Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles

Introduction
Global warming has led to the rapid melting of glaciers, the rising
of water levels worldwide and disappearing islands. The cause of these
events can be attributed to human behavior in regard to the discovery,
capture and distribution of energy. The recent crisis has led society to
explore various renewable energy alternatives. Since the industrial
revolution, society has been on a journey to manage energy. Manage
because by the First Law of Thermodynamics: energy cannot be
created or destroyed, it can only be interconverted into different forms.
Public and private companies have been in a race to find the most
sustainable, efficient, plentiful energy source; although most industry
creating and changing innovations have happened in the last decade.
However, an answer to our energy problem may not be one
solution but a group of different energy sources that would be
appropriate for each individual market. The world is not in an energy
supply crisis, but instead an interconverting crisis. There is renewable
energy all around us; we have just been interconverting fossil fuels into
non-renewable by-products. Current research is focused to examine
how to be able to interconvert and end up with renewable by-products.
Fuel cell technology is just one of the more economical way to use
energy while reducing the negative effects on our environment.
Competitors to the fuel cell market include other renewable

energy solutions. These include wind, solar, natural gas as well hybrid
technology. Hybrid technology has been the most promising, however
this innovation has only begun to enter the consumer marketplace in
the last decade and has yet to achieve a zero emissions rating. Fuel
cell technology can make this possible and therefore is the frontrunner
to significantly reduce our overall CO2 emissions and our effect on the
ozone. The purpose of this paper is to examine the technology as well
as how to bring hydrogen fuel cells to the consumer marketplace in a
profitable way and at a price point that would make this technology
tangible for society.

Literature Review
Research in this topic first required a detailed study of the
hydrogen fuel cell. This includes its major components, required input
material and analysis of the chemical reactions that take place inside
the fuel cell that allow the vehicle to use the released energy to propel
the car into motion. Next, market participants were examined including
hydrogen fuel cell manufacturers, leading automotive companies
utilizing this technology, as well as hydrogen and platinum suppliers.
After gathering the background science knowledge and combining it
with analysis of the current market, competitors in the consumer fuel
cell vehicle market were examined. With the base understanding of the
science, suppliers, competitors and manufacturers of the industry, a

careful analysis of the viability of this technology was done. Lastly, I

concluded my research by looking at factors that may contribute to
making hydrogen fuel cells a reliable renewable energy source of the
next century.
Hydrogen has many benefits over other sources such as oil or
petroleum. Firstly it has a wide range of flammability, low ignition
energy, high auto ignition temperature, is lightweight, and has high
diffusivity. All these characteristics make hydrogen a great source of
energy. Even our greatest inventions cannot be realized if they cannot
be made to be economically viable. In 1838, Christian Friedrich
Schonbein invented the idea or hypothesis of a fuel cell. Using this
research Sir William Robert Grove actually developed the first fuel cell
in 1839. (1) However since then and up until 1955, the technology was
not applicable in the consumer marketplace. W. Thomas Grubb while at
GE, in 1955, used sulphonate polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as
an electrolyte. (2) All this innovation led to NASA using this technology
in a well-known project called Project Gemini. This was the first
commercial application of the fuel cell and since then all innovation
regarding fuel cell has surpassed all other renewable energy sources.
(3) To appreciate truly the applicability of the fuel cell, its composition
must be examined.
Hydrogen fuel cell technology is not a full-fledged answer to our
energy problem however it may be the best innovation of our time

regarding transportation. In order to appreciate the significance of the

HFC we will first examine the science. This will allow us to see the
limitations and advantages of this technology over other energy
sources. We then will analyze all the players in this field: suppliers,
sellers, buyers and most importantly for all renewable energy sources,
the LCM, the limiting reagent distribution.
The main source of todays hydrogen supply is natural gas. (4) The
value of a fuel cell is dependent on the amount of power that can be
extracted from it. Since the fuel cell supplies a fixed voltage, the more
power that is drawn the more current is extracted which increases the
loss of energy in the fuel cell. Most losses show up as voltages drops
within the cell, thus it can be concluded that the voltage is directly
proportional to the cells efficiency. If the energy is being used to propel
an object, the output of the fuel cell has to be converted into
mechanical energy, which leads to a further decrease in efficiency.
There has been much innovation over the past decade, which has
led to the emerging of new diagnostic techniques to help optimize cost
and lifetime of fuel cell systems. Newer technology has been focused
on the geometry of fuel cells and the capability of these cells to
support various catalysts and changes that would result in reduced
manufacturing cost, increase in durability and improved performance
and better stability of catalysts. There is a necessity to arrange a block
of cells, as one cell is not commercially viable. To generate a desired

current cells have to be places into a series so current can flow and the
power of the whole system is dependent on the weakest cell.
Geometrical cell design of current cells is not capable of withstanding
faults in the system. To reduce the effect of the weakest link cell, it has
to be identified quickly. Professor Kucernak has been at work recently
to solve this dilemma. (5)

