The Pelican History of Art

Art and Architecture

in Italy

1600-1750

Rudolf Wittkower

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

THE PELICAN HISTORY OF ART

Joint Editors: Nikolaus Pevsner

and Judy Nairn

Rudolf Wittkower

ART AND ARCHITECTL RE IN ITALY

1600

TO

1750

Until 1956 Rudolf Wittkower was Durnin^-I.awrence Professor of the History of Art in
the University of

London, and

member

of the Warburg Institute.

PVom 1956

he was Chairman of the Department of Art History and Archaeology

University,

New

York.

.After his

retirement

in

197

Professor

many

W ittkower

to 1968

Columbia

1969 he served as Kress Professor

National Gallery, Washington, and as Slade Professor

his

at

at

was singularly well equipped

Cambridge.
to

He

at

the

died in October

undertake this study. .-Kmong

publications on the art and architecture of the period are his books on Bernini

at Windsor C-astle. In the present work

summing-up of views formed during years of devoted research.

and on the Carracci draw ings

is

BIBLOSARTE

offered a

Rudolf Wittkower

ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY

1600

BIBLOSARTE

TO 1750

Penguin Books

BIBLOSARTE

Penguin Books Ltd, Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England

Penguin Books, 62s Madison Avenue,

New

York,

New York

10022, U.S.A.

Penguin Books Australia Ltd, Ringwood, Victoria, Australia

Penguin Books Canada Ltd, 2801 John Street, Markham, Ontario, Canada

Penguin Books (N.Z.) Ltd, 182-igo Wairau Road, Auckland 10,

Copyright

New

the Estate of Rudolf Wittkower, ig^S, 1965, ig6g, igjs

First published

igs8

Second revised edition igbs

Reprinted ig6g

Third revised edition igjj

First

paperback

edition, based on third revised edition,

igjj

Reprinted igjs, igjS

Library of Congress Catalog Card

Number : j- 128578

Set in Monophoto Ehrhardt

by Oliver Burridge Filmsetting Ltd, Crawley, Sussex

Printed in Great Britain by Fletcher (^ Son Ltd, Norwich

and bound by
Richard Clay (The Chaucer Press), Ltd, Bungay, Suffolk
Designed by Gerald Cinamon and Anthony Cohen

BIBLOSARTE

LjR 1B4

Zealand

TO

MY WIFE

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

CONTENTS

Forewords

Maps

16-19

Part One : The Period of Transition and the Early Baroque

circa 1600-circa

1.

Rome:

Sixtus

162^

to Paul

(i

The 'Style Sixtus

Paul

V and

V and

585-1 621)

the Arts -

The Council of Trent and

its

21

The Church and

the Reformers -

Transformation -

Cardinal Scipione Borghese as Patrons -

Caravaggio's and Annibale Carracci's Supporters -

The new Churches and

the

new Iconography

The Evolution of the 'Genres'

2.

Caravaggio

3.

The

4.

Caravaggio's Followers and the Carracci School in

45

Carracci

57

The Caravaggtsti
5.

Painting outside

The Bolognese

Rome

Milan

104

Venice

106

Classicism

92

97

108

Architecture and Sculpture

Architecture

Sculpture

1 1

1 1

Rome: Carlo Maderno

Rome

73

98

Genoa

Conclusion
6.

Rome

Rome and Early Baroque

91

Bologna and Neighbouring Cities

Florence and Siena

in

( iss^~^^-^9) ~

Architecture outside

Rome

127

- Sculpture outside

Rome

BIBLOSARTE

Part Two: The Age of the High Baroque

circa 162^-circa

7.

i6js

Introduction

137

Seicento Devotion

and Religious Imagery

Rhetoric and Baroque Procedure

8.

Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598- 1680)

Introduction

Sculpture
Stylistic

Patronage
143

143

144

Development - Sculpture with One and

Many

Views -

Colour and Light - The Transcending of Traditional Modes -

The Role of the 'Concetto'

Painting

Iconographical Types -

Working Procedure

172

Architecture

174

Ecclesiastical Buildings - Secular Buildings -

9.

New

Francesco Borromini (1599- 1667)

The Piazza of St

Peter's

197

5. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane - S. Ivo della Sapienza -

S. Giovanni in Laterano, S. Agnese, S. Andrea delle Fratte, and

The Oratory of St Philip Neri - Domestic Buildings

10. Pietro

da Cortona (1596-1669)

Introduction

231

Architecture

232

Maria

della Pace, S.

Maria

Painting and Decoration

The Early Works

Luca

247

Pitti

and

the Late

(i

Work

599-1 661)

261

261

The Controversy between Sacchi and Cortona

Alessandro xAlgardi (1598- 1654)

266

Francesco Duquesnoy (1597-1643)

272

BIBLOSARTE

Ecclesiastical

Works

Propaganda Fide

'High Baroque Classicism': Sacchi, Algardi, and Duquesnoy

Andrea Sacchi

di

Via Lata, Projects, and Minor Works

in

The Gran Salone of the Palazzo Barberini

The Frescoes of the Palazzo

11.

Minor

The Collegia

231

The Early Works - SS. Martina

S.

Currents of the High Baroque

12. Architectural

Rome

279

279

Carlo Ratnaldi - Martina Longhi the Younger, Vincenzo della Greca,

Antonio del Grande, and Giovan Antonio de' Rossi

Architecture outside

Rome

290

Baldassare Longhena (1598-1682) - Florence and Naples: Silvani and Fanzago

13.

Trends

in

Rome
The

High Baroque Sculpture

First Generation -

Tombs with

The Second Generation

and

Sculpture outside

the Position

Rome

of Sculptors

in

later Seventeenth

Rome

318

High Baroque Painting and

Rome

Minor Masters of the

the Effigy in Prayer -

Bernini's Studio

14.

305

305

its

Aftermath

321

321

Baroque Classicism; Archaizing Classicism; Crypto-Romanticism -

The Great Fresco Cycles

Painting outside

Rome

- Carlo

Maratti (1625-1713)

339

Bologna, Florence, Venice, and Lombardy - Genoa - Naples

Part Three : Late Baroque and Rococo

circa ibj^-circa

ij^o

15.

Introduction

363

16.

Architecture

369

Introduction Late Baroque Classicism and Rococo

:

Rome

373

Carlo Font ana

Northern

Italy

i6j8-iyi4)

The Eighteenth Century

386

393

Architecture in Piedmont

The Prelude

and Florence

Naples and Sicily

17.

369

403

403

Guarino Guarini (1624-83)

Filippojuvarra (1678- 1736)

403

413

Bernardo Vittone (1702, not 1704/5-70)

424

BIBLOSARTE

Century

i8.

Sculpture

Rome

433

433

Typological Changes

Sculpture outside
19.

Painting

Tombs and

Rome

461

Introduction

Naples and

46

Rome

462

Florence and Bologna

Northern
Venice

Allegories

446

469

Italy outside

Venice

476

479

Sebastiano Ricci and Piazzetta - Pellegrini, Amigoni, Pittoni, Balestra -

Giambattista Tiepolo

The Genres

ibgb-ijyo)

49

Portraiture - The Popular and Bourgeois Genre - Landscape, Vedute, Ruins

Abbreviations Used in the Notes and Bibliography

Notes

Bibliography

581

List of Illustrations

Index

506

507

621

631

BIBLOSARTE

FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION

In

all

fairness,

feel the

reader should be warned

of what he will not find in this book. Such a

sentence
is

may be

morally sound.

Baroque period

first

psychologically unwise, but

I

it

am concerned with the Italian

widest sense, but not with

in the

the European phenomenon of Neo-classicism.

Thus Winckelmann and his circle as well as the
Italian artists who followed his precepts fall outside the scope of my work. Nor will the struggle

between the supporters of Greece and those of

reserved a detailed discussion for those works of

art

and architecture which, owing

intrinsic merit
to

be

in

importance

their

to

historical importance,

special class.

historical

and

appear

Intrinsic merit

and

may be

these notions

regarded as dangerous measuring rods, and not

every reader

may

my

subscribe to

opinions: yet

history degenerates into chronicle

shuns the dangers of implicit and

ments of quality and

if

the author

explicit judge-

value.

Rome be reported, a battle that was joined in the

1750s from Scotland to Rome and in which

which may be unpopular with some students of

Piranesi took such an active part. In addition,

the Italian Baroque. Excepting the beginning

little

or next to nothing will be said about the

festive life of the period: the

theatre,

Baroque stage and

and the sumptuous decorations in easily

perishable materials put

up on

special occasions

At

this point

history of painting

no more than

am

could hardly be touched

only too well aware that

this is particularly relevant for a

picture of the Baroque age.

all

comprehensive

My aim is narrower,

but perhaps even more ambitious. Instead of

saying

little

many

about

things,

attempted to

would seem

i.e.

Tiepolo, the
less

important

than that of the other arts and often indeed has

hunting-ground

express a view

Caravaggio, the Carracci, and

ment of the garden, of town-planning, and of

upon, though

to

and the end of the period under review,

often by first-rate artists. Finally, the develop-

interior decoration

make bold

tionists'.

This

strictly limited interest -

for

fact

specialists

and

an ideal
'attribu-

has been somewhat obscured

by the great mass of valuable research made

during the

last forty

years in the field of Italian

Baroque painting at the expense of studies in the

history of architecture and sculpture.

Roughly

from the second quarter of the seventeenth

say something about a few things, and so con-

century on, the most signal developments in

cerned myself only with the history of painting,

easel-painting lay outside

sculpture, and architecture.

painters

Italy,

and

Italian

my

became the recipients rather than the

instigators of new ideas. It is, however, in con-

disposal dictated severe limitations with which

junction with, and as an integral part of, archi-

Even

and the space

so, the subject

the reader

may want

to

at

be acquainted before

turning to the pages of this book.

It

was neces-

sary to prune the garden of history not only of

dead but,
doing
right

alas, also

this, I availed

and duty

to

of

much

wood. In

painters of the

and decoration that

Baroque made

a vital

and

Italian

inter-

nationally significant contribution with their

large fresco cycles.

The works

without peer are

myself of the historian's

Bernini's statuary, Cortona's architecture and

own

decoration, and Borromini's buildings as well

submit

vision of the past.

living

tecture, sculpture,

to his readers his

tried to give a bird's-eye

view, and no more, of the whole

panorama and

as those
it

by Guarini, Juvarra, and Vittone. But

was Bernini, the greatest

BIBLOSARTE

artist

of the period,

lORtWORDS

12

who with his poetical and visionary masterpieces

subHme

created perhaps the most

reaHzation

position has resulted in an

of the Venetian School, but

of the longings of his age.

have placed

ment would

in

the accents in the story that follows. Approxi-

the space at

my

structure

wanted

Based on such considerations,

mately one-fourth of the text

devoted to

is

Bernini, Cortona, and Borromini; the chapter

the book. Another ten per cent

is

concerned

with Caravaggio, the Carracci, and Tiepolo,

while roughly the same space

Duquesnoy, and the

architects.

This accounts

given to Sacchi,

is

great Piedmontese

more than two-

for

Since hundreds of

fifths

of the

many

of them of considerable stature, share

text.

between them

as

much

mere dozen of the

text as

greatest,

have given

my
I am

narrative

be criticized as lopsided. But

accept the challenge.

New

have always been few and

artists,

to a

may

prepared to

and pregnant ideas

far

between.

It is

the

too brief discus-

a fairly full treat-

any case have gone

disposal

also

far

beyond

believe that the

to give the

and even demanded

book

justified

this brevity.

For the main divisions of the whole period

on Bernini alone takes up over ten per cent of

Algardi,

all

sion of eighteenth-century painting, particularly

now

have used the terms, by

well established,

of Early, High, and Late Baroque. Only recently

have we been reminded' that such terminomis-

logical barricades contain fallacies apt to

no

lead the author as well as his public. Yet

historical narrative

possible without

is

some

form of organization, and though the traditional

may have

terminology

serious shortcomings,
sibly

and indeed has

it

conveniently and sen-

suggests chronological caesuras during

one hundred and

we

years of history. If

fifty

accept 'Baroque' - like 'Gothic' and 'Renais-

origin, unfolding,

and expansion of these ideas

sance' - as a generic term and take

am

here concerned. Their echo

the most diverse tendencies between roughly

with which

and transformation

in the

work of minor

artists

1600 and 1750,

it

will yet

be seen

it

to

in the text

My story begins with the anti-Mannerist ten-

and 'Late' indicate

real historical caesuras;

became necessary

it

sixteenth century in various Italian centres, and

terminology by such terms as 'transitional

over the Baroque scene at

different decades.

different places in

If

one

ing classicism', 'crypto-romanticism', 'Italian

Rococo', and

shed between the Late Baroque and Neo-

will

appears that the three main sec-

it

tions of this

book comprise spans of approxi-

'classicist

be explained

Rococo',

in their

all

of which

proper place.

dictated a rough draft of large parts of the

manuscript

in the

summer of

1950.

Most of my

Two-

spare time in the following seven years was

of the text have been devoted to the two

given to elaborating, revising, and completing

mately thirty,
fifths

style',

'High' and 'Late Baroque classicism', 'archaiz-

postulates the year 1750 roughly as the water-

classicism,

to

but

expand the 'primary'

dencies which arose towards the end of the

falls

of

the book that the subdivisions 'Early', 'High',

can be sketched with a large brush.

the curtain

cover

sixty,

and again

s'xty years.

generations limited by the beginning and the

the work.

end of Bernini's career, since

in

consider the

The manuscript

reached the editor

batches from the beginning of 1956 on; by

and Pietro da Cortona the most exciting years

the summer of 1957 almost the entire text had

been dispatched. I mention these facts because

of the century and a half under review and one

they explain

of the most creative periods of the whole history

incorporated as

Roman High Baroque

of Bernini, Borromini,

of Italian art; the remaining three-fifths are

equally divided between the
parts.

Some

readers

may

first

and third

regret that this dis-

why
I

recent research

and often important

interrupted stream,
to

is

not so fully

should have liked. Since new

it

results appear in an

was

un-

virtually impossible

keep the older chapters of the manuscript

BIBLOSARTE

13

permanently up

to date.

have attempted, how-

ever, to incorporate in the

Notes

autumn of

publications until the

not possible to mention

It is

the major

all

the

names of

my

and colleagues who answered

friends

am

of proofs. Ever watchful and scrupulously con-

comment;

scientious, he covered the galleys with

1957.

all

himself the self-denying task of reading one set

in-

his

many

and

constructive suggestions as to content

style considerably

improved

my

final text.

Martin, Sheila Somers, and St John Gore,

The book was prepared and written mainly

with the resources of the Warburg Institute

through whose assistance the manuscript made

and the Witt Library (Courtauld

quiries.

progress

particularly indebted to

at a difficult period.

Paolo Portoghesi

and G. E. Kidder Smith allowed

beautiful photographs.

with the search

for,

am

Peggy

me to use some

Howard Hibbard helped

and supply

of, illustrations.

London;

German
I

Columbia University,

him

for

loyal

corrections of facts and for allowing

me

excellent institutions the

to use

some of the

greatly indebted to

results of his researches in the

Borghese archive. Philip Pouncey and Henry

Millon emended some errors

My

gratitude goes above

and

Italo Faldi,

who

all

at

proof stage.

to Ilaria

Toesca

year after year put their

time and resources unflinchingly at

my disposal.

am deeply grateful for what they have done

for me by correspondence and during my regular
I

visits to

Rome. Milton

J.

Lewine took upon

New

wish to put on record that without the

many

In addition,

the

Art Historical Institute, Florence; and

the Avery Library,

York.

Institute),

Rome;

the Bibliotheca Hertziana,

support of the directors and

been finished
Finally,

present form.

in its

have

of these

staffs

work could never have

to

thank the editor, Nikolaus

Pevsner, not only for constant advice and en-

couragement, but also for his

Whenever my own

me

thought sustained

was

to be

spirit

of

infinite patience.

began

to flag, the

how much

easier

it

an author than an editor.

Neip York, December ig^j

FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION

In the five and a half years since the appearance

of the

first

edition of this

studies have taken

Many

book

immense

Italian

Baroque

strides forward.

key figures had then lacked modern

monographs but

this deficiency has

now been

partly overcome. Arisi's Panini, Bologna's

SoH-

mena, Briganti's Cortona, Constable's Canaletto,

D'Orsi's Giaquinto, Enggass's Baciccio,

Turin have brought together,

sifted,

and sub-

mitted to scholarly discussion an enormous mass

of new material.

One-man shows,

often

accom-

panied by bulky and monographic catalogues,

have helped

to clarify the ceiivre

and develop-

ment of Cerano, Cigoli, Morazzone, Pellegrini,

Pianca, Marco Ricci, Tanzio, and others. Scores
of papers, many of them written by a rising

and Morassi's Tiepolo indicate the breadth and

generation of intensely active, perspicacious,

importance of the research concluded

and devoted scholars

in the

intervening period. Moreover, minor masters

name

Borea, A.

M.

among whom
Clark,

gratefully

Ewald, Griseri,

such as Cameo, Carpioni, Cecco Bravo, and

Hibbard, Honour, Noehles, Posner, and Vitz-

Petrini have recently found biographers. Exhi-

thum

bitions from the Venetian

tions

and Bolognese Sei-

cento to the splendid Baroque Exhibition in

have helped

and

to

to correct old misconcepexpand the confines of our know-

ledge. In a word,

much

BIBLOSARTE

of the groundwork for

FOREW ORDS

14

the

book which

laid

by the concerted endeavour of many

reception of the

first

edition has been

favourable beyond expectation. If the test of an

author's success

lies in

the extent to which his

ideas percolate and become, acknowledged as

scholars.

Confronted with
to recast

The

rashly undertook to write

years ago has only in the last half decade been

this situation,

I felt

some of the old chapters. In

tempted

the end,

decided against such a course, because

regarded

as

it

my

had

primary task to submit

coherent historical vision of the entire period

and, despite

all

work done

the valuable

in recent

well as unacknowledged,

have no reason

common

be dissatisfied.

to

property,

hope that the

considerably increased critical apparatus will

make

the book even

the text

is

meant

perused by those

more

useful. But, as before,

to stand

on

who want

its

own and be

to read a coherent

change or dis-

narrative rather than use a textbook, without

ruption of the original structure of the book.

the constant and irritating turning of pages to

years, dismissed the

need

Nevertheless, a great

amended in

many

errors have been

the text, and facts, ideas, and judge-

ments have been brought

sults

for a

in line with

wherever and whenever

new

re-

found them

bulk of the

new

research has been incor-

porated in the Notes, to which

have added

about 15,000 words. In addition, the Biblio-

graphy has been brought up-to-date

mer, 1964);

in

some cases

have

(until

listed

sum-

weak and

unsatisfactory writings for the sole purpose of

saving time to students

misled by a promising

who might otherwise

made and
that a

is

book

making such

giaot steps forward

vaguely envisaged more than

a generation

ago and written in the 1950s can

only survive

if

the process of bringing

date never ceases.

to

Once

it

again, however,

up
I

to

had

abandon the temptation of recasting whole

chapters of the text of the book and had to

restrict

myself

to a

errors.

me

operation spurred

upon
a

to action.

She

also took

herself the unenviable task of compiling

new and

fuller index.

EDITIO.N

Baroque studies research has

first

number of blatant

Judy Nairn watched over the new edition as

she did over the old. Her whole-hearted co-

Florence, August ig64

some fields of the history of art and especially

in the field of

eye caught a

be

title.

FOREWORD TO THE THIRD

In

It only remains to thank the many friends

who helped me with comments and corrections.
Among them Julius Held and Howard Hibbard

should be specially mentioned; their vigilant

convincing.

The

the back of the book.

few extensive and a vast

97 1, has been incorporated in the Notes and

the Bibliography. Both Notes and Bibliography

have grown very considerably and have reached

a size that, in

gressed.

my

Even

my
so,

view, should not be trans-

it

was impossible (nor was

it

intention) to aim at anything approaching

completeness.

The

newly incorporated

selection of the material

in this edition

was dictated

not only by the importance of contributions,

but also by

my own

number of minor corrections. The bulk of the

new critical material, covering mainly the period

some

between the spring of 1964 and the spring of

knowledge. Thus

city.

Moreover,

fine studies

interests

and reading capa-

have to admit frankly that

may
I

BIBLOSARTE

never have come to

my

have to emphasize strongly

one way or another, given

that omission only rarely implies refutation.

Once

again,

have to point out that the notes

their criticism

and the bibliography supplement each other:

them

a great deal of bibliographical material only

David,

appears in the notes, while a good

are only
I

mentioned

have often given

previous editions.

thank

many

many works

in the bibliography,

where

comments than

in the

fuller

And once again I have

who have helped me

friends

me

the benefit of

and corrected mistakes.

Among

mention gratefully the names of Diane

Howard Hibbard, C. Douglas Lewis Jr,

Tod Marder, Jennifer Montagu,

Carla Lord,

and Werner Oechslin.

La

to

Podere

in

June igji

Vescina, Lucignano,

BIBLOSARTE

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SEA

Km
60

Miles

BIBLOSARTE

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Santa Giustina

Trent

ViJlavcrla

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BIBLOSARTE

Caprarola
Caspc

f<^trana'

Bassano di

Sutri
Arsoli

Bracciano

,..vcc'^"v^
Civ

Fara San Alartino m

Tivoli

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BIBLOSARTE

ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY

1600

BIBLOSARTE

TO 1750

BIBLOSARTE

PART ONE

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION

AND THE EARLY BAROQ.UE
CIRCA 1600-CIRCA 1625

CHAPTER

ROME: SIXTUS V TO PAUL V

1585-1621

With the Sack of Rome in 1527 an optimistic,

intellectually immensely alert epoch came to

reform over a period of almost twenty years,

an end. For the next two generations the climate

in the

in

Rome was

anti-humanist,

austere,

The work

worldly, and even anti-artistic.

reform of the Church, begun

Council

in

at the

on Julius ITs

15 12

anti-

of

Lateran

was

initiative,

hand and carried out with

seriously taken in

grim determination. During Pius IV's

cate (1559-65) the Venetian

from Rome: 'Life

Court

at

pontifi-

tinct:

it

art

was

state

far

that 'by

means of the

stories of the

mysteries of our Redemption portrayed

They

[the

of things has
.'
.

from being ex-

was turned into an important weapon

to further Catholic orthodoxy.

be instructed and confirmed

in the habit

cipline

At its last session

in

of

and correctness

in the

rendering of the

holy stories were required, and the clergy was

made
artists.

responsible for the surveillance of the

The

terse deliberations of the Council

were soon enlarged upon by

literature,

a veritable flood

formers rather than by practising

Leaving

of

produced by churchmen and re-

all

details aside, the

artists.

recommenda-

tions of such writers as St Charles

The Council of Trent and

by

paintings or other representations, the people

the articles of faith'. Consequently strictest dis-

been the ruin of artisans and merchants.

But the practice of

demands

as a support to

passage of the decree

mean, partly

is

withdrawn from every

This

One

religious teaching.

remembering, and continually revolving in mind

example of Cardinal Borromeo.

sort of pleasures.

reformed community. Religious imagery

was admitted and welcomed

envoy reported

through poverty, but also owing to the good

clergy] have altogether

pertinently defined the role assigned to the arts

Borromeo,

Cardinal Gabriele Paleotti, the Fleming

the Arts

Mo-

lanus, Gilio da Fabriano, Raftaello Borghini,

December 1563 the Council

of Trent, which had accomplished the work of

Romano Alberti, Gregorio Comanini, and Possevino mav be summarized under three head-

BIBLOSARTE

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

21

ings:
(ii)

clarity, simplicity,

(i)

and

intelligibility,

and

realistic interpretation,

(iii)

emotional

The first of these points is

The second has a dual aspect.

stimulus to piety.
self-explanatory.

Many

and the

stories of Christ

martyrdom,

brutality,

saints deal with

and horror and,

in

con-

Renaissance idealization, an unveiled

trast to

display of truth was

now deemed essential even

;

shown

Christ must be

bleeding, spat

'afflicted,

demands of counter-reformatory

the obvious

decorum, such as the avoidance of nude

In another respect the answer

is

more

The Church was vociferous in laying down the

rules, but how to sublimate them into an artistic
language of expressive power

- that secret

be solved only by the

This granted, are

we at
when

artists.

up with the

spirit

Council

pale and unsightly','

pertaining to individual sensibility are

if

the subject requires

On

the minutest detail.

this level,

it.

down to
the new

synonymous with the

realism almost becomes

Since apodictic statements

that,

old Renaissance concept of decorum, which re-

and

few great individualists

quires appropriateness of age, sex, type, expres-

Michelangelo,

figure

represented.

abounds
rect'

and dress

to the character of the

The

relevant

literature

in precise directives. It is these 'cor-

images that are meant to appeal

to the

doomed

than absolute value. After this proviso,

be said

sion, gesture,

of the

an area

in

our conclusions have relative rather

to failure,

could

capable to judge whether, where, and

all

the artists caught

upon, with his skin torn, wounded, deformed,

Truth, moreover, called for accuracy

figures.

baffling.

may

it

with the exception of the Venetians

most of the

like

the aged

artists

working

roughly between 1550 and 1590 practised

and

formalistic, anti-classical,
style, a style

anti-naturalistic

of stereotyped formulas, for which

the Italians coined the

word maniera* and which

emotions of the faithful and support or even

we now

transcend the spoken word.

derogatory meaning to the term. Virtuosity of

And
is

Council and

yet, in the decrees of the

in the expositions

by

its

severe partisans, there

almost an iconoclastic streak. In no uncertain

'Mannerism' without attaching

call

execution and highly decorative surface qualities

go with
spatial

compositional

uncommon

and

decentrahzation

and colouristic complexities

in addition,

and

terms did the Council proscribe the worship of

it is

images: in the words of the decree 'the honour

psychic ambiguities puzzle the beholder. Finally,

shown

the intricacies of handling are often

to

them

refers to the prototypes

those images represent'.- But

it

is

which

easier to

postulate the difference between idol and image

than to control the reaction of the masses.

therefore find

men

like St Philip

We

Neri warning

not

that deliberate physical

intricacies of content.

by the

and fresco cycles of the period are obscure and

esoteric, possibly not in spite of

but because of

the close collaboration between painter and

One

his penitents not to fix their eyes too intently

priest.

on images, and St John of the Cross advocating

which not rarely reveals

man

matched

Many 'pictures

is

inclined to believe that this art,

hardly veiled licen-

needs few images and that

tiousness under the guise of prudery, was suited

churches, where the senses are least likely to

to please the refined Italian society, then fol-

be entertained, are most suitable for intense

lowing the dictates of Spanish etiquette, but

prayer.

had hardly the power

that the devout

It

has long been a matter of discussion

art historians to

what extent the

art

among

of the later

in the

mass of the

nerism as

it

to stir religious

faithful.

To

it

emotions

be sure,

was practised during the

Manlater

sixteenth century expressed the exigencies of

sixteenth century was not an answer to the

the reformed Catholic Church.' In one respect

artistic requirementsof the

the answer

Church

is

not difficult to give; artists of

religious imagery

had

to

comply with some of

it

counter-reformatory

lacked clarity, realism, and emotional

intensity.

BIBLOSARTE

ROME: SIXTLS

It

1580 onwards, or

only from about

is

roughly twenty years after the promulgation of

the Council decrees, that

we begin

to discern a

had passed, and with

deportment and

TO PAUL

this returned

an easier

a determination to enjoy Hfe

such as had not existed

Rome

in

since the days

counter-reformatory art on a broad basis. So

of the Renaissance. Moreover, progressive

much may be

gious movements,

said at present: the

new

art has

23

bom

reli-

the days of the

in

not a clear-cut unified physiognomy. Either the

Council of Trent but not always looked upon

may be

with approval by the reactionary faction of the

emotional component

realistic or the

stressed as a rule, clarity supersedes complexity

:

and

often,

though by no means always,

deli-

berate formal austerity provides the answer to

the severe 'iconoclastic" tendencies which

have

mentioned.

Meanwhile,

however,

Counter-Reformation moved towards

we

some detail the patRome, certain aspects

phase. Before discussing in

tern of artistic trends in

firmly established. Pro-

the Catholic Restoration.

The most important movements,

St PhiUp

and St Ignatius of Loyola's

Neri's Oratory

Society of Jesus, two seemingly opposed off-

shoots of neo-Catholicism, have yet

common.

of the historical setting must be sketched.

now

and encouraged by papal authority, they

developed into the most effective agencies of

the

new

reformers, were
tected

much

who preached and

meetings of laymen

in

grew out of informal

Philip's Oratory

dis-

coursed spontaneously, following only their

The Church and

the Reformers

inner voices.

The

period from Sixtus

(1585-90) to Paul

(1605-21) has a number of features

which single
after.

it

all

spheres of

Italy

had nur-

during the sixteenth

life

century, began to decline. Paul I\

's

Spain (1556-7), though a disastrous

war against
failure,

was

re-

come. Sixtus

a first pointer to things to

newed

common

out from the periods before and

Spanish influence, which

tured in

in

the resistance against Spanish predomi-

spirit prevailed

that

cheerful but deeply devotional

among Philip's disciples, a spirit

reminded the learned Cardinal Baronius

of early Christianity.

It is clear

unorthodox approach

to religion aroused

and suspicion. But

1575 Gregory XIII for-

in

its

seat

Maria

S.

was transferred

rules were written in 1583

expense of Spain. This change

is

at the

symptomatic.

church of

soon became fashionable, and a pope

Henry IV of France

Holy See, and from

to the

in Vallicella. .\fter that the

ment VIII was very

to the

awe

mally recognized the Oratory and in the same

year

nance. Clement VIII (1592-1605) reconciled

then on dates the ascendancy of France

that such an

tution, solemnly

up

in 1612, the

close to

it.

and

Oratory
like

Cle-

Although the

a definite consti-

approved by Paul \ was draw n

,

democratic

spirit

of the original

The rigours of the reform movement were over.

foundation was preserved. PhiUp's ap>ostolate,

Never again was there

as

ascetic

pope so austere, so

and uncompromising

9), so

humble and

From

the 1570s

saintly as Pius

restoration began

of Poland,

IV (1555(1566-72).

and 80s on Protestantism was

on the defensive; Catholic

all

as Paul

and

stabilization

in the following

Austria,

southern

and

decades

Germany,

Ludwig von Pastor says, extended down from

the pope to the smallest urchin in the streets.

The Congregation remained

priests tied together

and charity. Philip died

characteristic

their Catholic position or even returned to the

death."

The deep

sense of danger which

critical years

in

May

universal

1595.

It

reverence

began as early as two months

tion

pervaded the Church during the

group of secular

is

in

which he was held that the process of canoniza-

France, and parts of Switzerland consolidated

old Faith.

of the

by voluntary obedience

By

after his

contrast to the Oratory, the Society of

Jesus was monarchical and aristocratic in

BIBLOSARTE

its

24

Tilt I'KRIOD

Ul'

ANSI! ION AND THK KARLV BAROQUE

constitution, pervaded by a spirit of military

discipline,

bound by

missionary

in its

zeal.

vows, and militant

strict

But, like the Oratory, the

common

Society was designed to serve the

During

not prepare
seclusion

freed from the

active

bonds of monastic observance

traditional withdrawal behind

it

interfere with

work

for,

or take place in, cloistered

prepares, on the contrary, for the

as a soldier of the

Church

Militant.

And secondly, all a man's faculties are employed

make

the walls of the monastery by an active partici-

to

pation in the aflairs of the world. Notwith-

sonal experience.

the Exercises an extremely vivid per-

The

senses are brought into

new

play with almost scientific precision and help to

age that was dawning, their intellec-

achieve an eminently realistic awareness of the

standing their determined opposition to the

scientific

and hardly

normal duties. The cleansing of the soul does

people; like the Oratorians, the Jesuits were

and replaced the

time the periods of contemplation

this

are relatively brief

tualism, casuistry, and interest in education

subjects suggested for meditation.

were as typical of the new spirit as their approach

week of the

Grace and the guide

exercises

is

The

first

devoted to the con-

devo-

templation of Sin, and St Ignatius requires the

down by Ignatius himself in the

Spiritual Exercises. The Dominicans were upholders of Thomism, which had seen such a

exercitant to see the flames of Hell, to smell the

powerful revival in the days of the Council of

and

Trent, and championed the Pauline-Augus-

weeks the soul Hves with equal intensity through

to the doctrine of

tion

to

laid

tinian-Thomistic

position,

Grace des-

that

cended on man irrespective of human

partici-

pation.

The

human

collaboration was essential to render

Grace

Jesuits,

efficacious.

by contrast, taught that

This point of view was advo-

sulphur and stench, to hear the shrieks of

sufferers, to taste the bitterness of their tears
feel their

remorse. During the

two

last

the Passion, Resurrection, and Ascension of

Christ.

The

Spiritual Exercises were written

early in St Ignatius's career and, after

revisions,

were approved by Paul

many

III in 1548.

Although large numbers of the clergy practised

became most

cated with great learning by the Spanish Jesuit

the Exercises at an early date, they

Luis de Molina in his Concord

effective in the course of the seventeenth cen-

of

Free Will with

and

the Gifts oj Grace, published in 1588,

re-

tury, after the publication in final

form

in

1599

sulted in a long-drawn-out struggle with the

of the Directory (Directorium

Dominicans which ended only

drawn up by Ignatius as a guide to the Exercises.

by order

in 1607,

in

Exercitia),

positive

The list of distinguished seventeenth-century

who were Jesuits is longer than is generally realized." Even among the others there
were probably not a few who felt drawn towards

and optimistic Jesuit teaching, that man has an

Jesuit teaching. Bernini's close relations with

influence on the shaping of his destiny, was

the Jesuits are well

known, and

admitted and broke the power of medieval

noticed that there

of Paul

himself. Although the

Holy See

served judgement and sided neither with

Thom-

ism nor Molinism, the suspense alone was

a battle

won by

the Jesuits: the

more

re-

like

Although inspired by the ascetic writings of

the past, St Ignatius's Spiritual Exercises were

new and

progressive. Their novelty was

twofold. First, the

citant

method of guiding

through a four-weeks' course

practical

is

and adaptable

to

is

the exer-

eminently

each individual case.

tions, their tangibility

it

has been

connexion between the

directness of Loyola's spiritual

determinism.

equally

artists

recommenda-

and realism, and the

art

of Bernini and his generation." At an earlier

date the same observation can be

regard to Caravaggio's

art.""

common ground between

cises

made with

But there

is

no

the spirit of the Exer-

and the broad current of Late Mannerism.

BIBLOSARTE

ROME: SIXTUS

Nor

is it

possible to talk of a 'Jesuit style'," as

has often been done, or to construe a direct

influence ofthe Jesuits on stylistic developments
at

any time during the seventeenth century.

abstract

the

theological

speculations of the

ended only when Gregory

XIV

con-

1591; but the internal difficulties were not

Ignatius died as early as

5 56

Francis Xavier,

the great Jesuit missionary, the 'Apostle ofthe

Indies',

had died four years before; Teresa

passed away in

men

and Philip Neri

Neri and St Charles Bor-

^5

resolved until Paul V's reign {1606).

Council discussions, was shared not only by

like St Philip

firmed St Ignatius's original constitutions in

and psychological ap-

Ignatius's practical

proach to the mysteries of faith, so different from

Sixtus

TO PAUL

582, Charles
in 1595.

Borromeo

The

in

584,

processes leading

and canonization were con-

romeo, but even by such true sixteenth-century

to their beatification

mystics as St Teresa and St John ofthe Cross.

ducted during the

Unlike the mystics of the Middle Ages, they

century.

two decades ofthe new

The inquiry into St Charles's life began

controlled, ever watchful, the stages leading to

in 1604,

and he was canonized

ecstasy and supplied in their writings detailed

was

counter-reformatory mystics that they

cation was concluded after ten years in 1614,

It

blend the vita activa and contem-

to

No more

to-earth energy

practical

wisdom and down-

can be imagined than that

shown by Teresa and John of

the Cross in re-

Philip Neri's in 1615,

Similarly, determination, firmness, and tena-

Council guided St Charles Borromeo, the youth-

Archbishop of Milan who was Pius IV's

nephew. At the time of his death

he had, one

is

lined his large diocese,

discussions

Teresa, Philip Neri, and Francis Xavier, were

cate, all

tempted

in

1584 (aged

to say, stream-

had modernized

clerical

on 22

This date,
It

May

if

any,

is

of symbolic significance.

marks the end of the 'period of

here under review.

the
It

1622.

transition'

When these reformers joined

empyrean of saints, the struggles were

was

that the regenerative forces inside Catholicism

had saved the Church. This date may

and had prepared manuals

regarded as

artists.

for pupils, teachers,

Charles Borromeo was

staunch

supporter of both the Oratory and the Society

of Jesus.

He

practised the Spiritual Exercises

and leant heavily on Jesuit support

through

his

reforms

at

Milan.

formed the most important

papal court and the

It

link

in carrying

watershed

period from Sixtus

little

in

to

matters of

Paul

also be

art.

The

has none or

of the enthusiastic and extrovert qualities

of the exuberant Baroque which came into

own

in the

1620s and prevailed in

was he who

about

between the

period the old and the

new popular movements,

past.

kind of authoritative acknowledgement

education by founding his famous seminaries,

and

in

initiated

under Paul V, the four great reformers, Ignatius,

city in translating into action the decrees of the

forty-six),

and Francis Xavier's

protracted

After

1619.

canonized during Gregory XV's brief pontifi-

forming the Carmelite Order.

ful

begun

under Clement VIII. Teresa's process of beatifi-

knew how
plativa.

in 1610. Ignatius

beatified in 1609 after a long process

character-

analyses ofthe soul's ascent to

izes these

God.

first

fifty years.

Rome

Moreover, during the

new

its

for

earlier

often exist indis-

criminately side by side. This

is

one of the

and who promoted the ascendancy of Jesuits

important characteristics of these forty-odd

and Oratorians. Both Philip and Ignatius had

years,

to

struggle for recognition.

latter's

In spite of the

fabulous success, external vicissitudes

and

official art

it

must be

said at

once that the

policy ofthe popes tended to support

reactionary rather than progressive artists.

under the Theatine Pope Paul IV, the Domini-

reverse

can Pope Pius V, and the Franciscan Pope

wards.

is

true from

BIBLOSARTE

Urban VIII's

The

reign on-

THE HKRIOD OK TRANSITION AND THt EARLY BAROQUE

Zb

The 'Style Sixtus

V and

Transformation

its

malism.

Compared with

the second and third quarters

decades saw

of the sixteenth century, its last

an immense extension of

change came about during the

of the energetic Sixtus

known

The

artistic activity.

brief pontificate

(1585-90).

Rome more

that he transformed

well

It is

radi-

any single pope before him. The

cally than

and drive reveals him as

a great vision. It has rightly

man

for-

often blunt and pedestrian, on

occasions even gaudy and vulgar, though not

infrequently

by

relieved

note

of refined

classicism. This characterization applies equally

to

the three arts.

It

patently obvious in

is

architecture. Sixtus gave the rebuilding of Rome

hands of his second-rate court architect,

into the

his

available to him. Fontana's largest papal build-

been claimed that

Popolo with the

linking Piazza del

is

with

the creation of long straight avenues (e.g. 'Strada

Felice',

It

Domenico Fontana (1543- 1607), although the

much more dynamic Giacomo della Porta was

urban development which resulted from

initiative

abandoning Mannerist

plexities without

Lateran Palace,

ing, the

is

no more than

dry

and monotonous recapitulation of the Palazzo

A similar acade-

Farnese, sapped of all strength.

Lateran), of star-shaped squares (Piazzas S.

mic

Maria Maggiore and del Popolo, before Vala-

of S. Girolamo degli Schiavoni which Sixtus

and the erection of fountains and obeHsks

commissioned from Martino Longhi the Elder

dier),

petrifaction

evident in

is

fa9ade like that

as focusing points for long vistas anticipate

(1588-9). Without altogether excluding

seventeenth-century town-planning ideas. In

nerist superimpositions

the historic perspective

importance that
a

after

pope regarded

it

it

appears of decisive

more than

half a century

as his sacred duty - for the

whole enterprise was undertaken

Dei

'in

et Ecclesiae gloriam' - to turn

majorem

Rome

into

the most modern, most attractive, and most

beautiful city of Christianity.

was a new

spirit

it

was the

To

spirit

be sure, this

of the Catholic

Restoration. But the artists at his disposal were

tecture
a

thin,

is flat,

and timid.

against such

It is

background that Carlo Maderno's revolu-

tionary achievement in the facade of S. Susanna

(1603) [51]

must be

assessed.

It

is

Clement VIII favoured Giacomo

and that

after the latter's death in 1602 Carlo

Maderno stepped
of St Peter's. But
after

true that

della Porta

Paul V's

into his position as architect

it

own

is

also true that the architect

heart was Flaminio Ponzio

who

often less than mediocre, and few of the works

(1559/60-1613),'"

produced

death a noble version of the academic

in

those years can lay claim to distinc-

tion. After the

Sack of

Rome

proper

Roman

school had ceased to exist, and most of the

artists

working

for Sixtus

were either foreigners

Man-

of motifs, this archi-

nerism of the

perpetuated until his

580s and 90s.

And

true that the Cavaliere d'Arpino,

classicism

is

it is

Man-

equally

whose

feeble

the exact counterpart in painting

or took their cue from developments outside

of Longhi's and Ponzio's buildings, was in

Rome.

most unchallenged command during the 1 590s'

In spite of all these handicaps something

like a 'style

Sixtus

V developed, remaining in

vogue throughout the pontificate of Clement

VIII and even

to a certain extent

during that

a position

style

may be

characterized as an aca-

of authority through-

out Paul V's pontificate.

The

frescoes of the Vatican Library (which

Domenico Fontana had

of Paul V.

This

and maintained

al-

built), the papal

chapel

erected by Fontana in S. Maria Maggiore, and

not

the frescoes in the transept of S. Giovanni in

anti-Mannerist and revolutionary in the sense

Laterano exemplify well the prosaic nature and

demic ultima mamera,

of the

new

art

manner which

is

of Caravaggio and the Carracci,

but tends towards dissolving Mannerist com-

vulgarity of official taste under Sixtus V and

Clement VIII. Although varying somewhat in

BIBLOSARTE

ROME: SIXTHS

Style

and quality, the painters engaged on such

and other

tasks

official

Andrea

Lilio,

Giovan

Battista Ricci,

Antonio Viviani,

Ventura Salimbeni, Paris Nogari,

Giovanni Guerra, Arrigo

may be differentiated

each having

much

its

Mannerist Federico Zuccari

the Council decrees,

namely that of

27

Rome itself,

in

wider, all-Italian implications. There was

Cesare Nebbia

ment of

and each having

roots far back

first

one require-

Before the end of the century four principal

tendencies

Flamingo (Hendrick van den Broeck), and

- fulfilled at least

TO PAUL

the facile, decorative

combined

in his art

manner of

the arch-

542/3-1 609),

(i

elements from the

who

latest

At the same time, mainly two Flemings,

Raphael and from Tuscan and Flemish Man-

Egidio della Riviera (Gillis van den Vliete) and

nerism with impressions which had come to him

clarity.

Nicolo Pippi of Arras (Mostaert), and the

Lom-

bard Valsoldo (Giovan Antonio Paracca), were

responsible for the flabby statues and narrative

The

reliefs in Sixtus

V's multicoloured chapel.

two former died

in the early years of the seven-

teenth

while

century,

enough

to

Valsoldo

lived

long

work again on the decoration of

from Veronese and the Venetians.

stantly travelling
in

Rome after

his

down

sank

The example

pure propaganda.

to the level of

that

frightful scenes of

comes to mind is the many

martyrdoms in S. Stefano

Rotondo, which invariably have

effect

Olympian

city

official

most of the time

influence was yet great

working

for Sixtus

commis-

1589 and was indeed absent

after that year,

on the painters

V and Clement VIII.

\ second trend was that of the Florentines,

who had a considerable share in mid-sixteenthcentury fresco-painting in Rome. Their com-

a nauseating

plex Mannerism, tied to the old Florentine

on the modern beholder. But Nicolo

emphasis on rhythmic design, followed the

Circignani (called Pomarancio, 1516-96),

who

painted them, was the artist favoured by the

Jesuits;'- the

church belonged

novices of the Order.

It

was

to the

German

just the unrelieved

end of the century

Passignano and

'The Church wants,

fire

in this

way, both

courage of the martyrs and to

the souls of her sons.'"

Nor can

set

it

be

is

mainly repre-

sented by Bernardino Poccetti. Artists such as

Florentine

to glorify the

to a

academic manner, which

solid

flame missionary zeal. In the words of Cardinal

Paieotti:

way towards the

more simplified and

general development and gave

horror of these representations that was to in-

on

to court,

to esoteric intellectual

duction. Although he had no

sions in

from the

purpose and gratified the patrons, even when

the

speculations, superficial and quick in his pro-

Sixtus V. This 'pragmatic' style fulfilled

it

from court

demeanour, prone

Paul V's chapel, the counterpart to that of

its

He was

truly international artist of the^?; de siecle, con-

ing

it

Ciampelli

manner

to

transplanted

this

Rome, not without blend-

with Venetian colourism and Zuccari's

mamera

facile.

For the third trend, there was

Girolamo Muziano, who came

into

prominence

denied that such paintings hardly evoke aes-

under Sixtus V's predecessor, Gregory XIII.

thetic satisfaction.

Coming from

If a bird's-eye view of the

Sixtus

some

to the

intrinsic

whole period from

end of Paul V's reign shows

common

qualities, a closer in-

quiry reveals the existence of a variety of trends.

In addition, there

even of official

is

slow but continuous shift

art policy

away from Sixtus V's

philistine counter-reformatory art

fuller, more vigorous, more
more emotional manner.

towards

poetical,

and

also

Brescia and steeped in the tra-

ditions of Venetian

painting,

wholly for the mamera then

really

he

who introduced

Venetian colour and

settings.

into

in

he never
vogue.

Rome

a taste for rich

It

fell

was

sense for

landscape

This was taken up and developed by

Flemings, mainly Paul

Brill

(1554- 1626), whose

'picturesque' northern vedute were admitted

even

in

churches and on the walls of the Vatican

Palace in the reign of Paul V.

BIBLOSARTE

'^

good deal of

nit PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

28

Muziano's chromatic approach

assimilated

Rome.

in

Cesare Nebbia

((

to painting

Artists

his

like

was

pupil

1536-1614), one of the busiest

the Cappella Paolina in S. Maria Maggiore, and

By

the Quirinal Palace.

facing Paul

V was

problem

far the greatest

the completion of St Peter's.

and most slapdash practitioners of the period,

Once he had taken

showed how

Michelangelo's centralized plan, the pope pro-

to

reconcile

with

it

Federico

Zuccari's academic Mannerism. Finally, Federico Barocci's

Correggiesque emotionalism must

be mentioned, although he was working in

Urbino. His pictures reached

Rome

at

an early

the decision to abandon

Ma-

ceeded with great determination. Carlo

derno began the fa9ade

in

1607 and the nave in

1609 and finished them both in 1612 (with the

exception of the farthest bay

at

each end)

[i].

more through

Shortly after (1615-16) he built the Confessio,

many artists who came under his spell.

Taken all in all, during the first decades of the
new century the tendency of the older painters

the high altar under the dome. Although the

date, but his influence spread even

the

of

all

late

shades was to supplant Zuccaresque and

Tuscan Mannerism by

palette

and

more

a softer

and warmer

sensitive characterization of

figures. Caravaggio's

and Annibale Carracci's

revolts broke into this setting at the

end of the

must be emphasized

that there

nineties.

But

it

was no immediate repercussion on papal

policy.

Nor

ciably influence the

artists,

art

did the art of these masters appre-

development of the older

although a painter Uke Cristoforo Ron-

which opens

in the

form of a horse-shoe before

pope himself supported Maderno's appoint-

ment

in spite

of strong competition from

less

progressive architects, the decoration of the

new building went

hands of steadfast

into the

Mannerists.

Paul V,

it is

true,

was not responsible

for the

decoration of the dome, consisting of trite representations in mosaic of Christ and the Apostles,
half-figures of popes

and

saints,

and angels with

commis-

the Instruments of the Passion. This

sion, for

obvious reasons unrivalled in impor-

caUi (1552-1626) used a Carraccesque 'cloak'

tance and by far the largest available at the turn

and

of the century, was handed over by Clement

for his pictures at the

end of

his career'"

Giovanni Baglione turned Caravaggesque

for

moments. Moreover while Annibale's

brief

Bolognese
firmly in

followers

Rome

themselves

entrenched

during the

first

the seventeenth century and

two decades of

pubHc

taste shifted

VIII

to his favourite

Owing

to its

until 1612.'"

Cesare d'.\rpino

magnitude,

it

Clement VIII

the artists for the

huge

in 1603.

was not finished

also chose

most of

altarpieces, later trans-

ferred into mosaic. Roncalli, Vanni, Passignano,

away from the older

Nebbia, Castello, Baglione, and Cigoli were

Mannerists, Caravaggism remained almost en-

here given splendid opportunities, while neither

decisively in their favour

tirely

an

artists

aff^air

for eccentrics, connoisseurs,

and had run

was concerned

its

course

- as far as

by the time Paul

and

Rome

V died.

Caravaggio nor Annibale had

Paul V and Cardinal Scipione Borghese as Patrons

brief survey of patronage during Paul V's

reign will help the reader to assess the

plexities

which beset the historian who

define the art of the

first

com-

tries to

quarter of the seven-

1622),''

Ambrogio Bonvicino

(t.

1552-

the friend of Federico Zuccari and

Cristoforo Roncalli. His

is

of Christ handing the Keys

the classicizing relief

to

St Peter over the

central entrance to the church.

Giovan

Battista

Novara (1545- 1620), one of the least

maniera painters under Sixtus V, was

Ricci from
solid

Rome was

given the honourable task of painting frescoes in

tasks, St Peter's,

the Confessio, and he also designed the stucco

teenth century. Official patronage in

concerned with three major

chance of being

Paul V's principal sculptor in St Peter's was

the Milanese

considered.

BIBLOSARTE

ROME: SIXTUS

I.

Rome,

TO PAUL

29

piazza and fa9ade of St Peter's

decorations of the portico. Since elegant and

were the only

rich stucco decorations

which

Roman

and Sixtus

field in

Mannerists under Gregory XIII

had shown

originality, Ricci here

real inventiveness

drew upon

and

a vigorous,

official taste

than the vast complex of St Peter's.

.Almost the size of a church, the Greek-cross

chapel with

its

dome rose to the design of

who had to follow closely the

high

Flaminio Ponzio,

model of the Chapel of Sixtus V. These two

excel-

chapels, forming a kind of transept to the Early

lence of which has always been acclaimed.

Christian basilica, are testimonies of the begin-

living tradition

Finally,

it

and created

work the

should be mentioned that Ferra-

bosco's famous clock-tower of 1 6 1 6- 1 7, "* which

ning and the end of an epoch. Ponzio's structure

was completed

in 16 11,

but the decoration was

Bernini built his

not finished until the end of 1616. Coloured

colonnades, was not an impressive example of

marbles, gilding, and precious stones combine

had

to

be pulled

down when

architectural grandeur.

standing,

it

During the time

it

was

must have clashed strangely with

the early Baroque vigour of Maderno's facade.

The
[2],

Cappella Paolina

in S.

which the pope resolved

June 1605, supplies

Maria Maggiore

to build as early as

more coherent

idea of

to give

an impression of dazzling splendour

which surpasses the harsher colour

Sixtus's Chapel.

It

was Sixtus

effects

V who

of

with his

multicoloured chapel began a fashion which

remained
tury.

One

in

vogue

far into the

eighteenth cen-

should be careful not to explain this

BIBLOSARTE

jO

rilh

PtRlOD OK TRANblTlUN

custom simply as the 'baroque' love

and magnificence.

for

NU

Tilt

swagger

Much ofthe coloured marble

was taken from ancient buildings. This was an

KARIY BAROQLL

massive and rich that

small-scale

dwarfs the relatively

it

sculptural

decoration

Com-

(3].

pared with their models in the Chapel of Sixtus

counter-reforma-

V, these tombs show a further accretion of

programme of systematically transforming

pagan into Christian Rome. Moreover, by
placing this sumptuous spectacle before the

decorative detail, to the detriment ofthe effec-

important part of Sixtus \

's

tory

eyes of the faithful, Sixtus

medieval demand, voiced by

that the

ought

fulfilled the

men

like

Church, the image of heaven on earth,

to

be decorated with the most precious

treasures in existence.

the Paolina rise the

VIII and Paul

Along the side walls of

enormous tombs of Clement

with the statues ofthe popes

surrounded by painterly narrative

set in a triumphal-arch-architecture

2.

S.

neo-

Molanus,

reliefs - all

which

is

so

tiveness of the sculpture.

sible for the statues

and

to the older generation

da

Viggiii,

Stati,

Bonvicino,

The

reliefs

artists

respon-

belonged mainly

born about 1560:

Valsoldo,

Silla

Cristoforo

Nicolo Cordier, Ippolito Buzio, Camillo

xMariani,

and Pietro Bernini, Gianlorenzo's

father. In addition,

two younger

artists,

Stefano

Maderno and Francesco Mochi, were employed.'"

In

other words,

sculptor then working in

contribution.

It

is

Flaminio Ponzio: Rome,

Maria Maggiore, Cappella Paolina, 1605-11

BIBLOSARTE

practically

every

Rome made some

indicative of the change

3-

Rome,

S.

Maria Maggiore, Cappella Paolina,

Tomb

of Paul V, 1608-15

BIBLOSARTE

4-

Rome,

One

S. Maria Maggiore, Cappella Paolina.

of the pendentives and arches with frescoes by the Cavaliere d'Arpino and Guide Reni, 1610 12

BIBLOSARTE

ROME: SIXTUS

taking place that Italians should supersede the

Maderno was ordered

Flemings who were so prominent

former's death in 1613.--

Chapel.

in Sixtus's

The Lombard element now

prevailed.

new rooms were ready

TO PAUL

33

to continue after the

A number of splendid

for decoration

from 16 10

In spite of the uniformity of the sculptural

onwards, two of which deserve special attention

decoration, style and quality differ; and

the 'Sala Regia'

it

is

(now

'Sala de' Corazzieri')

and

probably not by chance that the most reactionary

the pope's private chapel (Cappella dell'Annun-

and timid among the sculptors,

da Viggiu,

ciata).

the statues

frieze along the walls of the Sala de' Corazzieri

Silla

him

received the lion's share: to

fell

moment

lagged behind the

revolutionary events in painting brought about

by Caravaggio and Annibale Carracci.

It is

not

astonishing that the schism between the old

guard and progressive masters

Mochi

like

Mariani and

obvious post festum to art-historically

trained eyes - was hardly noticed in the pope's

circle.

But the

situation in painting

was vastly

and here the compromise character of

different,

Paul V's policy cannot be overlooked. Characteristically,

he gave the direction of the whole

enterprise

into

d'Arpino.

The

Cavaliere himself painted the

pendentives of the

above the

hands of the Cavaliere

the

altar; the

dome

[4]

and the lunette

Florentine Ludovico Cigoli

stino Tassi

1580-1644).

{c.

Mannerist Florentine training, while the per-

factorily

among them

the unsatis-

shaped lunettes flanking the windows

(1610-12). In addition, the Florentine Passi-

and the Man-

gnano

(frescoes in the sacristy),^''

nerists

Giovanni Baglione and Baldassare Croce

(1553-1628) were given

franco joined

them

a share,

while Lan-

later.-' It is typical

of one

facet of official patronage during the second

these artists. Mannerists, 'transi-

decade that

all

tionalists',

and 'modernists', worked side by

side,

and that the academic

eclecticist

d'Arpino

home in Rome
and

Carlo Saraceni were the principal executants of

the figures and scenes.-^

between the

established,-^ but the

ing

The

division of

hands

artists participating is not easily

phenomenon

enough we are faced with an

:

interest-

is

entente cordiale

of a Carracci pupil and a Caravaggio follower

Roman who had studied

may be added that it was rare for

under the direction of a

in Florence. It

Caravaggista to be considered for public fresco

this kind.-" Tassi himself

con-

solidated here his reputation as a specialist in

illusionist

architecture (quadratura)

in this

capacity

he collaborated with Domenichino

and

above

later,

The main

all,

with Guercino.

glory of the place

is

the Cappella

dell'Annunciata, which was decorated between

1

609 and 1 6 1 3^^ by Guido Reni assisted by Lan-

franco, Francesco Albani, Antonio Carracci,

and the

less

distinguished

Tommaso Campana.

Here

at last is a fully

prise

by the young Bolognese masters.

fledged co-ordinated enterIt

found

enthusiastic approval at the papal court; one

topped the list.

had had

Italian illusionism that

since the days of Gregory XIII. Lanfranco

commissions of

all,

rooms on the

long walls show him influenced by the North

smaller frescoes in

crowded organi-

spective openings into imaginary

decorated the dome, and Guido Reni, possibly

of the Cavaliere, executed ten

Its

zation on the short walls reveals Tassi's late

on the

initiative

painted

(1616-17)-' was apparently designed by Ago-

ofClement VIII and Paul V.

Sculpture at this

The decorative framework of the

study of the third great papal undertaking,

can, however, hardly doubt that the pope's pre-

the Quirinal Palace, allows one to revise to a

ference for Reni in the Quirinal as well as in S.

certain extent the impression carried

away from

the PaoHna. Late in 1605 the pope entrusted his

court architect, Flaminio Ponzio, with the en-

largement of the existing building, which Carlo

Maria Maggiore and the Vatican-* was due

Cardinal Scipione Borghese's good

The

to

offices.

cardinal nephew, Paul V's favourite,

was perhaps the most

BIBLOSARTE

brilliant representative

of

34

"

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

the Pauline era. Jovial, vivacious, worldly in his

outlook, famed for his

much

invested

buildings,

sumptuous banquets, he

of his immense wealth in his

and the patronage of

collections,

He was a

living artists.

true enthusiast and, con-

trary to the admonitions of the

Trent Council,

loved art for art's sake. His rapacity was matched

by

a catholicity

been

of taste which also seems

to

have

hallmark of other aristocratic patrons of

these years.

Not only a vast number of ancient

many of the finest jewels of the

works, but also

present Borghese Gallery, paintings by Titian,

Raphael, Veronese, Dossi, and others, adorned

his collection; but

it is

more

interesting in this

context that he bought with equal zest pictures

by the Cavaliere dWrpino, by Passignano,

Ggoli, Barocci, Caravaggio, Domenichino, and
Lanfranco.-

In fact, he was one of the earliest

'

admirers of Caravaggio,
a

just as

he discovered

at

remarkably early period the genius of Bernini.

In his munificent commissions of works in

Guido Reni, who belonged

hold from

608 onwards, and

But he did not

Mannerists,

hesitate to

men hke

Andrew Chapel,
latter's pupil,

S.

Giovan
S.

Battista Soria:

Gregorio Magno, 1629-33

both for private and public buildings,

fresco,

he showed partiality to the Bolognese, particularly to

5.

Rome,

to his

later to

house-

Lanfranco.

employ even

feeble

Nicolo Pomarancio (St

Gregorio .\Iagno) or the

S.

Gaspare Ceho (CaffareUi Chapel,

on the cardinal's

fuori

le

tinued the palace

was

Soria (1581-1651),

manner

who continued an academic

far into the

seventeenth century. His

in

work of Ponzio.

It

latter's

largely the

ideas.*'

Paul

(a

import of north

The

novelty in
Italian,

Rome)

points

probably Genoese,

Palazzo Borghese was reserved by

for the use of his brothers. In addition.

executed for Scipione Borghese.

Cardinal Scipione built for himself the present

Palazzo Rospigliosi-Pallavicini in Piazza Monte-

all

conservative views as far as church

architecture
is

is

not without dignity, they testify to the

(1630), were

Though

1629) [5] and the nave

Rome,

follows the sombre tradition

of the Palazzo Farnese, while the festive double-

to the

Monte Compatri near Rome

Cardinal Deza and

shape, the western facade, the

longest palace front in

column courtyard

Magno (begun

for

raised to the pontificate (February 1605).

Irregular

masterpiece, the facade and forecourt of S.

of the cathedral at

which the elder Martino

had purchased shortly before he

facade of S. Maria della Vittoria (1625-7); his

Gregorio

at

Longhi had worked

After Ponzio's death, the architect Scipione

sponsored and paid by him was Giovan Battista

During his lifetime Ponzio remained

the family architect and in this capacity con-

which Paul

for ecclesiastical buildings

had executed the

mura (1609-13, completed by Vasan-

zio)"' [6, 7].

Maria sopra Minerva).

Borghese favoured

initiative,

delicate classicist renovation of S. Sebastiano

is

concerned. Soria's architecture

somewhat more

forceful than Ponzio's,

who,

cavallo,

begun

in 1613.

Dutchman \asanzio
as

As

cabinet-maker and

BIBLOSARTE

in S.

Sebastiano, the

(Jan van Santen), trained

later

Ponzio's col-

ROME: SIXTLS

TO PALL

laborator and successor as papal architect, took

over after his master's death.'-

who buih the attractive Casino

Antonio Tempesta, Paul

It

( 1

Brill,

was \ asanzio

6 1 2 - 1 3 ),

w hich

Cherubino Al-

berti,

Passignano, Giovanni Baglione,*^ and,

above

all,

Guido Reni decorated with

frescoes.

.\gostino Tassi and Orazio Gentileschi painted

the ceiling of the nearby 'Casino of the .Muses'

(161

-12) and Ludovico Cigoli a cycle of fres-

coes in yet another casino.^*

Thus this ensemble,

created for Scipione Borghese, suppHes once

again a fascinating cross-section through the
variety of tendencies existing side

by side

at

the beginning of the second decade.

The

cardinal's enthusiasm

on the erection of

his villa

was concentrated

on the Pincio (the

present Galleria Borghese), which he wanted

to be built

interfered,

by Ponzio." But once again death

and \ asanzio served

as architect of

6 and

7.

Rome,

Flaminio Ponzio and Giovanni \ asanzio:

S. Sebastiano,

1609-13

BIBLOSARTE

35

36

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

the structure which rose between

1615. If any building,

it

was

161 3

and

this villa in its

original condition that represented the quintes-

sence of its patron's

of the

Roman

taste.

villa

I'he type follows that

suburbana, established a

hundred years before

in Peruzzi's Farnesina.

But where Peruzzi used

a classical severity,

Vasanzio covered the whole U-shaped front

with niches, recesses, classical statuary, and
reliefs [8]
at the
late

(much of the decoration was stripped

beginning of the nineteenth century)

- a

example of that Mannerist horror vacui

which had found

its

'classical'

expression in

Pirro Ligorio's Casino of Pius IV and Annibale

8.

Giovanni Vasanzio Rome,

de' Lippi's Villa

Villa Borghese, 1613-15. Detail

Mondragone.
Begun by M. Longhi, 1573,

9. Frascati, Villa

Garden

front.

from a painting

continued by Vasanzio, 16 14-21

also enlarged

gone

Medici on the Pincio. Vasanzio

Martino Longhi's

at Frascati (1614-21)^'' for

ghese, and

it

is

Villa

Mondra-

Scipione Bor-

here, in the fountains

and the

beautiful loggia [9], so often erroneously attri-

BIBLOSARTE

ROME: SIXTUS

buted

to Vignola, that his picturesque

to architecture

Although

found

far

works executed

nephew

is

approach

new, unexpected

from exhaustive, our

for Paul

V and

outlet.
list

of

his illustrious

remarkable enough. But the impres-

sion of their lasting achievement as patrons of

the arts would be incomplete without

tioning the

many

men-

fountains with which they

TO PAUL

37

Piazza Scossa Cavalli and Piazza di Castello

(destroyed).

None

of them can compete with

the stateliness and elegance of Maderno's

room-shaped fountain
Peter's or the

in

mush-

the Square of St

monumentality of Ponzio's trium-

phal-arch front of the Acqua Paola (on the

Janiculum) with
(1610-14)

[10].''

its

cascades of gushing water

Ever since Sixtus V's days

embellished Rome. Fountains rose in the squares

fountains had played an

of S. Maria Maggiore and the Lateran, in

Rome's urban development, but

10.

Flaminio Ponzio; Rome, Acqua Paola, 1610-14

BIBLOSARTE

important part in
in contrast to

38

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

the tradition of Florentine fountains with their

predominantly sculptural decoration,

Roman

fountains were either unadorned, consisting of

a shaft

which supported a combination of basins,

or, if placed against a wall,

and monumental.

It

is

were architectural

again a sign of the

essential unity of the period

Paul

that the

mained

approach

basically

from Sixtus

problem

to this

to

re-

unchanged. Ponzio's Acqua

was merely an improved version of

Paola

it

The men who sided with him seem

favour.

in their outlook.

tiniani,

This

Vincenzo

has been described as

earliest patron,

'fallen victim to the fashion for

These

last artists

were

Contarelli Chapel;
after

and

this

by

also favoured

who were

for Caravaggio's getting the

Rome

who

Caravaggio'

Cristoforo Roncalli and Gaspare

like

the Crescenzi brothers,

distinguished patron in

true of the

same time patronized

(Baglione), but at the

Celio.

