possession
It is not red.
Present them.
2
5
Explaning
Individual
work
Indi
vidu
al
Reflecion
Lilys
doll
5
The pupils will throw the cube and will say a sentence about the
toy on the top.
e.g. doll-This is Lilys doll.
Homework
The pupils will name 2-3 toys they learnt new and will ask
questions about the unclear things.
Learn the toys. Write word combinations to say whose toy it is.
The cube
A die
Indi
vi
du
al
ANN S
DOL
L
TIM S
BUS
BALL
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