THE HISTORY OF SURVEYING

DEFINITION OF SURVEYING
Surveying or land surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the
terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between
them. These points are usually on the surface of the Earth, and they are often used to
establish land maps and boundaries for ownership or governmental purposes. To
accomplish their objective, surveyors use elements of geometry, engineering,
trigonometry, mathematics, physics, and law.
An alternative definition, per the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping
(ACSM), is the science and art of making all essential measurements to determine the
relative position of points and/or physical and cultural details above, on, or beneath the
surface of the Earth, and to depict them in a usable form, or to establish the position of
points and/or details.
Furthermore, as alluded to above, a particular type of surveying known as "land
surveying" (also per ACSM) is the detailed study or inspection, as by gathering
information through observations, measurements in the field, questionnaires, or
research of legal instruments, and data analysis in the support of planning, designing,
and establishing of property boundaries. It involves the re-establishment of cadastral
surveys and land boundaries based on documents of record and historical evidence, as
well as certifying surveys (as required by statute or local ordinance) of subdivision
plats/maps, registered land surveys, judicial surveys, and space delineation. Land
surveying can include associated services such as mapping and related data
accumulation, construction layout surveys, precision measurements of length, angle,
elevation, area, and volume, as well as horizontal and vertical control surveys, and the
analysis and utilization of land survey data.
THE EARLY DAYS OF SURVEYING
1400 B.C.
The Egyptians first used it to accurately divide land into plots for the purpose of
taxation.
Babylon, Egypt, and the city states of Greece all had standards for commercial
measuring devices.
500 B.C.
Athens had its own central depository of official weights and measures the Tholos

120 B.C.
Greeks developed the science of geometry and were using it for precise land division.
Greeks developed the first piece of surveying equipment (Diopter).
Greeks standardized procedures for conducting surveys.
Some of the earliest surviving measuring devices include gold scales recovered in
present-day Greece from the tombs of Mycenaean kings.

THE EARLY DAYS OF SURVEYING

1800 A.D. Beginning of the industrial revolution.
The importance of "exact boundaries" and the demand for public improvements
(i.e. railroads, canals, roads) brought surveying into a prominent position.
More
accurate
instruments
were
developed.
Science of Geodetic and Plane surveying were developed.
Early History of Surveying
-

It is impossible to determine when surveying was first used by man.

Remove not the ancient landmark, which thy fathers have set - Proverbs 22:28
The word geometry is derived from the Greek meaning earth measurements

In Egypt, surveyors were called rope stretchers because they used ropes to
measure

Roman surveyors got their name gromatici from the groma

DEFINITION OF ROUTE SURVEYING

A survey of the earths surface along a particular route in the compilation and updating
of topographical, geological, soil, and other maps and the correlation of selected
contours and objects with geodetic reference points or landmarks during linear surveys,
and also in the study of the dynamics of natural and socioeconomic phenomena in a
narrow strip of terrain. In a route survey, representations of the actual course of the
survey and of the plane horizzontal features (including the terrain, if neccessary) on
both sides of it within the limits of direct visibility are plotted on a map board using
methods of instrument surveying (plane-table, tachymetric, and aerial photographic
surveying) or exploratory surveying.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF HIGHWAY CURVES

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES
HORIZONTAL CURVES
Definition:
Horizontal Curves are one of the two important transition elements in geometric
design for highways (along with Vertical Curves). A horizontal curve provides a transition
between two tangent strips of roadway, allowing a vehicle to negotiate a turn at a

gradual rate rather than a sharp cut. The design of the curve is dependent on the
intended design speed for the roadway, as well as other factors including drainage and
friction. These curves are semicircles as to provide the driver with a constant turning
rate with radii determined by the laws of physics surrounding centripetal force.
Types of Horizontal Curves:
A curve may be simple, compound, reverse, or spiral (figure 3-l). Compound and
reverse curves are treated as a combination of two or more simple curves, whereas the
spiral curve is based on a varying radius.