The most

it is

brothers Asdrubale and Ciriaco Mattei,

had

who

kind of ecclesiastical

'a

artists

Caravaggio's and

Gius-

but also of Cardinal Francesco Maria

Monte, Caravaggio's

del

to

liberal

certainly true not only

is

Borghese and

of Scipione

Roman

Annihale Carracci's Supporters

yet be

have been enterprising, enthusiastic, and

minister of the arts in Rome';^"

tradition [92].

would

incorrect to talk of a distinct faction in his

Domenico and Giovanni Fontana's Acqua

As in so many other respects, the
change came only during Urban VIIFs pontificate when Bernini broke irrevocably with this
Felice {1587).

among

Caravaggio found devoted patrons

If

the nobility and higher clergy,

responsible

commission
list

might

for the

be

easily

continued.

Scipione Borghese was surely the Marchese

Quite different were the fortunes of Annibale

Vincenzo Giustiniani (1564 1637). As a young

man he gave Caravaggio his unstinted support,

Carracci and his Bolognese friends and followers. Indeed,

and

to talk of a

his

courageous purchase of the St Mattheiv,

refused by the priests of S. Luigi de' Francesi,

probably prevented the shipwreck of Caravaggio's career as a painter of

monumental

But the Marchese collected

religious pictures.

determined

it

is

permissible in their case

faction, or rather
to

There were the Farnese, in

ful

two

factions,

promote the Bolognese cause.

particular the

power-

Cardinal Odoardo, under whose aegis .Anni-

bale painted the Farnese Gallery; he remained

with equal relish works of the Bolognese""* and,

unfailingly loyal to his Bolognese proteges,

moreover, reserved

ployed Domenichino and Lanfranco

a special place in his

house-

hold for the Mannerist Cristoforo Roncalli

(called

lected

most of the sixty-odd works attributed

in the

Farnese inventory of 1662 to the Carracci

was

a highly

this painter

esteemed 'transitiona-

who

served as Gius-

tiniani's counsellor in artistic matters

accompanied him
Italy

the

in

German

and who

1606 on his travels through

and Europe.'' Later

in Giustiniani's life

Sandrart published for him his

collection of ancient marbles [Galleria Giiistiniiini,

col-

of the older Nicolo Pomarancio and

developed into
It

the

and must be credited with having

Pomarancio, 1552- 1626), who began as

a pupil

list'.

palace,

em-

in

631) to which Frenchmen,

Duquesnoy

and

their school.

The second

faction

was asso-

ciated with the circle of Cardinal Pietro Aldo-

brandini, Clement VIII's

nephew and

secretary

of state, for a time the most influential

Rome, and
Farnese.

the political antagonist of

The

cardinal himself cherished the art

Monsignor Giovanni

Battista

Agucchi (1570-

was Annibale's devoted

1632), born at Bologna,

Domenichino's pupil Giovan

admirer and Domenichino's close friend

Battista Ruggieri

in

of the Cavaliere d'Arpino. But his secretary,

and other Flemings as well as Lanfranco and

contributed the designs and engravings.

man

Odoardo

same

circle

belonged

BIBLOSARTE

to the

Monsignor Giovanni

ROME: SIXTUS

Massani and

Antonio

Francesco

Angeloni,

TO PAUL

39

of St Luke was an anachronism even before

it

Cardinal Ippolito Aldobrandini's secretary."

ingloriously petered out as a result of the artists'

Both Massani and Angeloni concentrated on

collecting the Bolognese masters, and we happen

resistance.

to

that Angeloni possessed at least 600

know

Annibale drawings
is

at

Farnese Gallery.

for the

men

once evident that the

Caravaggio's unbiased

unlike

by

guided

principles.

Their

were

patrons,

single-minded

become of ever

partisanship was to

It

of this coterie,

greater

Agucchi himself tried

his

hand

among

at a theoretical

other ideas, he formulated

which,

anew

the

central principle of the classical doctrine, that

nature

imperfect and that the

is

artist

has to

improve upon her by selecting only her most

This empirical, Aristotelian

beautiful parts.

theory was harnessed for an attack on two fronts:

belief in

it

painters as
this point

justified stricture of the

much

mamera

as of the Caravaggisti.

From

of view neither the Platonic concept

of an a priori idea of beauty in the

mind

artist's

(Zuccari's disegno interna) nor the exact imitation of imperfect nature (Caravaggio)

defensible position.

new

It

is

was

interesting that this

affirmation of the classical doctrine was

written between 1607 and 161

Zuc-

5, just after

cari's Idea had appeared (1607), which in a

happy phrase has been called 'the swan song of

in

his circle

their theoretical

found the realization of

approach - namely nature em-

bellished and idealized

They

art of

Moreover, no important

ling the
first

new

ideas

in prin-

treatise extol-

was published during the

And

half of the seventeenth century.

yet

was never

again extinguished.

On

sical-idealist theory,

which guaranteed the dig-

the contrary, the clas-

of painting on a level with Zuccari's

nity

academic eminence, was soon more or

less voci-

ferously championed, strengthened, and streamlined

by amateurs and

recalled that

artists alike. It

Domenichino

may

sided, as one

be

would

expect, with the extreme classical point of view

by exalting disegno
(colour),

ned

and that

a treatise the

(line) at the
later

expense

oi' colore

Francesco Albani plan-

orthodoxy of which, judging

from Malvasia's report, would have gone

far

beyond Agucchi's rather broad-minded expositions.^^ In

any case, the cognoscenti of the early

seventeenth

century

sided

more and more

determinedly with the opinions of the Agucchi

circle

and helped

to bring

about the climate in

which the ascendancy of Bolognese classicism

over Mannerism and Caravaggism was secured.
This ascendancy may be gauged by
at

the

list (p.

a glance

79) of important fresco cycles in

palaces and churches executed by the Bolognese

of Annibale

from 1608 onwards. Especially as regards the

despised the

decoration of palaces, they enjoyed almost a

in the art

Carracci and Domenichino.

experiment and quality rather than

ciples.

the subjective mysticism of Mannerist theory'.^*

Agucchi and

about

which the Mannerists were so fond. The liberalminded patrons seem to have been interested

the flame kindled in Agucchi's circle

importance in the early seventeenth century.

treatise, his Trattato della Pittura,^- in

Both Caravaggio and .\nnibale Car-

racci derided the clever chattering

older Mannerists and created the legend of

monopoly during the second decade.

Caravaggio's unbridled naturalism.

More
pointed

than one distinguished scholar has

out

was averse

that

the

around

to theoretical speculations.'^

essential truth of this

artists

period

cannot be contested.

The
The

themselves became tongue-tied. Federico

Zuccari's elaborate

programme

The new Churches and the new Iconography

1600

ot lectures to

be delivered before the newlv founded Academv

No

appreciation of the vast changes that

about

in the artistic life

V's days onwards

is

of

Rome

came

from Sixtus

possible without due con-

sideration of the hectic activity in the ecclesiastical field.

Few churches had been

BIBLOSARTE

built in

40

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

Rome

during the

first

half of the sixteenth

new

century. But as the century advanced the

intensity of devotion in the masses required

the

new

Orders needed churches to accommodate

their

energetic measures, and, above

large congregations.

all,

The beginning was made

more medium-sized and small churches

were erected during the three decades of Cle-

saints,

ment VIIFs and Paul V's

the preceding 150 years.

mind

S.

Maria

seppe

Order, rising from 1568 and consecrated

Bernardo

1584.

With

its

in

broad single nave, short transept,

and impressive dome

church was

this

ideally

Capo
alle

only

call to

della Scala (in Trastevere, 1592),

Nicolo da Tolentino

S.

with the Gesii, the mother church of the Jesuit

pontificates than in

One need
(i

599-1614), S. Giu-

Case (1598, rebuilt 1628),

le

Terme (1598

sanna (fafade, begun 1597),

Clement VIII's

reign, or S.

and

1600),

built

all

Maria

S.

S.

Su-

during

della Vittoria

suited for preaching from the pulpit to great

(1606),

numbers of

Trinita de' Pellegrini (1614), S. Maria del Suf-

people.

It

established the type of

the large congregational church that was fol-

lowed

hundred times during the seventeenth

century with only minor variations. During the

next

decades

Rome saw

more

three

churches of this type

rising,

previous one in

In 1575 the Chiesa

large

each surpassing the

S.

Andrea

fragio (1616),

rebuilt or

all

this list

may

and

S.

Fratte (1612),

delle

Maria Liberatrice (1617),

newly raised under Paul V.

To

be added such important restora-

tions as Cardinal Baronius's of SS.

Achilleo,^*^

SS.

Nereo and

Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandini's of

,

(S.

Maria

size.

in Vallicella) [135]

Nuova

was begun

for St

S.

Niccolo in Carcere, and Cardinal Sfondrate's

of S. Cecilia in the days of Clement VIII as well

Philip Neri's Oratorians by Matteo di Citta di

as those of S. Francesca

Castello and continued by the elder Martino

S.

Longhi.^''

The building was consecrated in

599,

but Fausto Rughesi's traditional fa9ade was not

yet finished in 1605. S.

Andrea

stone's throw from the Chiesa

signed by

Giacomo

della Valle, a

Nuova, was de-

della Porta (not

by Pietro

Sebastiano fuori

nati,

and

S.

Maria

Romana,

S. Crisogono,

le

Mura, SS. Quattro Coro-

in

Trastevere during Paul's

pontificate. Finally, large

and richly decorated

chapels like that of Cardinal Caetani in S.

Pudenziana (1595), of the Aldobrandini

in S.

Maria sopra Minerva (1600-5), of Cardinal

Paolo Olivieri) for the Theatines, whose Order

Santori in the Lateran (begun before 1602), and

had been founded during the early years of the

of the Barberini in S. Andrea della Valle (1604-

religious strife (1524).^'

Begun

in

building was taken over by Carlo

1591, the

Maderno

in

16)

show

that the first families of

peted in adding lustre to old and

Rome com-

new churches.

1608 and completed in 1623 except for the

In spite of solid and worthy achievement,

fa9ade. Finally, a second vast Jesuit church,

the masters of the period here under review

S.

Ignazio,

was planned

after the founder's

canonization and begun in 1626.

tion of St Charles

Borromeo

The

canoniza-

in 16 10

was im-

mediately followed by the dedication to him of

no

less

than three churches in

Rome:

the very

large S. Carlo al Corso, S. Carlo ai Catinari,

built for the Barnabites, a congregation
at

Milan

in

founded

1533, and the small S. Carlo

alle

Quattro Fontane, which the Discalced Trinitarians later replaced

by Borromini's structure.

In addition to these

new

buildings,

owed to
new

the counter-reformatory Orders and the

on the whole lack

a spirit

initiative, inventiveness,

of adventure.

It

and

seems to have been hon

ton in those years not seriously to infringe estab-

lished patterns.

Thus

cloud of anonymity,

if

much ecclesiastical
One wonders how a Bernini,

not of dullness, hangs over

work of the time.

a Cortona, or a

the
if

Borromini would have solved

problem of the large congregational church

such an opportunity had been offered them.

In any case, the great masters of the post-

Pauline era found stirring, imaginative, and

highly personal solutions for traditional ecclesi-

BIBLOSARTE

ROME: SIXTUS

astical tasks.

VIITs

The change effected during Urban

pontificate

is

no

less revolutionary in

All the

on

first

on the glory of martyr-

saintly visions

and

on

childhood of Christ. These remarks indicate

new required

decoration by

and

crafts-

a rule, the direction

remained

in the

architect. In the case of the

Aldo-

that

one can

truly

about

talk

The

rise

of the

served from the

new iconography may be ob-

last

two or three decades of the

sixteenth century onwards,

Giacomo della
Porta and, after his death, Carlo Maderno filled
this post. But they were no more than the primi

stressed that in

(begun 1600, consecrated 161

1),

inter pares in co-ordinating the

works of the

painters Barocci {Last Supper, altar) and Cheru.'Mberti (vault)

and of the sculptors Camillo

counter-

reformatory iconography.^"

brandini Chapel in S. Maria sopra Minerva

bino

ecstasies, or

decades of the old century and

of the

hands of the

Peter, the Prodigal Son),

hitherto unexplored intimate events from the

of construction

painters, sculptors, stucco workers,

men. As

41

going

immense work

in the last

the

and Holofernes), on models of repentance (St

dom^" and

this than in other respects.

TO PAUL

Rome

but

must be

it

the vast majority of the

great cycles of frescoes, in the Gesu, S.

Andrea

della Valle, S. Carlo al Corso, the Chiesa

Nuova,

S. Ignazio, S.

Carlo

ai

were painted after the

Catinari,

first

and elsewhere

quarter of the seven-

teenth century. In other words, the decoration

Mariani, Nicolo Cordier, Ippolito Buzio, Val-

of these churches belongs to a

and Stefano Maderno. Collective enterprises became the rule from Sixtus V to the end
of Paul V's pontificate, even though the artists

later

engaged on the same task often held very different views. This trend was reversed under

canonization of their founders. But this

Urban VIII. Chapels such

with the early austere 'iconoclastic' tendencies

soldo,

Raimondi and Cornaro

as those of the

families

show through-

lies,

stylistic

than the buildings themselves.

partly in any case, in the time-lag

the early activities of the

the whole story.

It

phase

The reason
between

new Orders and

is

the

not

was, for instance, in keeping

wanted the walls of the

that St Philip Neri

out the imprint of Bernini's master-mind: co-

Chiesa Nuova whitewashed,''' the same walls

workers were assistants rather than

which half

own right.
The new churches

artists in

da

Pietro

their

confronted painters

particular with a prodigious task.

They had

in

not

century later were covered with

Cortona's exuberant

Moreover, although

it is

decorations.

true that one can hardly

expect representations of the apotheoses of

saints before they are canonized, the climate

only to cover enormous wall-spaces with frescoes but had, above all, to create a new icono-

under Clement VIII and Paul

graphical tradition. Saints like St Charles Bor-

able to the 'deification' in pictures of the great

romeo, St Ignatius, St Francis Xavier, and St

men

Teresa had

to be

honoured

their lives, miracles,

V was not favour-

of the Counter-Reformation. As we have

mentioned, the popes themselves ordered the

be

most meticulous inquiries into the cases of the

solemnized. In addition, in the face of the

prospective saints and the processes dragged on

and worldly and

spiritual missions

Protestant challenge, the

Church had

to

in paintings

from the

lives

away from

which

belief of the faithful

grip their emotions. Finally, as regards

scenes from the

to

dogmas of the Catholic

be reasserted

would strengthen the

had

Old and

New

of the saints,

and

many

Testaments and

a shift

tradition towards an

was needed

emphasis on

heroic exemplars (David and Goliath, Judith

over

many

years. It

is

important

also

to notice

that, as a rule, there is a considerable difference

in the representation

earlier

phase and the

of the saints between the

later.

In pictures of the

second decade, such as those by Orazio Borgianni (S. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane,
[25],

Orazio Gentileschi

(S.

riano), or Carlo Saraceni (S.

BIBLOSARTE

Rome)

Benedetti, Fab-

Lorenzo

in

Lucina,

42

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

Rome), the

may be shown

saints

devotion and ecstasy, and

may

of mind they

beholder becomes

in this

of

art

of the .Middle Ages to the primarily secular

exalted frame

art

of modern times was accomplished during

in a state

see visions to which the

But rarely do they

a party.

appear soaring up to heaven or resting on clouds

the

in

company of

angels, presupposing, as

were, that the entire image

is

it

the beholder's

for

High Baroque, and

size and grandeur alone they establish a new

artistic

convention.

to the

When

is

truth as well

as fallacy in this statement.

is

fallacious to

this

happened, the

It

believe that an equation exists between the

degree of naturalism and realism

highly problematical notions
character of works of

visionary experience [216].

Such scenes belong

the seventeenth century. There

synonym

in

themselves

and the profane

art.

Verisimilitude

for irreverence.

Although the

of this statement

is

is

no

logic

unassailable, whether or not

the beholder will regard the art of the seven-

great reformers had been dead for at least two

teenth century as a truly religious art depends

generations, and

on

further

it is

comment

evident even without any

that nothing could be

more

averse to the spirit in which they had worked.

No doubt is possible,

then, that the Counter-

Reformation made necessary

reformatory iconography

a specific

counter-

nor that the icono-

his

own, partly subconscious, terms of refer-

ence. But

cannot be denied that the largest

it

part of artistic production during the period

under review

is

of

a religious nature.

By com-

parison the profane sector remains relatively

insignificant.

This

is

correct, even

though

after

graphical pattern of the early seventeenth cen-

Annibale Carracci's Farnese ceiling

tury changed to a certain extent during the

mythology and history become increasingly im-

post-Pauline period. But can one also talk of a

portant in the decoration of palaces. In this

Summariz-

respect Paul V's reign reveals an undeniable

specific counter-reformatory style.'

ing what has been indicated in the foregoing

we may conclude that, of course, the

Church made use of various artistic manifesta-

affinity

and

stylistic

trends which

in

turn were not

Roman High

substance.
a

It

was

in the years

ecclesiastical

In the coexistence of 'classical' reticence and

lished fact. Events in

pomp one may

be able to discern two

different facets of counter-reformatory art.

above and beyond

all this, it

But

seems possible

to

associate a distinct style with the spirit of the

reformers: a style which reveals something of

their

urgency and enthusiasm, of their direct-

ness of appeal and mystic depth of conviction.

Since this

more

is

matter concerning

explicit verdict

all

Italy, a

must be postponed

until

sion for the

and secular

art

Rome

whole of Italy

became an estabhastened this divi-

Still fife,

genre scenes,

and self-contained landscapes begin

as species in their

own

to evolve

right at this historical

moment. None of these remarkable developments takes place without the active participation

of northern, mainly Flemish,

Rome, of course, was not

where northern influence made

may

suffice to recall Florence,

Genoa. Yet many northern

has been surveyed

cally

drawn

artists.^-

the only Italian city

the development of painting in the provinces

(p. 109).

around 1600 that

long prepared, clear-cut separation between

independent of the religious temper of the age.

'vulgar'

Renaissance.

These observations may now be given more

pages,

tions

with the

classical

itself felt.

It

Bologna, and

artists

were magi-

Rome, and Rome became the

meeting place where new ideas

to

international

were avidly exchanged and given their charac-

The Evdiulion of the 'Genres'

It is

often said that a significant step in the slow

and persistent

shift

from the primarily religious

teristically Italian imprint.

The new
a man

even

species aroused such interest that

of Cardinal Federico Borromeo's

BIBLOSARTE

romk:

was

stern principles

by such

rriuch attracted

as landscapes

'trifles'

and

We

lifes.

still

arc

choosing him as an example because his case

around 1600

illustrates that

turn to
It is

Rome

well

for

known

vaggio's Basket

had

a collector

to

specimens of the new genres.

that the cardinal

owned Cara-

of Fruit (now Ambrosiana,

Milan); he admired, moreover, the art of Paul

Brill

and Jan Bruegel, both of

whom

he be-

friended and whose works figured prominently

in his collection at

in

Rome

Milan. Whenever he stayed

he visited

occasion at

Brill's studio,"'

least, in 16 11,

Giovan

and on one

Battista

Cre-

scenzi acted as intermediary between artist and

The correspondence

patron.

reveals that Cre-

scenzi, the supervisor of Paul V's official artistic

enterprises and thus a great

of

taste,

had an eye

power

in

matters

for the qualities of Brill's

XT is

the younger brother of the less

Brill,

important Mattheus, held

to hall

regarded landscape painting as

rate,

recreation from the

'high

more

43

a pleasant

serious business of

This was precisely how an

art'.

artist like

.\nnibale Carracci felt. Exclusive specialization

in the lower genres

was therefore

left to

the

foreigners.

These remarks, of course, apply

also

to

and the popular genre.

still life

In spite of their theoretical approach, the

contribution of Italians to the development of

the genres in the early years of the seventeenth

century was not negligible.

had

home

The

popular genre

Bologna and was cultivated by

in

the Carracci rather than by Caravaggio. Al-

though working with

essentially

Mannerist

formulas, the pupil of the Fleming Stradanus,

.Antonio

Tempesta (1555- 1630), who spent

life in Rome, became instru-

most of his working

mental

in creating the realistic battle-piece

key position in the

tailed realism
still

was

life

of the Flemish

replaced by a hitherto

ing in Italy.^^ His early Flemish manner changed

vision."

considerably,

first

under Muziano's and

under Annibale Carracci's influence.

monumentalized and

later

Thus

italianized, his landscapes

and seascapes became part of the broad stream

of the Italian development.

They

Agostino Tassi's seascapes^ and

"*

lead on to

finally to those

of Claude.

as a specialized

emerged

branch during the second half

and flower

unknown

But during the period with which we

all this was still in its

beginnings.'''"

Only

after the first quarter of the seventeenth

century do

we

find that Italians are devoting

themselves wholly to the practice of the specialized genres, that the

market

for these adjuncts

grows by leaps and bounds, and

each speciality

is

tinct categories. Foreigners again

The most

had

a vital

patent case

teenth and seventeenth centuries admitted the

that of landscape painting the

'genre' as legitimate, probably not uninfluenced

and Claude are forever associated with the

Roman

to the

work of

landscape painter Studius.^'' But

from Alberti's days on the noble

art

of history

painting had pride of place in the hierarchy of

values,

and

Italians, for the

time being

at

that

further subdivided into dis-

share in this process.

by the prominence Pliny gave

and

fullness of

of the sixteenth century. Italians of the six-

the

and

are at present concerned

to high art

true that landscape painting had

fruit

to a certain extent stylized

process of assimilating Flemish landscape paint-

It is

hunting-scene. In Caravaggio's circle the de-

seascapes.

Paul

si

is

names of Poussin
full

flowering of the heroic and pastoral landscape.

But

it

was

left to

the Italian Salvator Rosa to

establish the landscape type

which the eigh-

teenth centurv called 'sublime'.

any

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER

CARAVAGGIO

When

Caravaggio, in contrast to Annibale Carracci,

is

considered a great revolutionary.

usually

From

the

mid seventeenth century onwards

it

has indeed become customary to look upon

he

first

reached Rome, he had had to

earn his living in a variety of ways. But hack-

work

for other painters,

(1571-1626),"

the one a restorer of time-honoured tradition,

and genius thoroughly

There

is

some truth in these characbut we know now that they are

certainly

terizations,

much

destroyer and boldest antagonist.

its

too sweeping. Caravaggio was less ot an

per-

youth of his temperament

these two masters as being in opposite camps:

the other

among whom was

haps the slightly older Antiveduto Gramatica

left a

dissatisfied.

For

a short

time he also worked for Giuseppe Cesari

(later

the Cavaliere d'Arpino) as a studio hand,*" but

soon started on his own. At

his fortunes

began

to

first

unsuccessful,

change when Cardinal

and Annibale Carracci more

Francesco del Monte bought some of his pic-

of a revolutionary than was believed for almost

seems that through the agency of this

same prince of the Church he was given, in
1599, his first commission for a monumental

anti-traditionalist

300 years.'
Michelangelo Merisi, called Caravaggio, was

tures.' It

born on 28 September 1573 in the small town

of Caravaggio, south of Bergamo. Before the

work, the paintings in the Contarelli Chapel of

S.

Luigi de' Francesi [15]. This event appears

age of eleven he was apprenticed in Milan to

in

retrospect as the most important caesura

the mediocre painter

stayed with

him

for

Simone Peterzano and

about four years. Peterzano

in Caravaggio's career.

From

then on he pro-

duced almost exclusively religious paintings

With these data

in

hand,

called himself a pupil of Titian, a relationship

the grand manner.

not easily revealed by the evidence of his Late

the brief span of Caravaggio's activity

Mannerist work.- One has no reason to doubt

veniently be divided into four diff"erent phases

that in this studio Caravaggio received the 'cor-

first,

rect' training

of a Mannerist painter. Equipped

with the current knowledge of his profession,

later

Rome

about 1590 and certainly not

than 1592.' His life there was far from

he reached

uneventful. Perhaps the

mian,

he

authority,

was

and

in

first

consistent bohe-

permanent

his wild

revolt

against

and anarchic character

brought him into more than one conflict with

the police.^ In 1606 he had to flee from

Rome

because of a charge of manslaughter. During

the next four restless years he spent
at

some time

Naples, Malta, Syracuse, and Messina.

his

way back

to

Rome

he died of malaria

July 1610, not yet thirty-seven years old.

On
in

the Milanese period

at

may con-

even though paint-

ings of this period will probably never be dis-

covered,

it

is

of great consequence not only

because of the conventional training with Peterzano, but also because of the lasting impressions

"made on him by older North

such as Savoldo,

Moretto,

Italian

Lotto,

masters

and the

brothers Giulio and Antonio Campi; secondly,

the

first

Roman

years, about 1590-9, during

which Caravaggio painted

most part
rule,

his juvenilia, for the

fairly small pictures consisting, as a

of one or two half-figures [11]; thirdly,

the period of

Roman

monumental commissions

for

churches, beginning in 1599 and ending

with his flight from

BIBLOSARTE

Rome

in 1606;'*

and

finally.

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

46

the

work of the

while he

A
a

four years, again mainly for

last

churches and done

of creative activity,

in a fury

moved from

post-Roman work

[i

and

ing the beholder, as

table or parapet.

place to place.

Roman and

comparison between an early

examples are legion showing the

14] gives the

mea-

What, then,

there

that

is little

His uninhibited genius advanced with

and

his earliest

and

we had only

his latest pictures,

would be

it

fact,

between the paintings shown

tions II

in illustra-

and 14 there may not be more than

thirteen years.

dainty gesture.
lazy androgyne,

Not unexpectedly,

the biographical caesuras

these changes have too

be described by

many

ramifications to

Much

religious subjects

is

his realism

and

his tene-

on which his fame

rests.

often believed, genre scenes

play a very subordinate part in Caravaggio's

They seem even more marginal

than mythological and

may

themes and,

allegorical**

be noted, almost

it

pictures belong in the

all

of a learned tradition

first

and

emphasized that we

It is fair

it

cannot be

It

ancient gods could even

derision.'-

originated in the

artists

began

to play

themes that the

become

objects of

But the Bacchic paraphernalia of

Caravaggio's picture should not be regarded

to

find the

assume

as

something about the admiral's mastery of the

sea.

Caravaggio's disguise, by contrast, makes

sense only as an appropriate support to an

emotional self-revelation.

tion of a subjective

shift

from the

mood adumbrates

new

The

sitter's dissipated

is

also clearly
is

young Cara-

with hardly any shadows are set off against the

own

that in the Uffizi

in

of course, a pedigree leading back to

mytho-

Roman

the attitude of the sitter here

On

mood

expressed by the key in which the picture

shining white of the mass of drapery.

colouristic brilliance

is

combined with an

new

the contrary.

The

extra-

ordinary precision and clarity of design and a

scrupulous rendering of

of portraiture.

The

statement of an objective message to the indica-

painted: bright and transparent local colours

Mythological or allegorical portraiture has,

is

Mannerism when

suffi-

Bacchus [11] he represented himself

Nor

era of

stressing.'*

years. In

logical disguise.'"

in the history

vaggio's invention either.

Roman

vaggio working within this tradition, of his

times.

looked upon this interpretation as

mythological heresy," which was not Cara-

departure the importance of which hardly needs

allegories clearly indicate an artist's acceptance

accord.

elaborate

precious pose. Contemporaries

the non-religious

contrast to genre painting, mythologies and

ciently

its

table, will

its

Doria as Neptune, he conveyed metaphorically

pillars

Contrary to what

production.

may have

on the

and

and meaning of
two

and

still life

and by focusing on the char-

into his approach to mythological, genre,

broso, the

coifture

superb

or ever disarrange

mere supercilious masquerade: he chose the

emblems of Bacchus to express his own sybaritic
mood. When Bronzino represented Andrea

purely formal analysis.

more may be learned about them by inquiring

acter

move

so lightly with mythological

coincide with the vital changes in his style, but

soft

never

years. In

drowsy, his mouth

This well-groomed, pampered,

static like the

Caravaggio's case the entire development

is

holds the fragile glass with

same hand. To a certain extent, of course, this

is true of the work of every great master; but
was telescoped into about eighteen

remarkable

white, overfed, and languid, he

fleshy;

almost absurd to maintain that they are by the

in

is

reminiscent of the god of

is

antiquity. His gaze

strides into uncharted territory. If

address-

sitter

were, from behind a

about this picture.^ Wine and wreath apart,

sure of Caravaggio's surprising development.

terrific

it

detail, particularly in

the vine leaves of the wreath and the

of fruit on the table. '^

No

rounds the figure; colour and

still life

atmosphere surlight

do not create

space and depth as they do in Venetian painting.

BIBLOSARTE

CARAVAGGIO

II.

Caravaggio: Bacchus,

Depth,

in so far as

it

c.

47

1595. Florence, Uffizi

can be visualized,

is

described, but in none of them are the tones so

sug-

and the pink

gested by foreshortenings such as those of the

glassy, the whites so penetrating,

arm and hand holding

of the flesh so obscene. Colours and tone values

early pictures

the wine-glass. Other

by Caravaggio may be similarly

clearly sustain the precious

BIBLOSARTE

mood of the picture.

48

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

At

this period Caravaggio's

method

individual forms with local colour

moved from
as

the practice of Venetian colourism

generalizations of the Mannerists.

hand,

folds

On

the other

reads a romantic narrative the special attraction

of which consists in
It

its air

of unreality.

has been mentioned before that from 1599

onwards by

of Caravaggio's

far the greater part

was devoted

activity

and

to religious painting,

marked Mannerist residue is perceptible

henceforth very considerable changes in his

Bacchus, not only in such details as the

approach to his art are noticeable. These changes

in the

as far re-

indeed from the elegant and insipid

is

it

ot stressing
is

and the

arm, but, above

flaccid bare

all,

pervading quality of stylization, which

in the

may

here be observed in a cabinet picture, the

National Gallery Supper at

Only the

proves that the old catchword of Caravaggio's

[12].''

realism should be used with caution, particu-

the picture to his early

larly in front

after the

of the early

Roman

works. Soon

Bacchus, Caravaggio again represented

himself in a mythological disguise, but this time

rich

Emmaus

still life

1600)

(c.

on the table

Roman

links

period. But, as

youthful escapades were forgotten and

if his

eradicated, suddenly

and unexpectedly Cara-

vaggio reveals himself as a great painter of

The change

appropriately expressing his own frenzy through

religious imagery.

the horrifying face of Medusa (Florence, Uffizi).

only by a revision of his palette, which

The

dark, but also by a regression to Renaissance

simple fact that he painted the picture on

round wooden shield proves

his

traditional literary associations,

awareness of

and those who

is

marked not

now turns

exemplars. Compositionally the work derives

from such representations of the subject

Emmaus

as

quote this work as an extreme example of his

Titian's Supper at

realism unpermissibly divorce the content from

painted about 1545. In contrast, however, to the

the form.

Nor

the formal treatment really

is

anyone who

close to nature, as

tries to imitate

the pose will easily discover. This image of

terror has the
just

because

power

to 'petrify' the beholder

and reverts

unrealistic

it is

to the

in

the Louvre,

solemn stillness in Titian's work, the scene is

here enacted by means of violent gestures intense physical reactions to a spiritual event.

Christ

is

deeply absorbed and communicates

the mystery through the slight bending of His

old expressive formula of classical masks of

head and His downcast eyes, both accompanied

tragedy.'^

by the powerful language of the blessing hands.

Similarly, Caravaggio's few genre pieces can

artists

of the period, he was indebted to Nor-

their juxtaposition to the lifeless legs of the

realistic.

who had

long practised this branch of

and had begun

to invade the Italian

in the later sixteenth century.

painting, true to the

But

if

day occupations,

it

market

their genre

meaning of the word,

shows anonymous people following

must be

their every-

said that neither

Caravaggio's Card-Sharpers nor his Fortune-

TelUr

reflect fresh

temporary

life.

observations of popular con-

Such

slick

and overdressed

people were not to be found walking about and

;

the spaceless settings convey a feeling of the

tableau
actual

sacramental gesture of these hands takes

on an added emotional significance through

therners
art

The

Like other Italian

hardly be called

vivant rather than of 'snapshots' of

life.'*'

One

looks at these pictures as one

chicken on the table.

the inn-keeper

of the disciples

is

The incomprehension

of

contrasted with the reaction

who

recognize Christ and ex-

press their participation in the sacred action by

movements.

In

keeping with the tradition stemming from

W-

rugged,

berti

almost

compulsive

and Leonardo, Caravaggio,

at this stage

of his development, regarded striking gestures

as necessary to express the actions of the

With Caravaggio the

other distinct meaning;
device, not

unknown

draw the beholder

mind.

great gesture had anit

was

a psychological

in the history

of

art,'**

to

into the orbit of the picture

BIBLOSARTE

CARAVAGGIO

12.

Caravaggio: Supper

at

Emmaus,

"

49

1600.

London, National Gallery

and

to

increase the emotional

impact of the event represented

and dramatic
:

for Christ's

extremely foreshortened arm as well as the outflung

arm of

the older disciple seem to break

through the picture plane and

the space in which
is

we

stand.

to reach into

The same purpose

served by the precarious position of the fruit-

basket which
feet.

may

any moment land

at

at

our

In his middle period Caravaggio often

used similar methods

in

order to increase the

participation of the worshipper in the mystery

rendered in the picture. Special reference

be made to the

first

version of the St

and the Angel painted

where the

saint's leg

may

Matthew

for the Contarelli Chapel,

appears to jut right out

of the picture, or to the second version with one

foreshortened body of the saint in the Conversion

of St Paul

Maria

in S.

del

Popolo [13] and

the jutting corner of the Stone of Unction in

the Vatican Deposition, which

is

echoed by

Joseph of .\rimathea's elbow.'"

Towards the end of his Roman period Caravaggio painted a second Supper at

Emmaus

(Milan, Brera). Here he dispensed with the

still life

acessories

on the table and, even more

The picmuch less dramatic key and

significantly, with the great gestures.

ture

is

rendered

in a

the silence which pervades

it

foreshadows

trend in his post-Roman work.

In the works of the middle period Caravaggio

takes great pains to emphasize the

volume and

corporeal solidity of the figures, and sometimes,

leg of the stool dangling over the ledge into

packs them so tightly within the limits imposed

the beholder's space; and also to the extremely

bv the canvas that thev seem almost to burst the

BIBLOSARTE

50

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

(rame

(13]. In other paintings

however, a tendeno^

is

of this period,

stressed that

was already

noticeable in a few of the early pictures, namely

the creation of a laree spaceless area above the

an emptiness which Caravaggio ex-

fisrures.

ploited with

tremendous psychological

eftect.

Not only is the physical presence of the figures

more \igorously felt by contrast with the unrelieved continuum, but the latter

assume svinboUc

may

e\en

significance as in the dillttis

of St Mjtihco'. where darkness

lies

menacingly

over the table around which St Matthew and

his

companions

Roman

sit.

In the majority of the p>osi-

pictures the relation of figures to space

changes in one direction, the most

pictures,

by contrast, figures tend

at first

pressed

between

silence

and sorrow.

the

palms

or

When ample

bowed

in

gestures are

used, as in the Raising of Lazarus, they are not

borrowed from the stock of traditional

rhetoric,

as were the upraised hands of the .Mary in the

Deposition or the extended

arms of St Paul

in

The spread-out arms of

moment of awakening have no

the Conversion [13].

Lazarus

at the

parallel in Italian painting.

In his early pictures, Caravaggio often created

telling

the deeply disturbing and oppressive quahty of

sitory

rendered more acute by the devalu-

head held

During the middle period he preferred

is

.\s

are

abandoned and emotions are expressed by

simple folding of the hands, by

examples being the S\Tacuse Bunal of St Lui)

and the Messina Raising ofLazarus[i4].^ Here

the void

glance

merge into an almost amorphous mass.

one would expect, traditional gestures

to

an atmosphere of peculiar

moment,

an event, as

still life

i>ermanency.
a tran-

stressing the dramatic climax of

in the first

Supper at Emmaus. the

ation of the individual figures. Following Italian

Judith killing Nolo femes (Rome. Casa Coppi).

during the middle period each single

and the Coniersion ofSt Paul. In the late period,

tradition,

figure

was sharply indi\idualized ;

in the late

the

drama

is

often transposed into a sphere of

13 (Iffl^. Caravaggio: Conversion of St Paul,

1

600- 1. Rome. S.

14

opposite J

Maru

del Popolo. Cerasi Chapel

Caravaggio: Raising of Lazarus,

1608-9. -^iesstna, .Museo

BIBLOSARTE

Sazwnale

BIBLOSARTE

52

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

ghost-likc unreality. Although in a picture like

the Naples Flagellation oj Christ
is

shown and

the

hangmen do

no

real action

not strike, as was

the rule in the iconographical tradition, the

scene

is

more cruel and

infinitely

more gripping

and Christ's suffering even more poignant than

in

any previous rendering ot the subject

Many

in Italy.

of Caravaggio's pictures of the middle

arrangement. In this respect, perhaps none of

monumental works

his

this

work he used

to a considerable extent the

ments which were becoming rare at this moment

in

Rome.-- The type of composition with the

language of expressive gesture and

pivot

iconography,-' but even in their compositional

to-

gether with compositional devices and refine-

figures revolving, as

their

more indebted to the

Matthew [15]. In

Mannerist repertory of repoussoir figures

period are tied to tradition not only in their

in

is

past than the MartyrJniu of St

St

is

it

were, round a central

dependent on works

Mark rescumti a

like Tintoretto's

Slave, while the group of the

15. Caravaggio: Martyrdom of St Matthew, 1599.

Rome, S. Luigi de Frances!, Cnntarelli Chapel

BIBLOSARTE

CARAVAGGIO

executioner, saint, and frightened acolyte

hoTTOVtxdirom'l hrin\l)i(ilh
(destroyed).

It

i>J

is

St Peter Martyr

not unlikely that the present

is

composition, painted over an entirely diHereni

was

earlier one,

concession forced upon Cara-

emotional impact he wished to convey.

tendency

Miisnal Parly, and

in

of St Paul,
saint's

explanation

is

the unique

also suggested by

This

the early

in

much more

1600.

53

in

evidence

one of the most

In

striking pictures of this period, the Conversion

during the work

Ihis

noticeable

is

the works after

vaggio by the difficulties which he encountered

in the C-ontarelli Cihapel.

already

is

it

is

impossible to say where the

lower right leg would be or how the

attendant's legs can possibly be joined to his

of an angel appearing

body. Later, in the post-Rt)man works, he was

from heaven upon clouds. Clouds were the

on occasions quite reckless, and nowhere more

occurrence

in his (n'lnrc

emblem

traditional

to be

used for the repre-

sentation of visions and miracles: Caravaggio

Horks ofMercy, one of his

so than in the Seven

most moving and powerful pictures. The mean-

never admitted them, with this one exception.

ing of this procedure

becomes patently

show angels, he robbed

the Burial oj St Luey.

By enormously exaggerat-

Whenever he had
them of those

soft

to

props which by no stretch of

clear in

ing the size of the grave-diggers, sinister and

the imagination can support a figure of flesh

obnoxious creatures placed painfully close

and blood

the beholder, and by representing

in the air.

Most of the later Roman works are much

more severely constructed than the Martyrdnm
of St

Mat I hew,

witness the Deposition of Christ

or the Death of the

Vtrjiin.

But the post-Roman

paintings are by comparison even

and

their

more

compositions are reduced

ingly artless simplicity. Reference

austere,

seem-

to a

may

be

made

all

proportion to the scale

few steps further back, the brutality and

by a 'correct' distribution of figures

All these

that C^aravaggio progressively

pictures,

group of figures

from memory. This

Lazarus, or the hieratic

in the Decapitatioti of

is

post-Roman

his

to a large extent painted

also supported by the fact

no drawings by Caravaggio survive. He

a

good deal

in

one

Peterzano's studio, but he seems to have re-

be inclined, as generations have been, to

versed .Mannerist procedure once he was on his

Looking

at his early

regard Caravaggio as an

work

artist

in particular,

who

renders what

he sees with meticulous care, capturing

all

the

idiosyncrasies of his models. Caravaggio himself

above all, were

must, of course, have drawn

St John.

may

that

life

abandoned work-

models and that

Adoration of the Shepherds, the closely packed

in the

in space.

observations lead one to conclude

ing from

symmetry of the coactors

more convin-

senselessness of the crime are

cingly exposed than could ever have been done

Messina

to the solid triangle of figures in the

to

them out of
of the mourners only

seems

to have spread this legend, but

have already seen how

little it

corresponds

we
to

own. Compared with the Renaissance masters,

late

.Mannerists neglected studies from nature;

they used stock poses for their preparatory

designs and cartoons.

It

Caravaggio, by contrast,

may be surmised that

made many incidental

the facts. .Moreover, apart from his recognizably

sketches from nature, which one would not

he developed what can only be

expect to survive, but dispensed with any form

repertory ot idiomatic formulas

of cumbersome preparation for his paintings. In

autograph
called his

style,

own

for attitudes

which

and poses, the recurrent use of

was surely

independent of any

life

fact

it is

straight

well

on

known

that he

to the canvas,

abound

worked

and

this

is

alia

prima,

the reason

which

model.-' In addition, he sacrificed by degrees

whv

the interest in a logical disposition and rational

can often be discovered with the naked eye. This

co-ordination of the figures in favour ot the

procedure, admirably suited to his mercurial

his pictures

BIBLOSARTE

in pentimenti,

THE PKRIOD

54

TRANSITION AND THE EARI.V UAROQLE

Ol

temperament, makes

and im-

for directness

falls

on them, models them, and gives them

mediacy of contact between the beholder and

robust three-dimensional quality.

the picture, whereas distance and reserve are

may

obvious concomitants of the

the

method'^ of arriving

'classical'

work by

at the finished

seems

come from

to

with

ever,

shows

paratory drawings

w ere never entirely excluded,

approach

this 'impressionist'

to the canvas

two consequences which seem natural

a painterly softening

it

had

led to

of form and to an emphasis

on the individual brush-stroke. In Caravaggio's

work, however, the forms always remain

stroke

is

is

is

powerfully

thin,

solid,

and consequently the brush-

hardly perceptible. In his middle period

begins to be more noticeable, particularly

the highlights, while in his

in

post-Roman pictures

that his light

is

it

in fact less realistic

in

Rembrandt's pictures

and darkness

light

become

light to

tangible; light can penetrate

darkness and make twilight space a vivid experience.

The

light creates

Impressionists discovered that

atmosphere, but theirs

With Caravaggio

light isolates;

it

something negative; darkness

not,

may

be painted with

and few transitions between

light

little

and

- resulting in near-abstractions. Certain

passages in the Seven Works of Mercy illustrate

this trend very fully. Side

by side with

development can be found what

is,

son, an extremely loose technique: the face of

rendered by

Lazarus, for example,

is

brush-strokes

Instead

upon

few bold

and

it is

is

where

light

for this reason that light strikes

his figures

and objects as upon

solid,

im-

penetrable forms and does not dissolve them,

as

happens

in the

work of Titian, Tintoretto, or

Rembrandt.

The setting of Caravaggio's pictures is usually

this

by compari-

creates neither

space nor atmosphere. Darkness in his pictures

is

bodies and heads

is a light

without darkness and therefore without magic.

is

the one hand, forms harden and stiffen, and

are

of the same substance; darkness only needs

two new conflicting tendencies are apparent.

dark

it

and

than Titian's or Tintoretto's. In Titian's as later

On

detail

realistic;

a definable source,

camera ohscura. Further analysis, how-

stemmed from

Caravaggio's ad hoc technique

it

be inclined to agree with the traditional

view that his lighting

Venetian tradition, but in Venice, where pre-

his paint

one

first

has even been suggested that he experimented

slow stages.

.\x

outside the realm of daily

a

life.

narrow foreground close

His figures occupy

to

the beholder.

Their attitudes and movements, their sudden

careful

foreshortenings into an undefined void, heighten

prevalent during the

the beholder's suspense by giving a tense sen-

middle period, or the daring simplification and

sation of impenetrable space. But despite, or

petrifaction

only.

form

definition of

still

of the

of form in certain post-Roman

because

of, its irrationality, his light

has power

faced in the Raising of Lazarus

to reveal

and

to conceal. It creates significant

with shorthand patterns symbolizing heads,

patterns.

The

study of a picture

arms, and hands.

St John the Baptist of about

works, one

is

Little has so far

conspicuous and

been said about the most

at the

same time the most

revolutionary element of Caravaggio's

With

art, his

monumental commis-

rives

like the

1600,-''

from the nudes of the Sistine

clarify this point.

The

Doria

which de-

ceiling, will

pattern created by light

and darkness almost gainsays the natural articulation of the body.

Light passages radiate from

sions he changed from the light and clear early

darker centre

the spokes of a wheel.

Roman

by superimposing

tenebroso.

his first

style to a

new manner-' which seemed

like

a stylized

Thus

play of light and

particularly suitable to religious imagery, the

shade over the natural forms, an extraneous

main concern during the

concept is introduced which contradicts .Michel-

are

now

rest

of his

life.

Figures

cast in semi-darkness, but strong light

angelo's organic interpretation of the

BIBLOSARTE

human

CARAVAGGIO

body. Caravaggio used wheel-patterns of light

in

some of

the multi-figured compositions of

Roman

his later

dom of Si

years, for instance the

Miittlu'w, the Crucifixion

and the Death of

the Virgin.

Martyrdom

illustration of the

glance at the

[15] suffices to

see that the abstract pattern of light

precedence
is

in the

Martyr-

of St Peter,

is

given

organization of the canvas.

It

the radiating light that firmly 'anchors' the

composition

same time,

plane and, at the

in the picture

singles out the principal parts of

dramatic import.

pictures of the middle

In

Language was

narrative method.

of the visual

advance

far in

Seventeenth-century painters

arts.

caught up with

55

it.

painter like Cigoli was well

able to render St Francis's psycho-physical

reactions [42]. But although he

made

true in his

painting the sensation described by Bonaventura,

he was

tive

method

tied to the traditional descrip-

still

vision

the

for

shown

itself is

bathed

in

heavenly light breaking through the

clouds.

It

must be remembered

of vision
is

is a

state of

admitted;

is

it

man's

mind

that the ecstasy

which no outsider

to

perception and revelation

This was the way Cara-

period the areas of light are relatively large and

inside one

coherent and coincide with the centre of interest.

vaggio interpreted visions from the very begin-

In the late pictures darkness engulfs the figures

ning. InhisEcstasyofStFrancisot'uhout 1595-'

and

flashes

flickers

of light play over the surface,

heightening the mysterious quality of the event

depicted. This

is

nowhere more

striking than in

soul.

he showed the saint

state

in

of trance one eye

is

a carefully

closed

observed

the other, half

open, stares into nothingness and the body,

the Raising of Lazarus, where heads, pieces of

uncomfortably bent backward, seems tense and

drapery, and extremities break through the

stiff.

Mystery

light

breaking through the dark evening sky.

- a real-unreal

surrounding darkness

which broods an

scene over

The

ineffable sense of mystery.

From the very beginning of Christian imagery

light has

been charged with symbolism. God's

invisible

suggested by the glimmer of

is

is

not

made

visible,

but we are

allowed to wonder and to share a wide scope

;

left for

the imagination.

It is

is

the light alone that

down

presence in the Old Testament or Christ's in the

reveals the mystery, not light streaming

New

from the sky or radiating from the figure of

is

associated with light, and so

is

Divine

Revelation throughout the Middle Ages, whe-

Bonaventura.

ally

is

tion,

it

never loses

its

illumination. Light, without heavenly assist-

in

supernatural connota-

and the Baroque age did not break with

ance, has the

power

to strike Saul

transform him into Paul,

the words of the Bible

shone round about him

imagery were always faced with the seemingly

and he

insoluble problem of translating visions into

unto him

Describing

St

Francis's

stigmatization, St Bonaventura says

'when the

vision

language.

had disappeared,

it

left a

in his [St Francis's] heart'.

wonderful glow

Giotto was quite

incapable of translating the essence of these

words into
after

to express the

of mystical union with

God

to the earth

Saul, Saul,

me.'' Paul, eyes closed,

which
the

is

from Heaven
a voice say

why persecutest thou

mouth open, lies com-

mirrored in the moving expression of

By excluding
sanctified light

human

experience

connotation.

a descriptive.

a light

and heard

enormous horse.

and many

by

down and

accordance with

pletely absorbed in the event, the importance of

He

pictorial language.

him had

fell

in

'Then suddenly there

this tradition. Nevertheless, painters of religious

pictorial

the last

rendered vision solely on the level of inner

and even atmospherically, particularly

Venice,

The mature Caravaggio drew

rendered naturalistic-

Although

century onwards light

Christ.

consequences. In his Conversion of St Paul he

Abbot Suger, or St
from the fifteenth

ther one turns to Dante,

heavenly source, Caravaggio

and gave

One may

symbolic use of light

BIBLOSARTE

it

new symbohc

return to the study of his

in

the

Calling of St

56

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

Matthew, where Christ stands

semi-darkness

in

and the wall above him shines bright, while a

beam ol light falls on those who, still under the
large

shadow of darkness, are about

verted. It

is

precisely the antithesis

to

be con-

between the

extreme palpability of his figures, their closeness

to the beholder, their
-

vulgarity

in a

uncomeliness and even

word, between the

'realistic'

Borromeo

St Charles

Neri

in

a purely

express this aspect of reformed religion. His

humanized

It

work of Caravaggio's

in the

has been shown in the

followers.

among
And

Caravaggio had devoted patrons

minded Roman

liberally

is

chapter that

first

aristocracy.

the
yet,

The

refused with almost clockwork regularity.-"*

approach

to

imagery

religious

new territory; for his work

milestone on the way to the representation

a vast

of those internalized 'private' visions which his

own

period was

still

unable and unwilling to

render.

The aversion of the people to his truly popular

were criticized or

his large religious pictures

them he regarded

God as a tangible experience on

human level. It needed his genius to

illumination by

opened up

found

Ignatius's Spiritual

pleaded through his pictures for man's direct

gnosis of the Divine. Like

creates the strange tension which will not be

and the unapproachable magic

Milan and St Philip

Like these reformers, Cara\aggio

Exercises.-'

light that

figures

in

Rome as well as in St

art is not the

only paradox in Caravaggio's

life.

case of the Death ofthe Virgin throws an interest-

In fact the very character of his art

ing Hght on the controversy which his works

and the resulting feeling of awe and uneasiness

aroused and the fervour of the partisanship.

may have

was rejected by the monks of

Scala, the

Maria

della

church of the Discalced Carmelites;

but Rubens,

at that

time in Rome, enthusiastic-

advised his patron the

ally

S.

Duke

of

Mantua

acquire the painting for his collection. Before

left

It

Rome, however,

to
it

the artist enforced a public

exhibition and great crowds flocked to see the

work. Caravaggio's opponents,

it

seems, were

paradoxical,

is

contributed to the neglect and mis-

understanding which darkened his fame. There

is

work

in his

a contrast

between the tangibility

of figures and objects and the irrational devices

of light and space; between meticulous study

from the model and disregard

for representa-

tional logic

and coherence; there

between

ad hoc technique and

on

solid

his

form between
;

sensitivity

is

a contrast

his insistence

and

brutality.

mainly recruited from the lower clergy and the

His sudden changes from

mass of the people. They were disturbed by

ness of feeling to unspeakable horror seem to

theological improprieties and offended by

what

appeared an irreverent treatment of the holy

stories

and

lack

of decorum.

They were

shocked to find their attention pinpointed by

such

He

capable

is

of dramatic clamour as well as of utter silence.

He

violently rejects tradition but

hundred ways.

St Matthew and the Madonna di

orthodoxy and

and prominent

and tender-

unbalanced personality, oscillating

between narcissism and sadism.

details as the dirty

realistic

feet in the

reflect his

a delicacy

He
is

is

tied to

it

in a

abhors the trimmings of

adamant

in disclaiming the

Loreto or the swollen body of Mary in the Death

notion that supernatural powers overtly direct

of the Virgin. Only the cognoscenti were able

see these pictures as works of art.

face with the experience of the supernatural.

It

is

to

but brings the beholder face to

But when

all is

was

from the

common

can

and

heartily distrusted

for the people,

by the people;

for

it

scarcely be denied that his art was close in spirit

religion

affairs,

paradox that Caravaggio's religious

imagery, an art of the people

to that

human

popular trend

in

Counter-Reformation

which was so marked

in the activity

of

said

and done,

chosen

light reveal his passionate belief that

the simple in spirit, the

who

his types

people, his magic realism

humble and

it

was

the poor

held the mysteries of faith fast within their

souls.

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER

THE CARRACCI

At the beginning of the

that

it is still

last

customary

chapter

to see

it

was noted

Caravaggio and

Annibale Carracci as the great antagonists

in

Rome

eenth centuries

still

regarded as the finest flower

of art and the supreme test of a painter's

com-

This approach, which was deeply

petence.

at the dawn of the seventeenth century.

The differences between them are usually
summed up in pairs of contrasting notions such

cal

as naturalism-eclecticism, realism-classicism,

the other hand, to raise Annibale Carracci to his

This erroneous

revolt-traditional.

historical

rooted in their theoretical premises and histori-

background, was detrimental

to the fortunes

of the easel-painter Caravaggio.

It

exalted position, for, next to Raphael's Stanze

conception has grown over the centuries, but

and Michelangelo's Sistine Ceiling,

before the obvious divergencies to be found in

in the

their art

hardened into such antithetical patterns,

helped, on

his frescoes

Farnese Gallery were regarded until the

end of the eighteenth century

as the

most im-

contemporaries believed that the two masters

portant landmark in the history of painting.

had much

And now

collector
tiniani,

in

common. Thus

the

open-minded

and patron Marchese Vincenzo Gius-

who

has often been mentioned in these

we

that

are beginning to see rule

rather than freedom in Caravaggio's work,

are

able once again

also

more

to

we

appreciate and

positively than writers of the last

pages, explained in a famous letter' that, in his

assess

view, Caravaggio, the Carracci, and a few others

150 years- the quality of Annibale's art and his

were

at

because

the top of a sliding scale of values,

it

was they who knew how

in their art maniera

as he says, that

'has

in

his

combine

and the study from the

model maniera being,

artist

to

imagination,

which the

without

the maniera in Caravaggio and also implied by

wording

realism

was

(i.e.

that the mixture of maniera

work done

directly

different in Caravaggio

and

from the model)

and the Carracci.

Even though our terminology has changed, we

are inclined

nowadays

to agree with the opinions

Nevertheless
racci

it

was, of course, Annibale Car-

and not Caravaggio who revived the time-

honoured values

in Italian art

and revitalized

again

we can savour

which were inaccessible

'classicism'

dividualist

and

One must
and see him

'realist'

to the in-

Caravaggio.

study Annibale's

artistic origins

in relation to the other painters in

his family in order to

understand the special

circumstances which led up

to the

climax of his

career in the frescoes of the Farnese Gallery.

Among

the various attempts at reform during

the last decades of the sixteenth century Bologna

soon assumed a leading position, and

due entirely

of the shrewd Marchese.

Once

those virtues in Annibale's bold and forthright

any

model'. Vincenzo Giustiniani clearly recognized

his

historical mission.

Agostino

racci.

this

to the exertions of the three

(i

557-1602)

was
Car-

Annibale

and

(1560- 1 609) were brothers; their cousin Lodovico

( 1

555- 16 19) was their senior by

few years.

was Lodovico without any shadow of doubt

the great tradition manifest in the development

It

of painting from Giotto to Masaccio and on to

who

Raphael. Caravaggio never worked in fresco.

the complexity, sophistication, and artificiality

was monumental fresco-painting that

of Late Mannerism. In the beginning the three

But

it

educated Italians of the seventeenth and eight-

first

artists

pointed the way to a supersession of

had

common

BIBLOSARTE

studio, and during the

58

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

not

nerism, give his work a distinctly down-to-

earth quality; by comparison. Central Italian

After 1582 they opened a private 'academy',

High Renaissance paintings appear cold and

period of their collaboration

early

is

it

always easy to distinguish between their works.

which had, however,

This active school,
was

on

laid

in

which

special

emphasis

drawing, soon became the

life

rallying point of

a quite informal character.

all

progressive tendencies at

Bologna. At the same period,

'

in the early

become

the personalities of the three Carracci

more

defined, and from

clearly

onwards a well-documented

5805,

about

1585

series of large altar-

pieces permits us to follow the separate develop-

ments of Annibale and Lodovico.

man

of considerable intellectual accomplish-

devoted teacher with

also, so

a real

communicating the elements of

it

knack of

his craft.'

As

from Correggio and the Venetians. These

masters rather than Raphael were from the beginning of his career his consciously elected

Man-

guides in the revolt against contemporary

nerism.

The

erine

in fact, the first picture in

is,

John and St Cath-

Virgin with St

which Anni-

bale's turn to a Central Italian type of composi-

tion

x\gostino, a

ments, was primarily an engraver and

seems,

remote. Annibale's rich and mellow palette derives

is

evident.

Individual motives prove that even at this

important
to

moment Annibale was more indebted

North than

to Central Italian

models: the

borrowed from Veronese, the medallion on the throne from Corregfigure of St Catherine

is

throne in the Virgin with St Francis (Dres-

painter he attached himself to Annibale rather

gio's

than Lodovico.

therefore, justifiable to

den), and the Child resting one foot on His

concentrate on the two latter artists and begin

Mother's foot from Raphael's Madonna del

It

is,

with a study of some of their fully developed

Cardellino (Louvre).

Bolognese works as

almost undisguised, for everyone to

springboard to

a correct

assessment of the pre-Roman position.

juncture

Annibale's Virgin with St John and St Cath-

im-

erine of 1593 (Bologna, Pinacoteca) [16]''

calls to mind works of the Central

High Renaissance of 1510-15. Three

is

it

may

These models were used

see.

be asked whether such

a sterile imitation,

an

'eclectic'

At

this

a picture

mosaic selected

from acknowledged masterpieces. The reader

mediately

hardly needs to be reminded that until fairly

Italian

recently the term 'eclectic' was liberally

powerfully built figures are joined by the compositional device of the triangle, well

from

High Renaissance

paintings,

known

and are

placed in front of a simple and massive classical

architecture.

Moreover the contrapposto

is

ex-

Renaissance
racci

in

and that of the Car-

art in general

particular;

nor has this designation

disappeared from highly competent specialized

studies.' If the

term 'eclecticism' implies the

tended from governing the unit of each figure to

following of not only one but

determining the greater unit of the whole, for

and even many masters, Annibale,

the two saints,

artists

left

and right of the central

form balanced contrasts. This

tional

method

first

the composi-

is

practised by

axis,

Leonardo and

followed by Raphael, Fra Bartolommeo, and

other

High Renaissance

masters. Also the firm

more than one

like so

traditional

Renaissance

method;

proper road to a distinguished

style.

This pro-

cedure came into disrepute only with the adulation of the naivete of genius in the
era." If 'eclecticism' is used,

But

method

advocated, for instance, by Leonardo as the

expressions of Annibale's figures are reminiscent

art.

many

before and after him, availed himself of a

stance and the clear, unequivocal gestures and

of early sixteenth-century Florentine

em-

ployed to support the condemnation of post-

to

Romantic

however, as

term

expose a lack of co-ordination and trans-

Annibale's deep, warm, and glowing colours,

formation of models

replacing the pale, often changeant hues of Man-

justifiably

be used

BIBLOSARTE

and

then

it

in this

sense

does not

fit

it

may

the case

i6.

Annibale Carracci:

The

Virgin with St John and St Catherine, 1593.

BIBLOSARTE

Bol(it;na,

Pinacoteca

6o

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

under review;

every great

for, like

bale did create something entirely

artist,

Anni-

new from

his

Bolognese works continued

to

be pre-eminently

Venetian right to his departure from Bologna;

moved away from Correggio towards

models: he wedded Correggiesque sfumato and

he

warm Venetian

and clear definition of attitudes and expressions

tone values to the severe

compo-

solidity

sitional

and figure conceptions of the Central

and towards an impressive structural firmness

Italian

High Renaissance, while

of the whole canvas.

same

at the

time he gave his figures a sculptural quality and

which

palpability

the

will

be sought in vain during

High Renaissance, but which conform

to

His cousin Lodovico turned

direction.

Francis of 1591

Museo

(Cento,

makes

texture.

ception of such a picture has

of the steps by which Annibale arrived

important phase of his development

at this

The

be retraced.

years

(Bologna,

common

little in

with Titian, as a comparison with the

Pesaro

latter's

Madonna may show. The principal group

recurs in both pictures: the Virgin on a high

Mannerist beginnings.

throne with St Joseph beneath and St Francis

later,

Baptism of Christ

the

in

Gregorio),

S.

this

Crucifixum of 1583 (Bologna,

S. Niccolo) illustrates his

Two

may

Civico) [17]

abundantly evident. The basic con-

the seventeenth-century feeling for mass and

Some

in a different

study of his Holy Family with St

the

Correggiesque

who recommends
donors

with a pleading gesture the

right-hand

the

in

quality cannot be overlooked, although formallv

different

and colouristically Annibale

and weight of Lodovico's

is

here

still

strug-

gling against the older conventions. After that

different in essence

how
bulk

figures

make

his

work

from any Renaissance paint-

Moreover, St Joseph and St Francis have

date he surrenders increasingly to Correggio's

ing.

colour and emotional figure conceptions. This

exchanged places, with the

development may be followed from the Parma

trast to Titian's

and Bridgewater House Lamentations over

Yet

The mere

corner.

the interpretation!

is

result that, in con-

work, the relation between the

the

donors, St Francis, and the Virgin runs zigzag

Body of Christ (the latter destroyed) to the

Dresden Assumption of the Virgin of 1587. From

across the picture. Lodovico's figures are deeply

then on, Titian and Veronese begin to replace

and glances

with

Correggio,

important

consequences:

Titian's dramatic colour contrasts replace the

lighter

Parmese

tonality,

and Venetian com-

posure and gravity Correggio's impetuous sen-

To

engaged and

their
is

mute language of gestures

profoundly

from Titian's reserve

felt -

very different

as well as

from the cold

correctness of the Mannerists.

this
a

It

is

precisely

emphasis on gesture and glance that

strikes

new note St Francis's eyes meet those of the

:

assess this change, one need only

Virgin and emotions quiver; the mystery of

compare the Assumption of 1592 (Bologna,

Pinacoteca) with the earlier versions of the same

also implied in the spontaneitv' of the Child's

sibility.

subject.

But already the Dresden Virgin with St

John, St Francis, and St Matthew of 1588 was

essentially Venetian, as the asymmetrical,

nese-like

None

composition

immediately

the less Correggio's grace and

vade the picture, and

in spite

it

must be

Vero-

reveals.

charm per-

said at once that

of his reduced influence, the Correg-

giesque component remained noticeable even

in

Annibale's

development

Roman
is

years.

The

trend of his

clear: the character of his late

Divine Grace has been humanized, and

reaction. All the registers are pulled to

beholder into the picture.

He

real

\ irgin and Child,

in a

down

and painted space and,

time, the strong sotto

remain

imagine him-

behind the saint; the close

viewpoint helps to break

between

draw the

faces the Virgin,

as does St Francis - indeed, he can

self kneeling directly

this is

in

the

barrier

at the

same

su ensures that the

spite of their nearness,

world removed from that of the

beholder. Titian, by contrast, has done every-

BIBLOSARTE

17

Lodovico Carracci: The Holy Family with St Francis, 1591. Cento, Museo Civico

BIBLOSARTE

62

PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

THF.

thing to guarantee the inviolability of the picture

and,

figures

show the

Lodovico's,

with

coinpared

plane

restraint

his

and aloofness of a cult

image.

Although

for the sheer

and the immediacy of

volume of the

figures

their presence the

two

cousins form here in the early nineties what

a 'united Seicento front', the

might be called

never forgetting of course that there

work

and that

am, therefore, stretching the terms

beyond

their permissible limits.

proviso

it

may

But with

be said that Lodovico

beginning of the nineties had evolved

Baroque manner
bale's

in their

is

which we have noticed,

that close affinity

this

the

at

a painterly

in contradistinction to

Anni-

temperate classicism. Although pictures

closer to that

of such importance as the MaJaniia det Bargellini

of the Renaissance masters than to Lodovico's,

of 1588 and the Preaching of St John of 1592

Annibale lacks Lodovico's intense emotion-

(both Pinacoteca, Bologna) are essentially Vene-

spirit

for

informing Annibale's

alism.

It

approach

is

to

art

is

only to be expected that their

colour would also be fundamentally

conforming

different. Annibale,

to the

Renais-

sance tradition, used light and shade, even in

most painterly Bolognese works, primarily

his

to stress

form and structure. Lodovico, on the

tian with

- in the

Correggiesque overtones

John he followed Veronese

and Tintoretto

for the light -

trend in these years

Lodovico's whole

towards the colossal, the

is

passionate, dramatic, and heroic, towards rich

movement and

surprising and capricious light

word, away from Venice and towards

other hand, created patterns of light and dark

effects ; in a

often independent of the underlying organic

the style of Correggio's fresco in the

form; and he even sacrificed

Parma Cathedral. The

clarity

One need

colouristic principle.

to this

only compare

St

composition

for the

this

tendency

is

principal

dome

of

document of

Transfiguration of 1593

the

the right knee and leg of the Virgin in illustra-

(Bologna, Pinacoteca) pictures like the dramatic

how

Conversion of St Paul of 1 587-9, the Flagellation

tions i6

and 17

to see

and Lodovico's ways

decisively Annibale's

part.