Professor Kucernak has suggested that the design of fuel cells

should be in a stack so that badly performing cells can be easily
switched out, or temporarily removed so that the rest of the system
can function. This type of system needs to be capable of showing
which cell is problematic and the ability of the system to function near
optimum conditions even with the bad cell in place. Optimistically it
would be an even greater advantage to be able to access faulty
electrodes and repair them easily. The purpose of Professor Kucernaks
research has been on the mechanical design of fuel cells for optimum
performance. The goal of the project is to integrate power control
devices directly into the fuel cell, which would allow greater control of
the cell compared to current designs. To produce a more efficient fuel
cell, the research into new types of electrodes, in particular the
production of through-membrane connectors. To install electrodes
directly into the fuel cell stack completely changes the required design
of the overall system. (5)

Current research also includes the study of alkaline conducting

membranes, in detail to reduce costs of commercializing fuel cells. In
direct methanol fuel cells, the problem is fuel crossing from anode to
cathode without the production of energy was a major problem. This
led to methanol being replaced with ethanol. Ethanol is much more
commercially viable option as many companies are conducting
research into extracting ethanol from plants. Any research leading to
the decrease in cost of ethanol would be a boon to making fuel cells
affordable. (6)

Findings

In extremely simple terms it is a device that converts hydrogenrich fuel and oxygen into an electric current with the help of an
electrolyte, catalyst an anode and cathode. It captures the chemical
energy expended during the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen. This
differs from combustion engines in which the energy expended is
thermal energy. Electricity is generated through the triggering of a
reaction between fuel and an oxidant, in the presence of an electrolyte.
After the reaction, water flows out of the cell while the electrolytes
remain trapped inside the cell. (7)

The most common type of fuel cell is the PEM or Polymer

Electrolyte Membrane variant. This membrane is a thin, solid, organic
compound that has the consistency of plastic wrap and is as think as
on average 5 sheets of printing paper. This membrane acts as the
electrolyte, which can be defined as a substance that conducts
charged ions but does not conduct electrons. This membrane must be
kept wet to be able to allow particles to flow freely across it.
The anode, negatively charged and porous to allow H to flow
across it, is the point at which the loss of electrons occurs. This node
has on it platinum particles along with carbon particles. The platinum is
the catalyst that speeds up the rate of oxidation. The cathode is the
place where the gain of electrons occurs. This point is positively
charged. The cathode has the same characteristics as the anode with
the exception of the fact that O flows through it. The reaction can be
cyclic with the presence of hydrogen, hydrocarbons and oxidants. Fuel
cells differ from electrochemical cell batteries in that fuel cells, an open
system, consume reactants from an outside source and flow of these
reactants has to be maintained. However, in batteries electrical energy
is stored as chemicals in a closed system. (7)
The amount of energy a fuel cell can produce depends on the
type, cell size, size as well as operating temperature.
Talking about fuel cells can lead to an extensive discussion, as
there are many types. Close observation of the hydrogen fuel cell

reveals that the oxidants used are Cl, O2 or CO2. However some other
types of fuel cells use alcohols or hydrocarbons as fuel. Classification is
determined by the fuel, oxidants, construction, anode and cathode
materials and the type of electrolyte used. It is important to
understand how various fuel cells function in order to better
understand the fuel cell of real interest: the hydrogen fuel cell.

Fuel Cell Type

AFC
MCFC (molten carbonate)

PEM

PAFC

Description
Was used in the NASA lunar
missions. Consumes hydrogen and
pure oxygen
Used only in industrial and military
applications. The operating range
is such that non-precious metals
can be used as catalysts bringing
the costs down.
Also known as the Ballard fuel cell.
Polymer Electrolyte membrane
which is a proton exchange fuel
cell. A solid polymer is used as an
electrolyte and a porous carbon
electrode, which contain platinum.
Operate at 90 degrees Celsius and
releases 90-degree heat as
byproduct. Compared to
combustion engines, which
operate at 2,500 Celsius and give
off 125-degree heat. This means
PEM fuel cells can adapt to load
changes quickly making it perfect
for transport vehicles. (7)
Electrodes inside are mad of
carbon paper coated with a thin
coating of platinum catalyst. The
system is not affected by the
impurities in carbon monoxide in
the hydrogen stream. Furthermore
the use of platinum in this cell
makes it very expensive to

SOFC

RFC

produce. (7)
Highly efficient, long-term
stability, fuel flexibility, low
emissions, low cost.
Disadvantages include high
operating temperature which can
lead to long start up times and
mechanical and compatibility
issues
Regenerative fuel cell or reverse
fuel cells that run in reverse
mode. It consumes electricity and
chemical to produce another
chemical.