Simple
The simple curve is an arc of a circle. It is the most commonly used. The radius of the
circle determines the sharpness or flatness of the curve. The larger the radius, the
flatter the curve.

Elements of Simple Curve:

1. Point of Intersection (PI)
- The point of intersection marks the point where the back and forward tangents
intersect. The surveyor indicates it one of the stations on the preliminary
traverse.
2. Intersecting Angle (I)
- The intersecting angle is the deflection angle at the PI. The surveyor either
computes its value from the preliminary traverse station angles or measures it in
the field.
3. Radius (R)

- The radius is the radius of the circle of which the curve is an arc.
4. Point of Curvature (PC)
- The point of curvature is the point where the circular curve begins. The back
tangent is tangent to the curve at this point.
5. Point of Tangency (PT)
- The point of tangency is the end of the curve. The forward tangent is tangent to
the curve at this point.
6. Length of Curve (L)
- The length of curve is the distance from the PC to the PT measured along the
curve.
7. Long Chord (LC)
- The long chord is the chord from the PC to the PT.
8. Tangent Distance (T)
- The tangent distance is the distance along the tangents from the PI to the PC or
PT. These distances are equal on a simple curve.
9. External Distance (E)
- The external distance is the distance from the PI to the midpoint of the curve.
The external distance bisects the interior angle at the PI.
10. Central Angle ()
- The central angle is the angle formed by two radii drawn from the center of the
circle (0) to the PC and PT. The central angle is equal in value to the I angle.
11. Middle Ordinate (M)
- The middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the
midpoint of the long chord. The extension of the middle ordinate bisects the
central angle.

Compound
A compound curve is two or more simple curves which have different centers, bend in
the same direction, lie on the same side of their common tangent, and connect to form a
continuous arc. The point where the two curves connect (namely, the point at which the
PT of the first curve equals the PC of the second curve) is referred to as the point of
compound curvature (PCC). Since their tangent lengths vary, compound curves fit the
topography much better than simple curves. These curves easily adapt to mountainous
terrain or areas cut by large, winding rivers. However, since compound curves are more
hazardous than simple curves, they should never be used where a simple curve will do.

Reverse
A reverse curve is composed of two or more simple curves turning in opposite
directions. Their points of intersection lie on opposite ends of a common tangent, and
the PT of the first curve is coincident with the PC of the second. This point is called the
point of reverse curvature (PRC). Reverse curves are useful when laying out such
things as pipelines, flumes, and levees. The surveyor may also use them on low-speed
roads and railroads. They cannot be used on high-speed roads or railroads since they
cannot be properly superelevated at the PRC. They are sometimes used on canals, but
only with extreme caution, since they make the canal difficult to navigate and contribute
to erosion

Spiral
In engineering construction, the surveyor often inserts a transition curve, also known as
a spiral curve, between a circular curve and the tangent to that curve. The spiral is
acurve of varying radius used to gradually increase the curvature of a road or railroad.
Spiral curves are used primarily to reduce skidding and steering difficulties by gradual
transition between straight-line and turning motion, and/or to provide a method for
adequately superelevating curves. The spiral curve is designed to provide for a gradual
superelevation of the outer pavement edge of the road to counteract the centrifugal
force of vehicles as they pass. The best spiral curve is one in which the superelevation
increases uniformly with the length of the spiral from the TS or the point where the spiral
curve leaves the tangent.
The curvature of a spiral must increase uniformly from its beginning to its end. At the
beginning, where it leaves the tangent, its curvature is zero; at the end, where it joins
the circular curve, it has the same degree of curvature as the circular curve it intercepts.