It

is

evident that

Lodovico owed much more than Annibale to the

study of Tintoretto,
those

irrational flicker

which conveys emotion and

sense of mystery.
art,

namely

meant very

whose pictures one finds

in

and sudden highlights, that

brilliant

The

clear definition of space

little

an

to

painterly tradition.

It

basic quality of classic

is

artist

and form,

steeped in this

characteristic of this

approach that foreground stage and background

scenery are often unrelated in Lodovico's
pictures; in the

nade looks

like

Cento

altarpiece [17] the colon-

an added piece of stage property,

and Crowning with Thorns of 1594-5 (^H three

Pinacoteca), even the ecstatic St

Bologna,

Hyacinth of 1594 (Louvre),

que

taste.

To a

illustrate this

certain extent, therefore,

Baro-

Lodo-

vico and Annibale after their common Mannerist

beginnings developed

With advancing

in different directions.

age, however,

and

after the

departure of his cousins from Bologna, Lodovico's

work became by degrees retrogressive,

his late pictures show a return to

and some of
patently

Mannerist

principles.'

signal exceptions, there

was

at the

With some
same time

notable decline in the quality of his

art.

The

and the acolyte behind St Francis emerges from

better pictures of this period, like the Meeting of

an undefined cavity. Such procedure frequently

St Angelas with St Dominic and St Francis, the

makes the

'readability' of

Lodovico's settings

For the sake of

clarity,

we may now

define

the difference between Annibale and Lodovico

as that

Martydom of St
ing over the

elusive.

between the Classical and the Baroque,

Sea

Angelas, and St

Raymond walk-

three 1608-10,'" Bologna,

(all

Pinacoteca and S. Domenico), appeal by the

depth of mystical surrender and by

and decorative grace

BIBLOSARTE

his failures

their linear

show

a studied.

THE CARRACCI

mask-like expressions,

classicism,

superficial

before Agostino's arrival.

On

63

the ceiling and in

veneer of elegant sweet-

the lunettes he painted scenes from the stories

ness." Lodovico's sense for decorative patterns,

of Hercules and Ulysses, which have, in accor-

and

tired gestures,

his emotionalism,

and above

Baroque approach

to

his painterly

all

colour and light contained

which were eagerly seized on by

potentialities

dance with contemporary

over danger and temptation.'-

Lanfranco and Guercino; taken

framework

in all his

which the

in

influence on the formation of the style of the

dependent on North

younger Bolognese masters cannot be over-

lar

manner

of

estimated. But

up

it

was mainly

which attracted them, while

to about 1600

his less satisfactory later

manner had

often an

who were

appeal to minor masters

irresistible

The

decorative

stories are set

models,

Italian

is still

in particu-

on the monochrome decorations in the nave

Parma Cathedral; but in the structure of the

mythological scenes and

in

the treatment of

individual figures the impact of

be noticeable.

was

It

Rome

begins to

developed

fully

in

the

dependent on him, such

Gallery of the same palace, the decoration of

Francesco Brizio (1574- 1643), Lorenzo Gar(1580- 1654), and even Reni's pupil Fran-

which began in 1597 and may not have been

completely finished until 1608.''

directly or indirectly
as

his earlier

they illustrate the victory of virtue and effort

masters of the next generation, particularly by

all

not only

taste,

mythological but also an allegorical meaning:

bieri

cesco Gessi (1588- 1 649).

It is

Lodovico was not the man

then evident that

to lead painting

The

hall of

about 60 by 20

feet has,

above the

back

projecting cornice, a coved vault which Anni-

monumentality. Such

bale was asked to decorate with mythological

qualities were, however, manifest in Annibale's

love scenes chosen from Ovid's Metamorphoses

work of the 1590s and were even

[18]. It

to

classical

poise and

implicit in his

was therefore more than

pictures of the

mere chance

that he, rather than Lodovico,

580s.

It

accepted Cardinal Odoardo Farnese's invitation

to

come

to

Rome

to paint

monumental

frescoes

With Annibale's departure

studio broke up.

followed

programme

him,

Two

leaving

in

595 the

com-

years later .Agostino

Lodovico

alone

Bologna. During his ten active years

in

in

Rome,

made probable

that Cardinal

for the ceiling'^

and that

stages Annibale's learned friend,

Giovan

Battista Agucchi,

adviser.'^

in his palace.

mon

has been

Farnese's librarian, Fulvio Orsini, wrote the

The theme

conquering

love, to

is

in the final

Monsignor

may have
the

acted as

power of

all-

which even the gods of

antiquity succumb. In contrast to the emble-

matic character of most Mannerist cycles of

frescoes the

programme of this ceiling is centred

between 1595 and 1605, Annibale fulfilled the

promise of his late Bolognese work he became

on mythology, and Annibale painted the

the creator of a grand manner, a dramatic style

holder

buttressed by a close study of nature, antiquity,

taining spectacle before his eyes rather than

Raphael, and Michelangelo.

It

was

this style,

stories

with such vigour and directness that the beis

absorbed by the narrative and enter-

distracted by the less obvious symbolical and

equally admired by such antipodes as Poussin

moralizing imphcations.'*" In this joyful and

and Bernini, on which the future of

buoyant approach

painting depended for the next

Annibale's

first

work

in the

'official'

w ill be noticed

Farnese Palace

and Psyche frescoes

was the decoration with frescoes of a comparatively small room, the so-called Camerino
Farnese,

executed between

to classical antiquity a return

50 years.

1595

and

1597,

It

to the spirit of
in the

Raphael's Cupid

Farnesina.

was precisely at the moment when Caravag-

gio began his career as a painter of monumental

religious

pictures

BIBLOSARTE

that

Annibale

turned

to

64

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

monumental mythologies on an unprecedented

scale.

And

just as

Caravaggio found

popular

idiom for religious imagery, Annibale perfected

his highly civilized

manner

to cater for the re-

fined taste of an exclusive upper class.

fact that his patron, a Prince

one, moreover,

who

The

very

of the Church and

bore that family name,

surrounded himself with frescoes of this nature

is

indicative of a considerable relaxation of

counter-reformatory

morality.

convey the impression of

vivre, a

new blossoming of

energy long repressed.

The

frescoes

tremendous yo/V de
vitality

and of an

For the organization of the whole work Annibale experimented with a

ties.

for

He

number of possibili-

rejected simple friezes, suitable only

rooms with

flat

ceihngs, a type of decoration

used by him and his collaborators

Fava and Magnani-Salem

at

in the Palazzi

Bologna. Other

Bolognese reminiscences,'' however, were

have

more

lasting

influence,

to

namely the

Ulysses cycle in the Palazzo Poggi (now the

University), where Pellegrino Tibaldi had

bined pictures painted

like easel-paintings

comwith

figures in the corners of the ceiling perspectively foreshortened for the

BIBLOSARTE

view from below.

65

8.

Annibale Carracci

The Farnese

Gallery, begun 1597. Frescoes.

Rome, Palazzo Farnese

This

well

is

Logge

combination

first

in the Vatican,"*

known

found

in

Raphael's

which were, of course,

to Annibale. Illusionist architec-

tural painting

( quadratiira ),

aimed

at

extend-

gnesePopeGregory XIII (1572-85) summoned

Tommaso Laureti and Ottaviano Mascherino
from Bologna

to paint in the Vatican Palace,

quadratura gained

firm foothold in

Rome.

It

ing real architecture into an imaginary space,

had

had existed ever since Peruzzi had 'opened up'

and Cherubino Alberti's decoration of the Sala

the Sala delle Colonne in the Villa Farnesina

Clementina

about

5 16,

but

it

was not

until the

second half

of the sixteenth century that quadratura on

ceilings really

came

into

own. Bologna,

dt

most resounding triumph

in the Vatican,

1596 and 1598, that

began his Farnese

then the

last

word

is

Giovanni

executed between

exactly

ceiling.'"

in wall-

in

when Annibale

Quadratura was

and ceiling-painting,

was the centre of this

sanctioned, moreover, by the highest papal

which required an intimate knowledge

authority. Annibale, however, decided not to

scienze maestra (Bellori),

practice,

its

its

of the theory of perspective.

When

the Bolo-

use pure quadratura but to follow the Palazzo

BIBLOSARTE

66

19.

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

Annibale Carracci: Polyphemus.

Farnese Gallery

Poggi type

[cf.

18]

of mixed'

decoration. Like Tibaldi,

he painted the mythological scenes as

riportati, that

is,

as if they were

cpiadri

framed

easel

the four corners and supported

all

round the

room by a carefully-thought-out system of

herms and atlantes [19]. It is this whole frame-

pictures transferred to the ceiling, and incor-

work, together with the sitting youths handling

porated them in a quadrature framework. His

garlands, that

decision to use quadri npartati for the principal

point of the spectator. Since

was slmost certainly influenced

scenes

Michelangelo's

by

is

contrived as

is

if

it

foreshortened for the view-

were

all

this decoration

real - the seated

youths

was

of flesh-and-blood colour, the hermsand atlantes

doubtless also convinced that the mythological

of simulated stucco, and the roundels of simu-

Sistine

ceiling,

but he

representation, as belonging to the highest class

lated bronze - the contrast to the painted pic-

of painting,-" should be rendered objectively

tures in their gilt frames

is

and

break

therefore

in isolating frames.

bale's

ceiling

is

Thus, although Anni-

much more complex

than

Raphael's Logge or libaldi's Ulysses cycle,

remains

in the

same

it

consistency

emphasized, and the

strengthens

rather than disrupts the unity of the entire ceiling.

The crowding

within a relatively small

compromise

space of such great variety of illusionist painting,

quadratura framework

elements ofthe over-all plan, logical and crystal-

tradition of

the overlapping and superimposition of

solutions.

Annibale devised

in

consisting of a large cornice fully visible only in

clear

and nowhere ambiguous as

BIBLOSARTE

it

many

would surely

THE CARRACCI

67

(t^r5C3PW^*5 V-'-^Mft'lBP)

Annibale Carracci The Triumph of Bacchus

and Ariadne. Faniese Gallery [cf. 18]
20.

be in

a similar

Mannerist decoration, the subtle

build-up from the corners towards the centre

all

this gives this

different

dynamic quality quite

from the steady rhythm and compara-

tive simplicity
to

work

of Michelangelo's Sistine ceiling,

which Annibale evidently owed so many of

his constituent ideas.

for the first

time

on from the

There

is

here, moreover,

a noticeable continuity leading

real architecture

of the walls to the

painted decorative figures of the ceiling, and

this

contributes perceptibly to the dynamic

largest

centre of the ceiling

ter,

is

dominated by the

and most elaborate composition

in the

scheme, the Triumph of Bacchus and Ariadne

Surviving drawings show

how

while individual

figures

paralleled by classical types.

can be closely

On the other hand,

the fresco has a flowing and floating

a

movement,

richness and exuberance which one would

seek in vain either in antiquity or in the

The composition

Renaissance.

between firm
tive

freedom

which
sides,

by

unity of the entire Gallery.

The

retained something of the classical relief charac-

classical structure
it

consists of two

rise gently

and imagina-

crowded groups

from the centre of the two

and the caesura between them

maenad and

High

strikes a balance

is

bridged

a satyr following the beat

of the

tambourine with an impetuous dance. The

Bacchic retinue

and

is

compositionally enlivened

same time held together by the undurhythm of the flying cupids and by the

at the

closely

lating

Annibale had studied Bacchanalian sarcophagi;

telling

in fact, the train of revellers in the fresco has

below, reclining figures which have a framing as

[20].

conlrappostn of the satyr and

BIBLOSARTE

nymph

68

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

well as a space-creating function. This richness

new

ot compositional devices heralds a

Each

age.

single figure retains a statuesque solidity

without a

unthinkable

thorough study and

understanding of classical sculpture, and Anni-

imparted something

bale

this

ot"

sculptural

dating from the early 1590s (Bologna, Pinacoteca).

His complete conversion

Roman manner is evident

which display

somewhat

to Annibale's

Parma

the

in

His premature death

classicism.

frescoes,

metallic and frozen

in

1602 pre-

vented the completion of this work.-'

many preparatory chalk drawings.

One other aspect of the I'arnese ceiling should

Nevertheless these magnificent drawings remain

here be stressed. In his preparatory work Anni-

quality to his

at the

same time

close to nature, since, true to

the traditions of the Carracci 'academy', every

was intensely studied from

single figure
this

is

new

between naturalism and

alliance

models

classical

life. It

- so

often in the past a

life-

bale re-established, after the Mannerist inter-

method of Raphael and Michelangelo.

of preparatory drawings must
have existed, of which a fair number survive,
lude, the

Many hundreds
and

in these

every single part of the ceiling was

giving formula in Italian art, but with what

studied with the greatest care. Annibale handed

different results! - that accounts for the bois-

down

Roman manner.

terous vitality of Annibale's

His classical

style, full-blooded

and buttressed by

and imaginative

study of nature,

a loving

keeps the beholder at a certain distance, however,

and he always remains conscious of a noble

was

reserve. Clearly, Annibale's

vival that contained
it

way

many

led to Poussin's

a classical re-

potentialities.

From

pronounced classicism

freedom of Rubens and the High

to his school this

Renaissance method of

slow and systematic preparation, and

ably not too

much

to say that

prob-

it is

was mainly

it

through his agency that the method remained

in

vogue

for the following

down only

in the

Romantic

200 years.

when

era,

that such a tedious process of

broke

It
it

was

felt

work hampered

inspiration.

Annibale's development in

Rome was

rapid,

com-

him at the beginning of

the new century were crowded with important

bination oi qiiadratura and the qiiadro riporlato

works. Again, the fate and careers of Caravaggio

as well as to the

Baroque.

had only

On

the other hand, Annibale's

a limited following.

The broad

current

of the Italian development turned towards

complete

and the few years

left to

and Annibale run strangely

parallel.

return, Annibale retired from

illusionist spatial unification.

During the execution of the Gallery, Anni-

At about

Rome, never

the time Caravaggio fled from

life

deep melancholia, and during

stricken

to

by

his last years

bale had the help of his rather pedantic brother

hardly touched a brush.-'' In his later canvases

Agostino for three years (1597 1600).-' Con-

we can

temporary sources attribute

large frescoes of Cephaliis

and

so-called Galatea,--

to

him

the two

and Aurora and the

this is

borne out by the

cool detachment of these paintings, which lack

economy in

Maria del Popolo

fully

1600 Agostino

the

out with his brother,

Rome, and went

to

left

Parma, where he decorated

with mythological scenes a ceiling in the Palazzo

del Giardino for the

Agostino's earlier
in his carefully

masterpiece,

Duke Ranuccio

manner may

Farncse.-'

best be studied

constructed, strongly Venetian

the

Comtntinion

of St Jerome,

the compositions.-"

growing

The Assumption

of the Virgin of 1601 for the Cerasi Chapel

the brio and energy of Annibale's manner. In

fell

follow a progressive accretion of mass

and sculptural qualities coupled with

developed

first

is

a characteristic

Roman manner

in S.

work of his

[21].

Here

for

and only time Annibale and Caravaggio

worked on the same commission, and the

to the chapel naturally lets his eye

one master

to the other. In

Annibale's Assumption

even laboured, but

just as in

it

is

such

visitor

wander from
a

comparison

may appear tame and

worth observing

that,

Caravaggio's Conversion of St Paul

BIBLOSARTE

THE CARRACCl

69

the Paris Laineiitatiou, are reminiscent of clas-

Contemporaries realized that

tragedy.

sical

.Annibale was deeply concerned

telian

problem

had taken up

berti's days,

w ith the

.Aristo-

17) which, since Al-

(Poetics,

a central position in

any consideration of the highest classof painting,

namely how

to represent in

forceful visual

the

human

retical

form the

soul.

an appropriate and

ajjetti,

the emotions of

Annibale had neither the theo-

mind of an

Albert! nor the experimental

passion of a Leonardo; he was, in fact, opposed

to theorizing

sensed, as

and

age,

it

and

were

man

of few words. But he

intuitively, the

concern for the

in his

temper of the
of

telling use

gestures and expressions one has no difficulty in

recognizing a new rationalist spirit of analysis.

To

base the rendering of the

affetti

on

rational

and generally valid findings became an important preoccupation of seventeenth-century artists.

Poussin learned his lesson from Annibale,

and the same problems were

philosophical

analysis

later

submitted to

by Descartes

his

in

Passions de I'Ame of 1649.

A new

sensibility characterizes the seven-

teenth century, and this manifests

21.

Annibale Carracci:

The Assumption

in

what may appear

to us

itself not

nowadays

as the

only

con-

of the Virgin, 1601.

ventional language of rhetoric, but also in highly

Rome, S. Maria del Pupolu. Cerasi Chapel

charged subjective expressions of feeling, grief

the over-

and melancholy. The rational medium of design

powering bulk of Annibale's figures that domi-

gives conventional gestures an objective quality,

[13]

and

his Cnictfixwn of St Peter,

it is

medium

nates the canvas. In spite of this triumph of the

while the irrational

massive sculptural figure, Annibale's Assump-

conveying those intangible marks which are not

tion

shows that he never forgot the lesson

learnt

from Titian and Correggio. By fusing Venetian

colour with

Roman

proach with

of colour adds to

readily translatable into descriptive language.

The

early

Roman

Bacchus playing the Lute

to

ap-

Silenus (London, National Gallery) exemplifies

classical severity of

form, Anni-

very well this important element in Annibale's

bale demonstrated in practice - as

was correctly

oeuvre.

seen in his

own

design, a

that these old contrasts,

day-'

about which so

painterly

much

ink had been spilt in

There

pervading this

is

an atmosphere of melancholy

little

picture,

and

this is

due

to

the wonderfully rich Titianesque evening sky

sombre mood over the wide deserted

theoretical discussions of the sixteenth century,

casting a

were no longer irreconcilable.

landscape behind the figures. Characteristically,

In their measured and heroic expressions

many of Annibale's
London Domme Qiio

late pictures,

such as the

Vadts, the Naples Piet a, or

this

mood

is

transmitted through the landscape,

and, as in Venice, landscape always plays an

important part in Annibale's canvases as a

BIBLOSARTE

foil

THE PKRIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

70

22.

The

Annibale Carracci:

Flight into hgjpt,

c.

1604. Rome, Galleria Dana-Pamphili

against which to set oft and underline a picture's

prevailing

spirit.-*"

Considering this Venetian

evaluation of the landscape element,

it

is

not

landscape

and by the

middle distance; nor

protected, as

bale's career.

castle

first

landscapes,

constructed

loosely

peopled with huntsmen and fishermen (Louvre),

are essentially Venetian.

But

in

accordance with

the general trend of his development and under

the impression,

it

would seem, of the severe

forms of the Campagna, Annibale

in

Rome

re-

above

carefully arranged

This

Flight

into

Egypt

(Rome,

[22], dating

panoramas

integral part of these

work of man
verticals

is

An

always the

composed of horizontals and

and placed

landscape.

Doria-

and houses, turrets and

castles

bridges, severely

Galleria

from about 1604.-'

at

conspicuous points in the

The architectural motif in the centre

of the Doria Flight into Egypt

is

framed by a

it is

placed at

river; thus figures

pattern of the landscape.

neither Nature untouched and wild

is

where the
northern

Pamphih)

and, in addition,

and buildings are intimately blended with the

landscapes by carefully constructed landscape

The most celebrated example of

new landscape style is the lunette with a

were, by the firm lines of the

it

it

formed by the sheep and the

- as in

panoramas.

Holy

the meeting points of two spatial diagonals

placed the freedom and rusticity of his early

this

trees to the right in the

the position of the

Family fortuitous: the group moves forward

strange to find pure landscapes early in Anni-

His

is

role of man shrinks into insignificance

the landscapes of
artists

working

some contemporary
Rome, above all

in

Paul Brill and Jan Bruegel nor is it on the other

hand the fairy-lands which Elsheimer created
in his Roman years; instead it is a heroic and
aristocratic conception of

Nature tamed and

ennobled by the presence of man.

It

was Anni-

bale's paintings of ideal landscapes that pre-

pared the way for the landscapes of Domenichino and Albani, of Claude and Poussin.
Annibale's grand manner of the

may

rightly be regarded as his

Roman

years

most important

cluster of large trees in the left foreground -

achievement, but the formal side of his art had

such trees become de

an interesting counterpart of informality. Both

rigueiir in this

type of

BIBLOSARTE

THE CARRACCI

Annibale and Agostino had an intimate, genrelike

idiom

at their

disposal. This,

found expression more often

in pictures,

ings

do

in

although a number of genre paint-

exist

the

seems,

drawings than

and many more must have

existed,

picture

judging from contemporary notices.

like

it

Butcher's

Oxford, makes

it

Shop

Christ

at

Church,

evident that the Carracci at

Bologna had come

in contact with,

and were

two or three years before Caravaggio's Bacchus

in the Uffizi [i ij.

Compared with

it,

Annibale's

painting strikes one as 'impressionist' and progressive

first

moreover, genre pure and simple.

it is,

from contemporary sources

It is clear

Bolognese

artists

two Carracci

the

that

down on paper

or too uninteresting to be jotted

manner of Pieter Aertsen."' Annibale's

homely portrait sketch in oil of a smiling young
man (Rome, Galleria Borghese) and, above all,
the half-length of a Man with a Monkey looking

draughtsmen and

their curiosity

They had an eye

for the life

common

and labours of the

hfe,

and

immediacy of approach

will

and even obscene happenings of daily

something of

the trend with an admirable and entertaining

also be noticed in their

picture was probably painted

tireless

was unlimited.

people, for the amusing, queer, odd,

for lice in his master's hair (Uffizi) [23] illustrate

last

the

brothers regarded nothing as too insignificant

on the spur of the moment. They were

candour. This

- in

place from Malvasia, the biographer of

deeply impressed by, northern genre painting

in the

71

this

grand manner. But with

these two idioms, the official and the unofficial,

at their

command,

a duality

was possible which

would have been unthinkable

Raphael.

on two

By being

levels, the

able to

the age of

in

work simultaneously

Carracci reveal a dichotomy

which from then on became more and more

pronounced
culminated
a

in the

work of great

artists

and

in the dual activity or aspirations

of

Hogarth or a Goya.
It is

not at

all

astonishing that this mentality

predestined the Carracci to become the originators of modern caricature: caricature, that
in the

people's shortcomings.

It is

well attested that

Annibale was the inventor of

art."

is,

pure sense, as a mocking criticism of other

The

this

new form

of

caricaturist substitutes a primitive,

timeless technique for the established conventions of draughtsmanship,

and an uninhibited

personal interpretation for the objective rendering of reality

which was the principal require-

ment of the Renaissance tradition. The artist who

23.

Annibale Carracci:

Man

before 1595. Florence, Uffizi

with

Monkey,

was acclaimed as the restorer of that tradition

also forged

dangerous weapons

BIBLOSARTE

to

undermine

it.

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER

CARAVAGGIO'S FOLLOWERS

AND THE CARRACCI SCHOOL

Annibale Carracci alone had

a school in

IN

Rome

ROME

painters Orazio Gentileschi

accepted sense of the term. Not only were

out.

he and the other members of his family good

tica

in the

Next

to

him

{ 1

563- 1 639' ) stands

Antiveduto Grama-

artists like

(1571-1626) and Giovanni Baglione

(c.

The founda-

573- 1 644) are of only marginal interest. The

most important younger artists were Orazio

tion of the school was, of course, laid in the

Borgianni (1578 or earlier- 1616), Bartolomeo

teachers, but his art, particularly his

manner,

lent itself to being taught.

Roman

Bolognese 'academy', and his young pupils and

friends

who

followed him to

Rome

arrived

Manfredi

{c.

(1579'- 1620),

587- 1620/

1),-

Giovanni

Carlo Saraceni
Caracciolo

Battista

and

1637), Giovanni Serodine (1600-30),

there well prepared. Caravaggio on the other

(d.

hand, a bohemian, turbulent and uncontrolled,

Artemisia Gentileschi

never tried to train a pupil, nor indeed could he

from

have done so since the subjective qualities of his

Italo-Frenchman Valentin (1594- 1632) should

style, his

improvisations, his ad hoc technique,

his particular

mystique of

light,

and

his

many

inner contradictions were not translatable into

easy formulas. Yet, what he had brought into

power of

the world of vision was a directness, a

(1593-r.

of northerners,

a host

1652),

apart

among whom

the

here be mentioned.

These names make

it

at

once apparent that

Caravaggio's manner was taken up by painters

with very different backgrounds, traditions, and

training.

Few among them were Romans;

example, came

from

immediate appeal that had an almost hypnotic

Gentileschi,

fascination for painters, so that even Carracci

Saraceni from Venice, Manfredi from near

pupils and followers

fell

under

his spell

certain stages of their development.

at

Moreover,

for

Mantua, and Serodine from Ascona. In contrast to the

Bolognese followers of the Carracci

common

generations of painters inside Italy and even

who shared

more outside her confines sought

similar principles, these artists never

from

his work. Nevertheless

plates the

life

and

art

inspiration

when one contem-

of Caravaggio and of

training

and believed

homogeneous group. Caravaggio's idiom was

kind of ferment giving their art substance and

direction for a time; but with

Rome during the first quarter of the seventeenth

was

like a

century seems almost a foregone conclusion.

was

to

this

most of them

be discarded when they thought

respect

Orazio

Gentileschi's

He was

in

fit.

In

career

is

Rome from

1576 on

and came under Caravaggio's influence

in

followers actually

met him

Rome, but most of them were deeply moved

by his work while

forceful.

The

list

its

impact was

of names

is

masters of real distinction.

still

fresh

and

early years of the

new

in the

century. But a typically

Tuscan quality always remained noticeable

his

work

it

leaven not fully absorbed and which

symptomatic.

Few of Caravaggio's

in

formed

Annibale, the pattern of the development in

The Caravaggistt

Pisa,

- so

much

so that his pictures are

in

on

long and contains

occasions reminiscent of Bronzino and even of

Among

Sassoferrato

the older

witness his clear and precise con-

BIBLOSARTE

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

74

tours, his light

and cold blues, yellows, and

violets as well as the restraint

his compositions.
idyllic

and simplicity of

Moreover, his

temperament

is

far

lyrical

and

removed from Cara-

vaggio's almost barbaric vitality.

out problems, for dated pictures are few and

One of

career. 5

far

his chief works, the graceful

Annunciation in Turin [24], painted for Charles

its

Caravaggesque types must have

Rome

in

at

an early period of his

Examples of Orazio's

manner may

later

be seen in a picture such as the Rest on the Flight

into

The chronology of Orazio's ceuvre is not withbetween.

scuro, and

been created

Egypt (known

ham; the

J.

in four versions in

Birming-

Paul Getty Coll., Los Angeles;

Vienna; and the Louvre),'' datable

in his principal

work

in

1626, and

c.

England, the nine com-

partmental pictures for the

hall of the Queen's

House, Greenwich, probably executed after

now

1635, and

mutilated condition in

in

Marlborough House." The difference between

the two latter works makes it evident that the
longer he was away from

came

Rome

able that in the setting of the

with

the thinner be-

the Caravaggesque veneer.

its

It is

undeni-

London Court,

progressive tendencies represented by

Rubens and Van Dyck, the work of Gentileschi

appears almost outdated.

The development

""

of Orazio Gentileschi

is

characteristic of much of the history of the early

Caravaggisti.

But

in the case

of an

Giovanni Baglione the emphasis

different.

is

somewhat

known

Baglione, nowadays chiefly

of sixteenth- and

biographer

the

as

such as

artist

seventeenth-century

Roman

early

belongs

artists,

academic phase of ManAn exact contemporary of Caravaggio's,

essentially to the late

nerism.

he was that
a brief

artist's bitter

moment

enemy. However,

in his career,

than the rank and

file

and even

for

earlier

of the Caravaggisti, he

was overwhelmed by the impact, although never

24.

Orazio Gentileschi:

The

Annunciation,

fully

understanding the implications, of the

probably 1623. Twin, Pinacnteca

great master's work. His Sacred Love subduing

Emanuel I of Savoy, probably in 1623, clearly

shows him developing away from Caravaggio,

competition with Caravaggio's Earthly Love for

and the pictures painted

creation where a Caravaggesque formula hardly

Profane Love (Berlin), painted after 1600 in

England
carry

in

this

after he settled

1626 as Charles Ts court painter

tendency

extremely light

still

in colour,

further.

work

its

like

They

are

and the Florentine

note supersedes his Caravaggismo.

a

in

By

contrast

the Dublin David and Goliath with

powerful movement, foreshortening, chiaro-

Cardinal Benedetto Giustiniani,

is

hybrid

conceals Late Mannerist rhetoric'

The
and

art

of Orazio Borgianni, Carlo Saraceni,

Bartolomeo

Manfredi

represents

very

different facets of Caravaggismo. Borgianni, a

Roman who grew up

in Sicily

and spent several

years in Spain, returned permanently to

BIBLOSARTE

Rome

CARAVAGGIO

FOLLOWERS AND THE CARRACCI SCHOOL

Em.-

BIBLOSARTE

75

76

THK PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

Holy Nail

the

1615, S. Lorenzo in Lucina)

(c.

and the Miracle of St Benno and Alartyrdom of

Si Lamhertinus
deir.Anima).

1617

(c.

Saraceni,

both S. Maria

18,

however,

never

can

compete with Caravaggio's dramatic Roman

manner nor did he ever

;

lenehroso.

It

fully

absorb the

latter's

remains true that even before these

monumental

pictures one does not easily forget

that his real talent lay in the petite mantere.^* In

1620 Saraceni returned to Venice, where he

died the same year.

Manfredi's known work

into the period 1610 20.

approximately

falls

He was one

of the few

close imitators ofCaravaggio and interpreted the

master in a rather rough style which

later

genera-

tions came to regard as characteristic ofCaravag-

gio himself; for

it

manner

was Manfredi possibly more

who transformed

than anyone else

Caravaggio's

into proper genre, emphasizing the

an 10 the neglect of
Guard-room and tavern

coarse aspects of the latter's

his other qualities.

scenes as well as religious subjects suffer this

metamorphosis. Valentin's choice of subjects

St

Raymond

preaching,

c.

artists

161 4.

Rome. Chiesa della

Casa Generalizia dei Padri Alercedan

have often been confused.

Italian,

tin settled in

Rome

in

latter's

Rest on the

work

from

Caravaggio's tense and mysterious scene into a

manner

homely narrative enacted before a warm

Caravaggista.^^

mer' landscape.

One
much

spirit

emotions and passages of

in

Rome

longer than almost any other

really belongs to a

Like Valentin, Serodine

would, therefore, not

of Caravaggio's

younger generation, but both died so young

among

during Saraceni's Caravaggesque period which

that they should be included

begins in the second decade, after Elsheimer's

generation of Caravaggio followers. Yet

death. Yet in these pictures the format as well

Serodine arrived

as his vision grows.

One can

follow this process

His

disciplined

drama. Valentin carried on Caravaggio's

real

expect to find

after 1620.

more

than Manfredi's, but also exhibit an extensive

scale of differentiated

of 1606 in Frascati'- shows: Saraceni translated

'Elshei-

son of an

about 1612. Most of his

to date

pictures are not only infinitely

Flight into Egypt with the former's similar

The

coming from France (Boulogne), Valen-

known work seems

comparison between the

is

and indeed the two

similar to that of Manfredi,

26. Carlo Saraceni

vaggio was

little

in

Rome

in

more than

the

first

when

about 1615, Cara-

a legend.

By

far the

Raymond
Adriano, now

greatest colourist of the whole group, Serodine

Chiesa della Casa Generalizia dei Mercedari)'^

the Caravaggesque Calling of the Sons ofZehedee

of monumentalization from the St

preaching

{c.

16 14, formerly S.

[26] to the St Charles

Borrumeo and the Cross of

can be followed

at

Ascona

(r.

in his rapid

1622),

BIBLOSARTE

development from

which combines remini-

CARAVAGGIO

scences of Caravaggio's AUit/oiimi

FOLLOWERS AND

CARRACCI SCHOOL

TMF.

77

Lorelo and

Jt

of Borgianni's palette, to his masterpiece, the

immensely touching
of the

mid

i()20s

//;.<!,''i

lAiwrctuc

"'A' '{/ -V/

(Rome, Gallcria Nazionale);

thence to the freer St Peter and St Paul (Rome,

Nazionale) and

Galleria
Tribute
its

background and

light

its

Edinburgh

the

to

Money. The last-named

picture, with

painterly handling

Bernardo Strozzi, prepares the way

recalling

for the extraordinary tour deforce of the Portrait

tij

painted

his Father.^"

Civico)|27|, which

is

works of Fetti and Lys.

in

in

1628 (Lugano,

Museo

reminiscent of the mature

the Si Peter

Still later is

Prison (Rancate, Ziist Collection) where he

Honthorst's

used

but

candle-light

The impasto

technique.

not

his

mind Rem-

calls to

brandt's advanced work, and the 'impressionist'

freedom of the individual brush-stroke leads

further

away from Caravaggio than the work of

any other of his followers

in

Rome. The rapidity

of Serodine's development
that of Caravaggio.

The

is

equalled only by

fact that

him from Caravaggio towards

it

rich

removed

chromatic

him to the aspirations of a new age.

By about 1620 most of the Caravaggisti were
either dead or had left Rome for good. Those
values ties

who

home

returned

adjusted

quickly

their

styles to their native surroundings;

some of

work

that they

them hardly

reveal in their late

had ever had any contact with Caravaggio.

one of them had

really

'
'

Not

understood the w holencss

of his conception. They divested his realism of

its

quality and his leuchmso of

irrational

mystique.

its

hey not only devitalized his manner,

but as a rule they selected from his art only

those elements which were congenial to their
taste

and

and

ability.

Some of them, like Gentileschi

to a certain extent Saraceni,

were strongly

Roman phase;
Manfredi and Valentin, who saw

attracted by Caravaggio's early

others, like

chiefly the plebeian side of his art,

genre subjects of his early

Roman

the tenehrosd of his later style.

Caravaggism

in

Rome had

blended the

Soon

phase with
after 1(120

lost its appeal.

It

27.

Giovanni Serodine:

Portrait of his Father, 1628.

Lugano, Museo Civico

remained successful only

in the

popular genre

in cabinet

format, the introduction of which

was

due

largely

Laer,

who was

so-called

to the
in

faarlem

Rome from

Bambocciate^"

undercurrent with

[28]

artist Fieter

1O25 to

i^)^^.

survived

down

in

His

as

an

long history of their own.

In spite of the comparatively brief

Caraiaggisnio

van

Rome and

life

in spite of the

of

toning

of the master's example, the diffusion of

his style continued, either directly or indirectly,

and by

w here

a variety

his

ting effect than

tration to

of routes. Apart from Naples,

work had

more

anywhere

lasting

and invigora-

else in Italy, its

Bologna and Siena, Genoa and

and throughout Kurope,

BIBLOSARTE

is

one

of

pene-

\ enice,

the most

78

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

que
the

tempered by

style

more remarkable

a classical note.'" It is all

that Ciiravai>!iism() did not

begin to spread to any considerable extent until

the third decade of the century, that

moment when

Rome

in

itself

at a

is,

was moribund

it

or even dead.

The Bolognese

in

Rome

and Early Baroque Classicism

I

have already indicated that the Carracci school

presents a picture vastly different from the

Cciravaggisti.
artists,

him

follow

phalanx of young Bolognese

observing Annibale's success, chose to

to

Rome; nor

They had

The Brandy-Vendor,

bale's unrivalled authority

circle

astonishing

phenomena

in the history of art.

The names of Terbrugghen, Crabeth and Honthorst,

Baburen, Pynas and Lastman, Jan Jans-

sens,

Gerard Seghers, Rombouts, and Vouet,

most of them working

in

Rome

at

some time

during the second decade of the century, indicate the extent of his influence;

now that

neither Rubens,

and we know

who had

very early in

his career experienced Caravaggio's direct in-

fluence in

Rome, nor Rembrandt, Velasquez,

and Vermeer, would have developed

as they

did without the Caravaggio blood-transfusion.

But while elements of Caravaggism became

permanent feature of European painting,

repeat that

many

of those

to their

home

must

who were responsible

and could

on

rely

of wealthy and powerful patrons. More-

over, they were

all

masters of the fresco tech-

nique and were, therefore, both able to

Annibale

in his

own work and

to

assist

monuown ac-

execute

mental fresco commissions on their

count. In addition, during the short reign of

Gregory

XV (1621-3), who was himself born in

Bologna, they were in undisputed

command

of

the situation.

Guido Reni (1575 1642) and Francesco

Albani (1578- 1660) appeared in
after April

Domenichino ( 1 58 1 - 64
1

much

the

younger

1 )

work

shortly

and
came soon after, and

Guercino

arrived in 1621. Annibale used

for

Rome

1600, Lanfranco (1582-1647)

1666)

(1591

Domenichino

in the Galleria Farnese,-"

and

it

was

mainly Albani, assisted by the Parmese Lan-

countries in favour of current

franco and Sisto Badalocchio, also from Parma,

it

on

As an example, the Frenchman Vouet,

after an

their return

for its dissemination discarded

styles.

thorough train-

They were supported by Anni-

reached Rome.

after 1625.

Rome. Gdlleria Nazionale

academy and had acquired

background even before they

classical

solid

van Laer(?):

recommend them-

They had undergone

ing in the Carracci

28. Pieter

to

that

was incorrect.

and foremost they were excellent

selves. F"irst
artists.

much

besides

show

did events

their assessment of the situation

intense early Caravaggesque phase,

submitted entirelv to an easv international Baro-

who

carried out from .\nnibale's designs

most

of the frescoes in the S. Diego Chapel in S.

Giacomo

degli Spagnuoli

BIBLOSARTE

between 1602 and

CARAVAGGIO'S FOLLOWERS AND THE CARRACCI SCHOOL

At the same time Innocenzo Tacconi,--

1607.-'

the frescoes on the vault of the Cerasi Chapel in

Maria del Popolo,

for

on the vault of the room

1608: Oratory of St

which Annibale painted

artists firmly established a style in

rationalist

and

Farnese

the

strengthening of the

Domenichino and Lanfranco, however, the

time spent in

Rome

by these

consecutive

nor

protracted.

Rome. The apse decorated by Reni with God

the Father

was neither

corated by Domenichino with scenes from

the Legends of St Nilus and St Bartholomew.

6 1 7 and

and Lanfranco, who was once absent from

Rome

left for

The commission was due

62 1

Rome

Naples only

and from 1612-^

to 1614,

Odo-

1609: Palazzo Giustiniani (now Odescaluhi),

(di Sutri) Romano. The ceiling of a
room painted by Domenichino with
stories of the myth of Diana, in the manner of

Bassano

in

small

between 1600 and 1604 and again from

1

to Cardinal

ardo Farnese on Annibale's recommendation

the other hand Reni, after visits to

1607 to 161

and Angels.

1608-10: Abbey of Grottaferrata. Chapel de-

Domenichino

artists

he returned to Bologna between

On

Andrew

sioned by Cardinal Scipione Borghese.

stayed for a period of almost thirty years, though

1633-4.

Ma-

Gregorio

1608-9: S. Silvia Chapel, S. Gregorio Magno,

With the exception of

between 1610 and 161 2,

S.

of St Andrew by Domenichino, commis-

Rome which

classical tendencies inherent in

ceiling.

Andrew,

large frescoes of St

adoring the Cross by Reni and the Scourging

In the succeeding years these Bolognese

Rome. The

gno,

the Assumption of the Virgin.

by and large shows

79

of Christ, and Pentecost

figuration, Ascension

another Bolognese of the second rank, executed

S.

made

the Farnese Gallery.

On

The frescoes of the large

Bologna his permanent home, remaining there

hall

except for a few relatively brief intermissions

bani represented the Fall of Phaeton and the

by Albani.

the ceiling of the hall Al-

until his death in 1642. Albani did not leave

Council of the Gods, the latter placed in tight

Rome

groups round the edges of the vault

until

mid

1617,-^ to return only for short

periods of time

and Guercino's years

Holy City were confined

in the

whole an unsuccessful attempt

to the reign of Gregory

unification.

- the

at illusionistic

Along the walls there are eight

XV, from 162 to 1623.

From about 1606 onwards these masters were

scenes illustrating the consequences of the

responsible for a series of large and important

Giustiniani.-^

cycles of frescoes. Their activity in this field

is

Fall.

1609- 1

an impressive testimony to their rapidly rising

star.

by

feeling for the situation

listing in chronological

cycles executed

is

by the whole group during the

crucial twelve years 1606-18.

patron was the Marchese Vincenzo

Chapel of the Annunciation, Quirinal

Palace.

best conveyed

sequence the major

The

The whole

decorated by Reni and his

Bolognese assistants, see

1

p. 33.

6 10, 1612; Cappella Paolina, S. Maria

giore.

Reni

is

Mag-

responsible mainly for single

figures of saints.

1612 14: Choir, S. Maria della Pace. Albani

1606-7: Palazzo Mattei di Giove, Rome. Three

rooms with

ceiling frescoes in the south-west

sector of the piano nubile,

blessing Jacob,

by Albani

Isaac

Jacob and Rachel, and Jacob's

Dream.-'
1608: Sala delle

in the sixteenth century.

16 1 3- 14: Casino dell'Aurora, Palazzo Rospigliosi,

Reni

Nozze Aldobrandini, Vatican.

Reni's Stories ofSamson (repainted).-^

1608: Sala delle

completes the mariological programme begun

Dame,

Vatican. Reni's Trans-

Rome. The Aurora

ceiling painted

for Cardinal Scipione

Borghese

1613-14: S. Luigi de'Francesi, Rome.

by

[32J.

Dome-

nichino's scenes from the Life of St Cecilia

[29].^

BIBLOSARTE

8o

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

1615: Palazzo Mattel di Giove,

c.

Rome. Lan-

the most classical

at

moment between

and Potiphar's Wife).-' These frescoes are

riportato appears isolated on the

inspired by Raphael's Logge.

the vault. Thus, Guido's .Aurora was framed

and

16 1 5

later:

Palazzo Costaguti,

Domenichino: The Chariot

Rome.

oj Apollo in the

centre of the ceiling of the large hall, set in a

1613 and 1615, the qiiadro

flat

centre of

with stuccoes, leaving the surrounding area entirely white.

in the

The principle was perhaps followed

Palazzo Mattei and certainly in the Rape

Tassi quadratiira.^" Lanfranco: the ceiling

of Dejanira ceiling

with Polyphemus and Galatea

(destroyed,

probably the only room which survives undis-

replica in the Doria Gallery); the ceiling with

turbed from the period around 1615. These

Justice

by

and Peace TprohzbXy 1624" (quadraturci

Tassi.'');

the third ceiling with Nesstis and

Deianeira, previously given to Lanfranco,

now

attributed to Sisto Badalocchio.'-

is

The

Armida carrying

ceiling with Guercino's

off

Rinaldo, once again in a Tassi quadratura,

century

second decade

in the

Bolognese

were

artists

form of classicism.

of course, Domenichino in whose work

It is,

this

development

is

most obvious, and

it

typifies

the general trend that his St Cecilia frescoes of

16 1 3- 14 are far

previous work.

more

rigidly classical than his

Corresponding to the requirements of deco-

phase.

Rome. Lanfranco's decor-

ation of the Chapel of St Augustine.

''

Rome. Albani

ceiling of the hall with

The

Apollo and the Seasons.

artist's

rum,

his Scourging

place on a

1616 Pajazzo Verospi (now Credito Italiano),

Corso,

the

inclining towards an extreme

and Romanelli's frescoes belong

to a later

Palazzo Costaguti,

in the

examples are evidence that

of the

was painted between 1621 and 1623. Mola's

1616: S. Agostino,

c.

was dropped and,

ation,

franco (Joseph interpreting Dreams znA Joseph

Carrac-

stage

is

the carefully prepared

closed by the wall and columns of a

temple placed
its

of St Andrew of 1608 takes

Roman piazza

parallel to the picture plane,

rigidity contrasts with the

cesque style has become more decidedly

arrangement of the ancient

Raphaelesque, and reliance on the Cupid and

in the left

Psyche cycle in the Farnesina

is

evident.

'^

city

and

freer

and landscape

background. In order to safeguard

the foreground scene against visual interference

1616-17: Sala de' Corazzieri, Quirinal Palace.

For Lanfranco's contribution

somewhat

to the frieze of

from the crowd assembled under the temple

portico,

Domenichino introduced an unusual

device; disregarding the laws of Renaissance

this large hall, see p. 33.

1616-18: Stanza di Apollo, Villa Belvedere

perspective, he

made these figures unduly small,

(Aldobrandini), Frascati. Eight frescoes with

much

smaller than they ought to be where they

myth of Apollo, painted by

Domenichino and pupils at the instance of
Monsignor Agucchi for Cardinal Pietro

stand.

The principal actors are divided

carefully

Aldobrandini (now National Gallery, Lon-

astonished and frightened spectators. Firmly

scenes of the

into

the figure of the saint, the other consisting of the

constructed though these groups are, there

don).^5

two

composed groups, the one surrounding

is a

certain looseness in the composition and, par-

All these

frescoes are closely connected

characteristics of style.

by

Not only are most of the

ceiling decorations painted as quadri riportati,

but they are also more severely

classical

than the

ticularly in the onlookers, a distinct lack of

definition. In the St Cecilia frescoes the

depth

of the stage has shrunk and the scenes are closed

[29].

The

figures have

Farnese Gallery. .Annibale's rich and complex

portance; each

framework, reminiscent of Mannerist decor-

expresses

its

is

mood by

BIBLOSARTE

grown

clearly

in size

and im-

individualized and

studied gestures.

Many

CARAVAGGIO'S FOLLOWERS AND THE CARRACCI SCHOOL

2C).

8l

Domenichino:

St Cecilia before the Judge, 1613 14. Fresco.

Rome, S.

Liiigi

de Francesi

figures are directly derived

archaeological

from classical Statues,

tiously introduced,

and the

permeates the work

to

But

At

spirit

of Raphael

an even greater extent."'

same time Domenichino has seen

at the

all this

more conscien-

elements are

through the eyes of Annibalc.

this

and the

circle

of his friend

note

is

added

and Michelangelo.

who

Rome,
Agucchi must have
artist in

regarded the St Cecilia frescoes as the apogee

single incidents are

ornamented

nichino

pursue the same course which

the figures

theoretical

position.

^^

History,

never logical and so, after his performance

Luigi de' Francesi,

ning to turn

own

however,

is

in S.

we find Domenichino begin-

in a different direction. In his

most

important commission of the next decade, the

choir and pendentives of S. .\ndrea della Vallc

to

seemed
be tempted by the new Baroque trend. This

is

clearly

622, not

( 1

624,-8),^^ this arch-classicist

visible

in

the Evangelists on the

that

Lan-

anguish was given

dome. A development

will also

the apse of the church

One would have expected Dome-

accorded so well with Agucchi's and his

to outshine his rival

to the former's

towards the Baroque

Raphael

may be supposed

celebrated scenes from the

of painting.
to

It

Domenichino wished
tranco,

strong Correggiesque

to the reminiscences of

the commission for the

moment Domenichino was probably

acknowledged as the leading

where

pendentives,

(c.

still

be noticed

life

of St

in

1623-6). While the

strictly

ribs, the stage

in the

Andrew

is

separated by

widened and on

it

move in greater depth than formerly,

some of them in beautiful co-ordination with
the rich landscape setting. In addition, borrowings from

Lodovico Carracci make

ance,*' another indication of

drifting

their appear-

Domenichino's

away from the orthodox

classicism of

ten years before.

In

'''*
63 1 Domenichino left Rome for Naples,

where he was under contract

pendentives and

naro

in

to execute the

dome of the Chapel of S. Gen-

the cathedral.

BIBLOSARTE

Here he

built

on the

82

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

tendencies already apparent in the pcndentives

Annibale's more severe approach.

of S. Andrea and amplified them to such an

the

extent that these frescoes appear as an almost

created a landscape style which was to have an

He

important influence on the early work of Claude.

complete break with his

manner.

earlier

filled

the spherical spaces to their extremities

with

which

mass of turgid, gesticulating

at the

petrified.

same time seem

The

figures

have become

to

principal interest of these paint-

ings lies in their counter-reformatory content,

which Emile Male has recounted but

;

it

cannot

be denied that Domenichino's powers, mea-

The

art

the

grand,

By

allying

Domenichino

of Albani follows a more limited

Domenichino he had

course. Like

started as a

pupil in Calvaert's schooP^ and later removed

At

to the Carracci.

Peter, Oratorio S.

and on Annibale
Pinacoteca,

harmonious achievements, were on the de-

somewhat
on was

cline/"

later

the

ner. It

is

vacillating

first

dependence on Lodovico

sured by the standard of his most perfect and

Nor was his attempt to catch up with

spirit of a new age successful. The hostility

and

pastoral

(e.g.

Colombano, Bologna, 1598)

Virgin and Saints, Bologna,

599), his early

slight

to

between

Repentance of St

and

become

work already shows

lyrical quality

which

the keynote of his

therefore not at

all

man-

surprising that in

he met with in the course of executing his work

Rome he was particularly captivated by Raphael

Naples and which may have contributed

(Palazzo Verospi frescoes) without abandoning,

in

his failure

dramatic

more

is

known

well

flight

north

in

to

however, after his

however, his connexion with Lodovico, as one

1634 he returned once

of his ceilings in the Palazzo Mattei shows.^'^

to Naples, but left the

unfinished at his death in

work

in the chapel

Domenichino's reputation has always

re-

mained high with the adherents of the classical

doctrine, and during the eighteenth century he
is

Although he worked

for

Reni

in the

chapel of

the Quirinal Palace, he remained in these years

64 1

essentially devoted to

Domenichino's type of

classicism, but lacked the latter's precision

unfailing sense of style.

and

Even before returning

often classed second only to Raphael. But this

reputation was not based only on his work as a

30.

Francesco Albani

fresco-painter. Oil-paintings such as the Vatican

Earth, one of a series of

Last Communion of St Jerome of 1614 or the

1626-8. Turin. Pinacoteca

Borghese Hunt of Diana^^ of 1617, done

for

Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandini but acquired by

force by Scipione Borghese, reveal

more

him

refined colourist than his frescoes

as a

would

These two works, painted

lead one to expect.

during his best period, show the breadth of his

range.

The

St Jerome, more carefully organized

and more boldly accentuated than

his model,

Agostino Carracci's masterpiece,

has

by

failed to carry conviction

depth

of religious

Domenichino's

he was capable of

never

sincerity

and

Coming from
one may note with

feeling.'-

frescoes,

surprise the idyllic

its

mood

in the

Diana, but that

by

pure landscapes which he painted.

'^

it is

attested

particularly the later ones,

show

number of
These, and

a relaxing

of

BIBLOSARTE

The Four

Elements,

^?i^?

CARAVAGGIO'S FOLLOWERS AND THE CARRACCl SCHOOL

to

Bologna his special

gift led

him towards lightmyth

balance by contrappostal attitudes and gestures.

hearted and appealing representations of

Moreover, Reni's essential unconcern

and allegory

mary requirements

in

landscape settings'" of the sort

83

is

exposed by the

for pri-

irrational

perhaps best exemplified by the Four

behaviour of the executioners: they seem to act

Elements in Turin, painted in 1626-8 [30]. In

automatically without concentration on their

that

is

his later years

Albani became involved

retical speculations
ter.

Although he had

in the early

in theo-

task.

of a strictly classical characa relatively

moment

strong

1630s {Annunciation, S. Bartolom-

Reni's

opposite.

than a provincial interest, often combine in-

in

empty and boring

symmetry of arrangement.
Guido Reni was an infinitely more subtle
colourist than Domenichino. In retrospect it

is

in telling contrast to the static

quality of Domenichino's fresco on the wall

meo, Bologna, 1633), during the last period his

large canvases, many of which have little more
fluences from Reni with an

great fresco, the St AnJreir led to

first

Alartyrdom,

The

figure of the saint, forming part

of a procession from

left to

right

which moves

an arch curving towards the front of the

picture,

is

caught in a

moment of

time as he

adores the Cross visible on the far-away

There

is,

tration

and

however,

a lack

hill.

of dramatic concen-

a diffusion in the

composition w hich,

far sur-

while allowing the eye to rest with pleasure on

passed those of his Bolognese contemporaries.

certain passages of superb painting, distracts

would appear

that his vision

and range

His fame was obscured by the large mass of

from the story

standardized sentimental pictures coming from

contrast,

his studio

during the

last

recently,

fairly

It is

itself.

How lucidly organized, by

the Domenichino!

And

yet

one has

life,

only to compare the figure of the henchman

only

seen from the back in both frescoes to realize

ten years of his

the majority the product of assistants.

is

and particularly through the

Reni's superior pictorial handling.

The

classi-

and more imagi-

Reni Exhibition of 1954, that the high qualities

of his original work have revealed him once

cism of Reni

again as one of the greatest figures of Seicento

Guido was capable of adjusting

painting.

the subject-matter instead of conforming to a

Guido was

less

dependent on Annibale than

is

in fact far freer

native than that of Domenichino. In addition,

This may be indicated by men-

rigid pattern.

some works created during

the other Bolognese artists, and from the begin-

tioning

ning of his stay in Rome he received commissions

important years of his

of his own. Between 1604 and 1605 he painted

the Crucifixion of St Peter (Vatican) in Caravaggio's

manner. That even Reni, despite having

gone through Lodovico's school

would

for a while

at

Bologna,

be drawn into the powerful

orbit of Caravaggio^^

might almost have been

foreseen; but although the picture shows an

extraordinary understanding of his dramatic

realism and lighting
the Cariivaggisti had

and that

come

at a

time before

into their

own

the

was classical and his approach

removed from Caravaggio's. The

his style to suit

the

same

life.

In the Music-making Angels of the S. Silvia

Chapel

in S.

Gregorio Magno, and

the denser crowds of angels in the

still

more

in

dome of the

Quirinal Chapel, Reni has rendered the intangible beauty

and golden

the nature of angels.

light

which belong

to

A few years later he painted

the dramatic Massacre ofthe Innocents (Bologna,

Pinacoteca).^'* Violence,

have thought the

But the

spirit

artist

of which one would

incapable,

is

rampant.

of Raphael and of the ancient

basis of Reni's art

Niobids combine to purge

to painting far

structed canvas of any impression of real horror.

picture

is

composed in the form ot the tradipyramid and firmly woven into

tional classical

In the

this subtly

Samson (Bologna, Pinacoteca)

mitigated

the

con-

[31]^"

he

melancholy aftermath of the

BIBLOSARTE

84

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY UAROQUE

^^yrz^:^^

'

i^f^VT/'ffl

bloodthirsty scene by the extraordinary figure

of the hero, standing alone in the twilit landscape in

pose vaguely reminiscent of Mannerist

moving

to the muffled

sound of

music, with no weight to his body.

Triumph

figures, as if

and desolation are simultaneously conveyed by

the contrast of the brilliant warm-golden hue of
the elegant

nude and the cold tones of the corpses

huddled on the

field.

I'he

monumental Papal

Portrait, probably painted a decade later,^"

Corsham Court,

at

is

now

a serious interpretation

of character in the Raphael tradition, showing

depth of psychological penetration which

a
is

surprising after a picture like the Massacre,

where the expressions of all the

ations

on the same theme.

mutes

in

faces are vari-

Finally, Reni trans-

the Aurora [32]^' a statuesque ideal of

bodily perfection and beauty by the alchemy of

his

31 (lop).
c.

Guido Reni: The Triumph of Samson,

1620. Bdlogna, Pinacoteca

light effects,

weld-

ing figures adapted from classical and Renais-

sance art into a graceful and flowing conception.

32 (above). Guido Reni: Aurora,

161 3- 14. Fresco.

Rome, Palazzo

glowing and transparent

Rospigliosi, Casino dell' Aurora

As

early as 16 10

emerge
to

it

seemed

as the leading artist in

supreme eminence was open

would

that Reni

Rome. The road

to him, not least

because of his favoured position

in the

house-

hold of Cardinal Scipionc Borghcse, through

whose good

offices

he had been given the

lion's

share of recent papal commissions. But he

BIBLOSARTE

CARAVAGGIO'S FOLLOWERS AND THE CARRACCI SCHOOL

85

himself buried these hopes when in 1614 he

Atalanta and Hippomencs (Prado) of the early

Domesituation. The

centration on graceful line, and the peculiar

change of domicile had repercussions on his

balance between naturalism and classicizing

decided to return to Bologna, leaving

nichino in

command

rather than

style

on

of the

his

productivity.

masterpiece followed the other

cession.

Among them

della Pietd

in

One

quick suc-

are the great

Madonna

of 161 6 (Bologna, Pinacoteca), which

composition could never have been painted in Rome,

with

its

peculiar symmetrical

and the Assumption

in S.

and

hieratic

Ambrogio, Genoa,

same year, in which evident reminiscences of Lodovico and Annibale have been
overlaid with a more vivid Venetian looseness
and bravura [33]. This rich and varied phase of
begun

in the

Reni's activitv reaches

its

conclusion with the

The eurhythmic

620s.

idealization of the figures,

epitome of Reni's

as an

warm

his

Guido Reni: The Assumption of

Amhmgin

161 6- 17. Genoa. S.

the Virgin,

worked out

is

all

work

reveal this

He

art.

and the

palette,

the picture

has discarded

irrational lighting of
in cool colours.

The

remaining years of his Bolognese activity, during

which he developed
with

together

new colour scheme

this

thorough

readjustment

of

general principles, belong to another chapter.

Reni's influence,

was strongest

years,

particularly
in

in

his

later

Bologna, from where

it

spread. Lanfranco, on the other hand, after

having been overshadowed by Domenichino

during the

33.

composition, the con-

two decades of the century,

first

eventually gained in stature at the expense of his

rival,

and

in the twenties secured his position as

the foremost painter in

in

1582, he

first

Rome. Born

worked

at

Parma

there, together with

Sisto Badalocchio, under Agostino Carracci,

and
both

it

was

after Agostino's death in 1602 that

artists joined

Annibale in the Eternal City.

From the beginning Lanfranco was the antipode

of Domenichino. Their enmity was surely the
result of their artistic incompatibility; for

Lan-

coming from Correggio's town, had

adopted a characteristically Parmese palette
franco,

and always advocated

a painterly

freedom

in

contrast to Domenichino's rigid technique. In

fact the old antithesis

which

for a

between colour and design,

moment Annibale had

resolved,

was here resurrected once again.

In his early

engaged on
frescoes

Roman

all

by the

ever, in a

years we find Lanfranco

more important cycles of
Bolognese group, often, howthe

minor capacity. Beginning perhaps as

Annibale's assistant in the Farnese Gallery, he

had

share in the frescoes in the S. Diego

Chapel, in S. Gregorio Magno, the Quirinal

Palace,

and even

Maria Maggiore.

in the

Cappella Paolina in S.

Of the

Lanfranco on his own

BIBLOSARTE

first

in

cycle painted

about 1605

by

in the

86

THE PERIOD OK TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

Camera

degli Ercmiti of the Palazzo Farnesc,

three paintings detached from the wall survive

in the

neighbouring church of S. Maria della

Morte.''-

This work shows him already follow-

style.

The change may

cenza Si Luke of 161

be observed
It

1.

Caravaggio's monumental
to usher in Lanfranco's

in the Pia-

appears there that

Roman

style

new manner.

helped

.S7

Luke

ing a comparatively free painterly course, re-

combines motifs from Caravaggio's two Si

markably untouched by the gravity of Annibale's

Matthews

Roman manner. But

a graceful angel in

Lodovico's manner

and the whole

bathed

end of 1610

it

was

from the

home-town Parma

to 16 12 in his

that brought

his stay

inherent tendencies to sudden

maturity. Probably through contact with the

late stvle

of Bartolommeo Schedoni"' he devel-

Parmese

for the altar

is

of the Contarelli Chapel;

in

is

added,

Lanfranco's new

tonality. After his return to

Rome

and

in a daring

composition such as the Vienna

oped towards a monumental and dynamic Baro-

Virgin with St

que manner with strong chiaroscuro tendencies.

about 1615-20'^ his new idiom appears

It

was the renewed experience of the

Correggio

and of Correggio seen

original

through

Schedoni's Seicento eyes that turned Lanfranco

into the

champion of the

rising

High Baroque

he

gradually discarded the traditional vocabulary,

James and St Anthony Abbot of

fully

developed.

Lanfranco's ascendancy over Domenichino

in S.

Agostino (1616)

and was sealed with the huge

ceiling fresco in

began with the frescoes

the Villa Borghese of 1624-5 [34]-^^ "^n enor34.

Giovanni Lanfranco: The Gods of Olympus

(repainted) and Personifications of Rivers, 1624-5.

Detail of ceilins; fresco. Rome,

ilia

Borghese

mous illusionist cornice is carried by flamboyant

stone-coloured caryatids between which

is

seen

the open sky. This framework, grandiose and at

BIBLOSARTE

35-

Giovanni Lanfranco;

The

Virgin in Glory, 1625-7. Fresco. Rome, S. Andrea della Valle, dome

BIBLOSARTE

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

88

the

same time easy,

reveals a decorative talent ot

the highest order. But although there

is

Baro-

of his time. His Virgin with Saints of 1616

Museum),

(Brussels

the

Martyrdom of St

Peter

que loosening here, the dependence on the

of 1618 (Modena), the Prodi^^al Son of 1618-19

Farnese ceiling

(Vienna), and the Louvre St Francis and St

cannot

be overlooked

the

quadratura yields on the ceiling to the large

Gods of Olym-

qiiadro ripnrtato depicting the

Compared with

pus.

the Farnese Gallery, the

and concentration on

simplification

few great

Benedict, the Elijah fed by Ravens (London,

Mahon

and particularly the St

Collection),

William receiving the Habit (Bologna, Pinacoteca),

all

of 1620, show a progression towards

accents are as striking as the shift of visual

Baroque movement, the merging of figures with

and

their surroundings, form-dissolving light ef-

import from the quadra riportato to the

with

quadratura

airy

light

accessory

the

scenes.

Traditional quadratura of the type practised by

By

Tassi was reserved for architecture only.

making use of the

his

figures as an inherent part of

scheme Lanfranco revealed

and

more

playful

fantastic inventiveness than his predeces-

sors, excellently suited to the villa of the

patron

The

who required

next important

step

in

forceful,

and there

which

often carried far

felt

Lanfranco's

seemed

torial,

which the prevailing

Correggiesque

illu-

Roman church

duced into

was

this that spelt the real

decoration, and

end

it

predomin-

to the

similar step

had been taken

few years

he executed, above

[36].

belonged

younger generation; thus already

known work,

carried out in his

birthplace. Cento, he reveals a breaking

from

Carraccesque

the

Although these frescoes of 1614

away

conception.

figure

in the

all,

Casa

in the

is

emotional and personal interpretations with

something of the quality of cabinet painting,

foster the

There

is

mood evoked by

the

coming of light.

here an extraordinary freedom of

handling, almost sketch-like in effect, which

forms a dehberate contrast to the hard

the architecture

in their flickering effect

way

a long

These atmospheric

to dissolve

qualities,

which

of light

cubic form.
to a certain

appeared as

and must

a reversal

at the

of the traditional solidity

developed more

had

fully

and

during the next ten years.

his visit to

Rome

in

1621

Guercino painted a series of powerful altarpieces

which

entitle

him

to rank

among

the

first artists

perman-

Roman

painters,

which might have assured Guercino

ent place in the front rank of

16 16

lines of

time have

of the fresco technique. This work, however,

extent Guercino shared with Lanfranco, were

Between

.\t

end the figures of Day and Night,

racci in the Palazzo Fava, Bologna, they contrast

which goes

XV

the very antithesis of

Casino Rospigliosi.

Provenzale are derived from those by the Car-

with their model

change

the frescoes in the Casino

quadratura architecture

either

in his earliest

would be

classical taste

The boldly foreshortened Aurora charging

One

to a slightly

manner would

and hasten

Ludovisi for the Cardinale nipote oiGregory

Guido's fresco

artist

in 1621,

incapable of resisting. Between 1621 and 1623

before by Guercino in the decoration of palaces.

should not forget that this

Rome

through the sky which opens above Tassi's

ance of the classicism of the second decade.

in

rather violently Baroque

della Valle, 1625-7,^*'

[35].

beyond the capacity

appeared

create a deep impression

sionism of the grandest scale was here intro-

increasingly

foregone conclusion that his pic-

career, the painting of the

Baroque painting

become

an intensity of expression

the greatest admiration.'"

When Guercino
it

dome of S. Andrea
opens up a new phase of

is

is

of Lodovico, for whose early style Guercino

eminent

light-hearted grandeur.

and glowing and warm colours. In addi-

fects,

tion, contrapposto attitudes

for the artist an

Under

unexpected consequence.

the influence of the

Roman

atmosphere,

which was charged with personal and theoretical complexities, his confidence

BIBLOSARTE

began to ebb.