The most energy efficient catalyst used is platinum but recent

breakthroughs in technology has allowed the creation of a special core
and shell nanoparticle that uses much less platinum than comparable
fuel cells. This new cell performs much more efficiently and lasts a
greater time than cells that use pure-platinum catalysts. The oxygen
reduction reaction that happens at the cathode end creates H2O as
waste. Platinum has long been used as the preferred catalyst however
the oxidation-reduction reaction causes it to degrade gradually. The
core-shell particle developed at Brown University reduces costs and
decay of the expensive element. A 5-nanometer palladium core, which
is surrounded by a layer of iron and platinum, was developed. The idea
was that the molding in the shell would remain rigid thereby reducing
the amount of platinum required to result in an energy efficient
reaction. The development included decomposing iron pentacarbonyl
and reduced platinum acetyl acetone, which results in a shell
composed of only 30% platinum. In tests, the nanoparticles generated

twelve times more current than available catalysts. The experiment

was run over 10,000 cycles and still lasted 10 times longer than
current platinum fuel cells, which begin to deteriorate after only 1,000
cycles. (8)
The shells created varied from a width of 1 to three nanometers
and it was discovered that 1-nanometer shells were the most efficient.
It has been theorized by the scientist involved that the palladium core
increases the catalytic capabilities of iron platinum, and that somehow
the transfer of electrons between the core and shell metals has been
observed. Metals that are chemically more active than palladium alone
are being used to verify that the transfer of electrons in the particle.
(8)
Improving efficiency.
Fuel cells in general release a great amount of heat. Separate
cooling systems are needed to keep this heat under control. If the
temperature exceeds the maximum, erosion of the catalyst plates can
occur. This problem actually led to an innovation of a new high power
cell with a heat generator. Heat released from these fuel cells could be
used to heat water or generate steam. (9)
Energy sources that utilize fossil fuels have significant upfront
costs as well as ongoing costs, many of which are spread over time
and may increase depending on the market conditions. In contrast
renewable energy sources demand a high up-front cost but low

maintenance costs, however the main cause of concern in the future of

this technology is the efficiency capture and transport of hydrogen.
The main problem with other renewable energy methods is that the
sources of energy are not always available. For example, with wind
turbines, it is not guaranteed that wind will flow at all times. Similarly,
the sun is only available to half the world at a time at most
disregarding cloud cover disturbances.
Researchers at GE have stated that they have produced a
prototype of a product that would lead to the ability to produce
hydrogen for less than $3 per kilogram, compared to the current $8.
Water is combined with potassium hydroxide electrolyte and forced
past a stack of electrodes. The electricity causes water molecules to
split into O2 and H gases. In actuality, hydrogen can be sourced more
efficiently and at a lower financial cost than natural gas. (9)
The main application of interest with regard to hydrogen fuel cells
is in consumer vehicles. Honda first introduced the concept in 2006
and released as a 2008 model. However, it was only available in
southern California where hydrogen stations were established. The
vehicle could not be bought but only leased for $600 per month,
however this also included unlimited hydrogen fuel. The FCX
unfortunately was discontinued production this year. (11) Fuel
estimations can be found in the following table:
Table 1
Vehicle

Model

Combined

City

Highway

Range

Year
Toyota
Mirai
Honda
FCX

(mi/kg)

(mi/kg)

(mi)

2016

Fuel
(mi/kg)
67

312

2014

59

58

60

231

The cost of hydrogen fuel produced through steam formation which is

the most cost effective way would be on average $4-$5 per kg.
The Toyota Mirai was first introduced in November 2014, and is
scheduled for release of 700 vehicles worldwide in the 3rd quarter of
2015. According to the EPA, fuel estimations can be found in Table 1.
The price will be $57,000 and will only be available in California. The
Mirai is different in that it uses fuel cell as well as hybrid technology. To
date there are only 10 hydrogen-fueling stations in California, however
the state government has approved $47 million for an additional 28
stations to be built. (10)

Conclusion
Fuel Cells Vehicles are limited by the unavailability as well as the
cost ineffectiveness of platinum. Until a substitute catalyst is found
FVCs will find it very difficult to be anything more than part of a niche
market. It is incredibly difficult and inefficient to produce, store,
transport and use hydrogen. Looking at the big picture, unless
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles or other renewable energy source vehicles
were to transport the hydrogen, combustion engine transport vehicles

would still be required to meet the demand of massive distribution.

Hydrogen should be treated as an energy storage mechanism, for
example to store electricity, not a source of energy. Hydrogen gas is
colorless, odorless and extremely flammable. This makes it an
extremely dangerous source of fuel to be in a pressurized state in
transport vehicles. Considering all these factors, hydrogen fuel cell
vehicles look to be at least 20 years to be a significant part of the
automotive market.

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