VERTICAL CURVES
Definition:
A vertical curve provides a transition between two sloped roadways, allowing a vehicle
to negotiate the elevation rate change at a gradual rate rather than a sharp cut. The
design of the curve is dependent on the intended design speed for the roadway, as well
as other factors including drainage, slope, acceptable rate of change, and friction.
These curves are parabolic and are assigned stationing based on a horizontal axis.
Function and Type:
When two grade lines intersect, there is a vertical change of direction. To insure
safe and comfortable travel, the surveyor rounds off the intersection by inserting a

vertical parabolic curve. The parabolic curve provides a gradual direction change from
one grade to the next.
A vertical curve connecting a descending grade with an ascending grade, or with
one descending less sharply, is called a sag or invert curve. An ascending grade
followed by a descending grade, or one ascending less sharply, is joined by a summit or
overt curve.
Computations:
In order to achieve a smooth change of direction when laying out vertical curves,
the grade must be brought up through a series of elevations. The surveyor normally
determines elevation for vertical curves for the beginning (point of vertical curvature or
PVC), the end (point of vertical tangency or PVT), and all full stations. At times, the
surveyor may desire additional points, but this will depend on construction
requirements.
1. Length of Curve
- The elevations are vertical offsets to the tangent (straightline design grade)
elevations. Grades G1 and G2 are given as percentages of rise for 100 feet of
horizontal distance. The surveyor identifies grades as plus or minus, depending on
whether they are ascending or descending in the direction of the survey. The length of
the vertical curve (L) is the horizontal distance (in 100-foot stations) from PVC to PVT.
Usually, the curve extends L stations on each side of the point of vertical intersection
(PVI) and is most conveniently divided into full station increments.
A sag curve is illustrated in figure 3-20. The surveyor can derive the curve data
as follows (with BV and CV being the grade lines to be connected).
Determine values of G1 and G2 , the original grades. To arrive at the minimum
curve length (L) in stations, divide the algebraic difference of G1 and G2 (AG) by the
rate of change (r), which is normally included in the design criteria. When the rate of
change (r) is not given, use the following formulas to compute L:

If L does not come out to a whole number of stations from this formula, it is
usually extended to the nearest whole number. Note that this reduces the rate of

change. Thus, L = 4.8 stations would be extended to 5 stations, and the value of r
computed from r =

G
L . These formulas are for road design only. The surveyor must

use different formulas for railroad and airfield design.

2. Station Interval
- Once the length of curve is determined, the surveyor selects an appropriate
station interval (SI). The first factor to be considered is the terrain. The rougher the
terrain, the smaller the station interval. The second consideration is to select an interval
which will place a station at the center of the curve with the same number of stations on
both sides of the curve. For example, a 300-foot curve could not be staked at 100-foot
intervals but could be staked at 10-, 25-, 30-, 50-, or 75-foot intervals. The surveyor
often uses the same intervals as those recommended for horizontal curves, that is 10,
25, 50, and 100 feet.
Since the PVI is the only fixed station, the next step is to compute the station
value of the PVC, PVT, and all stations on the curve.
PVC = PVI - L/2
PVT = PVI + L/2
Other stations are determined by starting at the PVI, adding the SI, and
continuing until the PVT is reached.
3. Tangent Elevations
- Compute tangent elevations PVC, PVT, and all stations along the curve. Since
the PVI is the fixed point on the tangents, the surveyor computes the station
elevations as follows:
Elev PVC = Elev PVI + (-1 x L/2 x G1)
Elev PVT = Elev PVI + (L/2 x G2)
The surveyor may find the elevation of the stations along the back tangent
follows:
Elev of sta = Elev of PVC + (distance from the PVC x G1).
The elevation of the stations along the forward tangent is found as follows:
Elev of sta = Elev of PVI + (distance from the PVI x G2)

as

4. Vertical Maximum
- The parabola bisects a line joining the PVI and the midpoint of the chord drawn
between the PVC and PVT. In figure 3-19, line VE = DE and is referred to as the vertical
maximum (Vm). The value of Vm is computed as follows: (L= length in 100-foot stations.
In a 600-foot curve, L = 6.)