CARAVAGGIO

FOLLOWERS AND THE CARRACCI SCHOOL

36. Guercino: Aurora, 1621-3. Fresco.

Rome, Casina Ludiivisi

Already in the great Burial and Reception into

Heaven of St Petromlla of 1622-3 (Rome,
Capitoline

Museum)

of an abandonment

there

is

a faint

beginning

of Baroque tendencies.

figures are less vigorous

and more

The

distinctly

more

easily appreciated classicism.

very picture where this

idea of lowering the

open sepulchre

in

is

first

body of the

But

in the

manifest, the
saint into the

which the beholder seems

to

stand has a directness of appeal unthinkable

defined, the rich palette

without the experience of Caravaggio.""' Thus

composition

painterly

than

in

is toned down, and the

more classically balanced
It is a curious
the pre-Roman works.

historical

too

itself is

^"^

paradox that Guercino who,

it is

not

much to say, sowed the seeds in Rome of the

great

High Baroque decorations, should at this

moment have begun to turn towards a

precise

and

Baroque

a foretaste

at this crucial

style,

an echo of Caravaggio,

of Baroque-Classicism combine

phase of Guercino's career.

The

aftermath, in the painter's home-town, Cento,

must be mentioned
context.

BIBLOSARTE

later

on and

in a different

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER

PAINTING OUTSIDE ROME

The

of painting. These schools lived on into the

became a stagnant backWherever Florentines or Florentineinfluenced artists worked at the beginning of the

and provincial centres

Italian city-states

looked back to an old tradition of local schools

painters in Europe,
water.

seventeenth century, preserving some of their

seventeenth century,

native characteristics. In contrast to the previous

free

two centuries, however,

(1528 or later- 16 1 2),- whose place

slight

importance was

their

compared with Rome's dominating

posi-

they produced painters of con-

tion. It is true

it

spelled a hindrance to a

development of painting. Thirdly, Barocci

'

is

in a history

of sixteenth-century painting, has to be mentioned. All that can be said of

him here

is

that

Rome

he always adhered to the ideal of North Italian

that these masters could rise to the level of

colour and fused an emotionalized interpre-

siderable distinction, but

metropolitan

to

who

was only

seems

artists. It

the Bolognese

it

in

guess that

a safe

followed Annibale Carracci

Rome would have remained provincial if they

Before discussing the contributions of the

may once again

local schools, the leading trends

(see p. 27) be surveyed.

draw

About 1600,

inspiration from,

back upon, three principal manners.

diflferent facets

Mannerist figures and

Mannerist compositions. Whenever

artists at

the turn of the century tried to exchange rational

Late Mannerist design for irrational Baroque

had stayed at home.

painters could

tation of Correggio with

Italian

and

fall

First, the

of Venetian and North Italian

work was one of the

colour, Barocci's imposing

chief sources to which they turned. x'Vmong his

direct followers in the

Andrea

Marches the names of

(1555-1610),' Alessandro Vitale

Lilli

(1580- 1 660), and Antonio Viviani (1560- 1620)

may

be noted. His influence spread to the

colourism: the warm, glowing and light palette

Emilian masters, to Rome, Florence, Milan,

of Veronese, the loaded brush-stroke of the

and above all to Siena, where Ventura Salimbeni

late

567- 1630) and Francesco Vanni (1563-

Titian, Tintoretto's dramatic flickering chiaro-

(c.

and Correggio's sfumato. Venetian 'impressionist' technique was surely the most

1610)^ adopted his

scuro,

important factor

Baroque painting.

bringing about the

in

new

Its influence is invariably a

sign of progressive tendencies,

and

it is

hardly

necessary to point out that European painting

remained permanently

down

to the

indebted

to

Venice,

French Impressionists. Secondly,

there was the anti-painterly style of the Florentine

Late Mannerists,

a style

of easy routine,

sapped of vitaUty, which remained nevertheless

in

vogue

far into the

seventeenth century. But

manner

at certain phases of

their careers.
x'\s

the century advanced beyond the

first

decade three more trends became prominent,

the impact of which

was

throughout

and across her

Italy

to

be

felt

sooner or later
frontiers,

namely the classicism of Annibale Carracci's

school, Caravaggism,

Baroque, the

last

and Rubens's northern

resulting mainly

from the

wedding of Flemish realism and Venetian

colourism. This marriage, accomplished by

great genius, was extraordinarily fertile and had

above all

northern

this style contained

no promise

for the future.

Florence, which for

more than

hundred years

At the end of the sixteenth and the beginning

had produced or educated the most progressive

of the seventeenth centuries provincial painters

a lasting influence

BIBLOSARTE

in

Italy.

92

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

could not yet have recourse to the

which were then

in the

new trends

making. But provincial

centres were in a state of ferment. Everywhere

in Italy artists

were seeking

painting. This situation

is

new approach

to

not only cognate to

Barocci's Urbino, Cerano's and Procaccini's

Milan, Bernardo Strozzi's Genoa, Bonone's

as the authors of a series of

production

less their

Neither academic

essentially provincial.

is

in the sense

of the prevalent

Domenichino type of classicism nor fettered to

Caravaggismo, their work is to a certain extent

Rome. The

Modena, but even

to

an antithesis to contemporary art

as

culmination of this typically Bolognese manner

an attempt to break away from Mannerist con-

On

emerge

powerful and vigorous masterpieces. Neverthe-

and may be characterized

Ferrara, and Schedoni's

Cigoli's Florence,

second decade of the seventeenth century that

these artists

occurs

about

years

fifteen

in

after

.^nnibale's

new emotional
from formulas of com-

departure to Rome, when the powers of Lodo-

position and colour.^ Since the majority of these

were on the wane. In the ten years between 16 10

ventions.

all

sides are seen a

vigour and a liberation

artists

belonged to the Carracci generation,

much of their work was painted before

600. They

were, of course, reared in the Late Mannerist

tradition,

and from

this, despite their protest

against it, they never entirely emancipated themselves. It

was only

in

vico,

both as painter and as head of the Academy,

and 1620, above

all,

the artists of the Carracci

school fulfilled the promise of their training;

but on the return of Guido Reni

to

Bologna,

they relinquished one by one their individuality

to this

Bologna, due mainly to the

much

superior painter.

was the most

If Mastelletta

original of this

pioneering of the Carracci 'academy', that at the

group of

beginning of the Seicento a coherent school

undoubtedly Cavedoni and Tiarini. After

arose which hardly shows traces of a transitional

brief Florentine phase in his early youth" the

style.

As regards the other provincial towns,

by and large more appropriate

sitional

manner brought about by

the efforts of

individual and often isolated masters,

whose names have

just

be discussed

some of

been mentioned. The

special position in the Venice of

will

it is

to talk of a tran-

end of

at the

Lys and

Fetti

this chapter,

while the lonely figure of Caracciolo

may more

latter

artists,

returned

developed

where he soon

Bologna,

to

a characteristic style

of his own. His

masterpiece, St Dominic resuscitating a Child, a

many-figured

picture

of

huge

dimensions,

painted in 1614-15* for S. Domenico, Bologna,

is

dramatically

lit

and composed

[37].

Since he

was hardly impeded by theoretical considerations, Httle

is

to

conveniently be added to the names of the later

practised at this

Neapolitan painters (see

Rome. While

p. 356).

the most highly talented were

be found here of the classicism

moment by

his compatriots in

the solidit}' of his figures and their

studied gestures reveal his education in the

BOLOGNA AND NEIGHBOURING

The foremost names

Carracci school, his 'painterly' approach to his

CITIES
subject proves

of Bolognese artists

did not follow Annibale to

who

Rome are Alessandro

Tiarini (1577- 1668), Giovanni Andrea

Don-

on

whom

him

he also

a close follower of Lodovico,

relies for certain figures

temple and column. During the next years he

manner

compositions with

ducci, called Mastelletta (1575- 1655), Leonello

intensified this

Spada (1576-1622), and, in addition, Giacomo

Cavedoni from Sassuolo (1577- 1660).'' They

sombre and somewhat coarse

all

begin by adopting different aspects of the

Carracci

teaching,

on occasion coloured by

Caravaggio's influence.

It is,

however,

in the

and

the unco-ordinated back-drop of the antique

sive gravity.

in

figures of impres-

Characteristic examples are the

Pieta (Bologna, Pinacoteca) of 161 7, and St

Martin

resuscitating

the

Widow's Son

in

S.

Stefano, Bologna, of about the same period.

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING OUTSIDE ROME

37. Alessandro Tiarini:

St

Dominic

38.

Bologna, S. Domentco

According

to Malvasia's report he

latter's Incredulity

was deeply
of the

a version

of St Thomas,

at the

time in

Bologna, was gleefully copied by him. In the

twenties Tiarini uses a lighter range of colours;
his style

tense,

becomes more

rhetorical

and simultaneously an

nese and Pordenone

is

and

less in-

Vero-

interest in

noticeable. His latest

Virgin and Child with SS. A16 and Petronius,

6 14. Bologna. Ptnacoteca

impressed by Caravaggio, and

93

Giacomo Cavedoni

The

resuscitating a Child, 1614-15.

decade a sense for

a quietly expressive

which he renders with

erly

technique.

Carracci

is

a looser

If his

mood

and more painton Lodovico

reliance

the dominant feature of his work, a

Correggiesque

note

probably

through Schedoni, with

affinities - as

can be seen

whom

reaches

him

he has certain

in the frescoes

of 1 612-

14 in S. Paolo, Bologna. In his masterpiece, the

work, under the influence of Domenichino and

Virgin

above

Petronius of 16 14 (Bologna, Pinacoteca) [38],

all

Reni, hardly bears testimony to his

promising beginnings.

his

Cavedoni lacks the dramatic power of Tiarini's early style,

but he displays

in the

second

and Child

in

Glory with SS. Aid and

glowing palette shows him directly depend-

ent on

sixteenth-century

This

surely one of the most

is

BIBLOSARTE

Venetian painting.

commanding

94

THF.

PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

pictures produced at Bologna during the period.

this

would appear

Cavedoni

his

Bolognese nickname of scimmia del Cara-

never

again

such

achieved

full-

blooded mastery.
It

seems

Caravaggio

suppose, the epithet was doubtless acquired by

Spada accompanied

virtue of his liberal use of black and his realistic

His early manner is close

Mannerism (Abraham and MeUhi-

genre scenes (Musical Party, Maisons Laffitte)

that

to Malta.'

sedek, Bologna,

his

vaggio ('Caravaggio's ape') might lead one to

report

to Calvaert's

conspicuous than

Malvasia's cir-

difficult to discard

cumstantial

slightly less

home-town,

c.

in

or in

more

proved by the fresco of

Abel

in

1605). In 1607 he

as

is

and detailed rendering of close-up figures

was

still

blood-thirst)- contexts (the Catn

Naples or the

Hay to

Calvary

in

in

and

Parma).

The Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes in the

Ospedale degli Esposti. There is no trace here

His use of Caravaggio's

of Caravaggio's influence, and

of the instruction of the Carracci academy. But

in

Spada's later pictures,

the artist's mind.

Only

who
in

it is

is

Lodovico, as

uppermost

in

the course of the

moderated by

himself to Caravaggio, and although nowadays

1616

The Rest on

is

always

acknowledgement

unsuited to monumental tasks, for there

trace of

c.

however,

he seems to have regarded Caravaggism as

second decade do we find him subordinating

39. Mastelletta

art,

a substantial

in

it

S.

is

no

Burning of heretical Books of

Domenico, Bologna, where the

in Tlie

the Flight into Egypt,

1620. Bologna, Pinacoteca

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING OUTSIDE RON4E

packed and sharply

columned architecture fall
tightly

commonly

lit

figures before a

with the style

in

practised at Bologna during these

95

and Carlo Bonone (1569- 1632). The former

belongs essentially to the

late sixteenth

century,

but in his small landscapes with their sacred or

years. In his late period

Spada worked mainly

Reggio and Parma

Ranuccio Farnese, and

nique of Venetian painting and the colour of

Marriage of St Catherine (Parma) of 1621

shows that under the influence of Correggio his

Jacopo Bassano with the tradition of Dosso

for

in

his

style

becomes more mellow and

that his Cara-

vaggism was no more than a passing phase.

must be mentioned. Both these unorthodox

unexpected

Bolognese

in the

who

setting. Faccini, a painter of rare talents

had been brought up

in the

590s he followed the Carracci lead, but

very

last

He

thus becomes an important link with

his influence

Mastelletta

is

on an Emilian master

probably greater than

realized. In Carlo

16 10

shows

in his

40. Carlo

free

dell'

Abate, Correggio, and Barocci seem to have

contributed. His Virgin and Saints in Bologna
is

evidence of the

developed

new manner which

fully

is

in the self-portrait (Florence, Uffizi),

possibly dating from the year of his death. This

curious disintegration of Mannerist and Carrac-

cesque formulas gives

to

his

works an

last

almost eighteenth-century flavour. Mastelletta

painted on the largest scale in a maniera furbesca
(Malvasia),

and the two huge scenes

Domenico, Bologna,

in

S.

reveal that in 161 3-15 he

was not bound by any doctrinal

interest for the

His chief

ties.

modern observer

lies

in

his

small and delicate landscapes in which the influence of Scarsellino as well as Niccolo dell'

Abate may be discovered. ' They are

in a

dark

key, and the insubstantial, brightly-lit figures

emerging from

their

shadowy surroundings

contribute to give to these pictures an ethereal

effect [39].
artist

The most

of his generation

imaginative and poetical

in

Bologna remained,

might be expected, an isolated

today his work

is

figure,

as

and even

almost unknown."

At the same period Ferrara can claim two

artists

in his best

Bonone The Guardian Angel,

Ferrara, Pinacuteca

and delicate man-

which Niccolo

ner, to the formation of

who

a close aflfinitv to

years there was a radical change to-

wards an extraordinarily

of distinction, Scarsellino'-

(i

like

present

Bonone Ferrara possessed an

early Seicento painter

after

is at

period

Schedoni.

Mannerist tradition,

died in 1602 at the early age of forty. In the

1

Dossi.

early seventeenth-century landscape painters,

and

Together with Mastelletta, Pietro Faccini

artists are totally

profane themes he combines the spirited tech-

551 -1620)

BIBLOSARTE

1610.

q6

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARI.Y BAROQUE

Though

not

discarding

the

local

tradition

stemming from Dossi, nor neglecting what he

had learned from Veronese, he
the

fully

shows him not surprisingly returning

typically Ferrarese Late

Bartolommeo Schedoni (1578 1615)"

absorbed

new tendencies coming from Lodovico

calibre.

Maria

in

mostly

Name

ofGod{i()\-;~zo), he based himself upon

Correggio without, however, going so

wards Baroque unification

Rome.

as

far to-

Lanfranco did

Parallel to events in the

in

neighbouring

Bologna, his decline begins during the twenties.

Modena

phase certainly an

his latest

Carracci [40]. In his fresco in the apse of S.

Vado, depicting the Glorification of the

to

He was bom
at

in

artist

Modena

predominantly Mannerist

more

of 1606 7 are
in their

6 10 there

is

in

still

dependence
his style

But beginning

flowing.

in

Modena and worked

on Niccolo dell'Abate, although

already

is

of greater

Parma, where he died. His frescoes

the town-hall at

Mannerism.

in

is

about

an almost complete break with this

early

manner. Pictures of considerable origin-

The Miracle of the Well (1624-6) and the Holy

ality

such as the Christian Charity of 161

Family with Saints (1626), he displays a provin-

Naples

In his two dated works in the

cial eclecticism

Guercino and
picture,

by following

in the other

in the

Gallery,

one case

Veronese. His

last

The Marriage at Cana (Ferrara) of 1632,

of

[41], the Three

Parma, and the unfinished St Sebastian

in

Naples, Mtiseo Nazioiuile

161

1.

Women (Naples) prove that

who has provided the main inspinew style. It is marked both by an

attended by the Holy

Correggio

ration for this

Bartolommeo Schedoni: Christian Charity,

in

6 14, and the Deposition of the same period,

both

it is

41.

Maries at the Sepulchre

intensity

and peculiar aloofness of expression

and by an emotional use of areas of bright

yellows and blues which have an almost metallic
surface quality. His colour scheme, however,
far

removed from

is

that of the Mannerists, for he

limits his scale to a few tones of striking brilliance.

The

treatment of themes with low-class

types as in pictures like the Charity probably

resulted from the experience of Caravaggio or
his followers. It

that

is

a pointer in the

Schedoni often placed

neutral background. Yet

Caravaggio
there

is

is

how

from

different

the result! In Schedoni's case

a strange contrast

ground and the

same direction

his figures before a

figures

between the dark

which shine

like

precious

jewels.'^
It

appears from this survey that the Emilian

masters owed more to Lodovico than to any

other single personality, but

it is

equally evident

that the style of the outsize canvases

like Tiarini,

many

by

artists

Spada, and Mastelletta, with the

narrative incidents, the massive figures,

and the studied academic poses, did not

join

the broad stream of the further development.

Only of Schedoni, the master

BIBLOSARTE

less

obviously

PAINTING OUTSIDE ROME

connected with the Carracci tradition, can

said that he

had

impression he

a lasting influence,

made on

be

it

through the

the youthful Lanfranco.

97

Sarto and Pontormo, but the manner which he

developed

in the

second and third decades of

a peculiar compound of the

Mannerism and a rich, precise,
and sophisticated colour scheme in which

the

new century

is

older Florentine

FLORENCE AND SIENA

It

yellow predominates. Venturi was reminded

has already been indicated that the role of

Florence

in the history

of Seicento painting

is

disappointingly but not unexpectedly limited.

Not

a single artist

produced there

of really great stature was

tradition

tempts

Italian colour

baran, and similar colouristic qualities

be found

in his rare

and attractive

To

a greater or

the arrangement of which

tied to their

northern tradition.

of draughtsmanship, and their at-

to adjust

(Vienna) of the palette later developed by Zur-

remained

at this period.

lesser extent Florentines

before a picture such as the Susanna of 1600

themselves to the use of North

were more often than not half-

By

far the

II

however,

also

lifes,"

dependent on the

most eminent Florentine

this generation,

called

is

may

still

is

Cigoli (1559-1613).

artist

of

Ludovico Cardi,

An

architect of

hearted and inconsistent. Furthermore, neither

repute and a close friend of Galilei,'^ he went

drama and

further on the road to a true Baroque style than

the emotionalism of Barocci nor the

impetuosity of Lanfranco and the young Guercino were suitable to Tuscan doctrine and tem-

perament. Bernardino Poccetti's (1548- 161 2)

sober and measured narrations (Chiostro di S.

42. Cigoli:

The

Florence, S.

Marco, 1602) remained the accepted

artists like

Domenico

Ecstasy of St Francis, 1596.

Marco, Museum

and

style,

Cresti, called Passignano

(1558/60-1638), were faithful to this manner

far into

did,

the seventeenth century. Passignano

however, make concessions to Venetian

show

a richer

palette than those of his

contem-

colour, and his pictures tend to

and warmer

poraries. Similarly, Santi di Tito (1536- 1603)

softened his style towards the end of his career,

but his paintings, though often simple and

appealing, lacked vigour and tension and were

never destined to transmit new

life.

This

was continued anachronistically by Tito's

ful pupil
c.

Agostino Ciampelli

1575-1642).'^

It is likely

(c.

style

faith-

1568- 1630, not

that the

Veronese

Jacopo Ligozzi (1547- 1626),"' who spent most

of his life in Florence, was instrumental in imposing northern chromatic precepts upon the
artists in the city of his choice.

painter of considerable charm,

serves special mention,

is

who

de-

Jacopo Chimenti da

Empoli (1551/4-1640). He began in Poccetti's

studio with a marked bias towards .Andrea del

BIBLOSARTE

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

98

any of his Florentine contemporaries. In the

who have been mentioned.

beginning he accepted the Mannerism of his

(157 1 -1639), Vanni's pupil, was also not un-

teacher, Alessandro Allori. At a comparatively

affected by Barocci's manner.

changed under the influence of

early date he

conversion to Caravaggism

Manetti

Rutilio

But only with

in his

his

Death of the

Barocci (Baldinucci). In his Martyrdom of Si

Stephen of 1597 (Florence, Accademia) Vero-

Blessed Antonio Patrizt of 1616 (S. Agostino,

one

distinction. In the following years his vigorous

nese's influence

clearly noticeable, while

is

of his most advanced works, the Last Supper of

1

(Empoli,

591

Collegiata),

The

clarity, directness,

plicity of interpretation of the

as

dependent on

colouristically, but not formally,

Tintoretto.

him

reveals

and sim-

event show him

almost on a level with the works of the Carracci

at the

same moment. In some of his

Ecce

like the

Homo

(Palazzo

later

works,

Pitti), a typically

Monticiano) does he emerge as an

famous

he gives vent

[42],

Ecstasies of

to the

St Francis

new emotionalism.

Nevertheless, he hardly ever fully succeeded in

casting off his Florentine heritage.

Rome

in 1604,

brief intervals. His largest

frescoes in the
S.

He

went

to

returning to Florence only for

dome

Roman

work, the

of the Cappella Paolina in

Maria Maggiore (1610-13),

of

are, in spite

spatial unification, less progressive than they

may

at first

12),

those of Cupid and Psyche from the Log-

appear. In his

getta Rospigliosi

last frescoes

(now Museo

di

genre scenes are reminiscent of Manfredi and

From

the beginning of the thirties there

falling off in

quality, for

fifteen years

is

Florentine narrative style of the

Poccetti-Passignano type, which was adopted

by Manetti early

in his career,

Rome but also in

only in

which

it

While

in

Genoa

it

and the Fleming Giovanni

than these masters

is

contemporary Matteo Rosselli ( 1 578-

He owed

his

position, however, not to his intrinsic qualities

was the head

of a school which was attended by practically

all

the younger Florentine artists. -

Siena

at this

was imported

out variation, in Milan

it

directly, with-

was blended with new

tendencies in an effort to produce a distinctly

'native'

manner.

Roma), he

(1576- 1644), adhere to a transitional

as a painter but to the fact that he

to

(1611-

best of Cigoli's followers, Cristofano

1650), a pupil of Passignano.

a success not

was put was not everywhere the same.

Charles Borromeo

their exact

was

the North, particularly

and Lombardy. However, the use

in Liguria

franco as well as to Annibale himself.

More important

exhausted.-'

The popular

Seicento painting

style. ^^

is

the St

pupils, the energy displayed during the previous

the

Allori (1577- 1 621)

in

great extent executed with the help of

to a

extent that they were once attributed to Lan-

Biliverti

example

Eligius of 1 63 1 at Siena; in his latest production,

accepted the Carraccesque idiom to such an

Even the

of

Valentin or even the northern Caravaggisti.

Seicento immediacy of appeal will be found; in

others, like his

artist

(d.

in the first chapter.

kept alive by his

Borromeo.

It

Milan developed under

great counter-reformer St
1584),

His

a cycle of paintings to

from
St

his life

in

1602 commissioned

honour St Charles's

large canvases depicting scenes

were increased

Charles's

discussed

of devotion was

nephew Archbishop Federico

was he who

memory. These

who was

spirit

in 16 10, the year

canonization,

to

over

forty

of
to

include portrayals of his miracles (the whole

cycle

in

Milan Cathedral).

Many

of these

pictures were due to the three foremost Milan-

period had at least one painter

worth recording apart from the Barocci

in

shadow of the

fol-

lowers Ventura Salimbeni and Francesco Vanni,

ese painters of the early Seicento, Giulio Cesare

Procaccini

(1574- 1625),--

Crespi, called Cerano

BIBLOSARTE

(t.

Giovanni

Battista

1575- 1632), and Pier

PAINTING OUTSIDE ROME

Francesco

Mazzucchelli,

9Q

Morazzone

called

(1573-1626),-' and a study of their work gives

the measure of Milanese 'history painting' at
this period

influences from Venice (Veronese,

and

Pordenone)
(Tibaldi),

from

Florentine,

and northern Mannerism

Emilian

(e.g.

have been superimposed upon

ger)

Spranlocal

foundation devolving from Gaudenzio Ferrari.

To

a lesser degree than

Genoa, Milan

moment was

historical

at this

focus of cross-

the

currents from south, east, and north. But this

Milanese
intensity

art

marked by an extraordinary

is

which has deep roots

popular devotion epitomized

in the spirit

in the

of

pilgrimage

churches of the Sacri Monti of Lombardy. (See

also illustrations 221, 222.)

Cerano, born

Novara, was the most com-

at

prehensive talent of the Milanese group. Archi-

and engraver apart from

tect, sculptor, writer,

he became in

his principal calling as painter,

1

62 1 the

first

Director of Federico Borromeo's

newly founded Academy. In

the

Borromeo family

and he remained
the end of his

had the
cycle.

life:

in close contact

590,

with them to

no wonder, therefore, that he

lion's share in the St

Charles Borromeo

in

he shows, characteristically,

Virgin of the Rosary,

Rome

(1586-95),

in his early

work

Marco, Milan, and although no straight develop-

ment of his

style can possibly be construed,

of such impressive simplicity

sitions

Madonna
Virgin

del Rosario in the Brera [43]

Barocci as well as to Flemish and even older

which he humanized the

Tuscan Mannerists {Archangel Michael, Milan,

Museo di Castello).-^ But he soon worked out a

by

Saints, 1600, Berlin, destroyed)

which

removed from the formalism of

Mannerism around 1600

of the rising Baroque.
sion and an almost

many
and

as

An

{Franciscan
is

as far

international

from the palpability

often agonizing ten-

morbid mysticism inform

falling

Few

Although he never superseded

nerism, as

may be

his mystic

Man-

seen in one of his greatest

works, the Baptism of St Augustine of 1618

in S.

are

known of Cerano's

time date the impressively compact

chrome

latest

mono-

modelli for the sculpture over the doors

of the fa9ade (Museo delFOpera, Cathedral)

which were translated into

Vismara.-"

is

in

religious experience

statuary works of Milan Cathedral, and from

this

famed

which he

Pa via, both of about 161 5,

period. In 1629 he was appointed head of the

by Andrea

clear scale of tones for

the

back on the older Milanese tradition.

pictures

of his canvases, and the silver-grey light

lend support to the spiritual quality of his work.

as

and the

and Child with St Bruno and St Charles

in the Certosa,

formula of his own

he

produced during the second decade compo-

yet

strong attachment to Gaudenzio,-^ Tibaldi, and

Mannerist

1615.

Milan, Brera

fact his relation to

dates back to about

Despite his long stay

The

Cerano:

43.

Biffi,

G.

flaccid

marble

reliefs

and Gaspare

P. Lasagni,

Like Cerano, Morazzone had been early in

his life in

work

Rome

{c.

in the Eternal

1592-8), and

City can

still

(frescoes in S. Silvestro in Capite).

BIBLOSARTE

some of

be seen

his

in situ

But Moraz-

44-

Morazzone: Ecce

Homo

Chapel, 1609-13. Frescoes. Varallo, Sacro Alonte

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING OUTSIDE ROME

zone's style was even

more

formed

radically

Cerano's on Gaudenzio Ferrari.

than

home, he made

his

debut as

Back

a fresco painter in

the Cappella del Rosario in S. Vittore at Varese

(1599 and

Rho

61 5- 17). Large frescoes followed at

1602-4) and

collaborators.

elder Camillo

The more

lOI

gifted brother of the

1560- 1629), Giulio Cesare

{c.

had moved with his family from Bologna

Milan

in

about 1590; but

if

to

any traces of his

Bolognese upbringing are revealed

in his

work,

'Ascent to Calvary'

they point to the older Bolognese Mannerists

Chapel of the Sacro Monte, Varallo (1605). In

rather than to an influence from the side of the

the frescoes of the 'Flagellation' Chapel of the

Carracci. In Milan he began as a sculptor with

{c.

in the

Sacro Monte near Varese (1608-9) ^nd the 'Ecce

the reliefs for the facade of SS. Nazaro e Celso

Homo' Chapel at Varallo (1609-13)

(1597-1601),^

zone's characteristic style

fully

is

[44]

Moraz-

developed. In

and

statuesque

quality

evident in his paintings during the

first

is

two

1614 he finished the frescoes of the 'Condem-

decades. Apart from his contacts with

nation to Death' Chapel at Varallo, and between

zone and Cerano, the important stages of his

6 16 and 1620 he executed those of the 'Por-

career are indicated by his renewed interest in

ziuncola' Chapel of the Sacro

Monte

at Orta.-'

once evident that Morazzone,

It is at

like his

contemporary Antonio d'Enrico, called Tanzio

da

Varallo

steeped

in

(1574/80-1635),
the

enterprises, in

tradition

which the

was thoroughly

of these collective

spirit

sculpture after 1610, by his stay in

army of

Circumcision (Galleria Estense), and his sojourn

at

Genoa

in 1618. x'\fter

mercy of Correggio and

Modena he was
his

and artisans

contributed between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries.-" Morazzone's reputation as a

fresco painter, solidly founded on his achieve-

ments

in the Sanctuaries,

opened other great

opportunities for him. In 1620 he painted a

chapel in S. Gaudenzio at Novara and in 1625,

shortly before his death, he began the decoration of the

dome

of Piacenza Cathedral, the

GuerMorazzone as a master of the grand decorfresco went further than his Milanese

greater part of which was carried out by

cino.
ative

contemporaries
lar

the

in

promoting the type of popu-

realism that was part and parcel of the art of

Sanctuaries.

But

that

the

intentions of

Morazzone, Cerano, and Procaccini

apart

is

picture',

the
in the

The

lay not far

proved by the famous 'three-master-

Seconda

S.

Martyrdom of SS. Rufina and

Brera of about

1620.-''

Rufina painted by Giulio Cesare Pro-

caccini in the lower right half of this

carries the signature of a precious

work

manner and

bigoted piety very different from those of his

45. Giulio

St

Cesare Procaccini:

Mary Magdalen,

c.

16 16. Milan. Brera

BIBLOSARTE

at the

Parmese followers.

of the medieval

artists

Modena

between 1613 and 1616, where he painted the

miracle plays was revived and to the decoration

of which a whole

Moraz-

46.

Antonio d'Enrico,

il

Tanzio: David,

c.

1620. I'arallo. Pmacoteca

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING OUTSIDE ROME

above

Parmigianino, as his Marriage of Si

all

Catherine

(Brera)

(Brera) [45] prove.

tact with

and the Mary Magdalen

Genoa brought him

in

con-

Rubens, and the repercussions on

style will easily

be detected

his

such works as the

in

Deposition of the Fassati Collection, Milan, and

the Judith and Hulufernes of the

Museo

del

Castello.

be said about Tanzio, the most

temperamental, tense, and violent of this group

of Milanese

he was
161

5,

in

artists. It is

Rome some

now

fairly certain that

time between 1610 and

and the impact of Caravaggtsmo

mediately

felt in

is

im-

the Circumcision at Fara

San

Martino (parish church) and the Virgin with

Saints

in

(Abruzzi),

the

Collegiata

at

Pescocostanzo

works which appear deliberately

archaizing and deliberately crude.''

The im-

portant frescoes at Varallo as well as those in the

47. Daniele Crespi: St Charles
(".

Chiesa della Pace, Milan,*- show him returning

Borromeo

at

Cerano and the \'ene-

to the local traditions, to

tians; nevertheless,

Caravaggismo seems

to

have

kept a hold on him, as later pictures attest,

among them
the

the obsessed-looking David with

enormous polished sword and the almost

obscene head of Goliath (Varallo, Pinacoteca)

[46]

A word must

103

and

most extraordinary Battle of

the

Sennacherib (1627-9, S. Gaudenzio, Novara;

bozzetto in the

Museo

Civico),

compromising realism
ghostlike

the

where an un-

transmuted into

drama with frightfully distorted figures

which seem

To

is

petrified into

names of these

that of the

permanence. '"

artists

should be added

younger Daniele Crespi

1630), a prodigious worker

who

{c.

1598-

derived mainly

from Cerano and Procaccini, but whose

first

recorded work shows him assisting Guglielmo

Caccia, called

II

Moncalvo

Supper,

1628. Milan, Chiesa delta Passione

BIBLOSARTE

{c.

1565-1625),'^ in

104

'

PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

TH^-

dome

the frescoes otthe

of S. VittOre at

In his best works Daniele

rcahsm and parsimonious handhng of

means with

Milan.

combined severe
pictorial

a sincerity of expression fully in

sympathy with the

religious climate at Milan.

Supper

His famous St Charles Borrotneu

at

(Chiesa della Passione, Milan,

1628) [47]

comes nearer to

c.

the spirit of the austere devotion

of the saint than almost any other painting of

the period and

is,

moreover, expressed without

recourse to the customary religious and

sitional

compo-

props from which the three principal

promoters of the early .Milanese Seicento were

The

never entirely able to detach themselves.

question has been raised
to

if Daniele

was indebted

Zurbaran's contemporary work. Whether or

not the answer

is

in the affirmative,

he certainly

was impressed by Rubens and Van Dyck,

as

is

among his followers must be

numbered Lazzaro Tavarone(i 556-1 64 i),BatSeicento, and

Castello

tista

(1547- 1637), and

brother

his

Bernardo (1557- 1629). But

it

much

Mannerists

sought-after,

tame

was not these

who

brought about the flowering of seventeenthcentury Genoese

Genoa grew

art.

impor-

to

many

tance as a meeting place of artists from

There was

difterent quarters.
to

Tuscan group

which the Sienese Pietro Sorri (1556- 1622),

Francesco Vanni, and Ventura Salimbeni be-

Lomi (1556- 1622) from Pisa

Genoa between 1597 and 1604, and Gio-

longed. Aurelio

was

in

vanni Battista Paggi (1554- 1627),

who had worked

brought back the

Florence

in

latter's

manner

Genoese

with

Cigoli,

to his

home-

town. In accordance with their training and

on the whole

tradition these artists represent

More

revealed in his principal work, the cycle of

rather reactionary element.

frescoes in the Certosa at Garegnano, Milan

contact with the progressive Milanese school,

(1629).

similar cycle painted in the Certosa

of Pa via in the year of his death

may be regarded

as an anti-climax. Daniele's career

was prema-

This

turely interrupted by the plague of 1630.

event, immortalized by Manzoni, spelled to

intents and purposes the end of the

first

all

and

greatest phase of Milanese Seicento painting.

vital

was the

and the impact of Giulio Cesare Procaccini,

working

Of

Genoa

in

in 16 18,

was

certainly great.

equal and even greater importance for the

future of Genoese painting were the Flemings.

They had

long regarded

Genoa

as a suitable

place to try their fortunes, and works by artists

such as Pieter Aertsen were already collected

there in the late sixteenth century. Snyders was

probably

GENOA

de Wael

Genoa

in

in 1608,

(1592- 1667)

and

Cornelius

later

became an honorary

While the most important period of Milanese

citizen

painting was over by about 1630, a local Seicento

Their genre and animal pictures form an impor-

school began in

Genoa somewhat

flourished

hundred

later

but

and leader of the Flemish colony.'^

tant link with the greater figure of G. Benedetto

During the

Castiglione,

and

seventeenth century the old maritime republic

(Italianized:

Giovanni Rosa) should

for

had an immensely
their

money

years.

rich ruling class

for the

who made

most part by world-wide

banking manipulations; and the international

character of their enterprises
the artistic

field. It is

previous century

Cambiaso

is

also reflected in

true that at the end of the

Genoa had possessed

(1527-85)

great

Capable of working on the

native

in

Luca
artist.

largest scale, his

influence remained a vital force far into the

in

this

context Jan

Roos

at least

be

mentioned. But the names of all these Flemings

are dwarfed

by that of Rubens, whose stay

in

the city in 1607 {Circumcision, S. .\mbrogio)

and dispatch,
Ignatius (S.

in

Dyck's sojourns
vaggio, in
it

seems,

1620, of the Miracle of St

Ambrogio) were

Genoa

in

as decisive as

Van

1621-2 and 1626-7. Cara-

for a short while in 1605, left,

no deep impression

ment. Caravaggism gained

BIBLOSARTE

at

a foothold,

that

mo-

however,

PAINTING OUTSIDE ROME

through Orazio Gentileschi and Vouet, who

were

in

Finally

Genoa
it

beginning of the twenties.

at the

should not be forgotten that the

Genoese appreciated the

The

art of Barocci

and of

1638),

Domenico

Fiasella, called

II

105

Sarzana

(1589-1669), Luciano Borzone (1590-1645),

and Gioacchino

.\ssereto (1600-49) runs to a

certain extent parallel.

They begin

traditionally

former's Crucifixion for the

enough: Fiasella and Strozzi deriving from

cathedral was painted in 1595; and pictures by

Lomi, Paggi, and Sorri; Ansaldo from the

the Bolognese.

Domenichino, Albani, Reni,'" and others reached

Genoa

at

an early moment.

Velasquez made
visit in

in

Genoa

The

at the

impression

time of his

1629 seems worth investigating.

It

can,

therefore, be seen that in the first decades of the

seventeenth century
tact

with

all

Genoa was

in active

con-

the major artistic trends, Italian

The development
native

of the early seventeenth-

Genoese

Strozzi (1581-1644),

48.

show

these artists
school,

and only

Rome from

Gioacchino Assereto:

painters

Bernardo

Andrea Ansaldo (1584-

The Supper

at

Emmaus,

Towards

the twenties

the influence of the Milanese

Fiasella,

who had worked

1607 to 1617,

is

really

in

swayed by

the Caravaggisti.^'' In the course of the third

decade they

all

attempt to cast away the

vestiges of Mannerism

and foreign.
century

mediocre Orazio Cambiaso, Luca's son; and

Assereto from Ansaldo.

naturalistic

manner,

of Rubens and

and turn towards

largely

Van Dyck.

last

a freer,

under the influence

It

should, however,

be said that, lacking monographic treatment,

after 1630.

Genoa, Private Colleclion

BIBLOSARTE

106

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

neither Borzone nor Ansaldo and Fiasella are

defined personalities;

clearly

that the prolific Fiasella,

was much
cracy,

who

lived longest

fashion with the

in

must be regarded

would seem

it

Genoese

and

aristo-

as the least interesting

tried not unsuccessfully to recapture

something

of the spirit of Titian's early period; Palma

Giovane, basing himself on

late

mixture of the

Titian and Tintoretto, was the most

and sought-after but

fertile

same time the most

at the

and original of this group of artists. By contrast

monotonous of

Assereto, through Longhi's basic study, has

these masters had

become

potentialities of the loaded brush-stroke. .\s a

an

for us

contours."* In his

with clear

artistic personality

work

after 1630, for

example

Genoa Martyrdom of Si Bartholomew or

Genoa Supper at Emmaus [48], he achieved

in the

the

of composition and a complete

rule

the three.'" Strangely enough,

understanding for the

little

canvases are

their

colouristically

dull,

lacking entirely the exciting surface qualities of

the great sixteenth-century painters.^' Deeply

under the influence of these

facile artists, their

freedom of handling which places him almost

contemporaries

Ferma,

on

Bergamo, and Brescia, bear witness to the popu-

a unification

a level

The

with Strozzi

in his

Venetian period.

genius of this generation, surpassing

his contemporaries,

was Bernardo

Strozzi.

all

His

early style,

from

vacillations

between Veronese, Caravaggio, and

the Flemings,

is

his 'Tuscan' beginnings to his

not yet sufficiently clear [235]. *"

In 1598 he became a Capuchin

monk, but

in

larity

in the Terra

was, in fact, the degeneration of the

great Venetian tradition in Venice

gether with the rise of

progressive

art, that

Rome

they had had two young

his Order,

to-

determined the pattern of

Italy.

San Pier d'Arena. Imprisoned by

itself,

as the centre of

seventeenth-century painting for the whole of

1610 he was allowed to leave the monastery.

at

Verona,

of what had by then become a moribund

style. It

Between 1614 and 1621 he acted as an engineer

in his home-town and from 1623 to 1625 he
painted the frescoes in the Palazzo Carpanetto

in

In 1630 probably few Venetians realized that

artists in their

midst

who had aroused painting from its 'eclectic

slumber'. They were neither Venetian by birth,

he went after his release in 1630 to Venice,

nor were they ever entrusted with important

where he lived

commissions

sion of his

until his death in 1644. Discus-

work may be postponed,

since his

great Venetian period belongs to a later chapter.

1620, and by 162

year

which they had

in the city in

Giovanni Lys came

settled.

Domenico

was

Fetti

in

to Italy in

about

Venice. In the same

had

his

first

taste

of

Venice. Both artists excelled in cabinet pictures

VENICE

and both died young. They each developed

In the smaller centres of northern Italy a Late

manner

Mannerist

of over-riding importance, and by this means

out the

style prevailed practically

first

through-

half of the seventeenth century.

This was primarily due

tion of Venice,

where the leading

played by three eclectic

Negretti, called

to the influential posi-

roles

were

namely Jacopo
Palma Giovane (1544- 1628),
artists,

Domenico Tintoretto (1560- 1635), and

in

which the spirited brush-stroke was

they re-invigorated Venetian colour and became

the exponents of the most advanced tendencies.

They
tic

are the real heirs to the Venetian colouris-

tradition; with their rich,

palette

and

their laden

warm, and

light

brush-work they are

as

1648).

removed from the tenebroso of Caravaggio

as from the classicism of the Bolognese. Lys
was born in Oldenburg in North Germany in

influence; Padovanino in his better pictures

died at the age of thirty-four in 1623; Lys was

sandro

Varotari,

called

Ales-

Padovanino (1588-

Domenico Tintoretto continued his

father's manner with a strong dash of Bassani

far

about 1597, and Fetti in

BIBLOSARTE

Rome

in 1589. Fetti

PAINTING OUTSIDE ROME

even younger when he was carried

off

IO7

by the

Venetian plague of 1629-30. Their aeuvres are

therefore limited, and their influence, although

considerable - particularly on Strozzi

should

not be overestimated.
Fetti's first

came

master was Cigoli, after the

Rome

to

in

association remained close until 161 3,

dence of Cigoli's transitional

covered

in Fetti's

must have

work. In fact

any

v-iggio himself, at

evi-

be dis-

Rome

Fetti

not of Cara-

rate of those followers

in

sympathy with Venetian

is

known about

Fetti's

in

if

such as Borgianni and Saraceni

would have been

little

style can

the influence,

felt

latter

1604; but although their

who were more

Not much

colour.

Roman

period, but

in this circle that

it

he developed

popular genre. At the same time

his taste for the

he must have been deeply impressed by the

art of

Rubens, whose transparent red and blue

he adopted.

flesh tones

to

Mantua

as

When

Court Painter

in 161 3

to

he went

Duke

Ferdi-

nando, he again found himself under the shadow

49.

of Rubens, but while working there, he became

Domenico

Fetti:

The Good Samaritan,

Museum

c.

1622.

Nevp York, Metropolitan

increasingly dependent on Venetian art, particularly that of Titian

and Tintoretto.

Fetti

was

not a master capable of working on a large

and

scale,

to a certain extent the official paint-

ings he had to execute in the ducal service

must

trating parables set in

must have

homely surroundings,

attracted the

same public

as the

Bambocciate in Rome, and the numerous repetitions of the

same subjects from the

artist's

own

have been antipathetic to him. Apart from the

hand

fresco of the Trinity in the apse of the cathedral,

pictures with their loose and pasty surfaces

now

attributed to

1608),^- the

Ippolito Andreasi (1548-

most massive of these commissions

was the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes (Mantua, Palazzo Ducale) where the intricate composition with

below

the

its

high

manifold large figures

standard

passages of painting. Fetti's

falls

shown in many
early work is rather

dark, but slowly his palette lightened, while he

intensified the surface pattern

complementary
his

removal

to

by working with

local colours.^' It

Venice

brief remainder of his

in 1622^^
life

was only

after

and during the

that he

was able

to

devote himself entirely to small easel pictures

[49].

These

little

works,

many of them

illus-

attest their popularity. ^^ It

was

in these

punctuated by rapid strokes of the brush, giving

an
a

eff^ect

of vibrating

light, that Fetti

imparted

recognizably seventeenth-century character

to the pictorial tradition of Venice.

new

stage in the history of art

is

decisively

reached

at this

point.

Although Fetti himself went

a long

way

to-

wards discarding the established conventions

it was Lys who took a step
work opens up a vista on the

of picture-making,

beyond

Fetti

his

future of European painting.

his career in

Lys had

started

about 161 5 in Antwerp and Haar-

lem, where he

came

of local painters,

into contact with the circles

in particular

BIBLOSARTE

Hals and Jor-

I08

THE PERIOD

Ol

TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

daens. In Venice he formed a friendship with

and, after the latter's death, with the

Fetti

Frenchman Nicolas Regnier

in 1627.

1590- 1667),

Rome who moved

to

Only one of Lys's pictures

is

follower of Caravaggio in

Venice

(c.

dated, namely the Christ on the

Mount of Olives

about 1625, since despite

comparatively firm in

Pr////

that the longer he stayed

his

Northern upbringing. Not only did he

exclude from his repertory the rather rustic

The

picture

is

Almost

all

handling.

turbulence

and

freedom

His development during

his

of

few

Venetian years must have been astonishingly

rapid.

Such

the Denis
its

a picture as the Fall

Mahon

Collection,

of Phaeton in

London,

^'^

velvety texture and an intensity which

may

reader

50.

Vision of St Jerome,

Venice, S. Nicolo da Totentino

c.

1590.

Most of them began

their training with a

Late Mannerist and retained throughout their

Mannerist traces

lives

may

degree.

1628.

over-all

this rapid survey.

the artists mentioned in this and the

to a greater or lesser

Only the youngest, born

who were

after

1590,

here included because, like Lys and

an early age, grew up

Fetti, they died at

The

what the

well ask

emerges from

that

previous chapters were born between 1560 and

with

be compared with Rubens, must date from

Giovanni Lys:

the works of

CONCLUSION

northern types, but he also tended towards an

ever-increasing

mind even

to

call

[355].''^

away

from Holland the more he dissociated himself

from

the

(Berlin) or the Vision of St Jerome (Venice,

form which

would appear

is still

On

Nicolo da Tolentino) [50] show a looseness

and freedom and a painterly disintegration of
the Guardi

it

it

S.

been read both

1628 and 1629. For the rest

softness

structure.

other hand later pictures like the Ecstasy of St

(Zurich, private collection), and the date has

as

its

its

in a

post-Mannerist atmosphere or were capable of

discarding the Mannerist heritage entirely.

The

majority matured after 1600 and painted their

works

principal

1610.

after

common bond between

all

What

creates a

these provincial

masters

is

Viewed

in this light, a Tiarini, a Schedoni, a

a spirit

Cerano, and
gether than
it

a Cigoli

is

belong more closely to-

generally realized.

counts very

more

longer or

of deep and sincere devotion.

little

On

persistently to Mannerist con-

ventions than the other, for they are

divorced by a deep

from the

rift

national

Mannerism of

and they

all

Mannerists

way

wrong

to

first

is

genera-

guidance

would, therefore, be

underestimate the revolutionary

character of their style and to regard

as

equally

or another to the

in their search for

to a truly emotional art. It

as

all

facile inter-

the late Cinquecento,

return in one

great Renaissance masters and the

tion of

this level

whether the one clings

it

simply,

often done, as a specific type of Late

Mannerism

as

it

would be

BIBLOSARTE

to stress too

much

PAINTING OUTSIDE ROME

its

continuity into the Baroque of the

The beginnings of the

century.
to

style date

mid
back

Lodovico Carracci of the early nineties and

to Cigoli

of the same period.

It

1600; by and large

it

is

solemnity, mental excitation, and eflfervescence

could not be maintained for long.

To

explore

further the possibilities which were open to

most

artists

roughly from the beginning of Urban

work around

VIITs

reign

finds

intense expression in Caravaggio's

109

its

the idiom of Cara-

Second

Part.

onwards

will

be the task of the

But meanwhile the reader may

compare the change of

religious

Borgianni, and of the Emilian and Milanese

an

to

masters, mainly during the second decade; and,

Strozzi [235, 236], a telling experience which

vaggisti like

been shown again and again

as has

pages,

Orazio Gentileschi, Saraceni, and

it

in these

slowly comes to an end in the course of

is

may be

'Mannerist',

temper from

late,

'Baroque',

repeated a hundred times with artists

of the generation with which

we were here

concerned.

the third decade.

It

early,

important to notice that this

art

If it

is

is

at all possible to associate

manner with

any one style

strongest, or even arises, in the provinces at a

or

moment when

one would not hesitate to single out

Rome. This

is

the temper began to change in

revealed not only in the Farnese

Gallery but also in Annibale's religious work

after 1600,

where studied severity replaces emo-

tional tension. In the provinces the

intensity of this style, the

enormous

compound of gravity,

the spirit of the great reformers,

this art

between about 1590 and 1625/30, and whether

or not this will be agreed to, one thing
that the period

under review carries

is

certain,

its

terms

of 'Late Mannerism' or 'Transitional Style' or

'Early Baroque' on\y

BIBLOSARTE

fante

de mietix.

51. Carlo

Maderno: Rome,

S.

Susanna, 1597- 1603

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER

ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

ARCHITECTURE

based on an almost mathematically lucid proconcentration of bays, orders, and

gressive

Rome: Carlo Maderno (7556-/629^

In

the

first

chapter the broad pattern was

Rome

sketched of the architectural position in

during the early years of the seventeenth century.

The

The

decoration towards the centre.

revolutionary character of Maderno's

of the wall

jection

number of

is

triple

pro-

co-ordinated with the

bays, which are firmly framed by

orders; the width of the bays increases towards

the centre and the wall surface

gradually

is

was he who

eliminated in a process reversing the thickening

broke with the prevailing severe taste and re-

of the wall - from the Manneristically framed

placed the refined classicism of an Ottavio

cartouches to the niches with figures and the

Mascherino and a Flaminio Ponzio by a forceful,

entrance door which

work has already been

manly, and vigorous

after

indicated.

style,

generations,

several

It

which once again,

had

considerable

pediment

conceived as a lighter realization

is

of the lower

many masons and

to the half-

from the North; he was born

lago on the

Maderno came
in

1556

Lake of Lugano, went

his four brothers acquired

in 1588.^
city

He began work

under

his uncle,

Roman

Capo-

In this fa9ade

Rome

Roman

citizenship

Domenico Fontana.

After

the latter's departure for Naples he was on his

own, and before 1600 he had made

himself But his early period and,
his relationship to

mains

The

name

for

in particular,

Francesco da Volterra re-

to be clarified.

year 1603

as a turning

point in Maderno's career; he was appointed

'Architect to St Peter's' and finished the facade

of S. Susanna
fa9ade
as

To

[51].-^

must have been

as

the cognoscenti this

much

of a revelation

Annibale Carracci's Farnese Gallery or Cara-

vaggio's religious imagery. In fact, with this

single work,

Maderno's most outstanding per-

derno imparted

movement

in its present

is

easy to follow

it is

did

Nor

della Vittoria

and

But the dome of the

Rome

it

is

built

facade of

della Valle -

Maderno achieve an

after

that

Maderno's genius

life

or of logical

much

did he find

develop his individuality

in

in his

Andrea

equal degree of intense dynamic

scope to

in the interiors

S.

latter

Andrea
church

the largest

of St Peter's

at its best.

from Michelangelo's dome,

of S.

della Valle.

shows

Obviously derived
it

is

of majestic

Compared with the dome of St

Maderno raised the height of the drum

simplicity.

Peter's

the expense of the vault and increased the

area that

governing this structure

Neither

form mainly the work of Carlo

Rainaldi (p. 283)

revolutionary events in painting. In contrast to

buildings, the principle

units.

St Peter's nor in that of S.

Maria

Ma-

dynamic

directed,

clearly

to the structure horizontally as well

up of individual

at

many Mannerist

and indigenous

Italian

as vertically, in spite of the fact that

formance, architecture drew abreast of the

so

North

traditions are perfectly blended.^

integration.

must be regarded

with pilasters corresponding

tier,

at

in a subordinate capa-

under the simple triangular

and three-quarter-columns below.

to

before Sixtus V's pontificate, and together with

the entire central bay.

tier

sculptural and chiaroscuro qualities. Like so

architects,

fills

The upper

was

to

be reserved for the windows,

and these changes foreshadow the

development.

BIBLOSARTE

later

Baroque

112

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

Long

periods of his working

in the service

were spent

life

of St Peter's, where he was faced

with the unenviable task of having to interfere

The

with Michelangelo's intentions.

the nave, which presented

tact,

amount

a large

The

be followed very closely indeed.**

unassail-

design of

able data are quickly reported. In 1625 Cardinal

immense difficulties,'

Francesco Barberini bought from .\lessandro

proves that he planned with circumspection

and

memoranda and drawings, and

of documents which allow the construction to

desirous to clash as

little

as

was pos-

Duke

Sforza Santafiora,

of Segni, the palace

the 'Quattro Fontane'.

at

year later Cardinal

under the circumstances with the legacy

Francesco presented the palace to his brother

of the great master. But, of course, the nave

Taddeo. Pope Urban VIII commissioned Ma-

sible

marred

for ever the

view of the

dome from

the

square, with consequences which had a sequel

down

to

own days

our

(p. 195).

For the design

of the fa9ade [1,112, 257] he was tied more fully

than

generally realized by Michelangelo's

is

derno

and

to redesign the existing palace

enlarge

it.

The

ations dates

first

payment

to

new foundMaderno died

for the

from October 1628.

on 30 January 1629, and the Pope appointed

Bernini his successor.

To

intents

all

and pur-

system of the choir and transepts (which he had

poses the palace was completed in 1633, but

to continue along the exterior of the nave) and,

minor work dragged on

requirement of the

moreover, by the

ritual

large Benediction

Loggia above the portico.

The

proportions of the original design are

impaired as

a result

add towers, of which only the substructures

These

the last bay at each end - were built [109].

appear
at

now

to

form part of the fa9ade. Looked

without these bays, the often criticized re-

lation of width to height in the fa9ade

Maderno's

satisfactory.

by Borromini) was responsible

entire

to

failure

is

entirely

the

erect

in a

design was to serve for

palace.

alterations,

and

it

was used
At

east wings."

all

four sides of the

some not unimportant

In fact, with

for the present north

this stage, in other

corresponded to the traditional

a designer

of palaces

Maderno

is

best

1598 and finished in 1616."

brick facade

shows him

local tradition. In the

The

in

noble, austere

in the grip

courtyard he

use of ancient busts, statues, and

of the strong

made

subtle

reliefs,

and

at

Farnese, and an inscription explains that the

reported in

As

drawing

model of the Palazzo

bays, fashioned after the

Maderno made

represented by the Palazzo Mattel, begun

assisted

almost the

the Uffizi which shows a long front of fifteen

towers was to have repercussions which will be

a later chapter'' (p. 190).

for

work of execution.

Maderno's design survives

of the papal decision of

1612, after the actual facade was finished, to

until 1638. It is clear

from these data that Bernini (who was

scheme

words,

by and

that

Roman

large

palace,

consisting of a block with four equal sides and an

arcaded courtyard. But there

that this

was Maderno's

present palace, the plan of which

to

an

[52], the traditional

doned and replaced by

is

no certainty

last project.

In the

may be likened

courtyard

is

aban-

deep forecourt. The

the connexion with such Mannerist fronts as

main fa9ade

those of the villas Medici and Borghese

is

three storeys, linked to the entirely different

four-flight staircase decorated

system of the projecting wings by a transitional,

evident.

But the

with refined stuccoes

is

an innovation

in

Rome.

more thoroughly the

major problem of Maderno's career, his part in
It

remains

to scrutinize

the designing of the Palazzo Barberini [52, 53].

The
still

history of the palace

is

to a certain extent

obscure, in spite of much literary evidence.

consists of seven bays of arcades in

bay

slightly receding

was responsible
tional block

At

form

to the

first sight, it

like this

had been

each side [53].

Who

change from the

tradi-

at

for the

new plan ?

would appear that nothing

built before in

Rome

and,

moreover, qua palace, the structure remained

BIBLOSARTE

500 KT

52 (left).

Rome, Palazzo

Barberini, 1628-33.

Plan adapted from a drawing by N. Tessin

showing the palace before rebuilding off. 1670

53. Carlo Maderno and Gianlorenzo
Rome, Palazzo Barberini,

1628-33. Centre of fa9ade

BIBLOSARTE

Bernini:

114

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

isolated in the

Roman

setting

Psychologically

cession.

one prefers

to associate the

it

had no suc-

intelligible that

is

it

change

ot plan

with

young genius who took over from Maderno

the

rather than with the aged master. Yet neither

it

In fact, there

this.

document

the irrevocable

is

Vienna (Albertina) of an un-

in

of its own.

It is

with designing three arcaded

satisfied

On

the other hand,

it is

surrounds with feigned perspective,

differences, corresponds with the execu-

one regards the palace, as one should,

tion. If

as

monumentalized

suburbana', the

'villa

plan loses a good deal of

character, and to attribute

its

it

to

windows of the

The

Maderno's.

one other occasion,'- made

at least

reduce the area of the window-openings;

was necessary

rangement.

to

howMaderno

are,

to

this

Maderno had

tier, set in

device, used by

for reasons

One may assume

richment of the orders

Sforza palace which

third

on

revolutionary

then no longer surprise us.

The old

ever,

celebrated

Maderno

will

second

tier,

it

possible

of internal ar-

that even the en-

engaged columns

incorporate into his design rose on elevated

pilasters in the third tier - occurred while

no was

The

palace overlooked the Piazza Bar-

berini but could never

was

it

form one of its

sides.

possible to align the west front of the

Nor
new

palace with the Strada Felice (the present Via

new

Sistina).

In other words, whatever the

design,

could not be organically related to the

it

nearest thoroughfares.

block-shaped palace

worth mentioning. The ground

Mannerist architects and also by Maderno."

Although

in

untraditional manner,

rather

Borromini often returned

not

at all

unlikely that

it

way.

To what

determine.'^

have to be abandoned and replaced by the type

we

traditional for the 'villa subur-

are

on

As

it.

It is

therefore
to

Maderno's design

in

extent the internal organi-

Maderno

zation deviates from

foregone conclusion that the block-shape would

to

was Borromini's idea

this

which became

is

and piano

ing bands, a device constantly employed by Late

dissociated from an intimate relationship with

was, therefore, almost a

floor

wings are articulated by fram-

nohile of the long

articulate the bare walls of

It

Mader-

Another external feature

still alive.

with arcaded courtyard cannot, however, be

the street front.

in the

coupled with two half-

pilasters

ground high above the ruins of an ancient

temple."'

of

certain that adjust-

The

minor

tiers

ments of Maderno's design outside as well as

inside were made after Bernini had taken over.

Maderno by Borromini) which,

from

in

almost equal value.

finished elevation of half the facade (drawn for

apart

it

even questionable whether

Bernini, given a free hand, would have been

the external nor the internal evidence goes to

support

grand Baroque character and places

its

a class

difficult to

is

far as the details are

fairly firm

concerned

ground, and Bernini's as

well as Borromini's contribution to the design of

bana' from Peruzzi's Farnesina on and which

doors will be discussed

only recently Vasanzio had used for the Villa

large staircase with the four flights ascending

Borghese

along the square open well, traditionally ascribed

In addition the arcaded centre

[8].

between containing bays and projecting wings

to Bernini,

was

as the

familiar

from such buildings as Masche-

rino's cortile of the Quirinal Palace

garden front of the

There

is,

therefore,

and the

Mondragone" [9].
no valid reason why MaVilla

derno should not be credited with the

design of the Palazzo Barberini

were ready

at

hand, and

it

is

scale rather than the design as

all its

final

elements

the magnificent

such that gives

may

later (p. 198).

But the

well be Maderno's.

It is

deep portico, the enormous

hall

as

new

of the

piano nohile lying at right angles to the front,

and the inter-connected oval

One

is

tempted

by Borromini had here

a freer

exterior, but at present these

in

hall at its back.

to believe that Bernini assisted

abeyance and

may

solved.

BIBLOSARTE

hand than on the

problems are

still

never be satisfactorily

ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

By

Maderno

the time

died, he

had directed

Roman architecture into entirely new channels.

He had authoritatively rejected the facile academic Mannerism which had belonged

to his

impressions in Rome, and although not

first

revolutionary like Borromini, he

left

behind,

guided by Michelangelo, monumental

largely

work of such
stance that

it

seriousness, and sub-

solidity,

was equally respected by the great

II5

Domenico Fontana and the

in Rome. Just as his great
work, the Idea deW Architettura

part to the style of

elder Martino
theoretical

Longhi

L'uiversale of 16 15, with

and

its

hieratic structure

its

codification of classical rules, concluded

new

an old era rather than opened a

one, so his

architecture was the strongest barrier against a

towards Baroque principles

turn

belonging to Venice.

territories

in

One

all

the

should

compare Sansovino's Palazzo Corner (1532)

antipodes Bernini and Borromini.'^

with Scamozzi's Palazzo Contarini dagli Scrigni

Architecture outside

North of

In the

of 1609'" in order to realize fully that the

Rome

academic and linear classicism

Italy the architectural history

of the second half of the sixteenth century

The

position.

Ga-

mozzi's architecture must be regarded as a

number of

Luca Cambiaso, Pellegrino Ti-

and Ascanio Vittozzi come

mind. By contrast, the

first

at

once

to

quarter of the seven-

names of the
one exception of F.M.

teenth century cannot boast of

same rank, with the

On the whole, what has been

Rome also apphes to the rest of Italy

said

Ricchino.

about

reaction against the

tion of

are concerned, a deli-

berate stepping back to a pre-Sansovinesque

great masters.

leazzo Alessi,
baldi,

volume and chiaroscuro

latter's

as far as plastic

Palladio, Scamozzi, Sanmicheli,

dominated by

names of

is

is,

more extravagant

the

applica-

Mannerist principles, which had gene-

rally set in

towards the end of the sixteenth

we
new

Moreover,

in

many

revision of his teacher Palladio by

respects

way of revert-

ing to Serlio's conceptions. Their calculated

intellectualism

makes Scamozzi's buildings pre-

cursors of eighteenth-century Neo-classicism.

His special brand of

tional note of

countrymen and

his

to come.^'

But

frigid classicism, a tradi-

Venetian

was not

art,

left its

mark

lost

upon

for a long time

in the next generation the rising

genius of Baldassare Longhena superseded the

brittle, linear style

more

of his master and reasserted

exuberant, imaginative, and

century, led to a hardening of style, so that

the

are often faced in the early years of the

painterly facet of the Venetian tradition.

century with a severe form of classicism, which,

Sca-

vital,

Even where Scamozzi's

influence did not

however, was perfectly in keeping with the

penetrate in the terra ferma, architects turned

exigencies of the counter-reformatory church.

in the

On

Sanmicheli's

the other hand, the

North

Italian architects

Thus Domenico Curtoni,

nephew and pupil, began in 1609
impressive Palazzo della Gran Guardia at
same

direction.

of this period also transformed their rich local

the

more imaginatively than the Romans.

The work of Binago, Magenta, and Ricchino is
infinitely more interesting than most of what

Verona, where he applied most rigidly the pre-

tradition

Rome had
they

to offer,

who prepared

and

it

was

Milan, in particular, became

remained the leading master

is

after the turn of

immediately apparent that his

dry Late Mannerism

is

the Venetian counter-

at the

turn of the

century the stronghold of an uncompromising

classicism.

In Venice Vincenzo Scamozzi (1552-1616)

them of any Man-

nerist recollections."*

to a large extent

the stylistic position of the

High Baroque.

the century. It

cepts of his teacher, ridding

It

was probably St Charles Bor-

romeo's austere

spirit rather

than his counter-

reformatory guide to architects, the only book

of

its

kind,^" that provided the keynote for the

masters in his and his nephew's service.

BIBLOSARTE

The

Il6

54.

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

Fabio Mangone: Milan, Colkiiui

(Archivio di Stato),

first

courtyard, begun 1608

Milanese Fabio Mangone (1587- 1629),

of Alessandro Bisnati, was the

As
him

nal Federico's heart.

tion he appointed

man

a sign
in

a pupil

after Cardi-

of his apprecia-

1620 Professor of

Lelio Buzzi had begun.

nal entrance

classicism

Architecture to the newly founded Accademia

with
in

two

remained the focus of

in

Milanese

still

artistic life,

tect tried there to

and every

artist

and archi-

climb the ladder to distinction.

Mangone achieved

this goal; in

1617 he suc-

facade of the origi-

as

is

the

large

courtyard of the

Collegio Elvetico (now Archivio di Stato) [54]

Ambrosiana. Throughout the seventeenth century the cathedral

The

as characteristic of his rigorous

is

its

long rows of Doric and Ionic columns

tiers

under straight entablatures, begun

608.- His facade of S.

Maria Podone (begun

1626) with a columned portico set into a larger

temple motif points to

knowledge of Palladio's

church fa9ades, which he transformed and sub-

ceeded Bisnati as Architect to the Cathedral

mitted to an even sterner classical discipline.

and remained

Thus Milanese

in

charge until his death in 1629.

Assisted by Ricchino, the portals were executed

by him during this period (with Cerano in charge

would be

of the rich decoration, p. 99), but his severe

spirit

design of the whole fa9ade remained on paper.

Mangone's
the

(much

earlier activity

rebuilt)

was connected with

Ambrosiana (161

1),

which

architects revert via Palladio to

ancient architecture in search of symbols which

en rapport with the prevailing harsh

of reform in the

city.-'

A different note was introduced into Milanese

architecture by Lorenzo Binago (called

1554- 1629),-- a Barnabite monk,

BIBLOSARTE

who

Biffi,

built S.

ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

II7

Alessandro, one of Milan's most important

churches (begun 1601,

setting the seal, as

it

unfinished in 1661).

still

Mangone's architecture

were, on Pellegrino Ti-

academic Mannerism. Binago, by con-

baldi's

created a work that has

trast,

Milanese,

strictly

is

its

place in an all-

Like a number of other great

Italian context.

churches of this period, the design of S. Alessandro

is

dependent on the Bramante-Michel-

angelo scheme for St Peter's.-' In order to be

able to assess the peculiarities of Binago's work,

some of the major buildings of this group may

be reviewed. In chronological sequence they

Nuovo

the Gesii

are:

(also

Naples (Giuseppe

at

Ambrogio

Valeriano, S.J., 1584); S.

G. Valeriano, 1587);-^

Milan;

Maria

S.

Nuvolo, 1602); the

della

S.

Rome

at

Naples (Fra

Sanita,

Duomo Nuovo

(G.B. Lantana, 1604); and S. Carlo

in

Genoa

at

Alessandro

at

Brescia
Catinari

ai

(Rosato Rosati, 1612). All these build-

ings are interrelated;

all

of them have a square

or rectangular outside shape and only one fa9ade

(instead of four)

and

all

of them link the centra-

lized plan of St Peter's with an

longitudinal axis: the Gesii

emphasis on the

Nuovo by adding

pair of satellite spaces to the west

S.

Ambrogio by adding

to the west

at

end; the

east

Brescia and

55. Lorenzo Binago: Milan,

begun 1 60 1. Plan

S. Alessandro,

east ends,

a smaller satellite unit

and extending the

Duomo Nuovo

and

Carlo

S.

ai

Jules Hardouin Mansart's

dome of the

Invalides

in Paris.

The

joining of two centraUzed designs in one

Catinari by prolonging the choir, the latter,

plan had a long pedigree. In a sense, the prob-

moreover, by using oval-shaped spaces along

lem was already inherent

the

main

axis, S.

Maria

by enrich-

della Sanita

ing the design by a pair of sateUite units to each

of the four arms; S. Alessandro,

finally,

by

adding a smaller centralized group with saucer

dome

in Brunelleschi's

Sacristy of S. Lorenzo; but

North

Italian circle of

it

was only

Bramante

developed type emerged

in the

Old

in the

that the fully

form of

a co-

ordination of two entirely homogeneous centra-

domed

of different

an

to the east [55]. S. Alessandro, therefore,

lized

way

of

arrangement, incidentally, which had the sup-

large churches. It contains another important

port of classical authority.-'' Binago's S. Ales-

is

in a

the

most interesting of

this series

feature: the arches of the crossing rest

on

free-

standing columns. Binago himself recommend-

ed that these be used with discretion.

The motif

was immediately taken up by Lantana

Duomo Nuovo

at Brescia

and had

in the

a consider-

able following in Italy and abroad,

down

to

spaces

size,-""

sandro represents an important step towards a

merging of two previously separate units now

:

the far

arm of

the large Greek-cross unit also

belongs to the smaller

domed

tion, the spacious vaulting

centralized groups

makes

BIBLOSARTE

space. In addi-

between the two

their separation

im-

Il8

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

possible.

Thus the

groups results

unification of two centralized

in a longitudinal design

of richly

and 1638, Ricchino himself held

office to

In 1607 he designed his

varied character.

once evident that

It is at

form of

this

tory,

spatial

new

integration was a step forward into

of fascinating possibilities.

full

number of

reasons one

may

terri-

For

regard the whole

group of churches here mentioned

Late

as

this highest

which a Milanese architect could

first

aspire.

independent

building, the church of S. Giuseppe, which was

at

once

plan [56

a
1

consists of an extremely simple

The
com-

The

large

masterpiece of the

first rank.-**

bination of two Greek-cross units.

congregational space

is

Greek cross with

Mannerist, not least because of the peculiar

between centralization and

vacillation

direction.

It

is

axial

precisely in this respect that

Binago's innovation must be regarded as revolutionary, for he decisively subordinated centralized contraction to axial expansion.

lay in this direction.

On

The

future

the other hand, the

derivations from the centralized plan of St

Peter's found

little

teenth century, and

following during the sevenit

was only

in the eighteenth

century that they saw a limited revival,-' probably because of their Late Mannerist qualities.

The

next step beyond S. Alessandro was

taken by Francesco Maria Ricchino (15841658), through

whom

Milanese architecture

new phase. It was he, a contemporary

of Mangone, who threw the classicist convenentered a

tions of the reigning taste overboard

and did

Milan what Carlo Maderno did

for

Rome. Al-

though

younger

almost

Maderno,
fall

generation

his principal works, like

into the

first

studied, but

it

than

Maderno's,

three decades of the century.

work

Ricchino's

for

has

never

would seem

the balance sheet can be

been

that,

properly

when one day

drawn up, the

prize for

being the most imaginative and most richly

endowed

Italian architect of the early seven-

teenth century will go to Ricchino rather than

Maderno. Beginning work under Binago, he

was sent by
romeo, to

his patron. Cardinal Federico

Rome

Bor-

to finish his education. After

his return in 1603

he submitted his

first

design

for the facade of the cathedral. In 1605 he

was

capomastro, a subordinate officer under Aurelio

Trezzi,

who was

Architect to the Cathedral in

1598 and 1604-5.

Much

later,

between 1631

56 and 57. Francesco Maria Ricchino:

Milan, S. Giuseppe, begun 1607.
Section and plan (above) and facade (opposite)

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

120

THt PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

dwarfed arms and bevelled

into coretti

pillars

which open

above niches and are framed with

three-quarter columns; four high arches carry

the ring above which the

dome

rises.

The

small

could not achieve a proper dynamic relationship

between inside and outside,

problem that was

solved only by the architects of the High Baro-

que. As to the

first

point, the facade of S.

square sanctuary has low chapels instead of the

Giuseppe has no

real precursors in

Not only does the same composite

order unify the two spaces, but also the high
arch between them seems to belong to the con-

anywhere

North.

cross arms.

gregational

room

as well as to the sanctuary.

Binago's lesson of S. Alessandro was not

Ricchino employed here

a similar

lost.

method of

welding together the two centralized spaces,

which disclose

Bramante even
tion.

their ultimate derivation

after their

from

thorough transforma-

This type of plan, the seventeenth-century

version of a long native tradition, contained

infinite

indicate here
it

and

possibilities,
its

to say that the

units with

ment and

it

impossible to

is

tremendous success. Suffice

new fusion of simple centralized

consequences of spatial enrich-

all its

scenic effects

was constantly repeated

in the

On

Milan or

the other hand,

Ricchino was impressed by the facade of S.

Susanna, but he replaced Maderno's stepwise

arrangement of enclosed bays by one

which

in

the vertical links take prominence, in such a

way
as

that the

whole front can and should be seen

composed of two high

The

the other.

Maderno's:

result

aedicules, one set into

is

very different from

for instead of 'reading', as

it

were,

the accretion of motifs in the facade in a temporal

process, his

new

'aedicule front' offers an instan-

taneous impression of unity

It

in

both dimensions.

was the aedicule facade that was

to

become

the most popular type of church fa9ade during

the Baroque age.'"

Fate has dealt roughly with most of Ricchino's

He

and, mainly in Northern Italy, revised and

buildings.

further developed but Ricchino had essentially

churches, and most of them have been des-

solved the problem.

S.

Giuseppe was

troyed;"
finished in 1616; the fa9ade,

however, was not completed until 1629-30,

although

it

was probably designed

earlier date-'* [57]. It represents a

in

two respects: Ricchino attempted

facade a unity hitherto

time to co-ordinate

it

to give the

with the entire structure of

latter

problem had never been squarely

large the Italian

much

unknown and at the same

As regards the

the church.

at a

new departure

point, the

faced.

By and

church fa9ade was an external

embellishment, designed for the view from the

street

and rather independent of the structure

lying behind

of the lower

it.

tier

designs;'built,

(S.

builder of

his
re-

while others were carried out by pupils

Maria

Castelli

alia

Porta, executed by Francesco

and Giuseppe Quadrio). In addition,

there was his interesting occasional

work" which

needs, like the rest, further investigation. In his

later centralized buildings

he preferred the oval

and, as far as can be judged at present, he went

through the whole gamut of possible designs.

Of the

buildings that remain standing, five

cursorily be

mentioned

the Ospedale

by the height of the square body

Pessina, Fabio

by the

are only known through

some have been modernized or

in size,

tier

all,

many

Ricchino determined the height

of the church and that of the upper

was, above

may

the large courtyard of

Maggiore (1625-49), impressive

in collaboration with G. B.

but created

Mangone, and the painter G.

B.

Crespi, and therefore less characteristic of him

monu-

octagonal superstructure; at the same time, he

than the grand aedicule fa9ade of the

carried the order of the facade over into the rest

mental entrance to the Hospital; the palaces

from the

Despite this significant integration of the

Annoni (1631) and Durini (designed 1648),

which look back by way of Meda's Palazzo

'show-front' with the whole building, Ricchino

Visconti (1598) to Bassi's Palazzo Spinola;'^ the

of the structure, as far as

street.

it is

visible

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

58.

Francesco Maria Ricchino: Milan, Collegio Elvetico (Archivio di Stato). Facade, designed 1627

from Varese correspond

to

the

Milan

at

the

To

the

Palazzo di Brera (1651-86), built as a Jesuit

Bernasconi

College, with the finest Milanese courtyard

severe classicism

which, having arches on double columns in two

beginning of the seventeenth century.

tiers,

marks, after the severe phase, a return to

Alessi's

Palazzo

Marino;'^

and

work of great vigour which

the

finally,

fa9ade of the Collegio Elvetico, designed in

a

121

627,

has, moreover, the

modern

visitor

between the
tecture

practised

there

is

in

peculiar

contrast

classicizing chastity of the archi-

and the popular realism of the tableaux

vivants inside the chapels.

If

anywhere, the

distinction of being an early, perhaps the earliest,

lesson can here be learned that these are two

concave palazzo facade of the Baroque [58].

With Ricchino's death we have already over-

complementary

stepped the chronological limits of this chapter.

Nobody of
carry

his stature

remained

in

Milan

to

on the work he had so promisingly

facets of counter-reformatory

art.

In the

Duomo Nuovo

But

just as so often in

tion of the project

accomplished.

Mention has been made of the Sanctuary

at

Varese near Milan which Cardinal Federico

Borromeo had very much

at heart.

The

archi-

Brescia has an early

Seicento work of imposing dimensions

(p.

17).

medieval times, the execu-

went beyond the resources of

small city. After the competition of 1595 the

design

chosen

by Lantana
in 1603.

The

(i

581 -1627)

was

finally

next year saw the laying of

1604 and was carried out

the foundation stone, but as late as 1727 only

through most of the century. "' As one would

the choir was roofed. Until 1745 there was a

expect, the fifteen chapels designed by Giuseppe

renewed period of

tectural

work began

in

activity

BIBLOSARTE

due

to the initiative

122

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

By

of Cardinal Antonio Maria Querini. The Mich-

in the nave.'"

elangelesque dome, however, was erected after

appears isolated from the

82 1 by Luigi Cagnola,

who introduced changes

virtue of this motif, the nave

domed

area. In addi-

tion, the large central chapels with arches rising

'"

to the

in the original design.

To the names of the two able Barnabite architects

Rosato Rosati and Lorenzo Binago, work-

ing at the beginning of the Seicento, that of

Magenta

Giovanni
added.

He

during the

(1565-1635)'^

must

be

was the strongest talent at Bologna

quarter of the century.

first

A man

of

great intellectual power, engineer, mathematician,

and

became

theoretician, he even

vast scale the cathedral of S. Pietro at Bologna,

accomplishing the

difficult

union with

nico Tibaldi's choir (1575), which he

Domeleft

impression that the nave

un-

centred upon

is

believe oneself to be in a Greek-cross unit

(without dome), to which

domed

is added a second,
Whether one may or may not want
Magenta's ambiguous design a Late

unit.

to find in

tively

Early Baroque in

was destined
on

certain that he imagina-

it is

transmuted North

the

to exercise

planning

Italian conceptions.

massiveness, S. Salvatore

its

of

an important influence
churches.

longitudinal

The design differs from St Peter's and

the great Roman congregational churches in the

Magenta's church of S. Paolo, begun

alternating high and low arches leading into the

the traditional

touched.

aisles.

With its brilliant light and the eighteenth-

century

coretti,

added by Alfonso Torreggiani

(1765), the church looks

The

much

later

than

it is.

execution lay in the hands of Floriano

Ambrosini and Nicolo Donati. While they

changed
ject,'"

to a certain extent

the latter

church of

is

Magenta's pro-

fully responsible for the large

S. Salvatore,

designed in 1605 and

erected by T. Martelli between 161 3 and 1623

[59].

Inspired by the large halls of Roman ther-

mae. Magenta here monumentalized the North

Italian tradition of using free-standing

columns

in 1606,

shows that he was even capable of enlivening

Gesu

type, to

which Roman

architects of this period did not really find an

alternative.

By making

space for confessionals

with coretti above them between the high arches

leading

into

the

he created, more

chapels,

effectively than in the cathedral, a lively

rhythm

along the nave, reminiscent of Borromini's later

handling of the same problem

in

in S.

Giovanni

Laterano.

Parma, flourishing under her Farnese princes,

Giovan

had

in

his

pupil

Battista Aleotti (1546- 1636)

Giovan

Battista

Baroque

architects.

The

built the

impressively

former,

simple hexagon of S. Maria del Quartiere

Giovanni Magenta

Bologna, S. Salvatore, 1605 23. Plan

19),^- the exterior

of the

and

Magnani (1571-

by Magnani,

1653)^' Early
assisted

59.

itself.

on entering the church one may well

In fact,

Mannerist element,

in 161

General of his Order. In 1605 he designed on

whole height of the vaulting of the nave

look like a transverse axis and strengthen the

of which

pagoda-like

is

17,

twenty-two years

in

604-

build-up of geometrical

shapes taken up and developed

Guarini (Chapter

( 1

an early example

Note
the

later

by Guarino

12). Aleotti

service

was

for

of Alfonso

d'Este at Ferrara, where he erected,

among

others, the imposing fa9ade of the University

(1610),

together with Alessandro Balbi, the

architect of the

Madonna della Ghiara at Reggio

Emilia (1597-1619), a building dependent on

the plan of St Peter's though less distinguished

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

than the series of buildings mentioned above.

In Ferrara Aleotti also

made

his

debut as an

of theatres/' an activity that was

architect

crowned by

his

Teatro Farnese, built

at

Parma

Nuova (now
1

551.''^

But

123

Via Garibaldi), begun by him in

to his

contemporary Rocco Lurago

must be given pride of place

for having recog-

nized the architectural potentialities which the

between 16 18 and 1628. The Farnese theatre,

steeply rising

exceeding in size and magnificence any other

Palazzo Doria Tursi in Via Garibaldi (begun

before

it,

superbly blends Palladio's and Sca-

ground of Genoa

1568) shows for the

first

offered.

time the long vista

mozzi's archaeological experiments with the

from the vestibule through the

progressive tendencies evolved in Florence/^

staircase ascending at the far end.

The wide-open,

rectangular proscenium-arch

His

cortile to

the

Bartolomeo

Bianco (before 1590-1657), Genoa's greatest

together with the revolutionary U-shaped form

Baroque

of the auditorium contained the seeds of the

Palazzo Doria Tursi. His most accomplished

architect,^''

followed the lead of the

spectacular development of the seventeenth-

structure

century theatre. Heavily damaged during the

Jesuit College (planned 1630)'' along the Via

last

war,

it

has

now been

largely rebuilt.

Genoa's great period of architectural deve-

is

the present University, built as a

Balbi (the street which he began in 1606 and

opened

in

16 18);

it

presents an ensemble of

lopment

is

the second half of the sixteenth

incomparable splendour

century.

It

was Galeazzo Alessi who created

time he unified architecturally the vestibule and

Genoese palazzo type along the Strada

courtyard, in spite of their different levels; in

the

Bartolomeo Bianco;
Genoa, University, planned 1630. Courtyard

60.

BIBLOSARTE

[60, 61].

For the

first

6i.

Bartolomeo Bianco: Genoa, University, planned 1630. Section and plan

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

the cortile he introduced two tiers of lofty ar-

cades resting on twin columns ;^^ and

end he carried the

at the far

staircase, dividing twice, to

Thus

125

the Florence of the early seventeenth

own brand

century developed her

ing

Mannerism, and

of a classiciz-

was by and

this

large in

the whole height of the building. Fully aware

keeping with the all-Italian position. But Flor-

of the coherence of the whole design, the eye of

ence never had a Maderno or a Ricchino,

the beholder
in

all.

The

is

easily led

from

level to level, four

exterior contrasts with the earlier

Genoese palazzo

by the

tradition

plicity of the design without,

relative

sim-

however, breaking

away from the use of idiomatic Genoese motifs.^'-

Compared with

the

Bianco's

University,

Palazzi Durazzo-Pallavicini (Via Balbi

begun

i,

1619) and Balbi-Senarega (Via Balbi 4, after

Bianco or Longhena; she remained

and purposes anti-Baroque and hardly ever

broke wholly with the tenets of the early seventeenth-century

Cosimo

1621),^^

the

Ferdinand

Tagliafichi (1729- 18 11),

staircase.

who

grand

built the

Apart from the balconies and the

cornices resting on large brackets, both palaces

are entirely bare of decoration.

mentioned
manner.

This

is

usually

as characteristic of Bianco's austere

It is,

however,

much more

likely that

these fronts were to be painted with illusionist

architectural detail (such as

niches, etc.)

and figures

in

supervised

undertakings during

Fs reign (1587-1609); Lodovico

559-1613), the painter (pp. 97-8) and

architect,^-

Maderno's unsuccessful competitor

for St Peter's, the builder of the choir of S.

Felicita, of a

number

of palaces, and according

to Baldinucci also of the austere

though uncon-

ventional courtyard of Buontalenti's Palazzo

Nonfinito; and Giulio Parigi (1571-1635) and

famous

his son Alfonso (i6oo-f.

1656),''

theatrical designers of the

Medici court, who

imparted

as

scenographic quality to the Isolotto

keeping with

exerted a distinct influence on his pupil Callot

a late

and

bution of Tuscan architects to the

rise

Baroque architecture

One

rather limited.

of
is

inclined to think that Buontalenti's ample and

manner might have formed

starting point for the

who

natural son,

and the theatre

In contrast to the north of Italy, the contri-

rich decorative

of the main

window surrounds,

sixteenth-century Genoese fashion.^"

is

(i

I's

architectural

large

CigoH

former was considerably altered in the

The names

teenth century are Giovanni de' Medici (d.

1620) are almost an anticlimax. While the latter

the

style.

practitioners at the beginning of the seven-

wasfinishedby Pier Antonio Corradi( 161 3-83),

course of the eighteenth century by Andrea

to all intents

emergence of

proper

also

in the

BoboH

gardens. Giulio

on Agostino Tassi, whose scenic paint-

ings reveal his early training. ^^ Finally,

Nigetti

( 1

Matteo

560- 1 649),^' Buontalenti's pupil, must

be added, whose stature as an architect has long

been overestimated. His contribution

Cappella dei Principi

is

less original

been believed, nor has he any share

to the

than has

in the final

Seicento style. Yet Ammanati's precise Late

design of S. Gaetano, for which Gherardo Sil-

Mannerism and, perhaps

vani alone

to a larger extent,

Dosio's austere classicism corresponded more

may

fully to the latent aspirations of the Florentines.

Chiesa

is

responsible (p. 301).^* His

manner

best be judged from his fa9ade of the

di

Ognissanti (1635-7). Here, after forty

hardly an overstatement to say that towards

years, he revived with certain adjustments''" the

1600 an academic classicizing reaction against

academic Mannerism of Giovanni de' Medici's

Buontalenti set

fa9ade of S. Stefano dei Cavalieri

It is

in.

Nevertheless, Buontalenti's

decorative vocabulary was never entirely forgotten; one finds

till

it

here, there,

and everywhere

the late eighteenth century, and even archi-

tects outside

Florence were inspired by

it.

at

Pisa (1593).

In order to assess the sluggish path of the

Florentine development, one

may compare

the

Ognissanti facade with that of Ascanio Vittozzi's

Chiesa del Corpus Domini

BIBLOSARTE

at

Turin, where

it

126

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

how by

can be seen

1607 the theme of S.

Stefano was handled in a vigorously sculptural

Early Baroque manner.

During the

first

Medici together with

half of the seventeenth cen-

the

(1603-4).

and exhausted the treasury of the

marbles and precious stones, the chapel, lying

on the main

axis of S.

glittering viewpoint

Lorenzo, was to offer

from the entrance of the

the most

Giovanni de'

his collaborator,

Ales-

model which was revised by Buontalenti

I he latter was in charge of the build-

tury the erection of the huge octagonal funeral

Medici court. Lavishly incrusted with coloured

among

artists,

sandro Pieroni, and Matteo Nigetti prepared

chapel (Cappella dei Principi) absorbed the

interest

competition

to fruition. After a

distinguished Florentine

when

ing until his death in 1608,

Nigetti con-

tinued as clerk of works for the next forty

years. ^** If in spite of such activity the chapel

remained

time to come,

a torso for a long

it

yet

epitomizes Medici ambition of the early seven-

church. Since the wall between the church and

teenth century. In the interior the

the chapel remained standing, this scenic effect,

quality takes precedence over the structural

essentially

the

Baroque and wholly

Medicean

was never obtained. As early

had planned

in

keeping with

love of pageantry and the stage,

as 1561

a funeral chapel, but

Grand Duke Ferdinand

it

Cosimo

was only

who brought

the idea

Roman

organization, and by

flat

decorative

standards of the

time the exterior [62] must have been judged

Rather sober and dry

as a shapeless pile.

in

drum and dome do not seem to

substructure. Windows of differ-

detail, the large

with their

tally

ent sizes and in different planes are squeezed

Giovanni de' Medici, Alessandro Pieroni,

Matteo Nigetti, Bernardo Buontalenti Florence,
S. Lorenzo, Cappella dei Principi, begun 1603

62.

in

between the massive and

tresses'.

There

is,

in fact,

ill-articulated 'but-

no end

to the

obvious

incongruities which manifest a stubborn adhe-

rence to the outmoded principles of Mannerism.

Naples saw

in the last

two decades of the

sixteenth century a considerable intensification

of architectural activity, due to the enthusiasm

of two viceroys. Lacking native talents, architects

had

to be called

Antonio Dosio

(d.

from abroad. Giovan

1609) and

Domenico FonThe former

tana (d. 1607) settled there for good.

left

Florence in

isSg;^'' the latter,

difficulties after Sixtus

his

home

in 1592,

V's death,

where

running into

made Naples

as 'Royal Engineer'

he found tasks on the largest

scale,

among them

the construction of the Royal Palace (1600

Thus

Florentine and

Roman

assimilated in the southern kingdom.

phase of Neapolitan architecture

the

2).

classicism were

is

A new

linked to

name of Fra Francesco Grimaldi (1543a Theatine monk who came from

161 3),

Calabria.""

His

first

important building,

S.

Paolo Maggiore (1581/3-1603), erected over

the ancient temple of Castor and Pollux, proves

him an

architect of

BIBLOSARTE

uncommon

ability. In spite

ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

of certain provincialisms, the design of S. Paolo

may

has breadth and a sonorous quality that

well be called Early Baroque.

The wide nave

with alternating high and low arches, opening

respectively into

domed and

the (later) aisles,

is

work

Roman church

By

127

a flourishing school of architects.

that time the great master of the next genera-

Cosimo Fanzago, was already working.

tion,

But

it

was then

Rome

that

asserted her ascen-

vaulted parts of

dancy, and Naples as well as the

cities

of the

reminiscent of Magenta's

North, which had contributed so

much

to the

Bologna and more imaginative than

in

Naples had

designs of the period. In 1585

Grimaldi was called

to

Rome, where he had

rise

of the

new

were relegated once again

style,

to the role of provincial centres.

share in the erection of S. Andrea della Valle.

He must

have had the reputation of being the

leading Theatine architect.

Roman

Among

his post-

buildings, S. Maria della Sapienza (be-

SCULPTURE
Rome

gun 16 14, with facade by Fanzago) returns,

more sophisticated, to the rhythmic articulation

We

of S. Paolo, while S. Maria degli Angeli (1600-

the period under review.

Cappella del Tesoro, which adjoins the

10), the

cathedral and

is itself

the size of a church (1608-

and SS. Apostoli (planned

after 1613),

executed 1626-32) are

all

thoroughly

c.

1610,

Roman

in

character and succeed by their scale and the

Giovan Giacomo

to Grimaldi,

forto (d.

631) and the

(Giuseppe Donzelli)

ConDominican Fra Nuvolo

should

be

mentioned.

Conforto began under Dosio, was

latter's

and

di

the

after

death architect of S. Martino until 1623,

built,

apart from the campanile of the

chapter that sculpture

in the first

reached a low-water mark during

By and

executed in the Chapel of Paul

large the

seventeenth century was

Mannerist standards

still

tied to the

set in Sixtus

and none of the sculptors of the Carracci generaStati,*"'

brogio Bonvicino,

Silla

da Viggiii,

Cordier, Ippolito Buzio

showed

Among

landed.

this

group there was hardly an

indication that the tired and facile formalistic

routine would so soon be broken by the rise of

young genius, Bernini, who was then already

beginning to produce his juvenilia.

Pendino, S. Agostino degli Scalzi,

1603-10, and S. Teresa, 1602-12).

fascinating figure

is

Fra Nuvolo.

He

A more
began his

way out of

the impasse in which sculpture found itself

Nuvolo, 163 1 ), three Latin-cross churches

al

Am-

Paolo Sanquirico, Nicolo

Severo

Late

V's Chapel,

Chiesa del Carmine (1622, finished by Fra

(S.

work

Maria

in S.

Maggiore during the second decade of the

tion - Cristoforo

vigorous quality of the design.

Next

have seen

Rome had

in

It

cannot

be denied that the older masters also created

solid work. In particular,
dier's,

some of Buzio's, Cor-

and Valsoldo's statues and busts have

career with S. Maria di Costantinopoli (late

undeniably high qualities, but that does not

dome

impair the assessment of the general position.

sixteenth century), where he faced the

with majolica, thus inaugurating the charac-

In a varying degree, they

teristic

Neapolitan type of colourful decoration.

models they followed

His

Maria

style.

S.

mentioned

(p.

della Sanita (1602-13) has

117); his S. Sebastiano, with a

very high dome, and S. Carlo

both

been

elliptical, are

Arena (1631),
uncommonly interesting and
all'

These
first

is

translated the

tame and

St James off. 1615(8.

Giacomo degli

as well as for Cordier's Luisa Deti

{c.

frigid

true for Buzio's Sansovinesque

Incurabili)

Aldobrandini

1605, Aldobrandini Chapel, S. Maria sopra

Minerva), which goes back to Guglielmo della

progressive.

the

This

all

into a

brief hints indicate that

by the end of

quarter of the seventeenth century

Porta,"-

and

S. .Maria

for Valsoldo's St

Jerome

(f.

1612,

Maggiore), so clearly dependent on

BIBLOSARTE

128

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

Alessandro Vittoria. If one adds the tradition

of the style of Flemish relief one has accounted,
it

would seem,

primary sources of

for the

( helom).

63

in-

64
spiration of these sculptors.

Four other

artists, also

Maderno,

Mariani,

though

they

of

Francesco Mochi,

Roman

65 (far right ). Camillo .Mariani:

St Catherine of .-Mexandria,
1600.

Rome, S. Bernardo

alle

Terme

sculpture after

bardy (1576- 1636) appeared

in

end of the sixteenth century.

He

for

Baptist,

I'alle

considerable share

Maderno from Bissone

1600. Stefano

name

Camillo

Bernini,

all,

who had

in the revitalization

John the

engaged on the Chapel

Pietro

above

and,

it is

(right ). Pietro Bernini: St

16x4-15. Rome. S. Andrea delta

of Paul V, have not yet been discussed, namely

Stefano

Stefano .Maderno: Hercules and Cacus,

1610. Dresden, Alheriinum

('.

Lom-

in

Rome

at the

soon made

himself with the marble statue of St

Cecilia (in S. Cecilia, 1600)

cording to

which depicts ac-

legend the body of the

a persistent

youthful saint exactly in the position in which

it

was found

in 1599.^''

The

sentimental flavour

of this story apart, which helped to secure for

Maderno

his loftv' place in the history of sculp-

ture, the statue

simplicity,

is

imbued with

and many

martyr saints followed

monumental work
ches

is

a truly

later statues

in

this

marble

moving

of recumbent

model. His
for

Roman

later

chur-

not particularly distinguished;''^ but in

his small terracotta models, bronzes,

and

(rare)

marbles (Ca d'Oro, Venice; Palermo; Dresden

London; Oxford;

which derive from

etc.),''^

famous antiques, he combines a carefully studied

classicism with solid realistic observations [63].

This was the

early

As

artistic

work was

the father of the great Gianlorenzo, Pietro

Bernini (1562- 1629)

est.*^

climate in which Bernini's

to rise.

commands

His career unfolds

early years in Florence

odd years
last

in

decades

Paul V.

in

and Rome, the twenty-

Naples (1584- 1605/6), and the

Rome, mainly

The Neapolitan

in the service

setting held

for a Florence-trained sculptor,

full

special inter-

in three stages: the

of

no surprise

and during the

years of his sojourn he adjusted himself

without reservation to the

whom

Rome

he changed to

more boisterous

and Mochi, and produced work

in

which he

combined the new Early Baroque hrio with a

painterly approach which is not strange to find
in

the pupil of Antonio

Tempesta

of the Virgin, Baptistery,

S.

{Assiimpttoii

Maria Maggiore,

1607-10; Coronation of Clement

III,

Cappella

pietistic climate of

Paolina, S. Maria Maggiore, 1612-13). But the

work of

bodies of his figures lack structure and seem

the southern metropolis, notable in the

Naccherino, with

In

manner, no doubt through contact with Mariani

he also collaborated.

boneless, and the texture of his

BIBLOSARTE

Roman work

is

ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

soft

and

flaccid [64]. All this

is still

Camillo Mariani's (1565?- 161

typically

1)

work was

Late Mannerist, and indeed between his slo-

of greater consequence in revitalizing

venly treatment of the marble and the firm and

sculpture.""

work of

precise chiselling found in the early

his son there

Nor

is

is

an almost unbridgeable gulf.

Roman
He prefers

the dash to be observed in his

work purposeful and

clearly defined.

to represent unstable attitudes

which

baffle the

beholder: his Si John in S. Andrea della Valle

is

rendered in

a state

up and hurrying away.

between

sitting, getting

in

He was

born

in

[29

Roman

Vicenza and had

the studio of the Rubini the inestimable

advantage of going through the discipline of

Alessandro Vittoria's school. Shortly after his
arrival in

Rome

he executed his masterpieces,

the eight simple and noble

figures of saints in

(1600), in
for

S.

monumental stucco

Bernardo

alle

which the Venetian nuance

anyone

to see [65]; but

BIBLOSARTE

it is

is

Terme
obvious

strengthened by

130

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

new urgency and a fine psychological penetrawhich make these works stand out a mile

tion

from the average contemporary production and

ally

them

to the intensity of the transitional

which we found

style in painting in

crystallized

the true spirit of the great reformers.

Mariani was also the strongest single factor

in

shaping the style of Francesco Mochi

1654).'''*

Born

Mochi had

( 1

Late

his early training with the

Mannerist painter Santi

under Mariani

580-

Montevarchi near Florence,

at

di

Tito before studying

Rome. His

in

work of importance, the

independent

first

large

marble figures

of the Annunciation at Orvieto (1603-8), show

mixture the components of his

Tuscan and realistic North Italian
Mannerism. Mochi knew how to blend these
in a fascinating

style: linear

elements into

manner of immense

the Annunciation
ture from

its

slumber

vitality;

a fanfare raising sculp-

is like

more
new

[66]. It is clearly

than a coincidence that on

Roman

soil

the

invigorating impetus appears in the three arts

almost simultaneously: Mochi's Annunciation

is

informed by

energy similar

bold

a
to

freshness,

spirit,

Caravaggio's

and

Roman grand

manner (1597- 1606), Annibale's Farnese

ceil-

ing (1597- 1 604), and Maderno's S. Susanna

(1597-1603).

From

1612 to 1629 Mochi stayed

with brief interruptions

vice of
first

at

Piacenza in the ser-

Ranuccio Farnese and created there the

dynamic equestrian

statues of the Baroque,

breaking decisively with the tradition of Giovanni Bologna's school.

monuments,
20),

is

that of

to a certain extent

while the

later,

breaks entirely

The

first

of the two

Ranuccio Farnese (1612linked to the past,

still

Alessandro Farnese's (1620-5),

new ground

a magnificent sweep, the old

[67].

Imbued with

problem of unify-

here solved in an un-

66 (above). Francesco Mochi:

ing rider and horse

The

precedented way. Never before, moreover, had

Virgin

Orvieto,

of"

the Annunciation, 1603-8.

Museo

dell' Opera

is

the figure of the rider held

67 (opposite). Francesco Mochi:

Alessandro Farnese,
1620-5. Bronze. Ptacenza, Piazza Cavalli

its

own

so emphati-

cally against the bulk of the horse's body.

After his return to

Rome

he executed his

most spectacular work, the giant marble

BIBLOSARTE

statue

BIBLOSARTE

132

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

of St Veronica (St Peter's, 1629-40), which

(1634-^-. 1650), the

seems

4),

to rush out of its niche driven

controllable agony. In this

reveals a peculiar nervous

by un-

work Mochi already

vehemence and

stranger in the changed

Roman

strain.

Taddaeus

at

Orvieto (1641-

and the St Peter and St Paul of the Porta del

Popolo (1638-52), are not only an unexpected

anachronism, but are also very unequal

in

quality.

Always alone among

classed by Bernini's genius and disappointed,

poraries,

first

he protested in vain against the prevalent tide

gress, then the sole

of

he was utterly out of tune with his time. His

taste.

climate, out-

Frustrated, he renounced everything

he had stood for and returned to a severe form

Bernini,

Christ [68] and St John from the Ponte Molle

knowledge

68.

the sole voice of uninhibited pro-

and

Francesco Mochi Christ, from the Baptism,

pBff"

contem-

prophet of bleak despair,

Baroque works antedate those of the young

whose superiority he refused to ac-

of Mannerism. His later statues, such as the

after 1634.

his

Rome, formerly Ponte Molle

BIBLOSARTE

it

was

this that

broke him.^'

ARCHITECTURL AND SCULPTURt

number of works

finished a

left in

various stages

of execution at the latter's death.'- Deeply

steeped

Giovanni Bologna's manner, he

in

Madrid (1634-40) [69],"

is

133

basically akin to

Giovanni Bologna's equestrian monuments with

the customary trotting horse.

The idea of repre-

began work on his own. His most celebrated

senting the horse in a transitory position on

figures are the four bronze slaves at the base

hindlegs

of Bandini's

Medici

monument

Ferdinand

to

de'

Livorno (1615-24)."' Such figures

at

of subdued captives, of classical derivation,

important

an

played

part

the

in

symbolic

from then on de rigueur

ments of sovereigns

lacks

Bertoldo's battle-relief and Michelangelo's

down

to

the

is

composed

for the silhouette. It

Baroque momentum of Francesco

tomb

Giovanni Bologna's (des-

monument

troyed) equestrian

Spanish painting

equestrian statue remains reserved and im-

mobile and

of Julius II

sent to Florence to serve as model.''' But Tacca's

we know them

from

its

monu-

was forced upon Tacca

by Duke Olivarez, who had

Renaissance representations of triumphs,'^ and

in Florentine sculpture

for

of Henry IV of

69. Pietro

Tacca: Philip IV, 1634-40.

Madrid. Plaza dc Oncnlc

France. Here too, as in the case of Tacca's

work, the four chained captives

at the

corners

of the base were a polite metaphor rather than

a

conceit laden with deep symbolism.

Two

of

these captives, for which Francavilla was responsible, have survived ; by comparison Tacca's
figures

show a

fresh realism^'' and a broadness of

design which seem, indeed, to inaugurate a

new

era.

But one should not be misled. These

captives not only recall the attitudes imposed

on models

in

drawing

life

classes,

but their

complicated movement, the ornamental rhythm

and

linear quality of their silhouettes are

still

deeply indebted to the Mannerist tradition, and

even older Florentine Mannerists such as the

engraver Caraglio come to mind. Later works

by Tacca confirm

this view.

tains in the Piazza

originally

made

Livorno

for

The famous foun-

Annunziata

at

Florence,

in 1627,

with their

thin crossing jets of water, the over-emphasis

on

(which presupposes inspection from

detail

a near standpoint and not, as so often in the

Baroque, from

far

away),

the

of

virtuosity

execution, and the decorative elegance of

mon-

strous formations are as close to the spirit of

Late Mannerism

as

the over-simplified

bronze statues of Ferdinand

de'

Medici

Lorenzo

in the

and Cosimo

II

Cappella dei Principi in S.

(1627-34)."'^'

the Philip

gilt

Even

IV of Spain on

his last great

work,

the rearing horse in

Mochi's

Alessandro

Farnese

and

Bernini's

Constantine.
In Giovanni Bologna's wake, Florentine

Man-

nerist sculpture of the fin-de-siecle had,

even

more than Florentine

painting of the period,

an international success from the Low Countries

to Sicily.

Also Neapolitan sculpture

at the

of the century was essentially Florentine

BIBLOSARTE

turn

Man-

THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND THE EARLY BAROQUE

134

Two

nerist in character.

artists,

above

we found

Rome

leaving Naples for

and Michelangelo Naccherino,

vanni Bologna,

Naples
in

1573

doned

who was

in

1605/6,

Thus

of Gio-

Pellegrino Tibaldi and the younger Brambilla

from

He

his death in 1622.

till

power

owed more

in

his arrival

never aban-

Man-

his intimate ties with Florentine

nerism, but

limited degree, in the Certosa of Pavia that

sculptors could find rewarding employment.

a pupil

the strongest

for almost fifty years,

were

whom

all,

responsible for this trend Pietro Bernini,

to the older generation

of Bandinelli, Vincenzo Danti, Vincenzo de'

and even

Rossi,

teacher,

whom

Donatello

to

he accused of

than

to

his

irreligiosity."' In

the pietistic climate of the Spanish dominion

his figures are often

imbued with

Florentine religious

mood and

a mystic sensi-

eloquent testimonies of the

bility,

wholly un-

spirit

of the

Counter-Reformation. Characteristic examples

tombs of Fabrizio

are his

Pignatelli in S.

Vincenzo Carafa

dei Pellegrini (1590- 1609),

SS. Severino e Sosio (161

Cesareo

in S.

Maria

is

in

and Annibale

1),

della Pazienza (1613). In

tombs the deceased

these

Maria

all

represented stand-

the academic Late Mannerist tradition of

was continued by the

(d.

Gaspare Vismara
Lasagni

until after the

87),

become of vital importance

to

ent atmosphere of

and

Rome

in the differ-

during the

in spite

contribution of Lombardy to the history

in the constant

and

settled. In

stream of stonemasons, sculp-

architects

Milan

to

itself

Rome, where they

seventeenth- as well as

eighteenth-century sculpture

The

is

disappointing.

reasons are difficult to assess.

in the

Lombard

Ercole Ferrata

did not radically change the position**'

of his training in

Rome

to talk of a

before 1645.

It

Milanese High

Baroque school, and we may therefore anticipate

later events

by mentioning Giovan

De

Battista

who executed about

Maestri, called Volpino,

dozen statues for the cathedral between 1650

and 1680. During the seventeenth and eigh-

teenth centuries more than

the cathedral studio.

begun

50 sculptors worked

Art historians have

to sift this material,

and one may

well ask whether such an undertaking

not be love's labour

would

lost.

Like Bologna and Venice, Genoa hardly had

an autonomous school of sculptors during the

of the Baroque consists to a considerable extent

tors,

who

of about 1600

middle of the seventeenth cen-

seems hardly possible

1630s

640s.

The

stylistic position

those of the romanized

(P- 307)1

scarcely

was

pupils

Even an artist like Dionigi Bussola (1612whose dates correspond almost exactly with

chest in devotional fervour.**" Naccherino anticithat

Biffi's

165 1) and Gian Pietro

(d.

tury.

in

monument

pupil Andrea Biffi

1658), the leading masters,

(d.

perpetuated the

ing or kneeling, one hand pressed against the

pated here a type of sepulchral

latter's

631) and others, and by

permanent drain on

fying influence of the

They may

lie

talents, in the petri-

Ambrosian Academy, or

first

half of the seventeenth century. Production

was partly under the influence of Lombard

academic

Mannerism,

Michelangelo's

pupil

partly

The

reaching impact of Florentine sculpture

moment may

from

derived

Montorsoli.

be judged from the

far-

at this

fact

that

Francesco Camilliani's and Naccherino's fountain in the Piazza Pretoria at

rino's

Palermo, Nacche-

and Pietro Bernini's Fontana Medina

at

works of the cathedral. For generations the

and Taddeo Carloni's (1543-1613)

weak Neptune fountain of the Palazzo Doria

great sculptural tasks were connected with the

at

in the

bureaucracy which had developed

cathedral, and

it

was onlv there and,

to a

in the

more

Naples,

Genoa

- all

depend on Montorsoli's Orion

fountain at Messina.**'

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

>

.*^

^<*

BIBLOSARTE

PART TWO

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

CIRCA 1625-CIRCA 1675

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION

The Second
title

Part of this book, with the generic

'The Age of the High Baroque', comprises

many
period

different

receives

powering

artistic
its

tendencies;

imprint

figure of Bernini,

but

who

for

more than

half a century dominated Italian artistic

the focal point,

Rome. His

the

from the over-

success was

who showed

to see either

creasing secularization.

On the contrary, Urban

Trent, and not only maintained the peace with

the Jesuits but regarded

made

allies in

the highest regard

Urban's reign or

VIII confirmed the decrees of the Council of

life at

possible because he had the good fortune to

serve five popes

would be wrong

those of his successors simply in terms of an in-

them

as his foremost

consolidating the results of the Counter-

The words with which he regimemory of St Ignatius in the Roman

Reformation.
stered the

for his genius.

martyrology are characteristic of his attitude:

The new era begins with the pontificate of

Urban VIII (1623-44), whose strong but refined features survive in a number of magnifi-

of St

cent busts by Bernini [70]. Quite different from

miracles,

propagating

the

the austere popes of the Counter-Reformation,

Catholic religion throughout the world.'-

It is

Urban saw himself

equally characteristic that the Pamphili Pope

his early

and

as a Julius II re-born. In

youth he had written poems

Italian

'On the 31 July

is

celebrated in

Confessor,

Ignatius,

Rome

the feast

Founder of the

Society of Jesus, illustrious for his holiness, his

and

his

zeal

in

Latin

Innocent X, Urban's successor (1644-55), was

modelled on Horace and Catullus.'

attended on his death-bed by none but the

As pope he revived

in

the humanist interest in

learning and surrounded himself with a circle

of poets and scholars, and superficially his court

general of the Jesuit Order, Padre Oliva,

was

also

Once

again, therefore, the question asked in

chapter of this book arises during the

assumed something of the freedom and gran-

the

deur of his Renaissance forerunners. But

new period

it

first

who

on intimate terms with Bernini.

did the Jesuits and, for that matter,

any other of the vigorous new Orders such as

the Carmelites and Theatines take an active
Gianlorenzo Bernini
Bust of Urban VIII, 1640-2. Bronze. Detail.

part in shaping not only their

own but

also the

70.

Spoleto, Cathedral

papal art policy?

No

one can doubt that

considerable change occurred in artistic inter-

BIBLOSARTE

138

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

pretation of religious experience; but

not a change in one direction.

it

was

The bow stretches

from an appealing worldliness [236]

sensibility [169], to sentimental

to tender

and mawkish

devotion,' bigoted piety [207], and mystic ela-

we

tion [78, 79] - sufficient evidence that

soul in the state of contemplation led, in the

view of traditional ecclesiasticism,

tion

to the exalta-

an empty consciousness and conse-

of

quently

immoral apathy.

to

In

contrast

to

mysticism, quietism was theological

'classical'

face

rather than metaphysical, obscurantism rather

the artists' reactions to the protean temper of

than enlightenment, an escapist form of devo-

the age rather than a deliberate policy. In actual

religious institutions accepted whatever

fact,

was

in the

power of the

artists to offer.

tion

produced

at will rather

It

seems not far-fetched

to

conclude that the

which informed probabilism and

mentality

quietism found an echo

Seicento Devotion and Religions Imagery

than a spontaneous

condition of sublime union with God.

imagery.

in religious

Much that strikes the modern observer as hypoOne must probe

into the religious tendencies

which developed

in the

course of the seven-

teenth century in order to gain an understanding

of the

character

and diversity of religious

imagery.^ During the

first

half of the century,

critical

piety

Seicento pictures stems no

in

doubt from the general attitude towards confession

and devotion

at the

time of the Catholic

Restoration.
It

must

also be

emphasized

that in the course

wake, the various forms

of the seventeenth century the Order of the

of probabilism became the widely accepted

Jesuits itself went through a characteristic meta-

patterns of theological thought and conviction,

morphosis: under the generals Muzio Vitel-

casuistry and, in

its

principles to which the masses of the faithful

reacted by

laxit}'

of morals.''

It

would be

placed the original zealous and austere spirit

but even supported, individual

of the Order. Moreover, the Catholic Restora-

decisions of convenience at variance with the

and the

spirit

of dogmatic religion. This

was the hard core of probabilism. To be

in the
lost

sure,

second half of the century probabilism

ground, but

such as Padre

a public figure

Oliva, General of the Jesuits from

1

68 1, gave

it

interests in

new and morally

Church now not

perilous aspect was that the

letter

Vincenzo Caraffa (1645-9),

wealth, luxury, and political intrigue, and a

ever before; what took on a

at,

leschi (1615-45),

and Giovan Paolo Oliva, mundane

lower level than

to assert that morality sank to a

only connived

difficult

1664 to

tion

had led

to a consolidation

authority, expressed

re-

of doctrine and

by the glamour of the High

Baroque papal court, which vied with those of

the absolute monarchies.

developments one
inside the

Church

As

a result

of such

finds, broadly speaking, that

the anti-aesthetic approach

to art of the period of the militant

his full support.

vows

frivolity in the interpretation of the

Counter-

of

Reformation was now replaced by an aesthetic

mysticism, swept through Spain, France, and

appreciation of artistic quality. This readiness

At the same time quietism,

Italy. Its chief

storm.''

new form

prophet was the Spanish priest

Miguel de Molinos
spirituale,

(d.

1697),

whose Guida

published in 1675, took

Molinos,

it

is

true,

prison; yet quietism had

historians describe

it

ended

come

which began under Pope Paul

in the pontificates

of Urban VIII,

Rome by

Innocent X, and Alexander VII (1655-67) with

his life in

the maturity of the great Baroque individualists,

to stay. Catholic

as a perversion of the

mystical doctrine of interior quiet. Molinos's

'soft

to discriminate,

V, coincided

and savoury sleep of nothingness' of the

Bernini, Cortona, Borromini, Sacchi, and

gardi,

The

who

received

full official

turn to aestheticism in

circles is

.Al-

recognition.
official religious

one of the distinguishing marks of the

BIBLOSARTE

INTRODUCTION

new era. Even if the arts remained an important

weapon in the post-counter-reformatory arhad no longer the

senal, they

instruct
official

and

sole function to

Every

edify, but also to delight.

pronouncement bears

this out,

begin-

late

manner,

in particular, reveals

devotion.

have pointed out that Bernini had

close contacts with the Jesuits (p. 24)

While the Exercises owed

success to the vivid appeal they

good

luck, Cavaliere,' he

your great

is

reported to have

is

Matteo Barberini pope; but we are

said, 'to see

even luckier
at

'It

Bernini lives

in that the Cavaliere

the time of

Our

biguous homage to

an

pontificate'

length aesthetic appreciation was carried be-

comes apparent from some highly

documents

which,

though

new

characterize the

attitude.

controversy

the statue from the

al

Quiriartist's

little

room

of the Novitiate into one of the chapels of the

church, advancing the argument,

among others,

would be no relationship between

that there

the size of the figure and that of the chapel and,

in addition, that the figure

would

interfere with

the uniformity of the church, a principle on

which Bernini, the

architect,

in the

non-physical.

To what

extent Bernini himself and others

were captivated by quietist mysticism

would need further

tion that

is

ques-

investigation. Italy

popular undercurrent which kept the mystic

tradition

alive.

It

is

more than

likely

that

Bernini had studied the writings of Dionysius

the Areopagite,** and
it

we have

his

own word

that the Imitation of Christ, written

late

was

Kempis (1380from which he

used to read
directipn,

Thomas

his favourite book,

medieval mystic

1471),

for

by the

chapter every night."

believe, that

one has

to explain the alliance in

It is in

this

to look in order

many High Baroque

works between Jesuit psycho-therapeutic directness and non-Jesuit mysticism.

had insisted and

which Prince Camillo Pamphili, the patron,

had

work, their practical psychology, centred

deliberate evocation of images, was essentially

produced no great mystics during the seven-

Rome.' The Jesuits rejected the

move

to the

also a hall-mark of Bernini's

is

teenth century, but there seems to have existed

Blessed Stanislas Kostka in S. Andrea

request to

made

yet

late,

Legros regarding the placing of his statue of the

nale,

unparalleled

their

interesting

rather

between the Jesuits and the sculptor

arose

which

senses,

unam-

To what

eminence.

artistic

and regu-

larly practised St Ignatius's Spiritual Exercises.

which he supposedly addressed

ascending the papal throne.

an intense

spirituality at variance with the laxity of official

ning with Urban VIITs well-known words,

to Bernini after

139

Rhetoric and Baroque Procedure

fully accepted.

The

course taken by Seicento devotion, the

Ecstasies and raptures are the psycho-physical

of the Jesuit Order and the

conditions which designate the culmination of

'secularization'

papal court, the aesthetic aspirations in clerical

circles - all this

would seem

a resurgence of

mysticism

pened, as

is

evidenced by

to militate against
in art.

Yet

number

of

it

hap-

Roman

mystical activity.

voured

to

.At

many periods artists endea-

render not only these conditions

themselves but also the visions experienced

that exalted state of perception.

What

in

distin-

sculptures and paintings roughly between 1650

guishes the Baroque from earlier periods and

and 1680, from Bernini's St Teresa [85]

even the High from the Early Baroque

to

The same
Rome; as proof

Gaulli's frescoes in the Gesii [213].

tendency

is

to be

found outside

may be mentioned

only the

late

paintings ot

the beholder
in

the

is

supra-natural

manifestations

mystic art rather than to look

meant

Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione or the works

This

of Mattia Preti's middle period [245]. Bernini's

evident that in

is

is

that

stimulated to participate actively

in a

at

it

of the

'from outside'.

very specific sense, for

it is

many works from about 1640

BIBLOSARTE

140

on

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

a dual vision

is

implied, since the

method

of

common

echo

opinions. Similarly, the Baroque

representation suggests that the entire image

artist

of a saint and his vision

the public and developed a rhetorical technique

the spectator's supra-

is

shown

natural experience. Bernini's St Teresa,

seems

in rapture,

and

[84, 85],

be suspended

to

this can only

appear as reality by

virtue of the implied visionary state of

Or

the beholder.

mid-air

in

to give a later

mind of

example:

in

Pozzo's ceiling of S. Ignazio [217] 'illumination' is

granted to the saint

open with the

see the heavens

on clouds

disciples riding

saint

and

his

due to revela-

- that is

known

tion granted to the spectator."^ Scarcely

to the

but to

in ecstasy,

Early Baroque, the dual vision was often

home

pressed

with

all

the resources of illu-

sionism during the High Baroque and supported

by drama,
ing was

light, expression,

left

undone

the orbit of the

to

draw the beholder

phenomena

rendered plausible, indeed convincing.

Representations of dual visions are extreme

cases of an attempt to captivate the spectator

through an appeal

of this period

made

use of narrative con-

ventions and a rhetorical language of gestures

and expression that often

strike the

modern

observer as hackneyed, insincere, dishonest, or

hypocritical."

On

the other side of the balance sheet are the

growing awareness of personal

style

and the

and imagination and

role assigned to inspiration

consequently the value put on the sketch, the

bozzetto, and the

rough

first

unchecked

idea,

by the encumbrances of execution. These new

values, often

uncommitted

to current rhetorical

usage, were to attain prominence later.

Patronage

are given an

of verisimilitude; the improbable and un-

likely is

communication. Thus the

that assured easy

artists

behaviour of

to the affective

into

work of art. Miracles, wondrous

events, supra-natural
air

and gesture. Noth-

responded

to the emotions. It

worth-

is

common denominator

Nothing could be more misleading than

label - as has

been done'^

Baroque period

as

The

Reformation.

- the art

to

of the entire

the art of the Counter-

austere popes of the late

sixteenth century and the great counter-refor-

would have been

for this

matory

class of

the sensuous and exuberant art of Bernini's age

High Baroque religious imagery. The technique

and would also have been out of sympathy with

while seeking a

approach so obvious

of these artists

Persuasion

is

is

in a

prominent

that of persuasion at any price.

the central axiom of classical

rhetoric. In an illuminating paper

G. C.

.-Vrgan^^

saints

by

horrified

the art policy of the popes of the Catholic

Restoration.

Barberini

It

was mainly due

to

Innocent

(1623-44),

Urban VIII
PamphiU

has therefore rightly stressed the strong in-

(1644-55), and Alexander VII Chigi (1655-67),

fluence of Aristotle's Rhetoric on Baroque pro-

and

cedure. Aristotle devotes the entire second book

face,

of his Rhetoric to the rendering of the emotions

changed the character of the

human stuff through

effected. The transmission

their families that

Rome was

given a

new

an appearance of festive splendour which

city for good. In

because they are the basic

order to assess this transformation, one need

which persuasion

only compare the gloomy 'counter-reformatory'

is

of emotive experience was the main object ot

Baroque

religious imagery, even in the

works

of such Baroque classicists as Andrea Sacchi.'-

With

his

appeals to

technique of persuasion the

a

artist

public that wants to be persuaded.

palazzo type, exemplified by

tana's Lateran palace

the Borghese

Domenico Fon-

and the family palace

Pope Paul V, with such

ot

exhila-

rating structures as the Palazzo Barberini [53]

and the Palazzo Chigi-Odescalchi

[107], or the

and

In rhetoric, Aristotle asserts, the principles of

sombre church fa9ades of the

persuasion, in order to be persuasive, must

early seventeenth centuries with the imagina-

BIBLOSARTE

late sixteenth

INTRODUCTION

and sparkling creations of

tive

Andrea

period, such as S.
S.
S.

al

a slightly later

Quirinale [105],

Martina e Luca [145], and

Maria della Pace [147]; one need only think

Agnese

[129], SS.

possible, for instance, to

list

a series of frescoes

between 1630 and 1650 comparable

the years 1606-18 (p. 79).

The High Baroque popes

to those of

sums
Urban VIII on

lavished vast

of Bernini's fountains [92], of the elation experi-

on

enced by generation

the Palazzo Barberini and Innocent

after generation

Piazza del Popolo [181], the Piazzas

and Campitelli, and, above

all,

on the

Navona

of the jubilant

grandeur pervading the Piazza of St Peter's

These prominent examples

[112,113].
idea

of the

character

give an

and extent of papal

patronage during the period under review.

the most important building tasks were

on

to

the

They

from Urban VIII's reign on

also indicate that

most distinguished

handed

architects,

in

I41

their private undertakings:

on the

'Pamphili Centre', the Piazza Navona with the

family palace and S. Agnese." But their primary
objective, enhancing the

glamour and prestige

of the papal court, remained St Peter's, and

was the magnitude of

their resources.

Immediately

cession Bernini began

[86]

and was soon

after Urban's acwork on the Baldacchino

engaged on the re-

to be

organization of the whole area under the

contrast to the lack of discrimination often to

as well as

it

this task that depleted

on the pope's tomb

dome

Regarding

[83].

be found in the earlier period; further, that the

the pictorial decoration of the basilica, Urban's

patrons sympathetically accepted personal idio-

policy was less clear-sighted. Although

syncrasies of style and the determination of

Sacchi began to paint in 1625 and was kept busy

artists
its

problem on

for the next ten years, at first the

merits. In contrast to the equalizing

back on older Florentine painters

and architects

own

to solve each

tendencies of the earlier phase, the variety of

pope

Andrea
also

fell

Ciampelli

like

and Passignano; Baglione too and even the aged

manner now becomes almost unbelievable, not

and entirely outmoded Cavaliere d'Arpino

only between architect and architect and not

ceived commissions for paintings. But apart

only between the early and

late

works of one

master, but even between one master's works

of the same years

and 119 with

make

(cf. illustration

105 with 98

137). Strong-willed individualists

their entry.

If all this

be true, some popular misunder-

standings should yet be corrected. Contrary to

new churches

Rome

during

built

were small, even

this period

very small, in size; the need for large congregational churches

Many

was

satisfied at

an earlier period.

precisely those

also the greatest influence inside

Italy, are

in scale.

tinguished artists such as Domenichino, Valentin,

Poussin, and Vouet had their share and, in

young

Pellegrini,

Camassei,

and Romanelli, who held out hopes of great

achievement but

in the light

of hisjory must

be regarded as failures."' In any case, during

Urban's pontificate the work of decoration

in

St Peter's never stopped, and almost every year

saw the beginning of

new

enterprise.

The

tempo slackened under Innocent X, but Alex-

which had

ander VII once again pursued the continuation

and outside

monumental only in appearance, not

Moreover, compared with the exten-

sion and diversity of papal, ecclesiastical,

aristocratic

on Lan-

Roman

of the finest structures of the

High Baroque, and

lay

franco's and Cortona's shoulders. Other dis-

addition, the very

general opinion, most of the

in

from Sacchi's, the main burden

re-

patronage under Paul V,

and

artistic

of the work with the utmost energy.

the

Under him

two most prodigious contributions, the

Cathedra of St Peter [87] and the Piazza, took

shape.

Compared with

St Peter's, the patronage be-

enterprises under the following popes were

stowed on the two papal palaces, the Vatican

considerably more limited.

and the Quirinal, was

It

would not be

BIBLOSARTE

negligible. In the Vatican

142

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

Urban had rooms painted by Abbatini and

glory of faith and sacrifice are given expression,

Romanelli, and although the

and these highly charged symbols impress hem-

in the Sala della

latter's frescoes

Contessa Matilda'" (1637 42)

are not devoid of charm,

it is

obvious that they

cannot vie with the monumental works of these

On

years.

the whole,

it

can be stated that during

this period the less distinguished

were

in the

hands of minor

commissions

artists.

This does

not apply, however, to the one major operation

in the

Quirinal palace, the decoration of the

Gallery, accomplished in Alexander's reign by

all

available talents under Pietro da Cortona's

supervision

The

selves on the beholder's eye and

their intense

and impetuous

seemed

to

propound Rome's

The Peace

wane.

the

of Westphalia (1648), ending

the Thirty Years

War

in

Europe, made

dent that henceforth the powers would

their quarrels without papal intercession.

it

evi-

settle

More-

over, in the course of the century 'the authority

in

and around

inevitably, if gradually,

Not unexpectedly, therefore,

tional aristocracy'.

after the age of Bernini,

the part of the popes, this

work embodies the

of the Catholic Restoration and, implicitly,

High Baroque more

fully

other complex of works of art in

new

than any

Rome,

Italy,

manifestations the

perpetuity and triumph of the Church, the

from monarchic abso-

lutism to the deliberative methods of constitu-

two generations. Though undertaken without

a premeditated comprehensive programme on

or Europe.'* In ever

final victory,

authority of the Holy See had already begun to

St Peter's, executed over a period of almost

that of the

visual language.''

while this cycle of monumental works

Yet-,

of the Holy See' - in Ranke's words - 'changed

(p. 330).

outstanding achievement of the entire

epoch remains Bernini's work

spirit

mind through

Rome
lenged

artistic

preserved
shift

may

Cortona, and Borromini

could no longer maintain her unchal-

much

supremacy,
of her old

.\lthough

Rome

vitality, a centrifugal

of gravity towards the north and south

be observed in the

latter part

of the seven-

teenth century: Venice, Genoa, Piedmont, and

Naples began

to take the leading roles.

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER

GIANLOREXZO BERNINI
598-1 680

INTRODUCTION

drawn

Few

data are needed to outline the

story

life's

of the greatest genius of the Italian Baroque.

December

Bernini was born at Naples on 7

mother and

1598, the son of a Neapolitan

We

Florentine father.

more than average

talent

and that he moved with

Rome

in

once

for

his family to

about 1605. Until his death seventy-

Gianlorenzo

left

the

call to Paris.

career led from

more than

Roman

only

citv

any length of time, when he followed

in 1665, at the height of his reputation,

XIV's

have seen that his father

Pietro was a sculptor of

five years later

With

Louis

brief interruptions his

success to success, and for

fifty years, willingly

artists

Scipione Borghese's attention was

Cardinal

had

to

or unwillingly,

bow to his eminence. Only

Michelangelo before him was held

in similar

esteem by the popes, the great, and the

artists

of his time. Like Michelangelo he regarded

young prodigy and

that he, a

mere

lad of nineteen, entered the orbit of the

most

to the

lavish patron of the period. Until 1624 he re-

mained

of the cardinal, creating,

in the service

with brief interruptions, the statues and groups

which are

in

still

Urban VIII's
his

the Villa Borghese.

pre-eminent position

Rome was

.\fter

accession to the papal throne,

secured.

Soon

in the artistic life

the

of

most important

enterprises were concentrated in his hands, and

from 1624

to the

end of

was almost

his days he

engaged on religious works.

exclusively

February 1629,

after

appointed 'Architect to St Peter's' and,

though

his activity in that

as 1624 with the

In

Maderno's death, he was

church began

al-

as early

commission of the Baldacchino

[86], the majority of his sculptural, decorative,

and architectural contribution

and

lay

between 1630

his death.

sculpture as his calling and was, at the same

In the earlv 1620s he was one of the most

time, architect, painter, and poet; like Michel-

sought-after portrait sculptors, but with the

angelo he was a born craftsman and marble was

accretion of

his

element;

real

Michelangelo he was

like

capable of almost superhuman concentration

and single-mindedness

in

pursuing

given task.

But unlike the terrible and lonely giant of the

sixteenth century, he was a

charm, a

brilliant

and

witty

conviviality, aristocratic in

husband and

man

of infinite

talker,

fond of

demeanour,

good

father, a first-rate organizer, en-

dowed with an

unparalleled talent for creating

in

Paul V's Chapel in S.

Maria Maggiore determined the beginning of

his career.

It

monumental

scale, less

was thus

that the pope's

and

and

less

tasks on an unprece-

time was

left

him

for

distractions of this kind. In the later 1620s and

in the thirties

he had to employ the help of

assistants for

such minor commissions, and

from the

last thirty-five years

of his

half a dozen portrait busts exist

The most

life

by

hardly

his hand.

extensive works - tombs, statues,

chapels, churches, fountains,

monuments, and

the Square of St Peter's - crowd into the three

pontificates of

rapidly and with ease.

His father's activity

dented

Urban VIII, Innocent X, and

Alexander VII. Although he was active

verv end,

it

was only during the

commissions thinned

BIBLOSARTE

out.

last

From

to the

years that

all

we can

144

"

AGK OK THt HUiH BAROQUE

rui-

due

gather, this was

artistic activity rather

to the general dearth of

than to

creative capacity in old age.

dechne of

his

His work as

Gianlorenzo Bernini
Aeneas and .^nchises, 1618-19.
Rome. Calleria Bur^hese

painter was mainly confined to the 1620s; later

he hardly touched

brush and preferred using

professional painters to express his ideas. .Most

of his important architectural designs, on the

other hand, belong to the later years of his
particularly to the period of .-Mexander

life,

VI Ts

reign.'

SCULPTURE
Development

Slylislic

It is

not quite easy in Bernini's case to ascertain

with precision caesuras

in the

development

his style.

The

years he

worked simultaneously on

reason

simple: for about

is

many

of great enterprises and

of

fifty

number

of them were

carried out over long periods, while changes

and alterations were incorporated

progress of the work permitted.

as long as the

Thus he needed

nine years to finish the Baldacchino, ten years

for the Longinus, thirteen for the Cathedra,

and

almost twenty for the tomb of Urban VIII.

Nevertheless, his approach to sculpture under-

went considerable transformations which can

be associated, by and large, w ith definite periods
of his

To

life.

the earliest group of works, datable be-

tween 1 6 1 5 and 1 6 1 7, belong the Goal Amalthea

with the Infant Jupiter and a Satyr (Borghese
Gallery), the St Lawrence (Florence, Contini

Bonacossi Collection) and the St Sebastian

(Lugano, Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection), and

the Santoni- and \ igevano busts

in addition

(S.

Prassede and

Rome).

All these

Mannerist

ties,

energv and

which

lift

S.

Maria sopra Minerva,

works show,

perfection

them

in spite

of their

an extraordinary freedom, an

far

of surface treatment

above the mass of mediocre

contemporary productions. The next phase begins with the Aeneas and
[71], the

first

Am /uses

monumental group

of 161 8- 19

for Cardinal

BIBLOSARTE

Scipione Borghese.