In practice, the surveyor should compute the value of Vm using both formulas, since
working both provides a check on the Vm, the elevation of the PVC, and the elevation of
the PVT.
5. Vertical Offset
- The value of the vertical offset is the distance between the tangent line and the
road grade. This value varies as the square of the distance from the PVC or PVT and is
computed using the formula:
Vertical Offset = (Distance)2 x Vm
A parabolic curve presents a mirror image. This means that the second half of
the curve is identical to the first half, and the offsets are the same for both sides of the
curve.
6. Station Elevation
- The surveyor computes the elevation of the road grade at each of the stations
along the curve. The elevation of the curve at any station is equal to the tangent
elevation at that station plus or minus the vertical offset for that station, The sign of the
offset depends upon the sign of Vm (plus for a sag curve and minus for a summit
curve).
7. First and Second Differences
- As a final step, the surveyor determines the values of the first and second
differences. The first differences are the differences in elevation between successive
stations along the curve, namely, the elevation of the second station minus the elevation
of the first station, the elevation of the third station minus the elevation of the second,
and so on. The second differences are the differences between the differences in

elevation (the first differences), and they are computed in the same sequence as the
first differences.
The surveyor must take great care to observe and record the algebraic sign of
both the first and second differences. The second differences provide a check on the
rate of change per station along the curve and a check on the computations. The
second differences should all be equal. However, they may vary by one or two in the
last decimal place due to rounding off in the computations. When this happens, they
should form a pattern. If they vary too much and/or do not form a pattern, the surveyor
has made an error in the computation.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Two tangents intersect at Station 4 + 016.770. The deflection angle to the right is 40
00' 00". It is decided to design the highway for a maximum speed of 90 km/hr, and using
AASHTO* recommendation for superelevation and friction a minimum radius of 270
meters and a maximum degree of curve, Da is to be 22 . Calculate T, La, R and the
stationing of the P.C. and P.T. using 20 meter arc length.
* American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Green Book
Solution:

2. Calculate the radius of the curve that will pass through Point P, using 1atitudes and
departures. Determine the stationing of the P.C. and P,T, and o f Point P on the curve.

3. Solve for length of the curve intersection distance AB, based on the following
diagram.

4. Calculate BC, area ABC (shaded) and angle d:

5. BC and EC stations, length of chord (C), middle ordinate (M), and external distance
(E), if:
=16 38 '
R=1000ft
PI Sta. at 6 + 26.57

Solution:

6. Refer to the figure below. T 1 = 380 ft., R1= 500 ft., 1= 2112, = 3950 and the PI is
at station 136 + 42.85. Using the chord definition for degree of curve, compute the T 2,
R2, and 2 and the stationing of the C and the E.

7. Two tangents intersect at n = 70, P. I. = Stn 32 + 51 -82. Set up the field notes for the
following compound curve (symmetrical).
1st curve A = 20, D = 8R (20 rn chords)
2nd curve A = 300, D = 12R (10 m chords)
3rd curve A = 200, D = 8R (20 m chords)
Solution:

8. Calculate the sub-tangent distance, T, for the symnetrically-compounded curve

shown below.

Solution:

9. Determine the radius of the central curve of a symmetrical compound curve which
passes through point "A, and determine the stationing of point "A".

10. A compound curve, with large radius curve first

I= 60 ; IL= 34 ; Is= 26 ; RL= 500 ft; Rs= 350 ft and PCC= 565 +35
Find: Notes to layout the compound curve (include deflection s and chords). The
station of the PI.
Steps:
1. Determine ts, tL, Das, DaL
2. Determine Ls and LL.

3. From PCC, determine TC and CT.

4. Develop field notes from step 3 info.
5. Solve equation D to E to obtain TL ( Ts, id Rs first)
6. V or PI for the compound curve = TL + TC (Ts + TC , if Rs first)
11. Refer to the figure below. 1 and 2 are two parallel lines, s= 250m. We would like to
connect the two lines by reversed curves consisted of two simple circular curves, R 1=
200 m and R2= 300 m. Compute the main elements of the reversed curves, T1 and T2,
1,2, and , t1 and t2.

Solution:
s= BF + EG
BF= R1(1-cos1)
EG= R2(1-cos2)
s= (R1 + R2) (R1 +R2) cos1
cos1 = [ (R1 + R2) s]/ (R1 + R2)
1= 2=600000
t1= R1tan(1/2) = 115.47m
t2= R2tan(2/2) = 173.21m
12. Two parallel railway tracks, centre lines being 60 m apart, are to be connected by a
reverse curve, each section having the same radius. If the maximum distance between
the tangent points is 220 m calculate the maximum allowable radius of the reverse
curve that can be used.

Solution:

13. The first branch of a reverse curve has a radius of 200 m. If the distance between
the tangent points is 110 m, what is the radius of the second branch so that the curve
can connect two parallel straights, 18 m apart ? Also calculate the length of the two
branches of the curve.

Solution:

14. It is proposed to introduce a reverse curve between two straights AB and CD

intersecting at a point I with CBI = 30 and BCI = 120. The reverse curve consists
of two circular arcs AX and XD, X lying on the common tangent BC. If BC = 791.71, the
radius RAX = 750 m, and chainage of B is 1250 m, calculate (i) the radius RXD, (ii) the
lengths of the reverse curve, and (iii) The chainage of D.

Solution:

15. The perpendicular distance between two parallel tangents of a reversed curve is
35m. The azimuth of the common tangent is 300. If the radius of the first curve is
150m, determine the radius of the second curve.

16. Deflection angle between tangents= 30, station TS= 7+08, radius of circular curve
R= 382m, length of the transition curve= 120m. prepare a setting out table to set out the
transition and circular curve at points every 20m.
Solution:

17. Two straights AB and BC intersect at chainage 1530.685 m, the total deflection
angle being 3308. It is proposed to insert a circular curve of 1000 m radius and the
transition curves for a rate of change of radial acceleration of 0.3 m/s3 , and a velocity
of 108 km/h. Determine setting out data using theodolite and tape for the transition
curve at 20 m intervals and the circular curve at 50 m intervals.
Solution:

18. Two straights having a total deflection angle of 6545 are connected with a circular
curve of radius 1550 m. It is required to introduce a curve of length 120 m at the
beginning and end of the circular curve without altering the total length of the route. The
transition curve to be inserted is a cubic spiral, and the chainage of the point of
intersection is 5302.10 m. Calculate (i) the distance between the new and the previous
tangent points, (ii) the setting out data for transition curve taking peg intervals 20 m, and
(iii) the data for locating the midpoint of the new circular curve from the point of
intersection.

Solution:
R = 1550 m
= 6545 = 65.75
/2= 325230

II O = 6545 + 5707 30 = 1225230

19. Part of a proposed rural road consists of two straights, which intersect at an angle of
1724618. These are to be joined using a wholly transitional horizontal curve having
equal tangent lengths. The ransitional curves are to be cubic parabolas. The design
speed for the road is to be 85 kph and the rate of change of radial acceleration 0.3 m/s 3.
Calculate the minimum radius of curvature of the curve and comment on its suitability.
Tabulate the data required to set out the transition curves by offsets taken at exact 20m
intervals along their tangent lengths.
20. On a proposed road having a design speed of 100 kph and a carriageway width of
7.30 m, a composite curve consisting of two transition curves and a central circular arc
of radius 750 m is to join two intersecting straights having a deflection angle of
093428. The rate of change of radial acceleration for the road is to be 0.3 m s-3.
The superelevation should be introduced at a rate of no more than 1%.
-Calculate the amount of superelevation that must be built into the central circular arc.
-Check that the transition curves are long enough for the superelevation to be
introduced.
Calculate the amount of superelevation that should be constructed along the entry
transition curve at 20 m intervals from the entry tangent point.
Solution:
The amount of superelevation that must be built into the central circular arc
maximum allowable SE =

B v2
282.8 R

SE=

7.30(100 )
282.8 (750)