A work of this
we

considerable discipline, and

Bernini

size

required

see the

young

probably advised by his father

72. Gianlorenzo Bernini: David, 1623.

Rome, Gallena Biir^hese

- re-

Mansculptures. The

turning to a composition more decidedly

nerist than

any of his previous

screw-like build-up of the bodies has a wellestablished Mannerist pedigree (figura serpentinata), also to be

found

in the father's

work,

while the precision, vigour, and firmness of

the execution clearly represent an advance be-

yond the

The

earliest phase.

next statues, fol-

lowing in rapid succession, demonstrate an

amazing process of emancipation which

ly

is

hard-

equalled in the whole history of sculpture.

One may follow this from the Neptune and

Triton, made to crown a fishpond in Cardinal
Montalto's garden (1620, now Victoria and
Museum),

Albert

Rape of Proserpina

to the

(162 1 -2), the David {162^) [72], and the Apollo

and Daphne (1622-5,

Scipione Borghese,

all for

Borghese Gallery, Rome).

A new type of sculp-

ture had emerged. Hellenistic antiquity and

Annibale Carracci's Farnese ceiling were the

essential guides to Bernini's revolutionary con-

Some

ceptions.'

summarized

all

of the

new

principles

these figures

show

may

be

a transitory

moment,

the climax of an action, and the be-

holder

drawn

is

Their

devices.

into their orbit by a variety of

immediacy and

near-to-life

quality are supported by the realism of detail

and the differentiation of texture which make

the dramatic incident

all

more impressive.

the

One need

only compare Bernini's David with

statues of

David of previous

centuries, such as

Donatello's or Michelangelo's, to realize the

decisive break with the past

instead of a self-

contained piece of sculpture, a figure striding

through space almost menacingly engages the

observer.

With

the St Bibiana (1624-6, S. Bibiana,

Rome)

[73] begins the long series of religious

statues

which required

change of spirit,

of sculptural principles. Here for the

first

if

not

time

Bernini expressed in sculpture the typically

BIBLOSARTE

I4(>

THE AGK

Ol-

Tilt

IllCill

UAROQUE

sevcntccnth-century sensibility so well

from Rcni's paintings. Here also

time the

and

fall ol

the drapery seems to support,

to participate in, the

figure. Later,

known

tor the first

mental attitude of the

he increasingly regarded garments

step in the conquest of the

conceived drapery

tically

St

(1629-38,

Loni(inus

body by the dramais

the

Peter's)

monumental
[74J. Three

strands of folds radiate from a nodal point under

the

arm towards the

left

large vertical cataract

to sustain a spiritual

of drapery, leading the eye in a subtle way to

concept by an abstract play of folds and cre-

the stone image of the Holy Lance, a relic of

and draperies as
vasses, of light

means

and shade.

The next decisive

preserved in the crypt under the statue.

which

is

Thus

the

body of St Longinus

is

almost smo-

thered under the weight of the mantle, which

seems

own

to follow its

laws.

development

parallel

will

be found

in

Ber-

Those of the 1620s are pensive

nini's busts.

and calm, with

simple silhouette and plastic,

firm folds of draperies.

long series of these

but psychologically penetrating busts

'static'

survives from the small head of Paul

(1618,

Borghese Gallery) [75] to the busts of Gregory

XV, of Cardinal Escoubleau de Sourdis (S.
Bruno, Bordeaux), of Monsignor Pedro de Foix

Montoya

(S.

Maria

the early busts of

Francesco

Monserrato, Rome), to

di

Urban

VHI

and that of

(Washington,

Barberini

Gallery, Kress Collection), to

National

name only

the

most important ones. The bust of Scipione

Borghese of 1632 (Rome, Borghese Gallery)
a dynamic quality;^ the
momentary movement, the

[76],

by contrast, has

head

is

shown

in

eye seems to

lively

mouth

fix

half-open, as

in conversation.

if

the beholder, and the

speaking, engages

Similarly dynamic

is

him

the ar-

rangement of the drapery, on which the

lights

play and flicker and which therefore seems in

permanent movement.
Thus, with
ginus

this bust

and the statue of Lon-

new phase begins

one wants

to attach to

label, they

may

in Bernini's

them

be called 'High Baroque'.

new importance conferred upon

a

prominent factor

in

impact of the work

same years
73.

Gianlorcnzo Bernini: St Bibiana, 1624

Rome, S. Bihiana

6.

work. If

terminological

The

the drapery as

supporting the emotional

will

be found during the

in paintings

by Cortona or Lan-

franco, and even in those of an artist like Reni.

One may compare

the Virgin in Reni's

BIBLOSARTE

Assump-

74-

Gianlorenzo Bernini: St Longinus, 1629-38. Rome, St Peter's

BIBLOSARTE

14^

75-

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Bust of Pope Paul V, 1618. Rome, Gallena Bargliese

BIBLOSARTE

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

76.

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Bust of Cardinal Scipione Borghese, 1632. Rome, Galleria Borghese

BIBLOSARTE

149

150

of the

TiiK ac;e

Genoa

ttoti in

ot"

baroque

iiinii

1616-17

with that of his

[},},]

Maddinia of I he Rosary of 1630-

years, too, he placed for the

first

time a

monu-

(Bologna,

mentalized rustic fountain into the centre of a

Finacotcca); only the latter shows passages of

square (Four Rivers I'ountain, Piazza N'avona,

heavy self-contained drapery similar

to the ver-

But Bernini did not immediately pursue the

newly opened path.

On

the contrary, during

the 1630s there was a brief pause, a classical

probably not uninfluenced by the

recession,

increasing pressure from the

camp

emphatic upholders of the

classical doctrine.

To

this

phase belong,

among

of the Countess Matilda

and the large

relief of the

1648 51) [93], radically revised the classical

concept of beauty (Truth Unveiled, 1646-52,

of Longinus's mantle.

tical fall

of the

others, the

in St Peter's

more

Borghese Gallery), found a new solution for

the old problem of the truncated chest in busts

(Francis

I d'Este,

tomb

(1633 7)

Pane Ores Meas inside

the portico over the central door of the basilica

77.

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

St .Mary Magdalen,

1661-3. Siena, Cathedral, Cappella Chigi

(1633-46); in addition, the head of the Medusa

(1636?,

some

Rome, Palazzo

portrait busts,

Giordano

!'

dei Conservatori)

above

and

those of Paolo

all

Duke of Bracciano (Castle,

Thomas Baker (1638, VicMuseum); finally, some of

Orsini,

Bracciano), and of
toria

and Albert

Bernini's weakest works, such as the

Inscription
.\raceli

for

Urban VIII

in

Memorial
Maria

S.

in

(1634) and the JVlemorial Statue of

Urban VIII
(1635-40).

in the Palazzo dei

The

execution of

all

Conservatori

contribution of assistants in the

these works varies, and none

can lay claim to complete authenticity.

What may be

called Bernini's

middle period,

the years from about 1640 to the

must be regarded

mid

fifties,

most important and

as the

most creative of his whole

career. It

was during

these years that the final design of the

Urban VIII took shape (begun

tomb of

1628, but carried

out mainly between 1639 and 1647, St Peter's)

[83], that

funeral

he developed a revolutionary type of

monument (Maria Raggi,

1643, S.

sopra Minerva), and

most decisive

the idea of unifying

all

whelming

Maria

conceived

the arts to one over-

effect while at the

same time

1650-1, Estense Gallery,

Modena), and designed the new type of the

Baroque equestrian monument (Constantine,

dis-

covering the potentialities of concealed and

directed light (Raimondi Chapel, S. Pietro in

Montorio, c. 1642 6, and Cornaro Chapel, S.

Maria dellaVittoria, 1645-52) [84]. Duringthese

BIBLOSARTE

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

begun 1654, but not

Regia, Vatican) [82].

finished until 1668, Scala

It is

impossible to over-

estimate the significance of the ideas incor-

porated in these works, not only for the

Roman

from the Daniel (1655-7, Chigi Chapel,

Maria del Popolo) to the Mary Magdalen

hundred years of Italian

(cast in 1665)

and, indeed, European

art.

Angelo (1668-71,

The

transition to his latest

manner may be
sixties

onwards. With the one exception of the Hahak-

kuk (1655-61,

78.

S.

Maria

del Popolo) [80],

all

Gianlorenzo Bernini
with the Crown of Thorns, 1668 71.

The Angel

Rome, S. Andrea

his later figures

show

limbs which he

first

One may

the over-long and slender

gave to the Truth Unveiled.

follow the development towards the

conception of more and more attenuated bodies

in

and the Angels

S.

Andrea

for the

Ponte

S.

delle Fratte [78,

79] and Ponte S. Angelo)' with their ethereal

bodies and extremely elongated extremities.

And

parallel with this 'gothicizing'

the treatment of garments

79.

tendency

becomes increasingly

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

The Angel

with the Superscription, 1668-71

Rome, S. Andrea

delle Fratte

S.

Siena Cathedral (166 1-3) [77], further to the

Angels at the sides of the Chair of the Cathedra

setting but for the next

observed in the works from the early

151

delle Fratte

impetuous, turbulent, and sophisticated. They

lose

more and more the character of real material

and must be viewed

of conveying

to

BIBLOSARTE

as abstract patterns capable

the

beholder

feeling

of

Ii;2

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

Mary

passionate spirituality. In the case of the

Bernini's turn, in his later years, to an austere

MuiiJiikn, for instance, the sweep and counter-

and, one

sweep of two ropes of

for

tightly

twisted

folds

body sublimely express the

cutting across the

agony and suspense. Similarly, the grief

saint's

of the Ponte S. Angelo Angels over Christ's

Passion

reflected in difterent

is

ways

in their

wind-blown draperies. The Crown of Thorns

held by one of them

wavy
more

all

at-

By contrast, the
and tender mood of the Angel

at rational

delicate

expressed and sus-

is

tained by the drapery crumpled into nervous

which

roll

up

restlessly at the lower end.

In the early seventies. Bernini

One may

consequences.

drew the

last

study the change from

Constantine's horse to the similar horse of the

monument

equestrian

Versailles), or
to

of Louis

XIV

(1669-77,

even from the authentic bozzetto,

be dated 1670 (Borghese Gallery),

to the

execution of the actual work, which was nearing

completion

in

1673, ^^^

^^

^i'l t)e

found that

between the model and the marble there was

further and last advance in the dynamic orna-

mentalization of form.

bronze angels on the

Sacramento (St

The garments

so

independent of the prevalent tendencies of the

period.

But

in his case

it

axial control

which gives

just the contrast

is

between violently strained

and
work an un-

plastic ma.sses

his late

equalled dramatic and ecstatic quality.

One and Many Views

Sculpture with

altar

to its

It is

one of the strange and ineradicable mis-

apprehensions,

due,

seems,

it

Heinrich

to

Woelfflin's magnetic influence, that

sculpture presents

contrary
clearer

is

many

the case, and

than

the

Bernini himself.

immediately

The

nobody has made

this

Baroque

greatest

Many

recall the

Baroque

points of view.^

artist

readers may, however,

Borghese Gallery statues

and groups which, standing

free in the centre

of the rooms, invite the beholder to go round

them and inspect them from every

side.

It is

usually forgotten that their present position

is

of fairly recent date and that each of these works

was originally placed against

a wall. Right

from

the beginning Bernini 'anchored' his statues

of the Cappella del

firmly to their surroundings and with advancing

utmost

show

this ten-

limit. Parallel

with this went an inclination to replace the

diagonals,

framework

of the

Peter's, 1673-4)

dency developed

to say, classical

explanation.

with the Superscription

folds

tempted

echoed by the powerful,

is

arc of the drapery which defies

tempts

is

compositions shows that he was not

his

prominent during the middle

years found

new and

characteristic devices to

assure that they would be viewed from preselected points.

It

is,

of course. Renaissance statuary that

mind when we

period, by horizontals and verticals, to play with

comes

meandering curves or

to break angular folds

conceived for one main aspect. Most Renais-

abruptly, and to deepen crevices and furrows.

sance figures leave not a shadow of doubt about

Nobody can

the principal view, since by and large they are

overlook the change from the

Ecstasy of St

Teresa

(1645-52) [85] to the

Blessed Lodovica Albert out (1674, S. Francesco

a
I

Ripa) [81] or from the portrait bust of Francis

(1650-1) to that of Louis

sailles) [91].

Fonseca
[203] -

{c.
it

is

XIV

(1665, Ver-

In his latest bust - that of Gabriele

1668-75, S. Lorenzo
evident

how

in

Lucina)

strongly these

com-

worked

to

like reliefs

think of sculpture

with bodies and extremities

extending without overlappings in an ideal for-

ward plane. Quite diflierent are Bernini's figures:

they extend in depth and often display complex

arrangements of contrasting

spatial planes

and

movements. The difference may be studied

in

the Chigi Chapel of S. Maria del Popolo, where

Hahahkuh

positional devices support the emotional tension

Bernini

expressed

counterpart to Lorenzetti's Raflaelesque^//i///.

in the head.

designed

his

BIBLOSARTE

[80]

as

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

153

In contradistinction to the latter's relief-like

character, Bernini's figure, or rather group,

does not offer a coherent 'relief-plane', but

emphatically projects and recedes

in the third

dimension. In addition to the contrappostal

arrangement of Habakkuk's

legs,

and

torso,

head and the pointing arm cutting across the

body, there

And

it

the angel turned into the niche.

is

when we

just

is

see

Habakkuk

frontal view that the angel appears

in the

most fore-

shortened. But viewing the group as a whole,

we note

that the angel's action (his gripping

the prophet by a lock of hair and pointing across

the room, in the direction of Daniel's niche)

facing the niche, and

point that

is

from the exact central position

fully defined

it is

only from this stand-

the parts, such as the

all

combined

play of the legs and arms of the two figures,

can be seen as a meaningful pattern.' In order

to perceive the

body and arms of the angel

fully

extended, the beholder has to step

far to the

but then Habakkuk's pose and

movement

right
are

no longer co-ordinated, nor does the whole

group present an integrated, coherent view.

Thus, once the beholder relinquishes the principal aspect,

new views may appear

in his field

of vision, yet they are always partial ones which

reveal details otherwise hidden, without,
ever,

contributing

to

clarification

how-

of the

overall design.

The

result of this analysis

generalized

essential

we

are, in fact,

problem

in

may

safely

be

concerned with an

Baroque sculpture.

It

ap-

pears then that Bernini's statues are conceived

in

depth and that the sensation of their

spatial

organization should and will always be realized,

but that they are nevertheless composed as

images for a single principal viewpoint.

must even go

a step further in

problem into proper

not only
80.

to the

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

focus. Bernini's figures

move freely in depth but seem to belong

same space

in

which the beholder

lives.

1655-61.

Differing from Renaissance statuary, his figures

del Popolo, Cappella Chigi

need the continuum of space surrounding them

The Prophet Habakkuk,

Rome, S. Maria

One

order to get this

BIBLOSARTE

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

154

and without

Thus

d'etre.

they would lose their

it

David aims

the

who must

imaginary Goliath

somewhere
Bibiana

God

is

raisoti

his stone at an

be assumed to be

space near the beholder; the

in

shown

mute communication with

in

the Father, who, painted on the vault

above her, spreads his arms

into the
to the

empyrean

as

to receive her

if

ot saints; Lnniiinus looks

heavenly light tailing

in

up

from the dome

of St Peter's; Hahakkiik points to the imaginary

labourers in the

about

field

remove him

to

while the angel of

to Daniel's

may now

is

The new

space in which the spectator stands.

conceptual position

God

den across the

be stated more

pointedly: Bernini's statues breathe, as

it

practice and gave a

infinite

number

group of several figures an

of equally valid viewpoints.

The propagation of multiple viewpoints

sculpture

came

in

the

wake of deep

in

spiritual

change, for the socially elevated sculptor of the

sixteenth century, refusing to be a

man, thought
or clay.

Thus

in

mere

crafts-

terms of small models of wax

he created, unimpeded by the

material restrictions of the block.

The

Renais-

sance conception of sculpture as the art of

working
to

stone ('the art of subtracting') began

in

be turned into the art of working

wax

('modelling',

Michelangelo

which

is

in clay

done by adding

a painterly occupation),

and
- for

and

this

were,

sixteenth-century revolution ultimately led to

that

the decay of sculpture in the nineteenth century.

they even share the space continuum with him,

Although Bernini could not accept the many

and yet remain picture-like works of

views of Mannerist statuary because they would

the

same

specific

air as the

beholder, are so

and limited sense;

for

'real'

art in a

although they

interfere with his carefully planned subject-

stimulate the beholder to circulate, they re-

object (beholder-work) relationship and,

quire the correct viewpoint not only to reveal

over,

their

space-absorbing and space-penetrating

qualities,

but also to grasp

the action or
is

fully the

theme represented.

meaning of

To

be sure,

it

Bernini's persistent rendering of a transitory

moment

that

makes the one-view aspect un-

would prevent the perception

at a

moreglance

of one centre of energy and one climax of action,

he did not return to the Renaissance limitations
dictated by the block-form, since he wanted to

wed

his statues to the

combining the

surrounding space. By

single viewpoint of Renaissance

Man-

avoidable: the climax of an action can be wholly

statues with the freedom achieved by the

revealed from one viewpoint alone.

nerists, Bernini laid the foundation for his

While Bernini accepts on

level

new

sophisticated

Only on

the Renaissance principle of sculpture

with one view, he also incorporates in his work

essential features of Mannerist statuary,

namely

complex relationships, broken contours, and

protruding extremities.

He

takes advantage, in

other words, of the Mannerist freedom from

the limitations imposed by the stone.
his figures

Many

of

and groups consist of more than one

block, his Lotijiinus for instance of no less than

five.

Mannerist practitioners and theorists, in the

first

place

Benvenuto Cellini, discussed whether

a piece of sculpture should have

one or many

views. Their verdict was a foregone conclusion.

Giovanni Bologna
(1579-83) showed

in his

how

Rape of

the Sahines

to translate theory into

new.

Baroque, conception of sculpture.

rare occasions did he conceive works

for multiple viewpoints.

This happened when

the conditions under which his works were to be

seen were beyond his control. Such

is

the case

of the angels for the Ponte S. Angelo, which had

to

have a variety of viewpoints for the people

crossing the bridge.

These angels clearly present

three equally favourable views - from the

left,

the right, and the centre; but they do not offer

coherent views either

back,

in

pure profile or from the

these aspects are invisible to the

for

passers-by.

During

his

middle period Bernini brought

new and most important

ideas to bear

upon the

problem of defined viewpoints. He placed the

BIBLOSARTE

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

group of 5/ Teresa and

under
and

Angel in

the

a protective architectural

this

makes

it

deep niche

canopy

[84, 85],

pictorial character

one may liken

is

it

82].

In spite of their tableau vivant character,

these works are
sional

and vigorously

reliefs

nor relegated to

The Cathedra

act

on

a stage

extension.

which

They

picture framed by the columns of the Baldac-

continuum, but

chino

removed from

[86]. Similarly, the pictorial

concepts of

the Constantine and the Blessed Lodovica are

when

thev are looked at from

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

The

Altieri

Chapel

with the Blessed Lodovica Albertoni, 1674.

Rome, S. Francesco a Ripa

still

'alive';

is

they are neither

a limited space.

They

of potentially unlimited

share, therefore, our space

at the

same time they are

far

us: they are strange, visionary,

unapproachable

- like

apparitions from another

world.

82.

all

\igorously three-dimen-

still

when-

enormous colourful

an

like

viewing position.

lines

to a tableau

true of later designs

ever circumstances permitted.

81.

almost force upon the spectator the correct

of the architecture, the group has an essentially

revealed onlv

[8

nave of

in the

Cornaro Chapel. Enshrined by the framing

was conceived

nave of S. Francesco a Ripa respectively

Indeed, the carefully contrived framing devices

work unless the beholder stands

The same

inside the portico of St Peter's and from the

virtually impossible to see the

the church exactly on the central axis of the

vivant.

155

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Constantine, seen from the portico, 165468.

Rome, St Peter's

BIBLOSARTE

83. Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Tomb

of Urban VIII, 1628 47. Bronze and marble. Rome, St Peter's

BIBLOSARTE

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

Colour and Light

Death, and the papal statue,

It is

evident that Bernini's pictorial approach to

aspects, colour

and

which require special

light,

attention.
is

the

these figures with their

and

their sensual

The

that

form

Rome was

art.

uncoloured marbles of ancient

link with the

never entirely broken, and

is

it

polychromy was almost exclusively reserved

made of cheap

popular works

during the

sixteenth century

late

fashionable in

materials.

Rome and

for

But

became

it

elsewhere to combine

human

reactions

and appealing surface texture

between the beholder and

a transition

the papal statue, which by

its sombre colour

removed from our sphere of life.
More complex are the colour relationships in

alone seems far

characteristic that in Florence, for instance,

'

white marble allegories of Charity and

Justice have manifestly a this-worldly quality.

rather ex-

ceptional in the history of European

the parts

these with their magic colour and light effects,

It is

Polychrome marble sculpture

all

concerned with the deceased. Unlike

directly

sculpture cannot be dissociated from two other

i.e.

157

The Cornaro Chapel

Bernini's later work.

is,

of

course, the most perfect example [84, 85]. In

human

the lowest, the

zone, the beholder

with a colour harmony of

faced

is

warm and

white marble heads with coloured busts, in

glowing tones

imitation of a trend in late antique sculpture.

Teresa's vision, the focal point of the whole

The

red, green,

in

and yellow. St

naturalistic element implicit in such

works

composition,

The

use of

contrast between the dark framing columns and

composite or polychrome materials would have

the highly polished whiteness of the group.

interfered with his unified conception of bust or

Other stimuli are brought into play to emphasize

never had any attraction for Bernini.

figure.

In his Diary the Sieur de Chantelou

informs us that Bernini regarded

sculptor's

most

difficult task to

as

it

the

produce the

is

dramatically accentuated by the

the unusual character of the event which

a

shows

seraph piercing her heart with the fiery arrow

of divine love, symbol of the saint's mystical

impression and effect of colour by means of the

union with Christ. The vision takes place

white marble alone. But

imaginary realm on

in a different

polychromy was extremely important

to

sense

him.

He needed polychrome settings and the alliance

much

of bronze and marble figures as

articulation, emphasis,

meaning

for the

and differentiation of

as for the unrealistic pictorial

sion of his large compositions.

may

It

impres-

be argued

that he followed an established vogue. ^

certain extent this

chromy became
unknown.
Bernini's

is

true.

Yet

in his

To

hands poly-

[83] certainly

counterpart, Guglielmo della Porta's

III.

But

and directed

in Bernini's

whole central portion

iridescent

concealed

used

is

in

support of the

a witness.

The

light falls

through

window of

yellow glass hidden behind the pediment and

materialized, as

is

were, in the golden rays

it

encompassing the group.'

It is

often observed that Bernini drew here on

is

probably correct,

problem. For this

'theatrical'

it

distracts

art is

no

less

Although

this

from the

real

and no more

than a Late Gothic altarpiece repeat-

ing a scene from a mystery play, frozen into

carefully balanced

permanence. In another chapter the symbolic

The

religious connotations of light have been dis-

distinct
is

tomb of

work the white and

much more

and communicate

light

an

Moreover,

before

background.

his experience as stage designer.

follows the polychrome pattern of the older

Paul

mid-air

in

an

dramatic climax to which the beholder becomes

a device of subtlety hitherto

tomb of Urban VIII

dark areas are

suspended
alabaster

in

large cloud, magically

meaning.

of dark, partly gilded

bronze: the sarcophagus, the

life-like figure

of

cussed

(p. 55).

lem of

light

Bernini's approach to the prob-

is

in a

BIBLOSARTE

clearly defined

pictorial

158

84
85.

THK

A(iK.

OV

Till

IllCill

above j. Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

BAROQUE

The Cornaro

Chapel. Eighteenth-century painting. Schmenn.

BIBLOSARTE

The

Ecstasy of St Teresa, 1645-52. Rome, S.

Mana

delta

illona,

Museum

Coniaro Chapel

//

"^,

/
^""'-^

BIBLOSARTE

l6o

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

tradition of

which the examples

The directed

as used

in

as a whole, Bernini differentiated here as in

by Bernini, sanctifies the objects and

other cases between various degrees of reality.

and singles them out as

The members of the Cornaro family seem to be

alive like ourselves. They belong to our space
and our world. The supra-natural event of

persons struck by

it

heavenly

The

recipients of divine Grace.

golden rays

along which the light seems to travel have yet

By

another meaning.

contrast

to

the calm,

diffused light of the Renaissance, this directed

light

seems

fleeting,

transient,

impermanent.

Impermanence

is

light, therefore,

supports the beholder's sensa-

very essence. Directed

its

tion of the transience of the scene represented

we

In spite of the pictorial character of the design

Baroque
light,

painting are legion.

realize that the

tion' passes as

it

moment

of divine 'illumina-

comes. With his directed light

Bernini had found a way of bringing

home

to

Teresa's vision

removed from

its

own,
by

canopy and the heavenly

light.'" Finally,

much

less tangible

is'

the un-

fathomable infinity of the luminous empyrean.

The beholder is drawn

ships and

becomes

web

of relation-

a witness to the

mysterious

into this

man

hierarchy ascending from

to

and

saint

Godhead.
In

all

the large works from the middle period

on, directed and often concealed light plays an

sculptor before Bernini had attempted to

use real light in this way. Here in the ambient

air

raised to a sphere of

virtue of the isolating

the faithful an intensified experience of the

supra-natural.

No

is

that of the beholder mainly

of a chapel he did what painters tried to do

in their pictures. If

it is

accepted that he trans-

overwhelmingly important part

a

in

producing

convincing impression of miracle and vision.

Bernini solved the problem

mondi Chapel

in

first

dim

in the

Rai-

Montorio

Pietro in

S.

{c.

lated back into the three dimensions of real life

1642-6). Standing in the

the illusion of reality rendered by painters in

the spectator looks into the altar-recess and

two dimensions, an important insight into the

sees, brightly

lit

as

if

fight of the chapel,

by magic, the Ecstasy of St

approach to

Francis, Francesco Baratta's relief. Later, Ber-

sculpture has been won. His love for chromatic

nini used essentially similar devices not only

specific character of his pictorial

settings
like the

now becomes

A work

fully intelligible.

Cornaro Chapel was conceived

in

terms

of an enormous picture.

This

is

for the

Cornaro Chapel and

Albertoni, and,

true of the chapel as a whole.

Higher

for the

Cathedra,

but also for the Constantine, the Blessed Lodovica

on

church of S. Andrea

much

al

larger scale, in the

Quirinale [104].

up the colour scheme lightens and on the vault-

At the same time, colour symphonies become

ing the painted sky opens. Angels have pushed

increasingly opulent and impressive. Witness

aside the clouds so that the heavenly light

the

issuing from the

in

Holy Dove can reach the zone

which the mortals

live.

The

figure of the

seraph, brother of the angels painted in the

clouds, has descended on the

beams of light.

Along the side walls of the chapel, above the

doors, appear the

members

of the Cornaro

family kneeling behind prie-dieus and discuss-

tomb of Maria Raggi

Minerva) with

black,

stucco curtain behind the Constantine, a motif

that has not
a forcible

one but four different functions as

:

support of the Emperor's movement,

as a device to relate the

monument

to the size

of

the niche, as the traditional 'emblem' of royalty,

and

They

jasper palls

an illusionist architecture which

(1643, S. Maria sopra

sombre harmony of

yellow, and gold; or the wind-swept colourful

ing the miracle that takes place on the altar.

live in

its

as a fantastic pictorial element.

which he used only

Witness the
in

such

late

and the tomb

looks like an extension of the space in which the

works

beholder moves.

of Alexander VII; or the altar in the Chapel of

as the Lodovica Albertoni

BIBLOSARTE

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

We

l6l

have seen how the painted sky, the

the Blessed Sacrament in St Peter's (1673-4),

ample.

where coloured marbles,

bronze, and lapis

sculptured group, and the real and feigned

into a picture of sublime beauty

architecture are firmly interlocked. Thus, only

combine

lazuli

gilt

we view

which expresses symbolically the immaterial

if

perfection of the angelic world and the radiance

gible.

of God.

architectural works, as will be

With
and

his revolutionary

light,

approach

to colour

Bernini opened a development of

immeasurable consequences.

It is

not suffici-

fusion of

down,

mature Bernini furnish the basis not only

tion,

but above

Roman and North

all

for

Italian works,

and German

for the Austrian

also true of Bernini's primarily

all

life

and

basilica

(1656-66) [86, 87], Bernini's most com-

most

place and symbolic import,

its

significant work, the various points here

We

made may be fully studied.

how the whole was conceived

the repertory created by Bernini.

the columns of the Baldacchino.

pictorial
sult

way of conceiving
terms had

works

his large

in

a further revolutionary re-

the traditional separation of the arts into

clearly defined

species or categories

in the

round or

applicable.

On

is it

a relief?

became

What

obsolete and even nonsensical.

group of 5/ Teresa and the Angel?

Is

it

is

the

sculpture

Neither term

is

the one hand, the group cannot

near standpoint

is

Glory.
sible

No

the

nor

is it

framed

it

has

as a relief should be. In other

The beholder

and architecture becomes

Whenever given
his

fluid.

a unified

make up an

indivisible

finds himself in a world

saints

and angels, and he

.'

and

And

to

be

yet, in spite of the vast scale

spatial extension, the

carefully arranged

composition

most

is

and balanced. The colour

let

scheme lightens progressively from

the marble

concept which

pedestals to the bronze throne with

gilt

the opportunity, Bernini

imagery flow from

pos-

from

between the one and the other seems

obliterated.

Moreover, even the borderline between paint-

is

as the transitions

What is image, what is reality The very border-

term

ing, sculpture,

yellow

magically drawn into the orbit of the work.

line

our vocabulary.

in the

then to free-standing figures

penetrating far into space

feels

bathed

difterentiation into species

flat to full relief and

words, Bernini created a species for which no

exists in

all

window as well

which he shares with

spreading from the centre of the angelic

light

ground, and the rays of light on the other,

proper sense of the word,

Only from

subtle interplay of multicoloured marble, gilt

bronze, and stucco,

whole.

in the

picturesque

possible to discern the

it

be dissociated from the aedicule, the back-

no relief-ground

noted before

like a

fata morgana to be seen from a distance through

The Transcending uf Traditional Modes

Bernini's

the barriers

all

existence and appari-

melt into one.

Asam

to

art, real

In the Cathedra of St Peter in the apse of the

plex and, due to

new

later in

the arts enhance the beholder's

Baroque. Even the colour and light orgies of the

brothers add nothing essentially

shown

The creation of new species and the

emotional participation: when

are

later

is

this chapter.

ently realized that the pictorial concepts of the

many

the whole are the parts fully intelli-

This

decor-

makes any dissection impossible. His own time

ations and the golden angels of the Glory."

was

gilded rays spread their protecting fingers over

fully

aware of this. In the words of Bernini's

biographer, Filippo Baldinucci,

knowledge that he was the

first

to unite architecture, sculpture

was 'common
who undertook

the whole width of the

and painting

symbolic focus, the area of the throne. Move-

it

such a way that they together make

whole'.

The Cornaro Chapel

is

The

in

a beautiful

the supreme ex-

same time, the

work and enhance,

visual

ments and gestures, even

the

in different spatial

layers, are intimately related.

BIBLOSARTE

at

concentration on the

Thus

the nervous

l62

86.

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Baldacchino, 1624-33. Bronze. Rome,

St

Peter':

BIBLOSARTE

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

87.

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Cathedra of St Peter, 1656-66. Bronze, marble, and stucco. Rome, St

BIBLOSARTE

Peter'.

163

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

lft4

down

intellectual fences

to

break

to

him what we

willingly

and concede

do before

Gonzalez

or a Giacometti or a .Moore.

\'ew Iconographical Types

No less important and

new

influential than Bernini's

artistic principles

them were

able from

and, naturally, inseparthe changes he brought

about over a wide choice of subjects. Only

detailed studies

would

his innovations.

Although deeply conscious

and indebted

new

re\eal the full range of

to, tradition,

task with a fresh

and developed

it

in a

of,

he approached every

and independent mind

new

direction.

He became

the greatest creator of iconographical types of

the Italian
saint,

Baroque and

of tombs,

the

his

conception of the

equestrian

statue,

of

and fountains remained unchal-

portraiture

lenged for a hundred years.

The tomb
new type

Urban VIII [83] established

monument. Looking
back via Guglielmo della Porta's tomb of Paul
III to Michelangelo's Medici Tombs, Bernini
of

of the papal

the

achieved an ideal balance between a commemor-

and a ceremonial monument,' and

ative

''

concept that

many

later sculptors

it is

this

endeavoured

with more or less success (p. 440). In

tomb of Alexander VII (1671-8) [89],

to follow

the late
Gianlorenzo Bernini;

Bernini stressed the contrast between the im-

Detail from the Cathedra of St Peter

[cf.

87]

permanence of life (Death with hour-glass) and

the unperturbed faith of the praying pope. But

and eloquent hands of St Ambrose and St

this

Athanasius, shown on illustration 88, appear

Bernini's

like

contrapuntal expressions of the same theme.

Bernini's

new and unorthodox way

of step-

ping across traditional boundaries and harnessing

all

baffles

the arts into one overwhelming effect

many

spectators.

Even those who

defence of similar phenomena

modern

art

rise in

in the case

of

cannot forgive Bernini for having

transgressed the established

expression.'-

It

is

modes of

capture our imagination only

if

we

are prepared

which corresponded so well with

own

convictions on the threshold of

death, was too personal to find

When

it

much

following.

was taken up during the eighteenth

century, the concept had changed: Death was

no longer checked by the certainty of salvation

through
those

faith

and held nothing but terror

whom

he

threatens

with

for

permanent

extinction.'^

At the beginning of the 1640s Bernini brought

artistic

clear that his imagery will

idea,

completely new^ approach

smaller funeral

monuments

BIBLOSARTE

to the

problem of

with his designs of

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Tomb

of Alexander VII, 1671-8. Rome, Si Peter's

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

the

Valtrini

and Merenda memorials, both

executed by studio hands, '^ and the tomb of

Maria Raggi,

work of the highest quahty.

He

modern
have

here

with her

of King Charles

portrait of the deceased

by putti respectively.
in the

later,

is

carried by

a relief-

Death and

was three generations

It

Age of Enlightenment,

that this

type finally supplanted that with the deceased

in

an attitude of devotion
Equally

momentous

in his contribution to

the history of portraiture.

of 1632
first

(p.

146)

thirties dates
trait

may

High Baroque

The Scipiaiie Borghese

safely be regarded as the

portrait bust.

From

the

art, that

Costanza Buouarelli (Florence, Bargello)

It is

mid

one of the most remarkable por-

busts of the whole history of

of

[90].

Bernini's only private portrait bust and

is

therefore done without the deliberate stylization

of the other works of this period.

One may

well

believe that the stormy love aflair Bernini had

with this fierce and sensual

of the town.

about

this

What

work

is

is

woman was

historically so

that

it

is

the talk

important

opens the history of

woman

of the people,

and instantaneous. In

direct

Este, and Louis

created the

XIV

official

his busts

(destroyed),"' Francis

[91],

of

by contrast, Bernini

Baroque type of the absolute

sovereign. His intentions and procedure can be

fully derived

from the diary entries of the Sieur

de Chantelou.''

(p. 444).

is

neither beautified nor heroized, and 'contact'

rejected the isolating architectural framework;

and Raggi tombs

167

portraiture in sculpture. All the barriers

fallen:

and

in the Valtrini

He

approached such busts

with the idea of conveying nobility,

pride,

heroism, and majesty. In this he was so successful that

no Baroque sculptor could ever forget

Bernini's

visual

rendering of these abstract

notions. Similarly, he gave the

Baroque equest-

rian statue with the rearing horse a heroic quality

and invested

it

ment not only

ill-starred

with drama and dynamic movein his

Constantme but also

monument

of Louis

stands now, transformed into a

in

the

XIV which

Marcus Curtius,

near the 'Bassin des Suisses' in the gardens of

Versailles.

Even more

radical than

was Bernini's contribution

90 (opposite). Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Bust of Costanza Buonarelli, c. 1635.
Florence, Bargello

91 (right). Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Bust of Louis XIV,
1665. Versailles, Castle

BIBLOSARTE

all

these innovations

to the history of the

l68

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

Baroque fountain. A

tradition of fountains with

Rome,
Bernini took up

figures existed in F"lorence rather than

and

it

was

this tradition that

and revolutionized.
Triton

for

the

Villa

Victoria and Albert

link

with

3)'" [92]

Montalto (1620,

Museum)

P^lorentine

Triton Fountain

Neptune and

His early

in the

is

now

evidence of the

fountains."*

With

his

Piazza Barberini (1642-

he broke entirely with the older formal

Moro in

Piazza

Navona (1653-5), where Bernini

used the same constituent elements: maritime

divinity, shell,

and dolphin. But these elements

now animated by dramatic action; we witness a transitory moment in the contest between
are

the 'Moro'

and

his

prey.

Entirely different

considerations had to be taken into account for

the design of the large fountain in the centre of

the

same Piazza

[93]. Bernini

had

to erect a

to

emphasize

treatment. Far removed from the decorative

monument

elegance of Florentine fountains, this massive

eff^ectively

structure confronts the beholder with a sculp-

disturbing

tural entity as integral as a natural growth. Sea-

fountain had to be related to the fa9ade of S.

sufficiently

large

the centre of the long square without

unity.

its

At the same time the

god, shell, and fish are welded into an organic

Agnese without competing with

whole, and nobody can

rock,-"

fail

to

be captivated by

the fairy-tale atmosphere of such a creation.

All recollection of symmetry

and architectural

structure has disappeared in the Fontana del

92.

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

openings

in the

it.

'natural'

springs, pierced

by

long and short axes and crowned

by the huge Egyptian needle: barrier and hnk,

accompaniment

93.

Triton Fountain, 1642-3. Travertine.

Rome, Piazza Barberini

washed by ample

to the

towers and contrast ex-

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

The Four

Rivers Fountain, 1648-51.

Travertine and marble. Rome, Piazza Navona

BIBLOSARTE

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

He

pansive and varied near the ground and soaring

upwards hard, unitorm, and thin; fountain and

transformation.

monument improvisation and symbol of superhuman permanency - these seeming contra-

tests, the

dictions point to the ingenious answer Bernini

version, exclaiming while looking

found

The number
is

of fountains created by Bernini

comparatively small. But their effect was

all

Contemporaries were fascinated

the greater.

not only by his new, truly poetical use of realistic

motives
also

by

itself.

like rock, shell,

and natural growth, but

his revolutionary handling of the water

For he replaced the traditional thin

jets

by an exuberant and powerful harnessing of the

elements.

was the continuous movement of

It

murmuring water

the rushing and

to fulfil

that helped

one of Bernini's most cherished dreams

to create real

dom

at

represented both Bibiana

the

and the

latter in the

of their supreme

emotional act of con-

up

movement and

pulsating

life.

the Vision of St Teresa strictly adheres to

larly,

which must be regarded

for

it

was

as the

acme of her

decisive part in the acts of her canonization.

Even from the

Habakkuk,

story of Daniel and

and the Dragon' (which forms part

told in 'Bel

Book of

of the Greek

Daniel), Bernini selected

moment to which reference has

already been made (pp. 52-3). In all these cases
the culminating

Bernini gave a visual interpretation of the most

fertile

dramatic moment. Thesameis trueof the

is

not simply an equestrian

representing

the

first

Christian

emperor, but a dramatic history-piece

After the foregoing pages

it

hardly needs stress-

ing that an impressionist and aesthetic appreciation or stylistic approach cannot do justice to
intentions.

real

It

must never be

ting a precise event of his

satisfactory

solution of a given task were

which

ture to poetry, a

by

a literary

ous concetto which

in

But the

meaning of
in

was not necessarily

concetto

factual historical events.

tied to

'poetical' concetto

According

contained no

chosen with proper discrimination. This applies

art

must be informed

a characteristic
is

and ingeni-

to

less intrinsic historical truth if

such works as the fountains, the equestrian

statue of Louis

XIV, and

applicable only to the

fatal error to believe that

For Bernini the

back was devised

concetto

was really synonymous with a grasp of the essenoften

face of the miraculous appearance of the

Cross. --

and sculp-

particular case in hand.

tial

illustra-

the historically

art theory.

work of

theme,

allied painting

dependent on humanist
to this theory,

life

and emotionally decisive moment of conversion

forgotten that Bernini's ideas of what constitutes

a

Hfe;

this particular vision that played a

monument

oj the 'Concetto"

Bernini's

the

at

the saint's meticulous description of the event

Constantine, for this

The Rule

moment

former devoutly accepting her martyr-

Cross: 'Truly this was the Son of God.'-' Simi-

problem.

to his

and Longinus

l(

his subject;

it

was never,

seventeenth-century

art,

as so

cleverly

ment.

He was

to

second Hercules

the Cathedra.

Louis

XIV

It is a

on horse-

as a purely dynastic

monu-

appear on top of a high rock, a

who has reached

the

the steep mountain of Virtue [94].-'

summit of

Thus

this

contrived embroidery. Moreover the concept

work too

he chooses for representation

allegorical equestrian statue, but as usual with

is

always the

moment of dramatic climax. This is true already

for his early mythological

and religious works

is

dynamic

It is

an

made

explicit.

naturalistic rock, the fiery horse,

and the

Bernini, allegory

The

history-piece.

is

implied, not

created in the service of Cardinal Scipione

heroic rider together express in dramatic visual

Borghese.

terms the poetic allegorical content. In a similar

Thus David
the fateful

shown at the split-second of

shot and Daphne at the instant of
is

way, a complex concetto

is

woven

of the Four Rivers Fountain.

BIBLOSARTE

into the design

The

personifica-

lyO

1111.

ACil. 1)1

rUl.

II

(ill

liAROQUt

conceit

poem

rays of Sol,

obelisk,

symbol of the

brought by the elephant

is

Seventh Alexander as
wise.'

Wisdom

thee,

O Seventh

to the

animal

a gift. Is not the

hath given to the World

hast the gifts o(

tions,

contemporary

well expressed in a

is

'The Egyptian

solely

Alexander, consequently thou

Soiy^ In

this case, the inscrip-

pregnant with emblematical meaning, are

prominently displayed on the pedestal and

form an integral part of the composition.

Finally the Cathedra Petri, which confirms

by

arrangement and design

its

visual

dramatic

in

terms the fundamental dogma of the

primacy of papacy. The venerable wooden

of St Peter

stool

encased in the gorgeous bronze

is

throne which hovers on clouds high above the

ground. At

its sides,

greatest Latin

on

a lower level, appear the

and Greek Fathers who sup-

ported Rome's claim to universality.

chair-back

is

to St Peter;

a relief of Christ

On

the

handing the Keys

and above the chair

putti carry the

papal symbols, tiara and keys. Lastly, high up

94.

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Monument

of Louis XIV.

in the centre

Wash

drawing, 1673.

Bassano, Aiuseo Civico

of the angelic Glory

is

parent image of the Holy Dove.-''

the trans-

Thus one

above the other there appear symbols of Christ's

entrusting the office of Vicar to St Peter; of
tions of the

Four Rivers, symbolizing the four

papal power and of divine guidance, protection,

;

parts of the world, and the dove. Innocent X's

and inspiration

emblem which crowns

relic at its centre, a

tional

symbol of divine

the obelisk, the tradilight

and

eternity, pro-

Church

claim the all-embracing power of the

the whole, with the precious

materialized vision, which

exhibits the eternal truth of Catholic

all

dogma

for

to see.-'

under the leadership of the reigning Pamphili

pope.

further layer of meaning

is

hinted at by

Pf'urking Procedure

the reference, manifest in the whole arrange-

ment, to the Rivers of Paradise

at the foot

mountain on which the Cross stands.

monument

-^^

of the

This

Enough

has been said to discard the idea,

all

too

often voiced, that Bernini's magical transmuta-

of Catholic triumph and victory,

tions of reality are the result of a creative fantasy

therefore, also contains the idea of the salvation

run amok. Nothing could be farther from the

of mankind under the sign of the Cross.

truth.

A monument

like the

Elephant carrying the

In fact, in addition to Bernini's

Obelisk, erected in the Piazza S. Maria sopra

drawings and bozzetti are preserved

Minerva between 1666 and 1667, must

more than

understood as

a glorification

pope, Alexander VII.

Its

also be

of the reigning

typically

Baroque

own

statements and a wealth of documents, sufficient

glimpse of his mind

at

procedure cannot be dissociated from

victions, his belief in the

BIBLOSARTE

to allow

work. His
his

con-

time-honoured tenets

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

of decorum and historical truth,

in the classical

monument should be

equestrian

dressed

all'

and partly covered by idealized mantles,

doctrine that nature was imperfect, and in the

atittca

unchallengeable authority of ancient

wildly fluttering in the wind.

art.

171

to the

requirements of decorum and historical

Concern with such problems never barred

him from taking classical and preferably Hel-

truth.

He would

lenistic

While preparing

when he found

He

work he

also

closely attended

be relentlessly

critical

breach of these basic demands.

expressed astonishment, for instance, that

in his

Adoration of the Alagi the learned Poussin,

whom he had almost unreserved admiration,

for

had given

the

to

Kings the appearance of

works as his guide in developing a theme.

Early in his career the finished work often re-

mained

from the Belvedere Apollo nor the David

far

from the Borghese warrior. Even the head of the

ordinary people. Chantelou and Lebrun de-

Longinus

fended Poussin, but Bernini insisted that one

model,

must follow the

text of the

Gospels where

it

was

written that they were Kings. In the case of the

Constantine one can check

how far he went in

An excerpt in his

pursuance of historical truth.

own hand, now

in Paris,-"*

which contained

is

the

Louvre. In

obviously styled after a Hellenistic

Borghese Centaur, now

late

works too the

classical

in

the

model

is

sometimes discernible. The face of Louis XIV's

bust

is

manifestly similar to that of Alexander

the Great on coins, and Bernini himself sup-

Bibliotheque Nationale

plied the information that Alexander portraits,

that he consulted the source

the accepted prototype of royalty, were before

in the

shows

The Apollo
Daphne group does not depart

close to the antique model.

of the Apollo and

a description of Constantine's

physiognomy, namely Nicephorus's much-used

thirteenth-century

Hist or iu

ecclesiastic a,

which modern printed editions

of

The

existed.

his

mind's eye when working on the king's bust.

But

as

he advanced

his classical

Nobody

in age,

models

to

Bernini transformed

an ever greater degree.

looking at his figure of Daniel can

relevant passage describes Constantine as hav-

possibly guess that his point of departure was

ing had an aquiline nose and a rather insignifi-

the father from the

cant

beard.

thin

drawing-' Bernini

In

an

extant

preparatory

made what may be

called a

portrait study of the emperor's features

which

historical

truth

and decorum, the

appropriate and the becoming, merge into one.

Such

is

the case

when he makes

this case,

the copy after that figure through a

preparatory drawings to the

number of

final realization in

marble.^" While working from the life-model,

served as basis for the execution.

Often

Laocoon group. In

however, the development can be followed from

St Bibiana and

Bernini had in the beginning the classical figure

at the

back of his mind, but was carried farther

away from

its spirit

step by step. In accordance

the Countess Matilda wear sandals, while the

with his theoretical views, he began rationally

Discalced Carmelite Teresa appears barefoot;

and objectively, using a venerated antique work

or

when he

is

meticulous about the correct dress

of historical and contemporary personages and

reserves idealized attires for biblical and
logical figures

cases,
to

mytho-

and personifications. In certain

however, the demands of decorum have

supersede those of historical

fact.

Louis

XIV

never walked about in classical armour and

not until his idea developed did he give way to

imaginative and subjective impulses.

worked himself

When

he

into that state of frenzy in

which he regarded himself as the

tool of

God's

grace, he created in rapid succession numberless

sketches and clay models, twenty-two in

all

in

the case of the Longinus. ^^

word,

In front of a very late work such as the ecstatic

theme required

Angel holding the Superscription the conclu-

that Constantine as well as the Louis of the

sion seems unavoidable that he had ceased to

sandals.

the

But the dignity and nobility

decorum

- of the imperial

- in a

BIBLOSARTE

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

1-J2

And

use classical antiquity as a cathartic agent.

body under the agitated

yet the

folds of the

drapery derives from the so-called Antinous

in

the Vatican, a figure that was studied with

quesnoy, and Poussin. Bernini referred to

Academy

address to the Paris

my

words: 'In

from

early youth

classical figures;

my

culties with

first

Antinous as to the

statue,

it

in the

was only when the con-

would appear

in.

logical, therefore, to divide

production into works designed by him and

executed by his hand;^^ those to a greater or

degree carried out by him

*'

others where

a great deal

lesser

he firmly held the reins but actively contributed

in diffi-

is

this

strikingly

evident in a preparatory drawing showing the

Angel

It

his

It

slackened that dissonant elements crept

trol

was

turned to the

Angel,

late

in

these

His reUance on

oracle.'

even for the

figure,

drew

and when

in

multiplying his own.

Du-

devotion in the classical circle of Algardi,

his

work presents an unbroken stylistic unity and

the assistants were no more than so many hands

nude.*- But the proportions of the

little

or nothing to the execution;*'' and finally

those from which he dissociated himself after a

few preliminary

sketches.^*'

which of these categories

to

be made from case

The

decision as to

work belongs has

to case,

more

often than

figure, like those of the finished marble, differ

not on the basis of documents. But in the present

considerably from the classical model. Slim,

context the problem had to be stated rather

with extremely long legs and a head small in

than solved.

comparison with the

recalls

Gothic

rest of the

figures.

spiritualization

The

body, the nude

process of ecstatic

Bernini's activity as a painter has attracted

the preparatory- work.

It

is,

PAINTING

began during an early stage of

of course, necessary to differentiate

much

attention in recent years,*" but in spite

between Bernini's authentic works and those

of considerable efforts the problem

executed by studio hands. This

the critics.

no easy

From

task.

is,

however,

the early 1620s onwards

the increase of commissions in size and

numbers

large

about the part painting played

more and more on the help

as to

what happened

tures

mentioned

him

between
is

to rely

his

own works and

hardly possible. There

is,

sible.

for

a figure

graphy of his

which Bernini

Stylistic

integration

is

hardly respon-

depended

hammer and

less

on

to the

his

more than

in Baldinucci's Life

which Domenico Bernini,

those of the studio

indeed, an indeter-

minable area between wholly authentic works

and those

in

exists
life's

work, although the riddle has not been solved

of assistants. For that reason a precise division

forced

baffles

still

measure of agreement

father, raised to over

Whatever the correct number,

It is

50 pic-

in the bio-

two hundred.
a bare

pictures of this large oeuvre have so far

light.

of Bernini,

dozen

come

to

impossible to assume that most of

chisel

these works have been lost for ever, and the

himself than on the degree of his preparatory

discovery a short while ago of two indubitable

work and the subsequent control exercised by

originals in English collections*" indicates that

handling

Bernini's

his master

the

mind. His personal contribution

to

many more

are probably hidden under

wrong

the execution of works like the Baldacchino or

names. But their present anonymity conclu-

the

tomb of Urban VIII was still considerable.

made only the sketches and
small models. The tomb of Alexander VII, for

sively proves

Later, he often

for Bernini

instance,

is

the

work of many hands and the

one thing, namely that painting

was

a sideline, an occupation, as

Baldinucci expressed
for pleasure only.

He

it,

to

which he attended

never accepted any com-

division of labour, revealed by the documents,

missions of importance, he never signed any

anticipates that of the industrial age. Yet the

of his paintings, and to

BIBLOSARTE

all

appearances treated

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

the whole matter Hghtly - hence the anonymity.

seems therefore not chance that half the

It

number of
traits,

now known are self-porstudies of his own person under-

pictures

intimate

taken in leisure hours and not destined for

patron.

approach

from the middle period

to painting

onwards can be

From

gauged.

fully

that time

on he employed painters, mainly of minor

stature, as willing tools of his ideas.

whom

The

first

he drew into his orbit was Carlo Pelle-

He may

grini (1605-49), a native of Carrara. ^^

Covering a period of almost

173

years,

have started under Sacchi and was certainly

these self-portraits give a reliable insight into

influenced by him. But in 1635 he painted the

his stylistic idiosyncrasies

a painter.

thirty

and development as

They are all done with

short, vigorous

brush-strokes which model the forms and reveal

the

hand of the born sculptor. This characteristic

dash of handling goes with

a neglect

of detail,

Conversion of St Paul (Church of the Propa-

ganda Fide) and between 1636 and 1640 the

Martyrdom of St Maurice (for St Peter's, later

Museo

Petriano), certainly both from Bernini's

sketches.

These works show borrowings from

sketchy impromptu treatment of accessories

Pietro da Cortona and Poussin, to

such as dress, and spontaneit}' of expression.

and luminous colour

Most of

indebted.

his portraits, sculptured, painted,

drawn, show

and the mouth half-open

alert look

as if

to speak. In his early paintings dating

1

and

of the head, the

a similar turn

about

from the

620s he seems to have been subject to the

sobering influence of Andrea Sacchi.'" Later,

about 1630, he turned towards

nous

palette,

blond, lumi-

probably under the impression of

Poussin's St Erasmus of 1629 (painted for St

now

Peter's,

Vatican Gallery)

thus falling in

with the strong wave of Venetian colourism

which surged over

Rome

in

those years.^" Later

again, paintings like the self-portraits in the

Prado and the Borghese Gallery^' show darker

colours and

more

unified tone values, and this

must have been due

In fact

Moreover, the composition of the

Conversion owes not a

little

both

to

Sacchi and,

unexpectedly, to Lodovico Carracci.

tyrdom of St Maurice
of the two works.
as

light

much by

is

The Mar-

more Berninesque

the

The master's mind

is

revealed

the highly dramatic composition,

which shows three stages of martyrdom succinctly rendered

as

on

narrow foreground

by certain devices such

as

showing

stage,

a trun-

cated martyr's head next to that of St Maurice

who

is still

alive or the parallel

arms which

arrangement of

act in opposite directions.

^^

Even before Pellegrini's death Bernini availed

himself of the services of Guido Ubaldo Abbatini

(1600/5-56) from Citta di Castello,

who

^-

began under the Cavaliere d'Arpino, but

later,

pictures of the 1640s

according to Passeri, submitted to his

new

to Velasquez's influence.

some of Bernini's

whose

scale they are also clearly

His principal works for

are superficially so similar to those of the great

master

Spaniard that they were attributed to him.

Bernini are the frescoes on the vault of the

Most of the surviving

twenties and thirties.

The more
less

And

this for

good reasons.

the commissions accumulated, the

time he had for such recreations as painting.

No picture is known
Hfe.

pictures date from the

But

at this

from the

with the classicizing Giovanni Francesco RomanelH

(p. 321),

dating from
vault of the

w hich he created

rapidly

with pen and ink.^'

the badly preserved frescoes on

the vault of the Cappella Pio in S. Agostino,

decades of his

last

a slave.

Cappella Raimondi, executed in collaboration

period he enjoyed producing

pictorial compositions,

Thus

like

rather

c.

1644, and lastly those on the

Cornaro

weak decorative

Bernini's purpose.

own work

Chapel.^'' In spite of his

talent,

And

he perfectly suited

as a participant in the

as a painter

execution of some of Bernini's grand schemes

remains somewhat mysterious, his conceptual

he was certainly more important than Pellegrini.

while Bernini's

BIBLOSARTE

174

It

THE AGE OF THE HKiU BAROQUE

was on the vault of the Cappella Pio

Bernini

first

mixed

that

and stucco: the

fresco

painted angels rest on stucco clouds. Passeri

was aware of the importance of

this

new de-

in the

Gesu

{1672-83) [213], must be regarded as the

fullest

His greatest work, the frescoes

exposition of Bernini's revolutionary conception of painting.

Here the principle of com-

words:

bining fresco and painted stucco and of super-

'he employed a new deceptive artifice and by

means of certain parts in relief actually made
true what was supposed to be mere illusion'."

imposing painted parts on the architecture has

In the Cappella Cornaro he carried the principle

movements and

parture and described

a step further.

it

in the following

Not only did he use

of fresco and stucco once again,

the mixture

now on

more

its

monumental form.

In addition,

draperies, and the urgency

and

intensity of their activities reveal the spirit of

the late Bernini.

have said about the elimination of traditional

The Gesu frescoes are also the major Roman

monument for a new departure in the organization of large ceiling decorations. The effect of

lavish scale, but here the paintings of the vault

penetrate far into the architecture. After what

I

been given

the sculptural interpretation of his figures, their

only to be expected that

these frescoes relies on the juxtaposition of

Bernini would also transgress the established

extensive dark and light areas rather than on the

limitations of painting. Seeking a conceptual

compositional arrangement of single figures. In

explanation of this phenomenon,

the frescoes of the nave the eye

'modes'

argued

(p. i6i),

it is

that, as sculpture for

might be

it

him was

kind of

pictorial art in three dimensions, painting

was

sculptural art projected on to a surface; and

transitions
vice versa
It is
is

from sculpture into painting and

were therefore equally

is

led stepwise

to the lightest area, the

fathomable depth of the sky, where the

un-

Name

of Christ appears amid shining rays. Bernini

recommended

method of working with

and employed it himself
Cathedra. The method did not

the

large coherent units'""

justified.

important to realize that this approach

as far

from the darkest

removed from Pietro da Cortona's

in

works

like the

only satisfy his desire to create overwhelming

superimpositions and overlappings as from the

effects

illusionism of the quadraturisti (pp. 65-6). In

peared most conducive to communicating his

spite of the dazzling richness of the former's

mystic conception of divine light and his intense

designs, his definition of sculptured and painted

areas always remains clear

and decisive and no

and dramatic emphasis, but

also ap-

spiritualization of religious themes. Bernini's

two important

ideas,

developed from his middle

The quad-

period onwards, of breaking through the frame

ratura painters, on the other hand, aimed at an

of the painting and of embedding masses of

mixing of

illusionist

intended.

realities is ever

expansion of real space; but the

borderline between illusion and reahty

objectively abolished,

subjective

skill

it is

is

not

hand over fresco work

his large enterprises.^*^

areas of colour

unified

ARCHITECTURE

to a painter in

Ecclesiastical Buildings

any of

Yet his new ideas were

The

year 1624

is

of particular importance in

absorbed by Giovan Battista GauUi, called

the history of Baroque architecture;

much greater calibre than

his previous collaborators. He came from Genoa

that Bernini's career as an architect

Baciccio, an artist of

to

Rome

found an

enthusiastic following in the northern Baroque.

only masked by the

of the painter.

Never again did Bernini have an opportunity

to

figures in

before 1660 and was soon taken up

by Bernini and deeply influenced by

his ideas.

^''

it

was then

began with

the commissions for the facade of S. Bibiana

and the Baldacchino

be denied that the

BIBLOSARTE

in St Peter's. It

little

church of

can hardly
S.

Bibiana

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

opens
arts:

statue

The

new chapter of the Baroque

it

harbours Bernini's

in all three

first official

religious

and Cortona's first important fresco cycle.

design of the

type of

facade""' is

not divorced from

But instead of developing further the

tradition.

Roman church

Maderno's
like storey

S.

fa(;ade

which had

Susanna, Bernini placed

over an open loggia [95]

niche.

Thus the aedicule

is

superimposed over

a smaller system, the continuity of

pears to be unbroken.

The

175

which ap-

interpenetration of

small and large orders was a Mannerist device,

familiar to Bernini not only from such buildings

led to

as Michelangelo's Capitoline palaces, but also

a palace-

from the church facades of Palladio, an architect

- essentially

whose work he never ceased

same, Bernini's

first

to study. All the

essay in architectural de-

sign constitutes a new, bold,

and individualist

departure which none of the architects

later

who

used the palace type of church fa9ade

dared to imitate.

The Baldacchino
gave Bernini his

in St Peter's

first

and

at

(1624-33) [86]

once greatest oppor-

tunity of displaying his unparalleled genius for

combining an architectural structure with monumental sculpture.'-

It

was

brilliant idea to

repeat in the giant columns of the Baldacchino

the shape of the late antique twisted

which

- sanctified

by age and

old Basilica of St Peter's - were

columns

their use in the

now

to serve as

aedicules above the balconies of the pillars of

the dome.''*

Thus

the twisted bronze

columns

of the Baldacchino find a fourfold echo, and

not only give proof of the continuity of tradition,

but by their giant size also express symbolically

the change from the simplicity of the early
95.

Gianlorenzo Bernini Roniu,

:

S. Bibiana,

1624-6

Christians to the splendour of the counter-

reformatory Church, implying the victory of

the principle of the facade of St Peter's. In

modest

early seventeenth-century

this type

such as

character

is

comparison
feature:

S.

Sebastiano

[7] the palace

By
Bibiana shows an important new

Christianity over the pagan world. Moreover,

their shape helped to solve the formal

inherent in the gigantic Baldacchino.

problem
Its size

carefully related to the architecture of the

almost scrupulously preserved.

is

S.

church; but instead of creating a dangerous

the central bay of the ground-floor

arcades projects slightly, and above

a

some

facades of

deep niche,

is

the dark bronze corkscrew

columns

establish a dramatic contrast to the straight

an impressive aedicule motif

fluted pilasters of the piers as well as to the

which breaks through the skyline of the adjoining bays.

rivalry,

framing

it,

In this

way

the centre of the

fa9ade has been given forceful emphasis.

It

other white marble structural

building.

Finally,

columns of

and above

this peculiar

members of
all,

the

only giant

shape could be placed

space without carrying a 'normal'

should be noticed that the cornice of the side-

free

bays seems to run on under the pilasters of the

superstructure.

aedicule and then to turn into the depth of the

four large angels behind which rise the huge

into

The columns

BIBLOSARTE

are topped

by

176

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

scrolls of the

appear

lines

screw-like

The

crowning motif. Their S-shaped

buoyant continuation

like a

upward tendencies of

scrolls

meet under

entablature which

ot the

the columns.

curved

a vigorously

surmounted by the Cross

is

dynamic structure

this

is

it

noticed that with increasing distance

from the ground the sculptural element

is

given

ever greater freedom: starting from the Barberini coat of

in

arms contained by the panels

ot

France

the type was widely accepted atter the well-

known

Not

columns on

lighter version with six

circular

ac-

companied and supported by sculpture, and

may be

in .Austria

had been

plan

altar of the \

above the golden orb."*

Every part of

moved). .Moreover, the derivations

and Germany are legion; and even

al-de-Grace

built

in Paris."'

was almost

until he

over the high

had

sixty years old

Bernini a chance of showing his

skill as a

de-

signer of churches. His three churches at Castel-

gandolfo and Ariccia and S. Andrea

in

Rome

al

Quirinale

rose almost simultaneously. In spite

of their small

size,

they are of great importance

the pedestals; on to the laurel branches, creep-

not only for their intrinsic qualities but also

ing up the columns, with putti nestling in

them;" and further to the angels who hold

because of their extraordinary influence.

garlands

with which to keep - so

like ropes,

- the scrolls in position

seems

without

round plays

open spaces between the

ing their traditional rather than their revolu-

tionary aspect. Arguing from a purely aesthetic

scrolls, are the putti

with the symbols of papal power, here are the

energetically curved

tension to the

palm branches which give

movement

finally, the realistic

Mo-

tend to misinterpret them by stress-

it

Here, in the

a vital part.

critics

effort.

In this area, high above the ground, sculpture

in the

dern

or pragmatic point of view, they tacitly imply

that the

same

set

of forms and motifs always

expresses the same meaning.

It

is

too often

overlooked that the architecture of the past w as

O

50 FT

of the scrolls and,

Barberini bees, fittingly the

uppermost sculptural

feature,

which look

as if

they carry the orb. Critics have often disap-

proved of the

realistic

columns instead of the

But

traditional entablature.

precisely this unorthodox element

is

it

hangings which join the

which gives the Baldacchino its particular mean-

monumental canopy raised in all eternity

ing as a

over the
real
is

tomb of

St Peter, reminiscent of the

canopy held over the

living

pope when he

carried in state through the basilica.

Bernini's bold departure from the traditional

form

ot

like

architectural

baldacchinos

mediate and lasting

repetitions

in the past often

structures^*'
etTect.

temple-

- had an

Among

the

im-

many

and imitations^' may be mentioned

those in S. Lorenzo at Spello, erected as early

as 1632, in the cathedrals at Atri,

Fohgno, and

96 and 97. Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Castelgandolfo, S.

Plan and view into

Tomaso
dome

Trent and, much

later, those in the abbey

San Benigno, Piedmont (1770-6) and
Angelo at Perugia (1773, recently re-

church
in

S.

at

BIBLOSARTE

di Villanova, 1658-61.

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

a language of visual signs

and symbols which

architects used in a specific context,

and the

same grammar of architectural forms may therefore serve entirely different purposes

vey vastly

different

remembered during

ideas.

and con-

This should

be

the following discussion.

Bernini erected his three churches over the

three most familiar centralized plans, the

and the

cross, the circle,

them, the church

tween 1658 and

at

oval.

The

Greek

earliest

of

Castelgandolfo, built be-

66 1,'''

is

simple Greek cross

[96], reminiscent of such perfect Renaissance

BIBLOSARTE

178

THE AGt OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

Madonna

churches as GiuHano da Sangallo's

delle Career! at

Prato.