SE= 0.344m
then to express this as a %
s%=

v2
2.828 R =

100
2.828 (750) =4.71%

The radius of 750m is greater than the desirable min value of 720m for a 100kph SE of
4.71% is less than the value of 5%. Hence the 0.344m SE should be built into the
central circular arc.
Checking that the transition curves are long enough The length of each transition curve
required for comfort and safety is obtained equation

LT=

100
v3
3(0.3)(750) = 95.26m
3 cR =
3.6
3.6

The superelevation value of 0.344 m must be introduced and removed over a of 95.26
m, which represents a gradient of
0.344/95.26 = 0.36%
Since this is less that the maximum allowable rate of introduction of 1%, the transitions
are long enough.
The amount of SE that should be constructed along the entry transition curve at 20m
intervals from the entry tangent point.
rl= K = RLT
K= 95.26(750) = 71 445m
At 20m along the curve from entry tangent point
r= K/20 = 71 445/20 = 3572.25 m
SE at 20m along the curve = (7.30)(1002)/(282.8)(3572.25) = 0.07m
s% at 20m along the curve = 1002/(2.828)(3572.25) = 0.99%
Because this is less than the min allowable value of 2.5% for drainage, a value of 2.5%
must be used therefore SE built at 20m along the curve = 2.5% of B = 0.025 * 7.30 =
0.18m

21. g1= +3.0%, g2= -2.4%, V station is 46+70 and V elevation is 853.48, L= 600 ft,
compute the curve for stakeout at full stations.
Solution:
r= (-2.4-3.0)/6 = -0.90% station
BVC station= (46+70)- (6+00/2) = 49+70
EVC station = (43+70) + (6+00) = 49 + 70
Elevation of BVC = 853.48 (3.0)(3)= 844.48
For each point, compute X and substitute in the equation below to compute Y:
Y= 844.48 +3.00(X) + (-0.90/2)X2

For example: at station 44 + 00: X= 0.3

Then X= 1.3, 2.3, 3.3, 4.3, 5.3, end at station 49 +70: X=6 or L.
22. At one section of a highway an equal tangent vertical curve must be designed to
connect grades of +1.0% and -2.0%. Determine the length of curve required assuming
that the SSD= 220.6m.
Solution:

23. Given the information show below, compute and tabulate the curve for stakeout at
full 100 stations.

Solution:
L = STAEVC STABVC
L = 4970 4370 = 600 or 6 full stations
r = (g2 g1) / L
r = (-2.4 3) / 6
r = -0.90
r/2 = -0.45 % per station

STABVC = STAVertex L / 2 = 4670 600/2 = STABVC= STA 43 + 70

STAEVC = STAVertex + L / 2 = 4670 + 600/2 = STAEVC= STA 49 + 70
ElevBVC = Elevvertex g1 (L/2) = 853.48 3.00 (3) = 844.48
ElevEVC = Elevvertex g2 (L/2) = 853.48 2.40 (3) = 846.28
r/2 = -0.45 % per station
Elevx = ElevBVC + g1x + (r/2)x2
Elev 44 + 00 = 844.48 + 3.00(0.30) 0.45(0.30)2 = 845.34
Elev 45 + 00 = 844.48 + 3.00(1.30) 0.45(1.30)2 = 847.62
Elev 46 + 00 = 844.48 + 3.00(2.30) 0.45(2.30)2 = 849.00
etc.
Elev 49 + 00 = 844.48 + 3.00(5.30) 0.45(5.30)2 = 847.74
Elev 49 + 70 = 844.48 + 3.00(6.00) 0.45(6.00)2 = 846.28 (CHECKS)

Station

x
(stations)

g x
1

r/2 x

Curve
Elevation

43 + 70 BVC

0.0

0.00

0.00

844.48

44 + 00

0.3

.90

-0.04

845.34

45 + 00

1.3

3.90

-0.76

847.62

46 + 00

2.3

6.90

-2.38

849.00

47 + 00

3.3

9.90

-4.90

849.48

48 + 00

4.3

12.90

-8.32

849.06

49 + 00

5.3

15.90

-2.64

847.74

49 + 70 EVC

6.0

18.00

-6.20

846.28

24. A grade g1of -2% intersects g2 of +1.6% at a vertex whose station and elevation are
87+00 and 743.24, respectively. A 400 vertical curve is to be extended back from the
vertex, and a 600 vertical curve forward to closely fit ground conditions. Compute and
tabulate the curve for stakeout at full stations.