And

as in this latter

seem

continue behind the

to

appear to hover

in

reliefs, the latter

the wide expanse of the dome.

church, the ratios are of utmost simpHcity, the

Whenever Bernini had previously decorated

depth of the arms of the cross, for instance,

niches or semi-domes, he had followed the

being half their width. But compared with Re-

tradition, sanctioned

naissance churches the height has been con-

ribs and, in the neutral areas

dome has been

predominance. The exterior is

by Michelangelo, of using

between them,

siderably increased'" and the

decorative roundels.'- In Castclgandolfb Ber-

given absolute

nini retained the ribs

very restrained, in keeping with the modest

character of the papal

summer

the church belongs. Flat

retreat to

which

Tuscan double pilasters

The

coffers.

seems

and combined them with

classical

to indicate

element of the coffers

an evenly distributed thrust

(Pantheon), while the 'medieval', buttress-Hke

dome

decorate the fa9ade, and only minor features

system of ribs divides the

reveal the late date, such as the heavy door

carriers

pediment and,

contrasting types of domical organization was

in the

zone of the

capitals, the

uninterrupted moulding which links the front

not Bernini's

and the arms of the church. Above the crossing

idea

dome which

ribbed

rises the elegant

is

evidently

derived from that of St Peter's. But in contrast

model, the

to the great

drum

here consists of a

low and unadorned cylinder, not unlike that of

Raphael's
is

Rome, and
dome by the

S. Eligio degli Orefici in

moreover

set off against the

prominent ring of the cornice. Every part of

this building

is

and submitted

The same
interior

up

clearly defined, absolutely lucid,

to a classical discipline.

spirit

of austerity prevails in the

above

the arches. But in the zone of the vaulting Bernini

[97].

abandoned

moderation

his self-imposed

own

Spirited putti, supporting large medal-

He

invention.

took up an

developed by Pietro da Cortona

first

236) and, after thoroughly classicizing

ployed

from Castelgandolfo onwards

it

vaultings and domes.'"'

his later

it,

for all

was

It

(p.

emthis

Berninesque type of dome with ribs and coffers

was followed on countless occa-

ull'antica that

sions after 1660 by architects in Italy as well as

the rest of Europe.''^

S.

Tomaso

Castelgandolfo

at

least distinguished

to the sharply chiselled ring

into active

and passive panels. The union of these

two others exhibit

in so far as the

approach

to architecture

new

of the

perhaps the

is

of Bernini's three churches

more

his specific

fully.

The

story

Ariccia dates back to 20 July 1661,

when Cardinal

Flavio,

Don

Agostini Chigi acquired the

Mario, and

little

Don

township near

on the broken pediments over

Castelgandolfo from Giulio Savelli, Prince of

windows of the drum. These pediments,

breaking into the dome, soften the division be-

Albano. Here stood the old palace of the Savelli.

tween drum and

palace,'" but also to erect a

lions, are seated

the

links

vault. Realistic garlands

between the

putti,

flexible girdle thus created

reversal of the pure

the

and the
appears

lively

like a

is

pointed

rigidity

paralleled by the antithesis be-

tween the monumental

Roman

lettering of the

inscription, praising the virtues of St

of Villanova to

and

geometry of the ring under

drum. This formal contrast between

and freedom

form

whom

and the eloquent

the church

reliefs

important events of his

is

Thomas

dedicated,

which render eight

life.''

Since the coffers

Soon

was decided not only

it

to

modernize the

church opposite

its

entrance. Bernini was commissioned in 1662,

and two years

later the

[q8-ioi].''^' Its basic

crowned by

An

lantern.

design

is

a hemispherical

dome

with a broad

arched portico of pure, classical

placed in front of the rotunda [98],

counterbalanced

which

church was finished

form consists of a cylinder

juts out

at

the far end by the sacristy

from the

circle

but

is

not per-

ceived by the approaching visitor. Here also

are the

two bell-towers of which only the tops

BIBLOSARTE

1)8

and

99.

Gianlorenzo Bernini

Ariccia,
S.

Maria dell'Assunzione,

1662-4. Exterior and plan

BIBLOSARTE

l8o

rub AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

are visible from the square. In order to under-

100 and loi. Gianloren/.o Bernini:

stand Bernini's guiding idea, reference must

.'\riccia,

be

made to another project.

From 1637 onwards Bernini was engaged on

S. Maria dcirAssunzionc, 1662-4.

Engraving of section and view into dome

plans for ridding the Pantheon of later disfiguring additions; he also intended to systematize the

square in front of the ancient building,

but most of his ideas remained on paper.''

Surviving sketches show that he interpreted the
exterior of the 'original'

Pantheon

as the

union

of the two basic forms of vaulted cylinder and

portico,

and

combination of two simple

this

it is

geometric shapes, stripped of

all

accessories,

that he realized in the church at Ariccia [99].

Straight colonnades flank the church, and these,

together with the portico and the walls, which

grip like arms around the

body of the church,

enhance the cylindrical and monolithic quality

of the rotunda.

The
to the

shows unexpected

interior too

Pantheon

[100].

There

relations

are three chapels

of equal size on each side, while the entrance

and the

altar

niche are a fraction larger, so that

an almost unnoticeable axial direction exists.

But the impression prevails of eight consecutive

niches separated by tall Corinthian pilasters,
which carry the unbroken circle of the entablature.

the

As Andrea
church

little

Palladio had
at

reduced the design

done before

in

Maser, so here Bernini

to

the two fundamental

forms of the cylinder and hemisphere, and, as

in

Maser, the Corinthian order

cylinder
ladio's

is

as high as the

In contrast, however, to Pal-

itself.

rhythmic alternation of open and closed

bays, Bernini gave an uninterrupted sequence

of openings.

The

structural chastity of Ariccia

was due to an attempt at recreating an imaginary

Pantheon of the venerable Republican era. Bernini

believed

that

originally been

grandeur.

Much

the ancient building had

one of heroic simplicity and

later.

Carlo Fontana,

who

in

ginal

Pantheon which

is

remarkably close

to the

interior of Ariccia.'""^

But

in the

zone of the

dome

[loi],

which

again shows the combination of coflers and ribs,

we

find a realistic decoration similar to that at

Castelgandolfo: stucco putti and angels

scrolls,

sit

on

holding free-hanging garlands which

swing from

What do these life-like

The church is dedicated to the

rib to rib.

figures signify?

Virgin (S. Maria dell'Assunzione) and, according to the legend, rejoicing angels strew flowers

on the day of her Assumption. The

celestial

messengers are seated under the 'dome of

heaven' into which the ascending Virgin will be

about 1660 worked as Bernini's assistant, pub-

received; the mystery

lished a reconstruction of the supposedly ori-

Assumption painted on the wall behind the

BIBLOSARTE

is

adumbrated

in

the

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

altar.''"

who

Since the jubilant angels, superior beings

dwell in a zone inaccessible to the faithful,

less

than the setting for a stirring mystery re-

vealed to the faithful by sculptural decoration.

are treated with extreme realism, they conjure

In spite of their close formal links with Renais-

Thus whenever he

sance and ancient architecture, these churches

enters the church the worshipper participates

have been given an entirely non-classical mean-

up

full

and breathing

life.

in the 'mystery in action'.

As

in Castelgandolfo,

ing.

Obviously, Bernini saw no contradiction

and Baroque

the dedication of the church gives rise to a

between

dramatic-historical interpretation; the entire

sculpture - a contradiction usually emphasized

church

is

submitted

become its stage.

By and large,

to,

and dominated by,

and the whole

particular event,

this

interior has

classical

by modern

critics

architecture

who

fail to

understand the

subjective and particular quality with which

seemingly objective and timeless

the Renaissance church had

been conceived as

monumental

man, separated from everyday

shrine,

life,

where

was able

to

classical

forms

have been endowed.

By

far

churches

the
is

S.

most important of the three

.\ndrea

al

Quirinale,

commis-

communicate with God. In Bernini's churches,

sioned by Cardinal Camillo Pamphili for the

no more and no

novices of the Jesuit Order [102-5]. Building

by contrast, the architecture

is

BIBLOSARTE

|82

THE AGE OF THE UlUII UAROQUE

began simultaneously with the church

November 1658

complete

at

Castel-

the foundation stone was laid on

gandolfo

but

it

took

much

102.

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Rome,

S.

Andrea

al

Qiiirinale, 1658-70. Plan

longer to

decorated church.'" An-

this richly

tonio Raggi's stuccoes were carried out between

1662 and 1665, while other parts of the decora-

dragged on until

tion

The

1670.

particular

character of the site on which most of the con-

vent was standing induced Bernini to choose

an oval ground-plan with the transverse axis

longer than the main axis between entrance

This in itself was not without preceThere was Fornovo's S. Maria dell'
Annunziata at Parma ( 566),' and Bernini him-

and

altar.

dent.

'

self

had used the type much

church

What

Palazzo di Propaganda Fide

in the old

(1634, later
is

replaced by Borromini's structure).

new

in

S.

pilasters instead of

Andrea, however,

is

that

open chapels stand

at

both

ends of the transverse

is

earlier in the little

axis.

As

a result, the oval

closed at the most critical points where other-

cut deep into the coffered parts of the dome.

Bright light streams in from the lantern,

in

wise, from a viewpoint near the entrance, the

which sculptured cherubs' heads and the Dove

eye would wander off from the main room into

of the Holy Ghost seem to await the ascending

undefined subsidiary spaces. Bernini's novel

saint. All the

solution permits, indeed compels, the spec-

than the congregational room, so that

tator's glance to

sweep round the uninterrupted

sequence of giant

pilasters,

crowned by the

columned aedicule

recess [103,

And

104].

heaven on

piece of sculpture.

More

here, in the concave

of the archithis

is

ab-

sorbed by the dramatic event, which owes

power

to the

way

in

which

it

its

domi-

sion.

Below,

light assist the

in the

human

miraculous ascen-

sphere, the church

glows with precious multicoloured dark marble.

Above,

in the

heavenly sphere of the dome, the

colours are white and gold.

evenly

lit

shadow. Thus the aedicule

The

oval space

by windows between the

ribs

is

which

is

deep

adjoined by dark

areas which dramatically enhance the radiance

of light in the altar chapel.

In S.

Andrea Bernini solved the

problem of directions inherent

planning

in a

intractable

in centralized

manner which only

Palladio had

attempted before the Baroque age.'- By means

of the aedicule, which

nates the severe lines of the architecture.

Colour and

is

of the

sidiary ones in the diagonal axes are cast in

arrestingly than in the

other churches the beholder's attention

suggestive

a subtle differentiation in the lighting

axis have a diffused light, while the four sub-

it

and converge upon,

in,

uni-

chapels: the large ones flanking the transverse

a cloud. All the lines

tecture culminate

its

doubly assured. In addition, there

meets

in

opening of the pediment, St Andrew soars up

to

is

front of the altar

massive ring of the entablature, until

the

formity

chapels are considerably darker

is

an ingenious adaptation

of the Palladian device of the

a

unique occurrence

in

columned screen

Rome

he created a

barrier against, as well as a vital link with, the

altar chapel.

He

thus preserved and even

em-

phasized the homogeneity of the oval form and,

at the

same time, succeeded

BIBLOSARTE

in giving

predomi-

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

nance

183

to the altar. Translated into psychological

terms, the church has two spiritual centres: the

oval space, where the congregation participates
in the

miracle of the saint's salvation; and the

carefully separated altar-recess, inaccessible to

where the mystery

the laity,

Here the beholder

is

consummated.

sees like an apparition the

band of angelic messengers bathed

golden light bearing

martyred
for faith
It

saint,''

in visionary

aloft the picture

of the

assured of his heavenly reward

unbroken by

suffering.

hardly seems necessary to reaffirm obser-

vations

made

in the first part of this chapter:

here the whole church

literary

subject to a coherent

is

theme which informs every

part of

it,

including the ring of figures above the windows

which consists of putti carrying garlands and

martyrs' palms, and nude fishermen
nets, oars, shells,

and reeds

who handle

symbolic com-

panions of the fisherman Andrew. Through

its

specific

connexion with sculpture, the archi-

tecture

itself

serves

make

to

the

dramatic

concetto a vital experience.

For the exterior of

S.

Andrea, Bernini made

use of the lesson he had learned from Francesco

da Volterra's

S.

Giacomo degli IncurabiH."^ In

dome is enclosed in a cylin-

both churches the

drical shell,

up by

and

in

large scrolls

both cases the thrust

which

Gothic buttresses. But

this

is

taken

as

far

as the

goes. In the case of S.

scrolls rest

upon the strong oval

ring which encases the chapels.

seems

is

the function of

Giacomo

influence of S.

Andrea, the

fulfil

to run

Its

cornice

on under the giant Corinthian

pilasters of the fa9ade

and sweeps forward into

the semicircular portico where

is

supported

by two Ionic columns. The portico

[105], sur-

mounted between

scrolls

it

by the free-standing

Pamphili coat of arms of exuberant decorative

design,

is

the only relieving note in an otherwise

extremely austere facade. Yet this airy porch

103 and 104. Gianlorenzo Bernini;

Rome,

S. Andrea al Quirinale, 1658-70.

Engraving of section

and view towards the

altar

must not simply be regarded

as an exhilarating

feature inviting the passers-by to enter;

also a

dynamic element of

BIBLOSARTE

vital

it

is

importance

in

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

184

the piazza.'''

They

But more than

focus attention on the fac^ade.

they grip firmly into

this: since

body of the church

the 'joints' where the oval

and the aedicule meet,

their

concave sweep

reverses the convex ring of the oval and re-

dynamic

the

inforces

whole

of the

qualit\

structure.

Genetically speaking, the facade of S. Andrea

is

related to that of S. Bibiana.

might almost

It

be said that what Bernini did was to isolate and

monumentalize the revolutionary central

ture of S. Bibiana and to connect

it

fea-

with the

motif of the portico with free-standing columns

which Pietro da Cortona had

in S.
is

Maria

della

Pace [147].

introduced

first

And

yet this fa9ade

highly original. In order to assess

character

facade of S.
the facade

its

novel

may refer to the Early Baroque

Giacomo degh Incurabili."' Here

is

orthodox, deriving from

Roman

Latin-cross churches, so that on entering this

oval church one

is

aware that the exterior and

the interior are not co-ordinated. In the case of

105.

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Rome,

S.

Andrea

al

Quirinale, 1658-70

Quirinale nobody would expect

S.

Andrea

to

enter a Latin-cross church. Bernini suc-

ceeded

al

in expressing in the facade the specific

character of the church behind

the complex organization of the building.
aedicule motif framing the portico

on the same

inside,

axis,

is

interior

it

exterior

form an entirely homogeneous

and

entity.

taken up

by the aedicule framing

the altar recess. But there

direction of

is

The

Secular Buildings

a reversal in the

movement: while

in the exterior

Bernini's activity in the field of domestic archi-

the cornice over the oval body of the church

tecture

was neither extensive nor without ad-

move towards the approaching visitor

come to rest in the portico, the point
to him, in the interior the movement is

versity.

In the Palazzo Barberini, his earhest

seems
and

to

to

nearest

in the opposite direction

and

halted at the

is

point farthest away from the entrance. In addition, the isolated altar-room

to the projecting portico,

answers

and

in reverse

work, his contribution was confined to adjust-

ments of Carlo Maderno's design and

rative features of the interior

surrounds.'"

The

to deco-

such as the door

fa9ade of the

Collegio di

Propaganda Fide facing the Piazza

di

Spagna

expressive

was an able modernization of an old palace

of their different functions, the latter inviting,

front (1642-4), but he acted only as consulting

this

the former excluding the faithful.

and inside appear

like 'positive'

realizations of the

same theme.

is

Thus

outside

and 'negative'

A word

must

be added about the two quadrant walls forming

architect.

Ducale

'"^

at

His share

in the

Modena and

Palazzo del Quirinale

and hands

- a

design of the Palazzo

the execution of the

work of many brains

- is relatively small.

BIBLOSARTE

'"

A number

of

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

106.

185

Bernini designed the Palazzo Ludovisi,

now

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Rome, Palazzo

di Montecitorio,

begun 1650

designs remained on paper,*^" while some minor

works survive the decoration of the Porta del

:

Popolo on the side of the Piazza, occasioned by

the entry into

Sweden

Rome

of

Queen

Christina of

(1655); additions to the hospital of S.

Spirito (1664-6) of

which

at least a

gateway

in

Palazzo di Montecitorio [106], in 1650 for the

family of Pope Innocent X.*' In 1655, at the

Pope's death,
palace,

and

it

for

some

palace at Castelgandolfo (1660); and finally an

nini's fa9ade

Civitavecchia (1658-63),

consisting of three

large halls of impressive austerity.**^ Setting

this aside, only three

remain

to

works of major importance

claim our attention, each with an

starred history of

its

all

ill-

own, namely the Palazzo

Ludovisi in Piazza Montecitorio, the Palazzo

Chigi in Piazza SS. Apostoli, and the projects
for the

Louvre.

until forty years later, in

Innocent XII. Although Fontana introduced

the Via Penitenzieri close to the Square of St

work, the arsenal in the harbour of

was standing of the vast

1694, that Carlo Fontana resumed construction

Peter's survives;*' the renovation of the papal

'industrial'

little

was not

rather pedantic academic features, Ber-

was

sufficiently

advanced

to pre-

vent any flagrant distortion of his intentions.**^

The

entire length of twenty-five

windows

is

subdivided into separate units of 3-6-7-6-3

bays which meet

whole front looks

at

obtuse angles so that the

as if

it

were erected over a

convex plan. Slight projections of the units

at

end and the centre are important vehicles

of organization. Each unit is framed by giant

either

pilasters

comprising the two principal storeys,

BIBLOSARTE

l86

107.

to

THE AGE OF THE MIUH BAROQUE

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Ronic,

which the ground

l'.ila//(i C.hii;i-()d''scalchi,

floor with the naturaHstic

begun 1664. With N.

take

up the

Salvi's additions, 1745

open space. This

entire

finely

rock formations under the farthest pilasters and

balanced fa9ade was disturbed in 1745 when

window

the palace was acquired by the Odescalchi.

sills

attempts

serves as a base. Apart from these

at articulation,

tied to the

Roman

the palace

is

essentially

tradition deriving

from the

Palazzo Farnese.
In the

Nicola Salvi and his assistant Luigi Vanvitelli

doubled the central

part,

pilasters instead of eight

summer

of 1664, not long before his

instead of one.

The

which now has sixteen

and two entrance doors

present front

is

much

too

journey to Paris, Bernini designed the palace

long in relation to

which Cardinal Flavio Chigi had purchased

tween asymmetrical wings, no longer bears wit-

66 1 from the Colonna family

volte-face here

is

[107].'*^

in

The

hardly foreshadowed in the

its

height and, standing be-

ness to Bernini's immaculate sense of proportion

and

scale.

This, however, does not pre-

facade of the Palazzo Ludovisi. Bernini placed

judice the revolutionary importance of Bernini's

a richly articulated central part of

design, which constitutes a decisive break with

seven bays

between simple rusticated receding wings of

three bays each.

More

decidedly than in the

Palazzo Ludovisi, the ground floor functions

as a base for the

two upper storeys with

their

giant composite pilasters which stand so close

that the

window

tabernacles of the piano nohtle

the traditional
type, with

no

Roman

palace front.

The

vertical articulation, has long

older

rows

of windows horizontally united by means of

continuous string courses. Precedents for the

use of the colossal order in

palace facades

existed. In Michelangelo's Capitoline Palaces

BIBLOSARTE

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

and Palladio's Palazzo Valmarana

at

Vicenza

the colossal order rises from the ground.

other hand, a few buildings in

On

Rome

the

before

Bernini have a colossal order over the ground

and

floor,

Northern

in

But when

rare.'*''

all

is

throw

comparisons

Italy the type

said

into

not

is

and done, such

diminish Bernini's achievement.

than

rather

relief

The

relation

of the ground floor to the two upper tiers; the

from simple window-frames

fine gradation

to

elaborate, heavy tabernacle frames in the piano

window surrounds

the light and playful

second storey
pilasters; the

Although Bernini always worked on the

whole area of the

carre, the focus of his design

was, of course, the east fa9ade.

The

first

project

of June 1664, contemporary with the design of

the Palazzo Chigi-Odescalchi,

by any standards

[108].^'

He

unexpected

is

created an open

rectangle with two projecting wings of four

bays each, between which he placed

long

of the

tween two concave arms. The convex part of

powerful cornice with rhythmi-

arranged brackets crowned by an open

cally

proceedings connected

all

with the Louvre.

colonnade consisting of a convex centre be-

the rich composite order of the

whose hands as 'Surintendant

des Batiments' rested

- to

from the Palazzo Farnese

nobile - deriving

jects to Colbert, in

187

the colonnade follows the shape of the oval

vestibule,

above which

is

through two storeys.

Its

grand oval

hall

going

second storey with

balustrade which was meant to carry statuary;

circular windows, articulated

by double pilasters

the juxtaposition of the highly organized central

and decorated with French

lilies

part with the rustic wings; and, lastly, the

against the sky-line, rises above the uniform

strong accentuation of the entrance with

its

Tuscan columns, balcony and

free-standing

window above

cornice of the

whole

all

was

this

here combined in a design of authentic nobility

108.

and grandeur. Bernini had found the formula

First project for the

the aristocratic

for

influence

borders of

Baroque

palace.

extends

far

And

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Louvre, 1664. Plan

its

beyond the

Italy.'*"

Bernini's third great enterprise, the Louvre,

turned out to be his saddest disappointment.

In the spring of 1665 Louis

XIV

invited

him

and suggest on the spot how

to

come

to

complete the great Louvre carre of which the

to Paris

west and south wings and half of the north wing

were standing.
front

was

tations

still

on

all

'^'^

to

The
be

east

built.

sides

wing with the main

Great were the expec-

when Bernini

arrived in

June of that year. But his five months'

there ended in dismal failure. The reasons

Paris on 2
stay
for

it

And

In

were many, personal

yet his projects

this

facade

Bernini followed up the theme of the Palazzo

the whole unit being again

it,

dependent on the Palazzo Farnese

immense

front.

standing out

as well as national.

might possibly have been

accepted had they answered the purpose for

which they were made. Before he travelled to
France, he had already sent two different pro-

BIBLOSARTE

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

Barbcrini, an arcadcd centre framed b) serene

wings, and applied to

church facades with

concave arms
al

above the windows of the piano nobile as well as

Andrea

of the top storey. Instead of arranging the order

Maria

(S.

much plain wall-space

Farnese, Bernini retained

theme of Roman
convex centre between

it

the

della Pace, S.

Quirinale). But for the details of the colon-

windows

the traditional string course under the

as a simple consecutive sequence, he

concen-

of

trated four half-columns in the central area, a

northern Italy and combined the colossal order

device to emphasize the entrance.^'' This palace

nade he turned

to the festive architecture

of Palladio's Loggia del Capitano

Vicenza

at

with the two-storeyed arcade of Sansovino's

Library

at

Venice.""

The

was

result

a palace

un-Roman

design which has an entirely

and though

seems

have had considerable influence on the

to

remained on paper

it

development of eighteenth-century structures.

The second
in

project, dispatched

February 1665 and preserved

from

in a

Rome

drawing

at

Stockholm,"' has a giant order applied to the

wall

above

a rusticated

ground

One may

floor.

regard this as a novel application of the Palazzo

Chigi-Odescalchi

but

design,

for

the

wide

sweep of the concave centre part Bernini was

probably indebted

to

an unexecuted project by

spite of vital

to

He
Roman

now

returned to the more conventional

changes from one project

to the

be found in a genius averse to any compro-

mise

to all the features

which he regarded

were contrary

He

to

French

taste

and

traditions.

retained the unifying cornice, the unbroken

and the

skyline,

whole

to

him

roof; to

flat

a facade

units

to

which the French were

Moreover,

compliance with

in

southern conceptions of decorum he insisted,

spite of Colbert's repeated protests,

ferring the King's suite

from the quiet south

stately

He was

harmonizing length and height

most

but also the most noisy part of the

building."''

posals

in

on trans-

the east front he lost in originality what he

faced with the typically Italian problem of

a
it

could never be the agglomeration of different

front, facing the river, to the east wing, the

gained in monumental appearance.''^

was

which the parts were subordinated;

palazzo type, and in the process of re-designing

still

as

essential for a royal residence although they

accustomed.

carried out under Bernini's watchful eyes.

way,

next, Bernini clung with the stubbornness only

structural

Marot which were

in a

Bernini's third east fa9ade was the answer to

Rome.^- The third project designed

survives in the engravings by

concept too was,

previous criticism voiced by Colbert. But in

Pietro da Cortona for the Piazza Colonna in

in Paris

powerful fortress from the

to rise like a

anticipated in the Palazzo di Montecitorio.

airy

quality,

it

was

'natural' rock;"^ this

Among

his other

unacceptable pro-

was the idea of surrounding the carre

of

with arcades after the fashion of Italian court-

prodigious extension; he therefore subdivided

yards; such arcades were not only unsuitable in

the traditional block shape into five distinct

that they excluded the light

units, thus

developing the scheme

Palazzo Montecitorio.

in the

showing the

jection

size

first

evolved

is

is

sive to the French."' Finally, he never

the typically Italian staircases in the four corners

to

of the carre, placed there in order not to inter-

emphasized not

rupt the alignment of rooms, and their dispo-

of eleven bays but also by virtue

taken up in the giant pilasters of the

wings, while the receding sections have no orders

at all.

abandoned

central pro-

of its decoration with giant half-columns. This

motif

from the rooms be-

hind, but they also seemed aesthetically repul-

:2 (height to

basement which was

disappear behind the moat)

its

The

ideal ratio of

length, without the

only by

in this front

Following the example of the Palazzo

sition as well as their enclosure

wells appeared contrary to

French,

who had

and

lit

sense to the

solved the problem of easy

communication between
hall,

by badly

common

living rooms."**

BIBLOSARTE

vestibule,

staircase

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

When

Bernini returned to Italy he had not

given up hope that his plans would be carried

out.

The French

gonistic. Colbert

had taken

graphical and liturgical problems, and only his

supreme authority

was

could overcome intrigues and envious oppo-

irresolute, but the king

a liking to the great Italian

and sup-

sition"'-

and bring

conclusion

Bernini's Louvre was laid three days before his

number

departure from Paris. Back

new

the

Rome, he worked
which he made

in

project, the fourth, in

one concession of reducing the much

criticized height of the piano no/nle."'^ In

May

1666 he sent his assistant, Mattia de' Rossi, to

Paris to supervise the execution.

But mean-

while the king's interest had shifted to Versailles,

and that was the signal

for Colbert to

abandon

[i,

this

112,

task to a successful

113, 250].

importance was attached

from the

right

Among

was saved the doubtful

this decision Paris

honour of having within

walls the

its

most

a vast

of issues to be considered, particular

two

to

ones

ritual

At Easter and on

start.

few

other occasions the pope blesses the people of

Rome from

the Benediction Loggia above the

central entrance to the church.

It is

a blessing

symbolically extended to the whole world

given urbi

et orhi.

only to hold the

The

piazza, therefore,

maximum number

possible, but the

suggest

the

form of the square

all-embracing

it is

had not

of people,

while the Loggia had to be visible to as

Bernini's plans.

By

matters backed by

the unfailing support of Pope Alexander VII

ported him. Actually, the foundation stone of

out a

in artistic

architects were bitterly anta-

many

as

had

to

itself

character

of the

monumental Roman palazzo ever designed.

function. Another

Splendid though Bernini's project was, the

account was the papal blessing given to pilgrims

enormous, austere

would forever have

pile

stood out as an alien growth in the serene

atmosphere of
Palazzo
design,

Paris. In

Farnese,

may be

Rome,

the cube of the

ancestor

of Bernini's

likened to the solo in a choir. In

Paris, Bernini's

overpowering Louvre would

have no resonance

sombre

the

it

would have

cast an almost

from

to be taken into

window of the private papal apartment

Domenico Fontana's palace on the

situated in

north side of the piazza. Other hardly

piazza could not be shifted and yet

basilica itself required an

among

in Paris, Bernini's greatest

the Square of St Peter's, was

that time

all

still

rising.

work,

But by

the hurdles had been taken and,

moreover, Bernini had a reliable studio with

long and firmly established tradition to look

after

his

course, no

His

supplied,

of

more than physical help towards

the

interests.

'office'

it

had

to

be

integrated into the architecture of the whole.""

approach on the
its

prominence

the churches of the Catholic world. In

covered ways of some kind

addition,

While he was

Its

old entrance in the north-west corner of the

grandest scale in keeping with

The Piazza ofSt Peter's

less vital

considerations pertained to the papal palace.

The

spell over the gaiety of the city.'""

ceremony

needed

for processions

and

were

in particular for the

solemn ceremonies of Corpus Domini; they

were also necessary

and

as protection against

sun

rain, for pedestrians as well as for coaches.

Bernini began in the

summer of 656
1

with the

design of a trapezoid piazza enclosed by the

traditional type of palace fronts over

round-

accomplishment of one of the most complex

headed arcades. This scheme was soon aban-

enterprises in the history of Italian architec-

doned

ture."" Bernini alone was responsible for this

because

work which has always been universally ad-

achieve greatest monumentality with as

mired, he alone had the genius and resource-

height as possible.

fulness to find a

way through

a tangle

of topo-

for a variety of reasons, not the least

it

was of paramount importance

to

little

palazzo front with arcades

would have been higher than the present colon-

BIBLOSARTE

igo

THE AGt OF THt HIGH BAROQUE

nades without attaining equal grandeur. So by

March 1657

the

first

project was superseded by

one with arcades of free-standing columns

forming

a large oval piazza;

summer

of the

same

soon

after, in the

year, Bernini replaced the

A number

of attempts were made in the postMaderno period to remedy this fault, '"^ before
Urban VIII took the fateful decision in 1636 of

accepting Bernini's grand design of high towers

of three

tiers.""'

Of these

only the southern one

but owing to technical difficulties and

arcades by colonnades of free-standing columns

was

with a straight entablature above the columns.

personal intrigues construction was interrupted

Only such

colonnade was devoid of any associ-

with

the

1646 the tower was

al-

towers ever again over the present substructures

On

grounds the enclo-

ritualistic as well as artistic

sure of the piazza had to be kept as low as

finally in

ceremonial character of the

reminiscences of domestic architecture.

possible.

64 1, and

together dismantled. Since the idea of erecting

square more fully than an arcaded scheme with

its

com-

ations with palace fronts and therefore

plied

in

built,

high enclosure would have inter-

had

be abandoned, Bernini submitted during

to

Innocent X's pontificate new schemes for

radical solution of the old problem."^'
tirely separating the

By en-

towers from the fagade

[no], he made them structurally

fered with the visibility of the papal blessing

same time created

a rich

given from the palace window. Moreover, a

and gave the facade

itself carefully

comparatively low one was also needed

safe, at the

and varied grouping,

balanced pro-

would have involved

in

order

portions. His proposals

to 'correct' the unsatisfactory impression

made

considerable structural changes and had there-

by the proportions of the fagade of St

Peter's.

fore

chance of success.

little

When

engaged on

word of explanation. The

the designs for the piazza, Bernini was once

substructures of Maderno's towers, standing

again faced with the intractable problem of the

without the intended superstructures,"'^ look

fa9ade.

now

attempt

This requires

as if they

accounts for

were parts of the fa9ade, and

its

RrTRMTODMlA

Dl

excessive length

[cf.

and

this

109].

Although he
at

portico,"'**

log. Carlo
rAM'05t>S'f*lA13liK.\ DFI

\ (HlbSA

VATICANO
<,rUAP*mrATI.

PIETRO^DI KO^^MA IN
i^^^^

AN

!IC<.I. Dl-K-V,

Rome,

M.

no

also

made an

unsuccessful

reviving Michelangelo's tetrastyle

which would have broken up the

Maderno:

St Peter's. Fafade.

Greuter's engraving, 1613

(opposite). Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Rome,

St Peter's. Facade with free-standing towers.

Drawing,

c.

1650.

Rome, Vatican Library

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

III.

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Rome, Vatican Palace, Scala Regia, 1663 6

BIBLOSARTE

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

193

r
uniform

'wall'

of the facade, he

now had

to use

optical devices rather than structural changes as

a

means

ing.

to rectify the

He evoked

in the

appearance of the build-

the impression of greater height

facade by joining to

latively

it

his long

and

re-

low corridors which continue the order

palace.

Continuing the corridor, the new cere-

monial staircase, the Scala Regia [iiij, begins

at the level

of the portico of the church. Here the

problems seemed overwhelming. For

staircase he

had

to

make

new

his

use of the existing

north wall and the old upper landing and return

By

and skyline of the colonnades.'"" The heavy and

flight.'"

massive Doric columns of the colonnades and

the 'tunnel' of the

main

the high and

manipulating

he counteracted the conver-

by comparison slender Corinthian

columns of the facade form

trast.

And

placing a columnar order within

it,

con-

gence of the walls towards the upper landing

and created the impression of an ample and

a deliberate

festive staircase.

horizontally but also to accentuate the vertical

and only beyond

tendencies in the facade.

square.

For topographical and other reasons Bernini

in front

and by ingeniously

Bernini chose the unorthodox com-

bination of Doric columns with Ionic entablature "" not only in order to unify the piazza

was forced

flight

to design the so-called piazza retta

of the church.

The

length and slant of

There was no

The

alternative to the piazza retta,

it

was

it

possible to widen the

choice of the oval for the main

piazza suggested itself by a variety of considerations.

Above

all

the majestic repose of the

widely embracing arms of the colonnades was

the northern corridor, and implicitly the form

for Bernini expressive of the dignity

of the piazza retta, were determined by the

deur here required [112, 113]. Moreover,

position of the old and venerable entrance to the

form contained

112.

a specific concetto. Bernini

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Rome, The

and gran-

Piazza of St Peter's. Detail

BIBLOSARTE

this

him-

13.

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Rome,

The

Piazza of St Peter's, begun 1656. Aerial view

BIBLOSARTE

GIANLORENZO BERNINI

self

compared the colonnades

to the

motherly

arms of the Church 'which embrace Catholics to

reinforce their belief, heretics to re-unite

them

ing a room, take a few steps forward and unless

made allowance

he

for this they

embrace the shape

able to

with the Church, and agnostics to enlighten

.\ndrea

exposition of this idea and he

Until the beginning of 1667 Bernini intended

to close the piazza at the far

by

basilica

end opposite the

arm continuing

a short

architecture of the long arms.

him

conclusively that for

exactly the

This proves

the square was a kind

apply

al

it

would not be

in its entirety. In S.

them with the

true faith'.

195

Quirinale he had given a practical

once again

now

to the design

intended to

of the Piazza of

St Peter's. In both cases the beholder was to be

enabled

sweep round the

to let his glance

rest at the aedicule before the altar

full

come

oval of the enclosure, in the church to

and

to

in the

of forecourt to the church, comparable to an

piazza at the fa9ade of St Peter's. Small or large,

immensely extended atrium. The

interior or exterior, a

which was never

'third

arm'

would have stressed

comprehensive and unim-

paired view of the whole structure belongs to

problem

that cannot escape visitors to the piazza.

Bernini's dynamic conception of architecture,

From

near viewpoint the

built

drum

of Michel-

which

removed from the

equally far

is

static

angelo's dome, designed for a centralized build-

approach of the Renaissance as from the scenic

behind Maderno's long nave

pursuits of northern Italy and the Late Baroque.

ing, disappears

and even the

visibilit}'

of the

dome

is

Like Maderno before him,"- Bernini was well

aware of the

no remedy

fact that

could possibly be found.

scheme

The

affected.

'third arm', this

problem

ever,

owing

In developing his

1667.

The

to this

for the piazza, he therefore chose to

important link between

the two long colonnades, remained on paper for

death of Alexander VII in

to the

recent pulling

down of the spina (the

Nuovo and Borgo

houses between the Borgo

disregard this matter altogether rather than to

Vecchio), already contemplated by Bernini's

attempt an unsatisfactory compromise solution.

pupil Carlo Fontana and, in his wake, by other

Early in 1667 construction of the piazza was far

eighteenth-

enough advanced

tects,"^ has created a

to begin the 'third arm'. It

was then that Bernini decided

to

move the 'third

and

nineteenth-century

river to the piazza. This has solved

arm' from the perimeter of the oval back into

lem, and only one, namely that of a

the Piazza Rusticucci,"' the square at one time

the

existing at the west

end of the Borghi

(that

is,

the two streets leading from the Tiber towards

the church).

He was

led to this last-minute

change of plan certainly

less

ation for the visibility of the

idea of creating a

retta,

than by the

modest ante-piazza

By thus forming
piazza

by any consider-

dome

the

to the oval.

kind of counterpart to the

whole design would have

approached symmetry. In addition, the

who

visitor

entered the piazza under the 'third arm'

would have been able

to

perimeter of the oval.

may

It

embrace the

centralized buildings Bernini

entire

be recalled that

demanded

entrance because experience shows

- so

he told

the Sieur de Chantelou - that people, on enter-

drum and dome from

one probfull

view of

the distance;

may

be recalled that they were always visible in

their glory

from the Ponte

days the only access

To

S.

Angelo,

in

it

all

olden

to the precincts of St Peter's.

this fictitious gain has

been sacrificed Ber-

nini's idea of the enclosed piazza and, with

hope of redress, the

scale

no

between the access

to

the square and the square itself has been reversed.

Formerly the narrow Borgo

streets

opened into the wide expanse of the piazza,

dramatic contrast which intensified the beholder's surprise and feeling of elation.

The most

in

deep

archi-

wide roadway from the

at

the

ingenious, most revolutionary, and

same time most

Bernini's

piazza

is

the

influential

feature of

self-contained,

free-

standing colonnade."^ Arcades with orders of

BIBLOSARTE

iy6

rut AGt OK

Till

II

(ill

HAROQUE

No

the type familiar from the Colosseum, used on

sky between the columns.

innumerable occasions from the fifteenth cen-

structure of the post-Renaissance period shows

tury onwards, always contain a suggestion of a

an equally deep

pierced

wall

and

consequently

of flatness.

Bernini's isolated columns with straight entablature, by contrast, are

elements.

When

immensely sculptural

crossing the piazza, our ever-

changing view of the columns standing four

deep"" seems
units;

statuesque
irresistible

shapes

produces

clearly defined

sensation

of

mass and power. One experiences

vision

and prevent us from seeing that

produced by the greatest Baroque

As happens with most new and

after initial sharp attacks the

this

artist,

who

of

immense consequence

vital ideas,

colonnades became

for the further history

of architecture. Examples of their influence

from Naples

not be enumerated.

strengthened by the glimpses of

our

was a sculptor at heart.

absorbs some of the infinitude of space, and this

is

It is

Hellenic quality of the piazza could only be

almost physically that each column displaces or

impression

with Greece.

preconceived ideas about Bernini that dim our

to reveal a forest of individual

and the unison of all these

affinity

other Italian

lowed up

for

to

Greenwich and Leningrad need

The

aftermath can be

more than two and

BIBLOSARTE

fol-

a half centuries.

CHAPTER

FRANCESCO BORROMINI
1599-1667

Among

the great figures of the

Roman High

of his

life

working mainly

in St Peter's

on coats

Baroque the name of Francesco Borromini

of arms, decorative putti, festoons, and balus-

stands in a category of its own. His architecture

trades.

inaugurates a

new

departure. Whatever their

His name

is

also

connected with some of

the finest wrought-iron railings in the basilica.-

innovations, Bernini, Cortona, Rainaldi, Longhi

Moreover, the aged Maderno, who recognized

and the

the talent of his

rest

never challenged the essence of the

Renaissance tradition. Not so Borromini,

spite of the

many ways

which

in

work

his

in
is

linked to ancient and sixteenth-century architecture. It

he

that

was

clearly felt

introduced

by

approach to old problems.

in Paris
to the

his

contemporaries

new and

about Borromini,

When
all

disturbing

Bernini talked

agreed, according

striking contrast

in

normal procedure; whereas the design of

building,

it

had broken with

dome

of

Borromini willingly

submitted. to the older man, and the lasting

veneration in w^hich he held him

is

revealed by

the fact that in his will he expressed the wish to

be buried in Maderno's tomb.

After Maderno's death in January 1629 a

new

situation arose. Bernini took over as Architect

to St Peter's

and the Palazzo Barberini, and

Borromini had

work under him. Documents

to

maintained that Borromini

of the Baldacchino and for the supervision of

classical

This extraordinary man, who from

anthropo-

all

reports

was mentally unbalanced and voluntarily ended

of despair, came into his

own

The son of the architect

Giovanni Domenico Castelli, he was born in
at

Valle.*

between 1631 and 1633 he received substantial

payments for full-scale drawings of the scrolls

Brunelleschi's days had been implicitly accepted.

remarkably

della

other

In

structures.

morphic conception of architecture which since

fit

Andrea

S.

and erected

tradition

had thrown overboard the

his life in a

used him as an

for St Peter's, the

permit Borromini's position to be defined:

this

critics

relation,

human body, Borromini

('chimerical')

words, these

was argued, usually depended on

the proportions of the

fantastic

to

young

draughtsman

Palazzo Barberini, and the church and

Sieur de Chantelou, that his architecture

was extravagant and

1599

architectural

late.

Bissone on the Lake of Lugano near the

birthplace of his kinsman Maderno.' After a

their execution,

and

in

1631 he was also officially

functioning as 'assistant to the architect' of the

Palazzo Barberini.
ter

The Borrominesque

charac-

of the scrolls as well as certain details in the

palazzo indicate that Bernini conceded a notable

freedom of action

to his subordinate,

would therefore appear

Maderno paved

the

minent emergence
right.

But

and

it

that Bernini rather than

way

for

Borromini's im-

as an architect in his

their relationship

own

had the making of a

brief stay in Milan, he seems to have arrived in

long-lasting conflict. Fate brought two giants

Rome

together whose characters were as diflerent as

for

in

Much

about 1620.

who

hundreds of years had travelled south from

that part of Italy, he

and

as the artisans

in this capacity

began as

spent

a stone-carver,

more than

decade

were their approaches

-

man

like

to architecture; Bernini
of the world, expansive and brilliant -

his

Renaissance peers regarded painting

BIBLOSARTE

IHK

iy8

ACit Ol

rut. IIKill

UAROQLt

At present

it

does not seem possible to sepa-

with any degree of

rate

finality

Borromini's

active contribution to the Palazzo Barberini.

manner is evident, above all, in the

window of the recessed bay adjoining
the arcaded centre [114]. The derivation from
Maderno's windows in the attic of the facade of

lis

personal

top-floor

St Peter's

is

obvious, but the undulating 'ears'

with festoons fastened to them as well as the

segmental capping with endings turned out-

ward

at

an angle of 45 degrees are characteristic

of Borromini's dynamic interpretation of detail.

Here

that

Promethean

unaccountable tension
is

force

which imparts an

to every

shape and form

already noticeable.
Original drawings for the doors of the great

hall

help to assess the relationship between

Borromini and Bernini.^ There was certainly

give and take on both sides, but on the whole

it

would appear

that Borromini's

tion of the architectural detail

114.

Francesco Borromini: Rome, Palazzo Barberini,

Window next to the arcaded centre, c. 1630

facade.

impression on Bernini who,

a short

new interpretamade a strong

at this

phase and for

own

later, tried to reconcile his

while

anthropomorphic with Borromini's

'bizarre'

Although the

of architecture.

and sculpture as adequate preparation for

architecture Borromini - neurotic and recluse -

interpretation

work on the Palazzo Barberini dragged on

until

came

1638, the major part was finished in 1633.

From

to achitecture as a trained specialist, a

builder and first-rate technician. Almost exact

then on the two

contemporaries, the one was already immensely

that

successful, the

first artist in

still

thirty.

lacked

official

Bernini, of course, used Borromini's

full.

He had no

reason

from which, incident-

for professional jealousy,

he always remained

free.

For Borromini,

however, these years must have been a degrad-

6".

Carlo

alle Qjiattru

His opportunity came

curator

General

monastery of

S.

Carlo

crisis,

of Bernini's towers
it

was he who came

forward as Bernini's most dangerous

adversary.

His

guns

critic

were directed

and

against

alle

when

him

to

(now

first built

sacristy),

build the

and the layout proved him

the dormitory,

cloisters,^

master

the

in

rational exploitation of the scanty potentialities

of the small and irregularly cut

1638 the foundation stone of the

knew

itself

Bernini was most vulnerable.

the Pro-

Discalced

the Palazzo

and the

technical inefficiency, the very point where - he

-

was then

Quattro Fontane,

couple of hundred yards from

Barberini. Borromini

of St Peter's led to a

It

Spanish

Trinitarians commissioned

the refectory

affair

in 1634,

of the

and when

1645 the

good.

Fontane

ing experience which always rankled with him,

in

for

out on his own.

recognition at the age of

expert knowledge to the

ally,

men parted
set

Rome, entrusted

with most enviable commissions, while the

other

Borromini

was

laid.

Except

BIBLOSARTE

site [115].
little

for the fa9ade,

In

church
it

was

FRANCESCO BORROMINI

115.

S.

Carlo

finished in
[117].

Next

Quattro Fontane, 1638-41. Plan

alle

May
to

1641 and consecrated in 1646

Cortona's SS. Martina e Luca,

which went up during the very same

must be regarded

as

diamond pattern of two

with a

the building; the undulating perimeter of the

plan follows this rhomboid geometry with great

years,

deserves the

precision.
It is

cloisters, a structure

plicity,

equilateral triangles

base along the transverse axis of

it

Roman High Baroque and

The

common

one of the 'incunabula' of

closest attention.

of admirable sim-

contain features which anticipate the

basic 'orchestration' in the church, such as the

ring of rhythmically arranged,

tive

iy()

Francesco Borromini

Rome,

the

immensely

effec-

columns forming an elongated octagon, the

in

S.

of the greatest importance to realize that

Carlo and in

founded

later

his designs

abnegating the

buildings Borromini

on geometric

classical principle of

terms of modules,

i.e.

in

units.

By

planning

in

terms of the multipli-

cation and division of a basic arithmetical unit

uniform cornice binding together the columns,

(usually the diameter of the column), Borro-

and the replacement of corners by convex

mini renounced, indeed, a central position of

curvatures which prevent caesuras in the con-

anthropomorphic architecture. In order to make

tinuity of movement.

clearer the difference of procedure, one

A number of projects in the Albertina, Vienna,

have always been

- as

we now know

- referred to the planning of the

since E.

Hempel published them

geometric conception of the

incorrectly

church ever

in 1924."

The

final project is a

state,

perhaps too pointedly, that

case the overall plan and

by adding module
by dividing

to

its

might

in the

one

divisions are evolved

module, and

in the other

coherent geometric configuration

into geometric sub-units. Borromini's

BIBLOSARTE

geomet-

BIBLOSARTE

FRANCESCO BORROMINI

ric

approach

to

planning was essentially medi-

and one wonders how much of the old

eval,

mason's tradition had reached him before he

went

to

Rome. For hundreds of

bardy had been the cradle of

and

it is

years

Italian

Lom-

masons,

quite possible that in the masons' yards

rhythm

is

201

created by the high arches and the

segmental pediments above the pictures. These

elements seem

each group of

to tie together

three bays in the main axes.

The

reading, again

from the entrance bay, would therefore be:

|bAb|c|b.'\'b|c|bAb| etc. Where then are the

medieval building practices were handed on

real caesuras in this building? In the overlap-

from generation

ping triads of bays there

stubborn adherence

seems

to

generation.

to

Borromini's

to the rule of triangulation

support the point.'

the

is

columns

given to the sculptural element of

[ii6, 117].

certainly a suggestion

strengthening the inherent situation of conflict,

In Borromini's plan of S. Carlo extraordinary

importance

is

of Mannerist complexity. However, instead of

They

are

grouped

in

as the

Mannerists would have done, Borromini

counteracted

it

by two devices:

ful entablature serves, in spite

first,

fours with larger intervals on the longitudinal

as a firm horizontal barrier

and transverse axes. While the

lows easily and uninterruptedly

triads of undulat-

the power-

of its movement,

which the eye

all

fol-

round the

ing bays in the diagonals are unified by the wall

perimeter of the church; and secondly, the

niches and continuous mouldings -

columns themselves, which by their very nature

have no direction, may be seen as a continuous

treatment

the dark gilt-framed pictures in the

seem

to create effective caesuras.

from the entrance bay,

ing order exists:
this

is

main axes

Thus, starting

rhythm of the followA|bcb| A'|bcb| A| etc. But

clearly not the

whole truth.

different

accentuation of the undulating walls.

inside the small area of this church that helps to

unify

may
and 117 (below). Francesco Borromini:
alle Quattro Fontane, 1638-41.
Section and view towards high altar
116

(left)

Rome,

S.

Carlo

pre-

It is

predominant bulk of the columns

cisely the

its

complex shape. The overlapping

triads

be regarded as the 'background rhythm'

which makes

and

for the never-tiring richness

fascination of the disposition; or, to use a simile,

they

may

be likened to the warp and woof of the

wall texture. In musical terms the arrangement

may be compared to the structure of a fugue.

What kind of dome could be erected over the
undulating body of the church?
vault directly

on

to

it

method known from

in

To

place the

accordance with the

circular

and oval plans

(Pantheon type) would have been a possibility

which Borromini, however, excluded

this

at

stage of his development. Instead he inserted a

area with pendentives

transitional

lowed him

to design

curvilinear

an oval

shape [118].

dome

He

which

al-

of unbroken

used,

in

other

words, the transitional device necessary in plans

with square or rectangular crossings.

bays under the pendentives

('c') fulfil,

The

four

therefore,

the function of piers in the crossings of Greekcross plans.

And,

in actual fact, in the

zone of

the pendentives Borromini incorporated an in-

BIBLOSARTE

ii8.

Francesco Borromini: Rome, S. Carlo

alle

Quattro Fontane, 1638-41.

Dome

BIBLOSARTE

FRANCESCO BORROMINI

teresting reference to the cross-arms.

The

shal-

tures in such a

entrance and altar recesses are decorated with

into an infinitely suggestive whole.

which diminish rapidly

in size,

not only

vistas

the actual one, but also containing an illusionist

century in

hint at the

arms of the Greek

meant

ally rather

rests.

is

The dome

itself is

is

decorated with a

incised coffers of octagonal,

hexagonal, and cross shapes.**

line

this

the firm ring on which the oval

maze of deeply
exciting

Yet

They produce an

honeycomb impression, and the crystal-

sharpness of these simple geometric forms

as far

coff^ers in

removed from

the classical type of

Bernini's buildings [97] as from the

smooth and curvilinear ones

tona [144].
in size

The

in those

by Cor-

decrease considerably

coff^ers

towards the lantern, so that here again an

illusionist device

has been incorporated into

The

creation was immediately recognized.

ral

wrote that

'in

anywhere

in

the world. This

We

church.

have been asked

windows can be

idea of these

ards and even Indians

'Everything'

The
last

it

finished

Thus

whole career

deep shadows seems

in its

says -

arranged in such

'is

part supplements the other

is

stimulated to

the

in

It

sculptural

decoration

in 1667,

was

not

Although

Borromini's

as an architect lies

between the

until

1682.

building of the church and of the facade, the

hover immaterially

discussion of the latter cannot be separated from

that of the former.

The system

space in which the beholder moves.

combining

and

in this

church three

a small

of articulation,

a giant order, derives

from Michelangelo's Capitoline Palaces and the

undulating lower

fa9ade

of St Peter's where Borromini

zone, the pedigree of which points back to such

started

work

before.

But he employed

diff"erent structural types: the

late

and

his eye

was Borromini's

1665 and completed

above the massive and compact forms of the

Borromini reconciled

let

even light without

its

to

dome

Spani-

report also con-

ceaselessly.'

work, begun

church published by
the

The

.'

the early building period.

arrangement

shining whiteness and

them by Ger-

Italians,

fa9ade [119, 120] was not erected during

though

Serlio in his Fifth Book.

by

tains an adroit characterization of the buildings

traced back to a similar, but typically Mannerist,

in an oval

for

mans, Flemings, Frenchmen,

wander about

The

testified

is

members of diff^erent nations who, on their

arrival in Rome, try to procure plans of the

hidden from view behind the sharply chiselled

the cornice.

to artistic merit,

and singularity can be found

caprice, excellence

windows

ornamental ring of stylized leaves which crowns

the opinion of everybody

nothing similar with regard

that the spectator

partly

Upon the

completion of the church the Procurator Gene-

through the lantern but also from below through

coff^ers,

this

new

Rome.

manner that one

the fillings of the

merged

With

extraordinary character of Borromini's

the design. Light streams in not only from above

in

that they appear

which were further explored later in the

Piedmont and northern Europe

rather than in

conceptu-

than visually effective. Above the

pendentives

dome

cross.
to be

way

bold step Borromini opened up entirely

suggesting, theoretically, a depth greater than

sophisticated device was

203

manipulating three generically different struc-

low transverse niches as well as the deeper

coffers

domed

antique plans as the

hall

of the

as a scarpelHno almost
this

fift}'

had
years

Michelangelesque

Piazza d'Oro in Hadrian's Villa near Tivoli; the

system in an entirely new way. By repeating

intermediate zone of the pendentives deriving

two

from the Greek-cross plan and the oval dome

against the spirit in which the system had been

which, according to tradition, should

plan of the same shape.

Nowadays

to appreciate fully the audacity

rise

it is

over a

difficult

and freedom

in

tiers

it

in

of almost equal importance, he acted

invented, namely to unify a front throughout

its

whole height. Moreover,

repetition

was devised

BIBLOSARTE

this

determined

to serve a specific, highly

BIBLOSARTE

FRANCESCO BORROMINI

original concept; in spite of the coherent articulation, the

upper

tier

embodies an almost com-

The

plete reversal of the lower one.

consists of three bays; below, the

facade

two concave

echoed. Finally, instead of the niche with the

figure of St Charles, the

underlying the design

even polarity inside

together by the strong, unbroken, undulating

will

entablature; above, the three bays are concave

is

deployed

in three separate

segments. In addition, the oval medallion carried

by angels and capped by the onion-shaped

crowning element

nullifies

upper

tier

lion loosely attached to the wall.

outside bays and the convex centre bay are tied

and the entablature

205

is

has a medal-

The

principle

that of diversity

a unifying

and

theme, and

be noticed that the same principle

ties

it

the

facade to the interior of the church. For the

fa9ade

is

clearly a different realization of the

triad of bays

which is used

for the 'instrumentali-

zation' of the interior.

The compactness of this facade, with its mini-

the efiect of the

entablature as a horizontal barrier. Below, the

mum

small columns of the outside bays frame a wall

sculpture, and plastic decoration where the eye

with small oval windows and serve as support

for niches with statues ; above, the small

columns

frame niches and support enclosed wall panels

in

central bay

is

answered above by the

in the

'sculptural'

and projecting element of the oval 'box'

which the convex movement of the facade

iQ (opposite).

Rome,

S.

Carlo

nowhere allowed

in
is

style.

ending

in

typical

the

entrance there are

herms

very large, lively cherubs' heads,

whose wings form

figure of St Charles

protecting arch for the

Borromeo

in

the niche

[120]. In other parts of the fa9ade, too, realistic

Quattro Fontane.

Facade, 1665-7
120 (right ). Detail of illustration 119,

with Antonio Raggi's

statue of St Charles

is

element, characteristic of his late

Above

Francesco Borromini:
alle

to rest for long,

of the High Baroque. Borromini also included

a visionary

other words, the open and closed parts have

been reversed. The opening of the door

is

of wall-space, closely set with columns,

Borromeo

BIBLOSARTE

206

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

sculptural detail supports functional architec-

Before Borromini's S. Ivo, the star-hexagon

This strange fusion of architecture

was almost entirely excluded from Renaissance

tural forms.

and sculpture, the growth of which can be

lowed over

a long period,

utterly

is

fol-

opposed

to

manner of Bernini, who could never divorce

from narrative connotations and

the

sculpture

therefore never surrendered

to architecture.

it

and post-Renaissance planning.

occurred

in antiquity,"

by Peruzzi

in

the Uffizi and Vittozzi's SS.

Trinita at Turin (begun

difficult to

name

1598)

is

would be

it

Italian precedents.

simple hexagon was hardly used.

S. Ivu delta Sapienza

may have

It

but apart from a sketch

not difficult to guess.

Even the

The

square, the octagon, and dodecagon,

Almost immediately
Carlo

after the

completion of S.

Quattro Fontane Borromini was given

alle

a great opportunity further to develop his ideas

on

ecclesiastical

church of the

He

architecture.

Roman

began the

Archiginnasio (later the

the

structure

was

finished.

The

work

in the Palazzo Barberini

gress, Bernini

was

axes, in the

hexagon one

sides, the other

axis goes

through two

through two angles.

fore evident that in plans derived

It is

in

pro-

had recommended Borromini

He

architect to the Sapienza.'*

hexagon the parts can never conform, and herein

two great doors of the

Francesco Borromini:

Rome,

S. Ivo della Sapienza, 1642 50. Plan

as

The

wing on Piazza

east

121.

began by con-

tinuing the older south wing of the palace.

S.

Eustachio, his most important exterior contribution, were executed

much

later,

during Alex-

ander VIFs pontificate.

The church was

of

Giacomo

[125].

For

to

be erected

at the east

end

della Porta's long, arcaded cortile

its

plan Borromini returned once

again to the basic geometry of the equilateral

But

this

time the triangles inter-

penetrate in such a

way

that they

triangle [121].

star-hexagon.
lie

The

hexagon

is

circle,

from point

formed.

form a regular

points of interpenetration

on the perimeter of a

straight lines

The

to

and by drawing
point a regular

semicircular recesses

replacing the angles of one triangle are deter-

mined by

circles

with a radius of half a side of

the hexagon, while the convex endings of the

other triangle result from circles with the same

radius and their centres in the points of the

angle.^"

Thus

recesses of a concave shape

tri-

and

recesses with slanting walls and convex endings

alternate

there-

from the

decoration

still

where

equal sides confront each other in the two main

University), S. Ivo, in 1642; by 1650 most of

dragged on until 1660. As early as 1632 when

reason

In contrast to the

and face each other across the space.

BIBLOSARTE

122. Francesco Borromini:

Rome,

S. Ivo della Sapienza, 1642-50. Interior

BIBLOSARTE

208

lies
it

THE AGE OF THE HKiH BAROQUE

an clement of unrest or even conflict. But

must be

said at once that the complexities

in fact, the star

opening

shape of the plan, each segment

base into a large window.

at its

More-

inherent in hexagonal or star-hexagonal plan-

over, the vertical lines of the pilasters are carried

ning were skilfully avoided by Borromini. His

on

method was no

repeat and accentuate the tripartite division

less

than revolutionary. Instead

in the

gilded mouldings of the

below [124]. In

dome which

spite of the strong

of creating, in accordance with tradition, a

into bays

hexagonal main space with lower

horizontal barrier of the entablature, the vertical

satellite

spaces

momentum. As the
dome ascend,

placed in the angles of the triangles, he en-

tendencies have a

compassed the perimeter with an uninterrupted

variously shaped sectors of the

sequence of giant pilasters impelling the spec-

contrasts are gradually reduced until the

move-

ment comes

in the

tator to register the unity

and homogeneity of

the entire area of the church [122). This sensation

star

under the lantern

to rest

pure form of the

which

circle,

is

decorated with

powerfully supported by the sharply de-

is

fined

terrific

crowning entablature which reveals the

form of the ground-plan

The

[124].

basic approach

to that in S. Carlo alle

is,

in all its clarity

therefore, close

Quattro Fontane; and

once again a sophisticated 'background-rhythm'

constantly stimulates the beholder's curiosity.

Each

recess

is

articulated by three bays,

two

one ('A

C A'

identical small ones framing a large

and

'A'

B A")

[123].

- equal in value
spatial

But these alternating

triads

though entirely different

in

- are not treated as separate

deployment

or separable entities, for the two small bays

across each corner (A A' or A' A) are so
alike that they counteract

much

any tendency to per-

ceiving real caesuras. Moreover, two other over-

lapping rhythms are also implied.

tinuous string courses

The con-

at half-height are inter-

rupted by the central bay of the semicircular

altar recess (C),'- while the

course under the capitals

across the convex bays (B).

groups of five bays

either

continuous string
is

not carried on

123.

Francesco Borromini:

Rome,

S. Ivo della

Sapienza, 1642 50. Plan

Thus two alternative

may be seen as 'super-units',

A'. It may there-

A A' B A' A or A' A C A

twelve large

stars.

In this reduction of multi-

plicity to unity, of differentiation

and variety

to

fore be said that the articulation contains three

the simplicity of the circle, consists a good deal

interlocking themes with the intervals placed

of the fascination of this church. Geometrical

at

any of the three possible points: the large

round-headed bays 'C, the convex bays

'B',

or at the angles between the small bays 'A A".

In contrast to S. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane,
the

dome

caps the body of the church without

a transitional structural feature.

It

continues.

succinctness
technical
rarely

and
and

inexhaustible
religious

imagination,

symbolism have

reconciliation.

One can

movement downward from

the chas-

found such

trace the
tity

skill

of forms in the heavenly zone to the in-

creasing complexity of the earthly zone.

BIBLOSARTE

The

124.

Francesco Borromini: Rome, S. Ivo della Sapienza, 1642-50.

Dome

BIBLOSARTE

210

THt

ACit

OF THE

dome

decorative elements of the

rows of

stars,

BAROQUE

IllUtl

the vertical

the papal coat of arms above

enhances the impression of vitality and tension.

Secondly, above the

drum

is

stepped pyramid,

alternating windows, the cherubs under the

divided by buttress-like ribs which transfer the

and exciting

thrust on to the reinforced meeting-point of

lantern

have

quality and

a fantastic, unreal,

speak

same time

the

at

clear

emblematical language."
In continuing the shape of the ground-plan

Borromini accepted the prin-

into the vaulting

ciple

normally applied

circular

to

and oval

churches. Yet neither for the particular form

dome nor

of the

for the decoration

was there

contemporary precedent. In one way or another

Baroque dome

the customary type of the

lowed the example

of St Peter's. In none of the great

Roman domes

was the vaulted surface broken up into

But Borromini had

ently shaped units.

fol-

by Michelangelo's dome

set

differ-

classical

antiquity on his side he had surely studied such

;

buildings as the

sequel in

Rome. Again

Borromini's ideas

The

Serapeum of Hadrian's

The dome

near Tivoli.'^

fell

it

on

Villa

of S. Ivo found no

was

in

fertile

Piedmont

that

ground.

task, since the

main entrance had

end of Giacomo

crowned by

pyramid

thirdly, the

with double columns

a lantern

and concave recessions between them. The

similarity to the

little

temple

at

Baalbek cannot

be overlooked and has, indeed, often been

stressed.'''

Above

these three zones

which

in

spite of their entirely different character are

welded together by the strong structural 'conductors' - rises a fourth element, the spiral,

monolithic and sculptural, not corresponding

to

any interior feature or continuing directly

the external

movement. Yet

it

seems

bind

to

together the several fields of energy which,

united, soar
spiral

up

in a spatial

movement along

and are released into the

It is futile

to speculate

the

lofty iron cusp.

on the exact prototypes

Borromini may have deve-

for the spiral feature.

Roman columns
may have had some unexpected knowledge

loped impressions of imperial

exterior of S. Ivo presented an unusual

at the far

two sectors of the drum

is

to be placed

della Porta's court-

yard. Borromini used Porta's hemicycle with

or

of a ziggurat, the Babylonian-Assyrian temple

towers of which a
great

mosque

late derivation survives in

at Sam'arra.'''

In any case,

it

the

can

closed arcades in two tiers for the fa9ade of the

hardly be doubted that this element has an

towers one of the strangest

emblematic meaning, the precise nature of

church; above

it

domes ever invented

[125]. In principle

mini followed the North

encasing the

dome

rising curve as
Italy

of

rather than exhibiting

its

had been customary

dome

Brunelleschi's

since

He

Borro-

Italian tradition

handled

in central

of Florence

which has not yet been rediscovered.

S.

Ivo must

be regarded as Borromini's

masterpiece, where his style reached

and where he played

its

zenith

the registers at his

all

command. By comparison,

his earlier

and

later

however,

buildings, ecclesiastical as well as domestic,

new and entirely personal manner. His

domed structure consists of four different parts
first, a high, hexagonal drum of immense weight

often suffer through the fact that they are either

plexities of site

which counters by

with existing structures.

Cathedral.

this tradition,

in a

its

convex projection the

unfinished or that he was inhibited by

concave recession of the church fa9ade on the

cortile.

The

division of each of the six equal

and the necessity

In contrast to Bernini,

to

who conceived

convex sectors into two small bays and a large

pressed through sculpture, the drama

is

of

the interior. At the points where two convex

sectors

meet the order

is

strengthened; this

archi-

tecture as the stage for a dramatic event ex-

one prepares for the triads

in the recesses

com-

comply

in S.

Ivo

inherent in the dynamic architectural con-

ception

itself: in

the

way

expand, and contract

BIBLOSARTE

that the motifs unfold,

in the

way that movement

125.