Solution:

Pt. A STA 85 + 00, Elev. = 743.24 + 2 (2) = 747.24

Pt. B STA 90 + 00, Elev. = 743.24 + 1.6 (3) = 748.04
The grade between points A and B can now be calculated as:
gA-B = 748.04 - 747.24 = +0.16%
5
and the rate of curvature for the two equal tangent curves can be computed as:
0.16+2.00
r 1=
=+ 0.54
4

r 2=

1.600.16
=+0.2 4
6

Therefore: r1/2 = +0.27 and r2/2 = +0.12

The station and elevations of the BVC, CVC and EVC are computed as:
BVC STA 83 + 00, Elev. 743.24 + 2 (4) = 751.24
EVC STA 93 + 00, Elev. 743.24 + 1.6 (6) = 752.84
CVC STA 87 + 00, Elev. 747.24 + 0.16 (2) = 747.56
Please note that the CVC is the EVC for the first equal tangent curve and the BVC for
the second equal tangent curve.

g1x= -2(1) = -2.00

g2x= 0.16(1) = 0.16
(r1/2)x2 = (0.27)(1)2 = 0.27
(r2/2)x2 = (0.12)(1)2 = 0.12
Y1=751.24 2.00 + 0.27 = 749.51
Y2= 747.56 + 0.16 +0.12 = 747.84

25. Design an equal-tangent vertical curve to meet a railroad crossing which exists at
STA 53 + 50 and elevation 1271.20. The back grade of -4% meets the forward grade of
+3.8% at PVI STA 52 + 00 with elevation 1261.50.

Solution:
L
L
L
(5350 5200) 150 ' 1.5stations
2
2
2
r
y yBVC g1 x x 2
2
g g1
r 2
L
L
YBVC 1261.50 4.00
2
L

g1 x 4.00 x 4.00 1.5

2

3.80 4.00
r
L
x

r 2 3.80 4.00 L

x
1.5
2
2L
2

L
1271.20 1261.50 4.00
2

0.975 L2 9.85 L 8.775 0

b b 2 4ac
2a
a 0.975
b 9.85
c 8.775
L 9.1152 stations 911.52 '
x

L
4.00 2 1.5

2
3.80 4.00

1.5

2L
2

REFERENCES:
http://smweng.com/civil-engineering-definitions-and-history/land-surveying-defined
https://engineering.purdue.edu/~asm215/topics/history.pdf
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Route+Survey
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Fundamentals_of_Transportation/Horizontal_Curves
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/5-233/ch3.pdf
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Fundamentals_of_Transportation/Vertical_Curves
http://engrwww.usask.ca/classes/CE/271/notes/PART%205%20Simple
%20Curves_Updated.pdf
http://www.slideshare.net/haroldtaylor1113/compound-and-reserve-curves
http://engrwww.usask.ca/classes/CE/271/notes2012/Part-6.pdf
www.kau.edu.sa/GetFile.aspx?id=169149&fn=Surveying%20-%20Problem%20Solving
%20with%20Theory%20and%20Objective%20Type%20Questions.pdf
http://www.slideshare.net/kailadturla/horizontal-curves-pdf
https://falmatasaba.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/hid_6-the-transition-curves.pdf
http://www.tcd.ie/civileng/Staff/Brian.Caulfield/3A1/3A1%20Lecture%2013.pdf
courses.washington.edu/cive316/lectures/Vertical%20Curves.ppsx
acstaff.cbu.edu/~gmcginni/classes/.../Vertical%20Curves.ppt