Francesco Borromini: Rome, S. Ivo della Sapienza, 1642-50. View from the courtyard

BIBLOSARTE

THE

212

AtiE

OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

surges upwards and comes to

Baldinucci's days
there

an

is

it

affinity

Ever since

rest.

has been maintained that

Gothic structures

to

in

columns of the old church

secutive

broad

by framing each

pillar,

inside one

with a

pillar

colossal order of pilasters throughout the

whole

certainly truth in

height of the nave, and by placing a tabernacle

the observation. His interest in the cathedral

niche of coloured marble for statuary into the

Borromini's work. There

at

Milan

known, and the system of

well

is

is

face of each pillar

where originally an opening

The alter-

buttresses in S. Ivo proves that he found inspira-

between two columns had been

tion in the northern medieval rather than the

nation of pillars and open arches created a basic

contemporary

Roman

medieval features

Remarkably

tradition.

may be

noticed in his detail,

rhythm

well

known

[ 1

26 ].

since Bramante's

and even

Alberti's days. Borromini, however, not only

such as the angular intersection of mouldings

carried

over the doors inside S. Ivo or the pedestal ot

thereby transforming the nave into an enclosed

the holy water stoup in the Oratory of S. Filippo

space, but introduced another

rhythm which

The

spectator per-

Even more

Neri.

the squinch, so

interesting

common

is

his partiality for

Romanesque

in the

and Gothic architecture of northern

the Byzantine pendentive replaced

Italy before
it

in the

age

of the Renaissance. But he used the squinch

as a transitional element

between the wall and

it

across the corners of the entrance wall,

reverses the primary one.

ceives simultaneously the continuous sequence

of the high bays of the pillars and the low arches

(A b

.)

as well as that of the low taber-

nacles and the high arches (a

over,

this

BaBa

More-

.).

second rhythm has an important

the vault only in minor structures, such as the

chromatic and

old sacristy of S. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane,

coloured arches - 'openings' of the wall - are

rooms of the Palazzo Falconieri

contrasted by the dark-coloured tabernacles,

or in certain

and of the Collegio

di

Propaganda Fide. His

resuscitation of the squinch was again to find a

sequel in Piedmont rather than

Rome.

which break through the plane of the wall and

project into the nave.
It

has recently been ascertained'" that Borro-

mini intended
5. Giovanni in Laterano, S. Agnese, S.
delle Fratte,

and Minor

Ecclesiastical

Andrea

Works

cream-

spatial quality, for the

to vault the nave.

The

present

arrangement, which preserved Daniele da Volterra's

heavy wooden ceiling (1564-72), must

be regarded as provisional, but after the Holy

While

S. Ivo

was

in course of construction three

Year there was no hope of continuing

this costly

enterprise.

The

reconstruction of S. Giovanni in Laterano, the

have found

its

continuation of Rainaldi's S. Agnese in Piazza

which always formed an integral part of Borro-

large

works were entrusted

to

Navona, and the exterior of

Fratte.

Borromini: the

S.

S.

mini's structures. If the execution of his scheme

Giovanni

thus remained a fragment, he was yet given

had become necessary since the Early Christian

basilica

was

in

danger of collapse. Borromini's

work was begun

in

May

1646 and finished by

October 1649, in time for the Holy Year.'" His

task was extremely difficult because Innocent X
insisted

How

on preserving the venerable

could one produce a

would

logical continuation in the vault,

delle

Andrea

thorough restoration of

articulation of the nave

basilica.

modern Baroque

ample scope
rator.

The

for displaying his skill as a

naturalistic

sunken panels of the

lively floral

palm branches

pilasters of the aisles, the

ornament of the oval frames

clerestory, the putti

decoin the

in the

and cherubim forming part

of the architectural design as in Late Gothic

churches, and, above

building under these circumstances?'" Borro-

in the

mini solved his problem by encasing two con-

tificate

new

aisles

all,

the re-arrangement

during Alexander VII's pon-

of the old tombs and

BIBLOSARTE

monuments

of

FRANCESCO BORROMINI

126.

213

Francesco Borromini

Rome,

Giovanni

S.

Nave,

in Laterano.

popes, cardinals, and bishops -

all

646-9

this

shows

an inexhaustible wealth of original ideas and an

uninhibited

Although contem-

imagination.

poraries regarded the settings of these

ments

monu-

as a veritable storehouse of capriccios,-"

cap in S. Agnese in Piazza Navona was of

different nature.

Pope Innocent

wanted

to

turn the square on which his family palace was

situated into the grandest in

Rome;

dominated by the new church of

it

S.

was

to be

Agnese

to

they are far from unsuitable for the purpose for

replace an older one close to the palace. Carlo

which they were designed

Rainaldi, in collaboration with his father Giro-

each of the venerable

into

its

own

adapted to

its

peculiar character. It

realistic features

dewy

on the contrary,
placed

kind of treasure-chest, beautifully

Borromini's manner that

of

relics of the past is

and

floral

is

typical of

to

in

laid

on

15

new

which was

August 1652." The Rainaldis de-

signed a Greek-cross plan with short arms and

and vegetable motifs

pillars

freshness merge with the sharp and

Giovanni

structure, the foundation stone of

in these decorations

crystalline architectural forms.-'

If in S.

lamo, had been commissioned to build the

Laterano Borromini had

renounce completion of his design, the handi-

of the crossing with broad bevels which

were opened into large niches framed by recessed columns. While the idea of the pillars

with niches derived from St Peter's, the model

for the recessed

columns was Cortona's SS.

BIBLOSARTE

127 (left) and 128 (opposite).

Francesco Borromini

Rome,
Agnese in Piazza Navona,
begun by Girolamo
and Carlo Rainaldi in 1652.
Section and plan, and interior
S.

BIBLOSARTE

FRANCESCO BORROMINI

Martina e Luca. The building went up

dance with

this design,

in accor-

but soon criticism was

voiced, particularly as regards the planned staircase,

crisis

which extended too

far into the piazza.

became unavoidable,

the Rainaldis were

215

crossing, therefore, appears to the eye as a

regular octagon; this

columns

[128].

accentuated by the

is

sculptural element of the

all

but free-standing

Colour contrasts sustain

impression, for the body of the church

is

this

white

dismissed, and on 7 August 1653 Borromini

(with the exception of the high altar), while the

was appointed

columns are of red marble. Moreover, an intense

in their place.

To all intents and purposes he had to continue

building in accordance with the Rainaldi plan,
for the pillars of the crossing

were standing

to

the height of the niches. Yet by seemingly minor

alterations he
sign.

Above

changed the character of the de-

all,

he abolished the recesses pre-

pared for the columns and bevelled the

so that the

columns look as if they were detached

from the wall

holder

is

pillars

made

[127].-'

By

this device the be-

to believe that the pillars

the cross arms have almost equal width.

and

The

verticalism

is

suggested by virtue of the pro-

jecting entablature above the columns, unifying

the arch with the supporting columns; and the

high

attic

above the entablature, which appears

under the crossing

like a pedestal to the arch,-^

increases the vertical

movement.

be seen that the octagonal space

in the

design of the floor -

the coherent

rhythm of the

is

It

will

- also

now

echoed

encompassed by

alternating low bays

of the pillars framed by pilasters and the high

'bavs' of the cross-arms

BIBLOSARTE

framed bv the columns.

I2g.

Francesco Borromini: Rome, S. Agnese

Fa(;ade, 1653-5, completed 1666

in Piazza

Navona.

by other hands

BIBLOSARTE

FRANCESCO BORROMINI

By

giving the cross-arms a length

than

that

intended

created a piquant tension between

central area.

Thus

much

greater

by Rainaldi, Borromini

them and the

Borro-

a characteristically

minesque structure was erected over Rainaldi's

traditional plan.

Nor

did the latter envisage a

building of exceptionally high and slender design.

Borromini further amplified the

vertical

tendencies by incorporating into his design an

extraordinarily high
for the

dome

drum and an elevated curve

which obviously adds

to the

importance of the area under the crossing [127].

Rainaldi, by contrast, had planned to blend a

low drum with a broad, rather unwieldy dome.

In spite of the difficulties which Borromini

had

to face in the interior, he

accomplished an

more Borro-

gely enough, the exterior looks

minesque than the

interior.

For

217

"

in the interior

the rich gilt stuccoes, the large marble reliefs - a

veritable school of Roman

High Baroque sculp-

ture - Gaulli's and Giro Ferri's frescoes in the

pendentives and

dome

all this

tends to conceal

the Borrominesque quality of the structure. ^'^

Completion dragged on
towers went up
still

the

in

for

many

The

years.

1666; interior stuccoes were

being paid for in 1670, and the frescoes of

dome were

not finished until the end of the

century.

upon

In defiance of the limitations imposed

Borromini,

Agnese occupies

S.

unique posi-

tion in the history of Baroque architecture.

church must be regarded

as the

The

High Baroque

almost incredible transformation of Rainaldi's

revision of the centralized plan for St Peter's.

project. In the handling of the exterior [129] he

The dome

was

less

handicapped.

The

little

that

was stand-

By

ing of Rainaldi's facade was pulled down.

abandoning the vestibule planned by the

latter,

of S. Agnese has a distinct place in

a long line of

domes dependent on Michel-

From the late sixmay be observed a

angelo's creation (p. 422).

teenth century onwards

he could set the facade further back from the

progressive reduction of mass and weight, a

square and design

heightening of the

it

over a concave plan. In

Rainaldi's project the insipid crowning features

at

both ends of the fa9ade were entirely over-

shadowed by the weight of the dome. Borromini

vault,

and

drum

at

the expense of the

growing elegance of the sky-line.

All this reached a kind of finality in the

dome

of S. Agnese. Moreover, from a viewpoint oppo-

dome seems

extended the width of the facade into the area

site

of the adjoining palaces, thus creating space

of the fa9ade, dominates

the entrance the

it,

and

since the double

to

is

form part

firmly con-

columns

both

for freely rising towers of impressive height.

nected with

But he was prevented from completing the

sides

execution of his design. After Innocent X's

pilasters of the

death on 7 January 1655, building activity

stopped. Soon difficulties arose between Borro-

Circumstances prevented the dome of St Peter's

mini and Prince Camillo PamphiH, and two

The idea found fulfilment in S. Agnese; here

dome and towers form a grand unit, perfectly

years later Carlo Rainaldi in turn replaced Bor-

it,

at

of the entrance are continued in the

drum and

the ribs of the vault.

from appearing between two framing towers.

Never before had

been

romini. Assisted by Giovanni Maria Baratta

balanced

and Antonio del Grande, Carlo proceeded

possible for a beholder to view at a glance such

alter those parts

to

which had not been finished:

a rich

in

scale.

it

and varied group of towers and dome

dome,

while at the same time experiencing the spell

the towers, and the facade above the entabla-

of the intense spatial suggestions: he feels him-

the interior decoration, the lantern of the

ture.

The

high

attic

over the fa9ade, the

tri-

angular pediment in the centre, and certain

self

drawn

into the cavity of the facade, above

which looms the concave mass of the drum.

simplifications in the design of the towers are

Nobody can

contrarv to Borromini's intentions.-^ But, stran-

although he employed the traditional grammar

overlook the fact that Borromini,

BIBLOSARTE

2l8

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

of motifs, repeated here the spatial reversal of

the facade of S. Ivo.

Probably

in the

same

year,

1653, in which

he took over S. Agnese from Rainaldi, Borro-

mini was commissioned by the Marchese Paolo

Bufalo to finish the church of S. Andrea delle
Fratte which Gaspare Guerra had begun in
1605. Although Borromini was engaged on this

work

1665, he had to abandon

until

fragmentary

The

state.

transept,

in

it

dome, and

choir which he added to the conventional in-

Much

terior reveal little of his personal style.

more important

is

his contribution to the

finished exterior [130].

dome and

It is

un-

his extraordinary

tower, designed to be seen as one

descends from Via Capo

le

Case, that give the

otherwise insignificant church a unique distinction. Similar to S. Ivo, the curve of the
is

encompassed by

dome

drumlike casing. But here

four widely projecting buttresses jut out dia-

gonally from the actual body of the 'drum'. In

this

way four equal

sisting of a large

faces are created, each con-

convex bay of the 'drum' and

The

narrower concave bays of the buttresses.

plan of each face

lower

tier

therefore similar to the

is

of the facade of S. Carlo

alle

Quattro

Fontane. Once again Borromini worked with

spatial evolutions of

again a

rhythmic

triads,

and once

monumental order of composite columns

placed at the salient points ensures the unbroken

coherence of the design. This extraordinary

structure was to be crowned by a lantern -

which unfortunately remained on paper

with

concave recesses above the convex walls underneath.

Without this lantern the spatial intentions

embodied

Borromini's design cannot be

in

fully gauged.-^

The

tower, rising in the north-east corner

next to the choir, was conceived as a deliberate

contrast to the dome. Its three tiers form
pletely separate units.
130. Francesco

Borromini:

Rome, S. Andrea delle Fratte.

Tower and dome, 1653-65

While the lowest

com-

is

solid

and square with diagonally-projecting columned

corners, the second

follows

the

model

BIBLOSARTE

is

open and

of

ancient

circular

and

monopteral

FRANCESCO BORROMINI

By topping

this feature

portionately

heavy

balustrade

movement

given an emphatic, compelling

temples.

is

with a disprothe

circular

quality. In the third tier the circular

form

is

fied version

of S. Carlo

alle

219

Quattro Fontane.'-

But above the cornice the comparison does not

hold. Here there is a low clerestory and a coved
vault divided by ribs, linking a pair of

columns

broken up into double herms with deep concave

them

recesses between

- a

new and more

131.

in-

S.

Francesco Borromini; Rome,

Maria

dei Sette Dolori,

begun 1642-

Interior

tensely modelled version of the lantern of S. Ivo.

While full-blooded cherubs function

tids, their

At

as carya-

wings enfold the stems of the herms.

this late stage of his

development Borromini

liked to soften the precise lines of architecture

by the swelHng forms of sculpture, and the

cherub-herm, an invention of

from any

classical

context.-**

his far

removed

models, fascinated him

The uppermost element

in this

of the tower

consists of four inverted scrolls of beautiful

elasticity

on them

balances

spikes

crown with sharply pointed

the

precariously:

triumph of complex

whole

spatial relationships

and a

bizarre concetto by which the top of the tower

is

wedded to the sky and the air. Thus the flexible

but homogeneous massive bulk of the dome is a
foil

for the small scale of the

tower with

its

emphasis on minute detail (capitals of the monopteros!) and

its

radical division into contrasting

shapes.-''

Among Borromini's lesser ecclesiastical works

two churches may be singled out
sideration: S.

for special

con-

Maria dei Sette Dolori and the

Church of the Collegio

both cases the church

di

Propaganda Fide. In

lies at

right angles to the

fa9ade,

and both churches are erected over

simple

rectangular

rounded corners.

begun

in

S.

plans

is

bevelled

left

unfinished in

1646.'"'

an impressive mass of raw bricks

and only the rather weak portal was executed

stone, but not
interior

is

or

Maria dei Sette Dolori was

1642-3 and

The exterior

with

in

from Borromini's design. The

articulated

by an imposing sequence

of columns arranged in triads between the

larger intervals of the

two main axes, which are

across the room.*' This arrangement contained

potentialities which
in the

In 1646 Borromini was appointed architect to

the Collegio di Propaganda Fide. But
until

Two

years later

tion

of the decoration.*^ At

planned

it

large

in a sense a simpli-

it,

was

finished, with the excep-

to preserve the oval

cornice [131].^' In spite of the difference in plan,

is

was not

front of the palace was in course of construction.

Bernini in 1634.

Maria dei Sette Dolori

it

1662 that the church behind the west

bridged by arches rising from the uninterrupted

S.

were later further developed

church of the Propaganda Fide.

When

it

first

Borromini

church

built

was decided

by

to en-

he significantly preferred the simple

hall type in

analogy to S. Maria dei Sette Dolori

BIBLOSARTE

132. Francesco Borromini:

Rome,

Collegio di Propaganda Fide. Church, 1662-4

BIBLOSARTE

FRANCESCO BORROMINl

133.

221

Francesco Borromini: Rome,

CoUegio

di

Propaganda Fide. Vaulting of the church

and the even

earlier

But the changes

nating.

The

Oratory of St Philip Neri.

in design are equally illumi-

clerestory of S.

Maria

dei Sette

By

Dolori was similar to that of the Oratory.

contrast, the church of the

Propaganda Fide em-

bodies a radical revision of those earlier structures [132].

large

The

articulation consists here of a

and small order, derived from the Capito-

line palaces.

The

large pilasters accentuate the

division of the perimeter of the church into

continued through the isolated pieces of the

entablature into the coved vaulting and

up by the

ribs,

which

taken

is

link the centres of the long

walls with the four corners diagonally across

the ceiling [133].

Thus

closely ties together

all

directions.

has

all

an unbroken system

parts of the building in

The coherent 'skeleton'-structure

become all-important

remain between the

hardly any walls

-

and

to

sacrificed.

The

oval

tall pilasters!

even the dome has been

which would have required

alternating wide and narrow bays, while the

project,

cornice of the large order and the entablature of

could not have embodied a similar system.

the small order on which the

windows

rest

post-Renaissance building

function as elements unifying the entire space

close to

horizontally. Different from S.

years

Maria

dei Sette

Dolori, the verticalism of the large order

is

in Italy

dome,

direction.

The church

BIBLOSARTE

No

had come so

Gothic structural principles. For

Borromini had

it

been groping

thirtj'

in

this

of the Propaganda Fide

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

222

new and

was, indeed, a
its

exciting solution, and

compelling simplicity and logic

Borromini's

clude

in

activit}'

fittingly

the

conof

field

ecclesiastical architecture.'"

the placing of the oratory itself in the western

(left)

half of the

main wing. Many refinements

were introduced there by Borromini, but it must

suffice to

mention

that, contrary to Maruscelli's

intentions, he created for the eye, rather than in

actual fact, a central axis to the entire front

The Oratory of St Philip Neri

The

brethren of the Congregation of St Philip

Neri had for a considerable time planned to

build an oratory next to their church of S. Maria
in

Vallicella.

In conjunction with this idea,

plans ripened to include in the building pro-

gramme a refectory, a sacristy, living quarters for

the members of the Congregation, and a large
library. This considerable programme was, in
fact,

not very different from that of a large

monastery.

The Congregation

competition which Borromini

among

against,

opened

finally

won

in

May

1637

others, Paolo Maruscelli, the

architect of the Congregation. Borromini re-

placed him forthwith and held the

office for

the

next thirteen years. Building activity was rapid

1640 the oratory was in use; in 1641 the

in

refectory

was

finished,

between 1642 and 1643

was built and

the library above the oratory

between 1644 and 1650 the north-west front

with the clock-tower overlooking the Piazza
deirOrologio.^''

Thus the building of the oratory

coincided with that of S. Carlo

alle

Quattro

Fontane. But although the work for the Oratorians was infinitely

the

little

vitality the
latter.

more important than

that of

church, as regards compactness and

former cannot compete with the

This verdict does not, of course, refer

the brilliant fagade of the oratory [134], nor

we overlook

Rome,

134. Francesco Borromini;

Oratory of St Philip Neri. Facade, 1637-40

the fact that

many new and

ous ideas were brought to fruition

to

do

ingeni-

in the build-

ings of the monastery.

S.

Maria

front

is

behind

Vallicella

in

Filippini [135].

de'

The

he had designed a

to

it

independent of the dispositions

The

central entrance does not lead

it.

which

lies at

the fa9ade, nor

is

the plan of the whole area

symmetrical in depth, as a glance

axes and a clear and logical disposition of the

might suggest.

sacristy

and the courtyards. Borrommi accepted

right angles

and extends beyond the elaborate part of

coherent layout for the whole area with long

the essentials of this plan, which also included

and the Via

organization of this

entirely

straight into the oratory

Maruscelli, before Borromini, had already

solved an intricate problem

between

Although the fa9ade

church,

its

is

at the

facade

reminiscent of that of a

rows of domestic windows seem

BIBLOSARTE

to

135- Francesco Borromini:

Rome, Oratory of St

Philip Neri

and Monastery, begun 1637. Plan

BIBLOSARTE

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

224

contradict

impression.

this

This somewhat

hybrid character indicates that Borromini deliberately designed

much

oratory as

as an 'overture' for the

it

as for the

whole monastery. By

request of the Congregation the fa9ade was not

faced in stone so that

would not compete with

it

the adjoining church of S. Maria in Vallicella.

the frieze of the entablature; and to the win-

dows of the second

which have ample space

tier,

over and under them."*

The

adapted

interior of the oratory, carefully

needs of the Congregation,

to the

by half-columns on the

articulated

is

and

altar wall

compli-

cated rhythm of pilasters along the other three

Borromini, therefore, developed a new and

walls.*"

extremely subtle brick technique of classical

dently ga\ e rise to the use of the giant order of

ancestry, a technique which allowed for finest

The

gradations and absolute precision of detail.

main portion of the fa9ade

consists of five bays,

Michelangelo's Capitoline palaces evi-

pilasters in the

order

the

in

two courtyards.

It is

worth re-

Palladio had introduced a giant

calling that

corttle

of the

Palazzo

Porto-

closely set with pilasters, arranged over a con-

CoUeoni

cave plan. But the central bay of the lower

tier

Borromini's simple and great forms seem super-

curved outward, while that of the upper

tier

ficially close to Palladio's classicism, the

is

opens into

Crowning

niche

depth.

of considerable

the facade rises the mighty pediment

which, for the

first

time, combines curvilinear

and angular movement. The segmental part

answers the rising

line of the cornice

above the

main

bays, which are attached like wings to the

Vicenza

at

of

intentions

the

Palladio

different.

two
is

masters

own

right, while

Borromini's

in

utterly

always concerned with

members

would appear

in

Borromini stresses the

dynamic system.

integral character of a coherent

Thus

ultimate

are

intrinsically plastic architectural

their

although

but,

(1552);

courtyards

the

large

body of the facade, and the change of movement,

pilasters

comparable

rupted sequence of buttresses. This interpreta-

as

it

to an interrupted S-curve, echoes,

movement of
The form of

were, the contrasting spatial

the central bays in the elevation.

the

pediment

further conditioned by the

is

vertical tendencies in the fa9ade.

been noticed, one

logical

that

the

will also find

important

Once

it

that has

compellingly

centre

and

the

accompanying bays are not capped by a uniform

pediment.

The

latter, in

addition to suggesting

rhythm, also pulls to-

a differentiated triple

gether the three inner bays, which are segregated

from the outer bays by

a slight projection

and an

tion

an uninter-

to screen

supported by the treatment of the

is

corners.

Renaissance architects had more often than

not evaded facing squarely a problem which was
inherent in the use of the classical

The

forms.

grammar of

half-pilasters, quarter-pilasters,

and

other expedients, which abruptly break the

continuity

of articulation in the corners of

Renaissance buildings, must be regarded as

compromise

naive
tects

who

fully

solutions.

Mannerist archi-

understood the problem not in-

additional half-pilaster. Without breaking

up

frequently carried on the wall decoration across

the unity of the five bays, a triad of bays

yet

the corners, thereby neutralizing the latter and

is

singled out, and the pediment reinforces the

indications contained in the fa9ade

itself.

The

treatment of detail further enriches the complexities of the general

may be drawn

arrangement. Attention

to the niches

below, which cast

deep shadows and give the wall depth and

volume;

to the

windows above them, which

with their pediments press energetically against

at the

biguitv'

same time producing

a deliberate

and the change

in the direction

Borromini abolished the cause

or ambiguity
selves.

am-

between the uninterrupted decoration

for

of the walls.

compromise

by eliminating the corners them-

By rounding them

oft,

he

made

the unity

of the space-enclosing structural elements, and

implicitly of the space

BIBLOSARTE

itself,

apparent. In the

FRANCESCO BORROMINI

two courtyards of the Filippini he applied

external space the

had used

same principle

in a comparatively

an

embryonic manner

of the Redentore/" This

in the interior

to

that Palladio

new

became the property of the whole

solution soon

of Europe.

tended

Borromini used very simple motifs

He

with huge herms ending

front

225

from

framed the facade

heads, an

in falcons'

emblematic conceit which had no precedent.

He added new

wings on the rear facing the

and provided decoration

river

In contrast to the elaborate south facade,

mid-sixteenth-century

seven to eleven bays.^-"

But

vestibule.

his

most

porch and

for

signal contribution

is

for the long

the twelve ceilings with their elaborate floral

western and northern fronts of the convent:

ornament,^' and, overlooking the courtyard,

band-like string courses divide the storeys and

the Palladian loggia, equally remarkable for

and

large horizontal

grooves replace

vertical

From

the cornices and corners/'

then on this

type of design became generally accepted for

purposes

utilitarian

in cases

where no elaborate

decoration was required.

derivation and for

its

Basilica at Vicenza.^^

dominated by the
versatility of

[136].

The U-shaped

Borromini's extraordinary genius

and new parts together into

Domestic Buildings

it

river front,

proof of the

loggia, gives

His problem consisted

specifically

its

deviation from Palladio's

welding old

in

new

unit of a

Borrominesque character.

He solved

by progressively increasing the height of the

Between about 1635 and the end of his career

Borromini had a hand in a great number of

four storeys in defiance of long established

domestic buildings of importance, though

of the orders.

must be

said that

no palace was

it

entirely carried

out by him. At the beginning stands his work

in the

Palazzo Spada, where he was responsible

garden wall, for various

for the erection of the

decorative parts inside the palace and, above

for the

well-known

short.

The

stage (Teatro
forget that

seems

idea

it

colonnade which

illusionist

appears to be very long, but

all,

in fact,

is,

to be derived

extremely

from the

Ohmpico). But one should not

also

had

a respectable Renaissance

pedigree. Bramante applied the

same illusionist
Maria presso S.

principle to his choir of S.

Satiro at Milan, which

Borromini's
cept of the

earliest

must have belonged

impressions.^-

Spada colonnade

is,

work.

To

interest

over-emphasize

often done by those

mainly as a

style

who

its

in

and by reversing the traditional gradation

The ground

by simple broad bands;

same motif

the recessed columns of the loggia.

of

significance, as

is

regard the Baroque

concerned with optical

illusion,

Thus instead

of diminishing from the ground floor upwards,

the wall divisions
ticity.

Only

grow

in

importance and plas-

in the context of the

whole facade

is

the unconventional and anti-classical quality of

the loggia motif fully revealed.

Between 1646 and 1647 Borromini helped

in

an advisory capacit}^ the aged Girolamo Rainaldi,

whom

Innocent

had commissioned

to

build the extensive Palazzo Pamphili in Piazza

Navona. Borromini had

it

subdivided

given stronger relief; the third

is

the design, although his

is

is

next storey the

storey has Ionic pilasters; and above these are

therefore,

Borromini's

floor

in the

The con-

neither characteristically Baroque nor

more than marginal

to

rules

a tangible influence

accepted for execution.'^

own

He

on

plan was not

alone was,

how-

ever, responsible for the decoration of the large

salone and the building of the gallery to the

right of S. Agnese, on a site

which

originally

formed part of the Palazzo Mellini. Inside the

which Pietro da Cortona contributed

leads entirely astray.

gallery, to

Between 1646 and 1649 followed the work for

the Palazzo Falconieri, where Borromini ex-

the frescoes from the Aetieid, are to be found

some of

the most characteristic and brilliant

BIBLOSARTE

136. Francesco Borromini:

Rome, Palazzo

Falconieri, 1646-9. River front

BIBLOSARTE

FRANCESCO BORROMIM

door surrounds of Borromini's

Carpegna near the Fontana Trevi very

was executed/'' but

Of

later style.

Count Ambrogio

his designs for the palace of

took up

little

keeping with the world-wide importance of the

Order was an urgent requirement. They owned

the vast site between Via Capo le Case, Via Due

Borromini

Italian palazzo.

the major problems

all

At that time the Jesuits were

the zenith of their power, and a centre in

a series of daring plans

survive which anticipate the eighteenth-century

development of the

his death in 1667.

at

227

where they were

them

left in

the Palazzo Barberini and carried

much

further, such as the axial alignment of

Macelli, and Piazza di Spagna, which, though

enough

large

was so badly

for all their needs,

cut that no regular architectural development

was possible. Moreover, some

fairly

the various parts of the building, the connexion

buildings were already standing,

among them

of a grand vestibule with the staircase

Bernini's modernization of the old facade facing

hall,

and

recent

the merging of vestibule and oval courtyard.

Piazza di Spagna and his oval church which

The

was, however, as

drawing of the

latest

flights of stairs

series

shows two

ascending along the perimeter of

the oval courtyard and meeting on a

landing - a bold idea, heretofore

common

unknown

in

which was taken up and executed by

Italy,

Guarini

in the

Angelica adjoining Piazza S.

Biblioteca

Agostino and the Biblioteca Alessandrina

the north wing of the Sapienza.
for

Of

in

the plans

former hardly anything was carried

the

Borromini had

out, but the latter survives as

designed

The

it.

storeys high,

great hall of the library

is

three

and the book-cases form

con-

stituent part of the architecture.

new and important

when he

conceived

idea,

This was

which he had not yet

built the library

It

was precisely

this

but

site;

final

new conception

shape

happened

in 1662,

fa9ades also

seen, replaced

May

show

in front

whole

for the

in the

known

It is

by

1647 Borromini

development plan

little

next thirteen years.

course of the

that

Borromini

of the church

its

and the other much simpler

characteristics of his latest

manner. The execution of the major part of the

palace would therefore seem to have taken place
in the last years

of his hfe. Part of the palace was

reserved for administrative purposes, another

large part contained the cells for the alumni.

But very

little

of Borromini's interior arrange-

ment and decoration

survives; in fact, apart

from the church, only one original room seems

to

above the

Oratory of St Philip Xeri about twenty years

earlier.

submitted

gave the main facade

Palazzo Carignano at Turin.^"

Between 1659 and 1661 Borromini was concerned with the systematization of two libraries,
the

we have

Borromini. As early as 7

have been preserved.

All the

more important

most elaborate portion

di

Propaganda where

its

are the fa9ades.

rises in the

The

narrow Via

oppressive weight pro-

which made the Biblioteca Alessandrina the

duces an almost nightmarish

prototype of the great eighteenth-century lib-

Borromini's problem was here similar

raries.

of the oratory, for the fa9ade was to serve the

eflect [137, 138].

dual purpose of church and palace.

Propaganda Fide

The Collegio

di

Borromini's

last great palace,

the long axis of the church

street

surpassing any-

to that

Once

lies parallel

again

with the

and extends beyond the highly decorated

part of the facade, but in contrast to the oratory

though entirely un-

thing he did in that class with the exception of

this front has a definite,

the convent of the Oratorians, was the Collegio

usual, palace character. Its seven bays are arti-

di

Propaganda Fide. His

activity for the Jesuits

culated by a giant order of pilasters which rise

spread over the long period of twenty-one years,

from the ground

from

nice.^'*

his

appointment

as architect in 1646 to

to the sharply-projecting cor-

Everything here

BIBLOSARTE

is

unorthodox: the

228

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

Francesco Borromini:

137. Francesco Borromini:

138.

Rome, CoUegio

Rome,

di

Propaganda Fide.

Facade, 1662

capitals are

the cornice

reduced
is

few parallel grooves,

to a

without a

frieze,

and the pro-

seem

jecting pair of brackets over the capitals

to

belong to the

The

latter rather

than to the cornice.

central bay recedes over a segmental plan

and the contrast between the

[138],

lines of the fa9ade

straight

and the inward curve

No

prising and alarming.

its

window frames

is

not dictated simply by a

desire for picturesque variet}' but consists like

a

fugue of theme, answer, and variations.

theme

is

ments of the central bay the

;

of the

The

given in the door and window pedi-

first,

third, fifth,

identical

windows

and seventh bays are

sur-

variations of the door motif while the identical

less startling is the

second and sixth windows answer the central

is

juxtaposition of the austere lower tier and the

piano nobile with

decoration.

Collegio di Propaganda Fide.

Centre bay, 1662

extremely rich window

The windows rise without transition

window,
attic

also spatially. In the

windows of the

above the cornice*^ the theme of the piano

repeated in another key the

third,

nubile

is

from the energetically drawn string course and

fifth,

and seventh windows are simpler varia-

seem

tions of the second

to

be compressed into the narrow space

between the giant

It is
is

pilasters.

here that the active

revealed. All the

life in

the wall itself

window frames curve

in-

wards with the exception of the central one

which,

being

convex,

shape of the whole bay.

reverses

the

concave

The movement

of the

first,

and sixth below, and the

windows in the even bays of the attic vary those

in the uneven ones underneath. Finally, in the
undulating pediment of the fourth attic window
the two movements are
means Borromini created

reconciled.
a

has neither precursors nor successors.

BIBLOSARTE

By such

palazzo front which

FRANCESCO BORROMINI

In the south-western and southern fa9ades

To summarize
may

229

Borromini's life-long endea-

only the ground-floor arrangement and the

vour,

division of the storeys was continued,

attempt to mould space and mass by means of

which

it

be said that he never tired in his

assured the unity of the entire design. Other-

the evolution and transformation of key motifs.

wise Borromini contrasted these fronts with

He

the intensely articulated

main

There

subordinated each structure

down

to the

is

minutest detail to a dominating geometrical

no division into bays by orders, nor are the

concept, which led him away from the Renais-

windows decorated. But

sance method of planning

rupted

at

their

fa9ade.

sequence

is

inter-

regular intervals by strong vertical

in terms of mass and

modules towards an emphasis on the func-

accentuations. At these points Borromini united

tionally, dynamically,

the main and mezzanine

'skeleton'.

nohile

under one large

windows of the piano

frame, creating a window

which goes through the

The

entire height of the tier.

boldly projecting angular pediment seems

to cut into the string course of the next storey,

where the framework of the window with

tural principles of the

him,

at

and rhythmically decisive

This brought him close

Gothic

same time,

the

work what suited

style

to the struc-

and enabled

to incorporate into his

his purpose:

tures of the immediate past,

Mannerist

many

fea-

ideas from

its

Michelangelo's architecture and that of Hel-

gently curved pediment and concave recession

lenism, both equally admired by him, and even

shows

a characteristic reversal

and the Collegio

illustrates the

between Borromini's early and

is

of mood.

severely classical elements which he found in

comparison of the fa9ades of the Oratory

deep change

late style.

Gone

mass of detail, gone the subtle gradations of

Palladio.

Being an

Italian,

Borromini could not

deny altogether the anthropomorphic basis of

architecture.

This becomes increasingly ap-

parent during his advancing years from the

wall surface and mouldings and the almost joyful

stress he laid

display of a great variety of motifs. However,

and sculpture. Nevertheless, the antagonism

the impression of mass and weight has

between him and Bernini remained unbridge-

immensely the windows now seem

;

selves into the

depth of the

wall.

basic approach hardly differed.

to dig

And

grown
them-

yet the

able.

It

was

reproached

on the blending of architecture

in

for

Bernini's circle that he was

having destroyed the accepted

conventions of good architecture.

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER

10

PIETRO DA CORTONA
I

596-1 669

INTRODUCTION

His copy of Raphael's Galatea^ impressed Mar-

much

cello Sacchetti so

The

genius of Pietro Berrettini, usually called

Pietro da Cortona, was second only to that of

him he was

Bernini. Like

young

artist

that he took to the

who, from 1623 onwards, belonged

was

to the Sacchetti household. It

in the service

architect, painter,

of the Sacchetti family that Cortona gave early

decorator, and designer of tombs and sculpture

proof of his genius as painter and architect. In

although not a sculptor himself. His achieve-

the Palazzo Sacchetti he also

ments

in all these fields

must be ranked among

the most outstanding of the seventeenth century. Bernini

and Borromini have been given

back the position of eminence which

Not
in

so Cortona.

1958 no

When

critical

this

book

is

their due.

first

appeared

An

name of

new and

To

be sure,

the great trio of

artists,

and

work

his

entirely personal aspect

almost exact contemporary of Bernini

November

berini,

596 of

a family

at

Cortona on

of artisans.

He

who employed

in these years a

of copies of

all

the remains of antiquity.''

with

the

come

to light.'

More

or 1613.
to

He

Florence

whom

he went to

in 16 14

Rome

in

161

Commodi's

return

and changed over

to the

stayed on after

but

it

little

his

him

has so far

discoveries will be

significance that, whereas

un-

Com-

Thus

quickly to success and prominence. As to his

early development, relatively

mason, before being apprenticed

to the

carried

circle

'right'

in the future,

distinguished Florentine painter Andrea

number

Cortona was over twenty-six years old when

probably studied under his father, a stone-

modi,- with

same time

of young and promising artists for his collection

contact

style.

and Borromini, he was born

I

fresco painter in S. Bibiana. At the

learned secretary to Cardinal Francesco Bar-

Roman High Baroque

of the

obtained his early important commission as a

now

the third

represents a

his lifelong patron;

he was taken on by Cassiano del Pozzo, the

at least partially satisfied this need.

is

met the Cavaliere

and Cardinal Fran-

Urban VIII's nephew, who

through him he

cesco Barberini,

became

Paris,'

modern biography had been

devoted to him; G. Briganti's work' has

Cortona's

Marino, fresh from

will

remain

a fact

we can

made

of some

follow the

unfolding of Bernini's talent year by year from

his precocious beginnings, in

Cortona we are

almost suddenly faced with a distinctly individual

manner

in

painting

and,

even

more

studio of the equally unimportant Florentine

astonishingly, in architecture, though his train-

painter Baccio Ciarpi.^ According to his bio-

ing in this field can have been only rather

grapher Passeri he studied Raphael and the

superficial.

antique with great devotion during these years;

while this

is,

of course, true of every seven-

teenth-century
training has

artist,

in

Cortona's case such

more than usual relevance

could not profit very

much from

since he

his teachers.

"^

From about

the

be fully gauged.

mid twenties

From

had large architectural and

sions simultaneously in

only seventeenth-century

BIBLOSARTE

his career can

then until his death he

pictorial

hand
artist

commis-

he being the

capable of such

13AKOQLt

nil. AGl. (M Tilt I1U.II

During the 1630s, with SS.

tour de force.

Martina e Luca rising [145) and the Barberini

ceiling in progress [153J, he reached the zenith
of his

artistic

power and fame, and

acknowledged

his distinction

principe of the

Accademia

ears

di

his colleagues

by electing him

San Luca

for four

Between 1640 and 1647 he

(1634-8).

tower and protected by four fortress-like corner

The

projections.

type of the building follows

long-established tradition, but the interest

here

the pictorial decoration rather than

lies in

The

in the architecture.

survives

nately

rooms of the Palazzo

original splendour."

but the architectural

Back

projects of this period remained on paper.

in

Rome,

the

his

most extensive

fresco commission,

Nuova

of the Chiesa

decoration

[157],

occupied him intermittently for almost twenty

years.

During one of the

intervals he painted

the gallery of the Palazzo Pamphili in Piazza

Navona (1651-4);

the erection of the facade of

little

known about

its

There

1629).

is,

Even

frescoes of the nave.

dome

were correct, as

if it

has more than once been maintained, that the

quality of his late
decline,'' the

same

late architectural

tectural

and

frescoes shows
is

marked

certainly not true of his

works. In any case, his archi-

show a parallel

pictorial conceptions

its

anything certain

The

died in 1636 (not

room

reasons a date not earlier than the

The ground
a

com-

for the

mission during the decade 1626-36. For

its

after the

latter

therefore,

of the facade of S. Maria in Via Lata with the

Corso follows three years

is

Marcello Sacchetti;'- the former received the

purple in 1626,^ the

seems indicated.''

al

bear witness to

date and building history.

Maria della Pace is contemporaneous w ith the

frescoes in the apse of the Chiesa Nuova, that
frescoes of the pendentives, that of the

to

Nor

patron was either Cardinal Giulio or .Marchese

S.

of S. Carlo

on

particular attention

because of its architecture [139, 140]. Unfortu-

stayed in Florence painting and decorating four

Pitti,

Villa del Pigneto

hand commands

the other

late

stylistic

twenties

with

floor of the building [140]

symmetrical arrangement of rooms reveals

thorough study of Palladio's plans, but the

monumental niche

idea of the

which

structure,

derives

wings,
Vatican.

classical

from

the

Belvedere

in

the

even possible that Cortona was

It is

impressed

in the central

raised high above the low

is

at that early date

tempJe

at

by the ruins of the

Praeneste (Palestrina) near

Rome, of which he undertook

reconstruction

In any case, the large screened niches

development, away from the exuberant style

in 1636.'^

of the 1630s towards a sober, relatively classi-

of the side fronts - a motif which has no pedigree

cizing idiom to which he aspired

more from

more and

in

post-Renaissance architecture - can hardly

have been conceived without the study of plans

the 1650s onwards.

of

Roman

baths.

While the arrangement of

terraces with fountains

ARCHITECTURE

and grottoes

is

reminis-

cent of earlier villas such as the Villa .^Ido-

The Early Works

brandini

the complicated system of

at Frascati,

staircases with

sham

flights recalls Buontalenti's

Before he began the church of SS. Martina e

Florentine Mannerism. If one can draw con-

Luca, Cortona executed the so-called Villa del

clusions from the ground-plan, essentially

Pigneto near

Rome

for the Sacchetti

sibly also the villa at Castel

property.

The

latter

was

between 1626 and 1630.'"

and pos-

Fusano, now Chigi

built

and decorated

It is a

simple three-

storeyed structure measuring 70 by 52

rather rustic in appearance,

feet,

crowned with

nerist

must

also have

Man-

been the contrast between

and

the

over-

decorated garden front, a contrast well

known

the

austere

entrance

from buildings
Pincio.

like

the Villa Medici on the

Although small

a variety

front

in size

and derived from

of sources, the building was a landmark

BIBLOSARTE

-I

1-

139 and 140. Pietro da Cortona:

Rome

(vicinity). Villa del Pigneto, before 1630.

Engraving, and plan drawn by P. L. Ghezzi. Londnv, Sir Anlhauy

Bliiiil

BIBLOSARTE

Destroyed.

oi

HIGH baroque

lilt

^34

nil, Acii

in the

development of the Baroque

villa.

The

magnificent silhouette, the grand staircases built

up

in tiers so as to

central feature,

emphasize the dominating

and above

receding curves which

terrace,

and building

all

tie

the advancing and

together staircase,

- all this

was taken up and

corner of the palace was built to his design

[141]."'

It

interest to

would be

book

illustrated the plan of a palace

had come across on the London

further developed by succeeding generations

the 1930s and which

as

an indication of Cortona's growing repu-

tation that

on Maderno's death

in

1629 he took

part in the planning of the Palazzo Barberini.

His project seems

to

have found the pope's

approval, but the high cost prevented

tance. '""
tect

its

accep-

Although Bernini was appointed archi-

of the palace, Cortona was not altogether

excluded.

The

141. Pietro da

theatre adjoining the north-west

c.

art

which

market

in

immediately diagnosed

by Cortona's hand. In 1969

discussed this

plan at considerable length before a group of

specialists,

and the

leagues induced

from

me

this edition.

correctness of

critical

to

I still

my

ground

col-

illustration

believe in the

original conclusions,

remarks about that plan are

sents only the

tenor of

remove the

But since

my

some

in place. It repre-

floor containing a

web

of octagonal rooms (apparently meant to be

Cortona: Rome,

Palazzo Barberini. Entrance to the theatre,

matter of absorbing

project for the palace. In earlier editions of this

of architects.
It is

know something about Cortona's

1640

BIBLOSARTE

PIETRO DA CORTONA

used as store-rooms), the walls of which were

rooms

to serve as substructures to the

above.''

In spite of the obvious difficulties of location,

the colossal dimensions of the plan

almost certain that

it

make

Cortona wanted

tional

Roman

to return to the tradi-

block-shape;

his

design

is

square of 285 by 285 feet as against the 262

begun painting the great Salone of the Barberini

Palace

when

the reconstruction of the church

of SS. Martina e Luca

to

tell

of the Capitol

at the foot

him. This work requires an analysis.

fa9ade.''~*

SS. Martina

Luca

feet

Even the scanty evidence

of this plan reveals four rather exciting features:

the palace

235

refers to the Palazzo Bar-

berini.

of the present

it

would have had bevelled corners

In July 1634 Cortona was granted permission

own

to rebuild, at his

cost

and according

of St Luke, in order to provide a

framed by columns; the main axes open into

self.-"

large rectangular vestibules articulated by co-

that year, the

lumns; two vestibules give direct access

This brought an entirely new

to the

adjoining staircase halls; finally, the double

to his

Academy
tomb for him-

plans, the crypt of the church of the

During the excavations,

in October of
body of S. Martina was discovered.

situation. Cardinal

Francesco Barberini took charge of the under-

columns of the courtyard would have been

taking and in January 1635 ordered the re-

carried on across the corners in an

building of the entire church.-'

sequence.

The

unbroken

idea of integrating vestibule

staircase hall, hardly possible without a

new

ledge of French designs, was

and

know-

for

Italy.

the

new church was

in

1650

interior.

Also the principal staircase with two opposite

flights

no

ascending from the main landing has

Rome

parallel in

at this time.

Moreover, the

recorded

is

arrangement of the courtyard anticipates Borro-

This difference

mini's in the nearby monastery of S. Carlo alle

cant though

Quattro Fontane, while the plan of the vesti-

ceptible to the visitor

up by Borromini

Maria

His

and the church of the Propa-

ing

in S.

first

tion

however,

simply

the kind of structural grid system

that controls every dimension of the plan.

won

In 1633 Cortona
a

designer

of festival

for

the

Quarantore of that year he transformed the

interior of the

church of S. Lorenzo

in

Damaso

into a rich colonnaded setting with niches

and

gilded statues of saints.'' Cortona was a born

'decorator',

and

it

is

therefore

all

the

more

to

be regretted that none of his occasional works

seems

to

have come

engravings.

It

down

was not

to us in

is

in

sensation

is

in

the plan,

who

drawings or

until his thirty-eighth

it

that of the

complete break-

by

it.

and

But

his atten-

this

is

not

painterly arrangement, designed to

who want

more than

The

hardly per-

is

enters the church.

unified wall surface,

entirely absorbed
a

longitudinal axis

the length of the arms, signifi-

seems

seduce and dazzle the eye, as

his first recognition as

decoration:

it

up of the

ganda Fide. The most astonishing element,

is

The

longer than the transverse axis.-'

slightly

bules was taken

completion

Greek-cross design with

apsidal endings [142-5].

dei Sette Dolori

its

an inscription in the

in

-'-

Cortona chose

is

By about 1644

vaulted, and

to interpret the

a theatrical

wall so often no

many would have

Baroque

as nothing

and picturesque

more than an

style.

inert division

between inside and outside has here tremendous

plasticity, while the interplay of wall
is

and orders

carried through with a rigorous logic.

The

wall itself has been 'sliced up' into three alter-

nating

planes.

The innermost

plane,

that

nearest to the beholder, recurs in the segmental

ends of the four arms, that

is,

at

those important

year, the year of his election as Principe of the

points where altars are placed and the eye re-

Academy

quires a clear and solid boundary.

of St Luke, that he received his

big architectural commission.

He

first

had hardly

furthest

away appears

BIBLOSARTE

in

The

plane

the adjoining bays

2^6

TUF. AGF.

OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

behind screening columns. The intermediate

plane

toyhe

established in the bays next

is

crossing. Similarly varied

the arrangement of

is

the order: the pilasters occupy a plane before

dome

the columns, and the columns under the

and

in the apses are differently related to the

But

wall.

columns

round the church

all

are

Ionic order.

pilasters

and

homogeneous members of the same

The overwhelming impression

'in' and 'out' movement

unity in spite of the

of
of

the wall and the variety in the placing of the

order makes a uniform 'reading' of the centralized plan not only logically possible but visually

imperative.

Thus Cortona

solved the problem

of axial direction inherent in centralized plan-

ning by means entirely different from those

employed by Bernini.

It is

also characteristic

that at this period Cortona, unlike Bernini, re-

jected the use of colour.

The church

is

entirely

white, a neutrality which seems essential for the

full

impact of

this

richly

plastic disposition of wall

By

laden,

immensely

and order.

contrast to the severe forms of the archi-

tecture below, the vaultings of the apses above

the entablature are copiously decorated.
entire surface

is

plastically

an inch of the confining wall

appear.

And

yet the idea of

ing wall planes

is

is

allowed to

working with vary-

transposed into the concept

of using overlapping decorative elements.

windows between

The

moulded and hardly

the ribs are

framed by

The

stilted

arches; over these arches a second frame of

disproportionately large consoles

is

laid

which

support broken segmental pediments. Similarly,

the system of ribs in the

dome is supernow apparent

imposed upon the

coffers. It is

that the use here of

what would previously have

been considered two mutually exclusive methods of

dome

articulation

is

Cortona's style in this church.

characteristic of

We have seen

178) that this idea was soon taken

(p.

up by seven-

teenth- and eighteenth-century architects.

142. Pietro

Despite the new plastic-dynamic interpreta-

da C-ortona: Rome,

SS. Martina e Luca, 1635 50. Section and plan

tion of the old

Greek-cross plan, Cortona's

BIBLOSARTE

PIETRO DA CORTONA

237

wealth of decoration in the upper parts of the

church, figure sculpture

almost entirely ex-

is

cluded and indeed never plays

conspicuous

part in Cortona's architecture. His decoration

combines two

different trends of Florentine

Mannerism: the hard and angular forms of the

Ammanati-Dosio idiom with the smooth, soft,
and almost voluptuous elements derived from
Buontalenti.
traditions

It

that

is

the merging of these two

gives the detail of Cortona's

work its specific flavour. Florentine Mannerism,

however, does not provide the whole answer to
the problem of Cortona's style as a decorator,
for

the vigorous plasticity and the compact

crowding of a great variety of different motifs

such as in the panels of the vaultings of the

apses - denote not only a

but above
143. Pietro

da Cortona:

Rome, SS. Martina

all

Roman and

of his source material. This style of decoration

Luca, 1635

50. Interior

was

evolved by Cortona not in his archi-

first

tecture but in his painting.

style

is

deeply rooted

Even such

Tuscan

in the

which screen the recessed walls

arms

in the

ot

typically Florentine. Its origin, of

the cross

is

course,

Roman, but

is

tradition.

motif as the free-standing columns

in antiquity the

columns

screen off deep chapels from the main space

(Pantheon).

When

this

motif was applied

in

the

Baptistery of Florence, the walls were brought

up

close behind the columns,

lost their specifically

is

whereby the

architects

and

it is

latter

space-defining quality.

this Florentine version with

biguity that

attracted

its

It

obvious am-

Mannerist Florentine

Ammanati,

(Michelangelo,-*

this version of the classical

etc.),

motif that

was revived by Cortona. Similar solutions recur

in

some of

his other structures,

nently on the

drum of the dome

most promiof S. Carlo

al

Corso [150], one of his latest works (1668),

where the screening columns correspond closely
to those inside

SS. Martina

Luca supplies most

of SS. Martina

striking

Cortona's Florentine roots.

evidence of

In' spite

of the

He

translated into

three-dimensional form the lush density of

pictorial decoration to be

found

between painted and

tremely close, even

coff^ers

For

in shells

Salone

similarity

plastic decoration

in details.

combination of heads
gonal

in the

The

of the Palazzo Barberini [153].

is

ex-

instance, the

and rich octa-

above the windows of the apses,

so striking a feature of the decoration of SS.

Martina

Luca, also appears

at

nodal points of

the painted system of the Barberini ceiling. But,

having pointed out the close connexion between

his architectural

and painted decoration, one

must emphasize once again

that in his built

architecture Cortona eliminates the figure ele-

ments which form so

painted architecture.

integral a part of his

No

stronger contrast to

Bernini's conception of architecture could be

imagined. For Bernini the very meaning of his

classically

mized

Luca.

.\n analysis of the decoration

e

Baroque,

transformation

a highly personal

in

conceived architecture was epitorealistic

sculpture.

Such sculpture

would have obscured the wealth and complexity of Cortona's work. His decorative eff"er-

vescence reaches

its

BIBLOSARTE

culmination in SS. Martina

144A and

B.

Pietro da Cortona:

Rome, SS. Martina

e Luca, 1635-50.

Dome,

interior

BIBLOSARTE

and (opposite)

exterior

PIETRO DA CORTONA

Luca with the

entirely unprecedented, wildly

undulating forms of the

The
no

dome

coffering [144A].

very personal design of these coffers found

imitators,

restored

and

it

after Bernini

Cortona's coffers to

shape that their use

vault

was only

in

their

had

classical

is

coun-

tered by the severe angularity of the pediments

drum which

On

intrude into

the zone of the

dome.

dome

phenomenon can be observed

a similar

[144B].

drum

anticipates a

With

itself

was

to

come

into

the exterior of the

Here the austere window frames of the

are topped by a sequence of soft, curved

decorative forms at the base of the vaulting, and

sil-

Cortona

this

development which, though

ently expressed,

239

expense of the curved

dome

differ-

own

its

in

the second half of the century.

The

facade of SS. Martina e

Luca represents

another break with tradition [145].

of Cortona's coffers

of the windows in the

at the

houette of the

combination with a ribbed

was generally accepted.

The undulation

emphasized

storeyed main body of the facade

The twogently

is

curved, following the precedent of the Villa

Sacchetti (though the curve

here inwards).

is

Strongly projecting piers faced with double

seem

pilasters

to

have compressed the wall be-

tween them, so that the curvature appears

to

be the result of a permanently active squeeze.

At precisely

this period

Borromini designed his

concave fa9ade for the Oratory of St Philip

Neri. In view of their differences of approach,

may have

however, the two architects

independently

The

at

peculiarity of the facade of SS. Martina e

Luca

lies

not only in

that the orders have

its

curvature but also in

no framing function and

do not divide the curved wall

into clearly de-

fined bays. In the lower tier, the

to

have been pressed into the

doughy mass of
tier

arrived

designing these curved fronts.

columns seem

soft

and almost

the wall, while in the upper

sharply cut pilasters stand before the wall

in clear relief

and hard

This principle of contrasting

features,

which occurred

parts of the building,

soft

other

reversed in the pro-

is

jecting central bays: in the

columns are sunk into the

upper

wall,

lower

tier rigid pilaster-Hke

door.

It

would be easy

in

tier

framing

whereas in the

formations top the

to describe at

much

greater length the almost incredibly rich variations

on the same theme, but

it

must

suffice to

note that specifically Florentine Mannerist traits

are very strong in the subtle reversal of architectural

motifs and in the overlapping and

interpenetration of elements as well as in the

these forms are taken
scrolls of distinctly

up

in

the lantern

by

Mannerist derivation. The

dome is also highly original in

drum and the foot of the vaulting are

use of decorative features. This

the carefully framed realistic

is

true despite

palm and flower

Moreover, the type of the facade with

exterior of the

panels.

that the

two equally developed storeys and strongly

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

PIETRO DA CORTONA

145. Pietro da

emphasized framing features has

Cortona

Rome, SS. Martina

Luca, 1635

50. Fac^ade

Florentine rather than

in the

241

roots in the

its

Roman tradition.-^

Quite unHke any earlier church facade, this

prepares the beholder for an understanding of
the internal structure, for the wall treatment and
articulation of the interior are here unfolded in
a different key.-"

through

Cortona thinks

in

terms of the

of the plastic mass of walls:

pliability

this that

it

is

he achieves the dynamic co-

ordination of exterior and interior.

To him

belongs the honour of having erected the

first

the great, highly personal and entirely

homo-

of

geneous churches of the High Baroque.-'

Maria

5.

Projects,

Maria

delta Pace, S.

in

Via Lata,

and Aiinur Works

Cortona's further development as an architect

shows the progressive exclusion of Mannerist

elements and a turning towards
plicity,

Roman

sim-

grandeur, and massiveness even though

the basic tendencies of his approach to architecture remain unchanged. This

his

modernization of

S.

Maria

is

apparent

in

della Pace, car-

ried out

between 1656 and 1657 [146,

The new

fa9ade, placed in front of the Quattro-

147].--

cento church, together with the systematization

of the small piazza

is

of

much

greater impor-

tance than the changes in the interior.-" Al-

though regularly laid-out piazzas had

a long

tradition in Italy, Cortona's design inaugurates

a

new

departure, for he applied the experience

of the theatre to town-planning: the church

appears like the stage, the piazza

like the

audi-

torium, and the flanking houses like the boxes.

It is

the logical corollary of such a conception

that the approaches

from the side of the church

are through a kind of stage doors,

which hide

the roads for the view from the piazza.'"

The convex upper tier of the fa9ade, firmly

framed by projecting piers, repeats the motif
of the facade of SS. Martina e Luca. But in the
scheme of

S.

Maria

della Pace this tier repre-

sents onlv a middle field

BIBLOSARTE

between the boldly

242

projecting semicircular portico and the large

concave wings which grip

spectator/'

cave forms
in a

same building, foreshadowed

in

Cortona's Villa Sacchetti,

Borromini and Bernini.

also fascinated

Maria

della Pace contains

ideas.

The

fertile

inventions.

By

projecting far into the

at the

motif

is

between outside and

porated

much

European
tico, too,

it

space there,

same time chroma-

created that mediates

inside.'- Bernini incor-

fa9ade of S.

into the

it

Quirinale, and

influential

one of Cortona's most

powerful plastic and

tically effective

many

is

portico

small piazza and absorbing

a

arms round the

Roman High Baroque theme

typically

which
S.

in the

modest way

is

like

much farther removed from the

The interplay of convex and con-

zone

front, in a

Andrea

al

recurs constantly in subsequent

The

architecture.

detail of the por-

had immediate repercussions. As early

as 1657 Bernini

made an intermediary

project

with double columns for the colonnades of St

Peter's

;^^

and

his final choice of a

Doric order

with Ionic entablature was here anticipated by

The crowning

Cortona. ^^
of

S.

Maria

della Pace

is

feature of the facade

a large triangular pedi-

segmental one. Such devices

ment encasing

had been used

for

more than

hundred years

from Michelangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana

onwards. With the exception, however, of Martino Longhi's fa9ade of SS.
stasio (p. 287), the

at this particular time.

a regular feature

Vincenzo ed Ana-

motif does not occur

in

Rome

Encased pediments are

of the North Italian type of the

aedicule fa9ade [57], and to a certain extent

Cortona must have been influenced by

he goes essentially his
a pliable

it.

But

own way by working with

wall and by employing once again

architectural orders as an invigorating rather

than a space-(or bay-)defining motif. Moreover,

the 'screwhead' shape of the segmental pedi-

146. Pietro da Cortona:

Rome,

S.

Maria

della Pace, 1656-7.

Plan of church and piazza

ment which breaks through the entablature so

as to create room for Alexander VII's coat of
arms adds to the unorthodox and even eccentric
quality of the facade.

BIBLOSARTE

'''

147- Pietro da Cortona:

Rome,

S.

Maria

della Pace, 1656-7.

Facade

BIBLOSARTE

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

244

148 and 149. Pietro da Cortona:

Rome,
and

S.

Maria

in

Via Lata. Facade, 1658-62,

interior of portico

In his next work, the fa9ade of S. Maria in

Via Lata, built between 1658 and

1662,^'^

Cor-

tona carried simplification and monumentality

a decisive step further [148,

149].

The

classi-

pediment
a

into which, as at S.

Maria

della Pace,

segmental feature has been inserted. Here,

however,

it

is

not a second smaller pediment,

but an arch connecting the two halves of the

cizing tendencies already apparent in the sober

broken straight entablature. The motif

Doric of

known from

S.

Maria

della Pace are strengthened,

while the complexity of SS. Martina e Luca

seems

have been reduced to the crystalline

to

clarity of a

few great motifs.

It is

obvious that

Hellenistic and

Roman

is

well

Imperial

architecture (Termessus, Baalbek, Spalato, S.

Lorenzo
a

in

somewhat

Milan) and, although

different

form

in

it

was used

in

medieval as well

the alignment of the street did not warrant a

as Renaissance buildings (e.g. Alberti's S. Sebas-

curved fa9ade. Nevertheless, there are connexions between Cortona's early and late work

tiano at Mantua),

SS. Martina e Luca, the fa9ade of S.

for, like

Maria

in

Via Lata consists of two

full storeys,

but, reversing the earlier system, the central

portion

is

wide open and

is

flanked by receding

bays instead of projecting piers.

which opens below

into a loggia,

is

The main

into a portico

part,

and above

unified by a large triangular

classical

it

is

here so close to the late

it must have been dethem rather than from later sources.^"

prototypes that

rived from

While thus the classical pedigree of the motif

must be acknowledged, neither Cortona's Tuscan origin nor the continuity of his style
obscured.
portico

is

The

is

design of the interior of the

proof of

this [149].

barrel vault carried

BIBLOSARTE

With

its

coflfered

by two rows of columns, one

PIETRO DA CORTONA

of which screens the wall of the church,

it

clearly

and

in this place unique, version of the

245

motif of

derivation from the vestibule of the

screening columns. Structurally, the buttresses

sacristy in S. Spirito at Florence (Giuliano da

faced with pilasters and the adjoining columns

reveals

its

Sangallo and Cronaca, begun

But

1489).

in

form

a unit (i.e.:

bab|bab|bab|

.),

but aesthe-

screened by the columns seems to run on be-

rhythm of the buttresses predominates and seems accompanied by that of the

hind the apsidal endings, and so does the barrel

open, screened bays

contrast to the Quattrocento model, the wall

vault.

Cortona thus produces the

illusion that

the apses have been placed in a larger room, the

extent of which

hidden from the beholder.

is

Only the cornice provides a structural link

between the columns and the niches of the

The comparison

apses.

with that of S. Spirito

nating,

is

at

must produce an

Martina e Luca makes amply

them

in a

synthesis.

he

set

may be found

altar

of St Francis Xavier

S.

Carlo

al

Corso.

component

parts - the screen of columns, the apses, and the

example

own fully defined structural

its

is

hardly a more revealing

in the history of architecture of the

different approaches to a closely related task

by

Renaissance and a Baroque architect. But

only a master of Cortona's perspicacity and

calibre could

produce

in his old love for

this result;

superimpositions

vaults of the apses

upon

it

is

rooted

(to wit,

the barrel vault),

the

and

even he himself would not have been capable

of such penetrating analysis

at

the period of SS.

Martina e Luca, a time when he had not entirely freed

himself from Mannerism.

Cortona's major
the

dome

late

of S. Carlo

mentioned

in

1668, and the

in the Gesii,

executed

150. Pietro da Cortona:

Rome,

many Renaissance buildings,

There

two minor \Vorks of

after the master's death.'"

Unlike Mannerist

radical procedure: each of the three

barrel vault - has

in

Nicolo da Tolentino, begun

out to resolve any prevarication by a

raison d'etre.

al

[150].^"^ Its

Man-

classical magnificence. Similar

on exposing the am-

insisted

biguity inherent in

clear the long

generation, from complexity tinged by

nerism to serene

were, the constituent elements

new
who

.).

road Cortona had travelled in the course of a

of the Renaissance structure and reassemble

architects,

with that of SS.

the corners. Cortona, by

gained in the Mannerist period, was able to

it

a|b-b|a|b b|a|.

dome

the latest period, the Cappella Gavotti in S.

contrast, being heir to the analytical awareness

segregate, as

(i.e.:

this

qualities

front of an inside wall

awkward problem

comparison of

of Cortona's solution

ignored the fact that a screen of columns placed

in

the

extraordinarily illumi-

the 'naive' Renaissance architect

for

tically

architectural

work

is

Corso, which has been

drum shows

a brilliant.

BIBLOSARTE

Dome, begun 1668

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

24^)

What would have been one of Cortona's most

works,

Chiesa

important

ecclesiastical

Nuova

Firenzc) at Florence, remained a

(S.

the

At the end of 1645 his model was

project.
finished.

But

seem

have been dissensions, for Cortona

to

January 1646 there

as early as

the ruins of Praeneste

felt

makes

a lofty 'belvedere',

to his reconstruction of the classical

ruins

made

Uffizi,

permit us

major

his

all

secular buildings remained

projects for

of

to get at least a fair idea

Cortona's intentions.^' Equally,

un-

first

published

tioned,

namely the plans

for the alterations

and

additions to the Palazzo Pitti at Florence, the

designs

for

Palazzo

Chigi

the

in

for gardens. If in

such cases architects were no longer aware of

owed

to Cortona's reconstruction of
its

direct influence can

example

yet be traced, .^n impressive

grand projects should be men-

Piazza

prints

choice of

point on high ground was frequently used in

northern Europe, particularly

Praeneste, on occasion

his

The

in his

colonnades for the Square of St Peter's. More-

the debt

Three of

Suarez's work

over, the free-standing belvedere as a focusing

house which he built

the Via della Pedacchia no longer exist. ^-

in

in 1655.^''

probably influenced Bernini

executed, while the Villa del Pigneto and the

for himself late in life in

corresponding by

1636 for Cardinal Francesco

in

on the ruins of Palestrina

The affair dragged on

until late in 1666, when his plans were finally
shelved. A number of drawings, now in the

incor-

nades and

Pozzo that he was never lucky

cerning architecture.*'

clearly

He

and large

Barberini and

matters con-

more

porated into his designs free-standing colon-

writes to his friend and patron Cassiano del

in

itself

than in any of his other projects.

eighteenth-century

Piedmont with

its

Castello

at

the

is

Villadeati

sequence of terraces and

in
its

crowning colonnaded belvedere.^' Cortona himself

drew on

his reconstruction for the designs

Colonna, Rome, and the plans for the Louvre.

of the Palazzo Chigi, which Alexander VII

As regards the Louvre, he competed with Bernini, who again superseded him as he had

wanted

thirty-five

years before

in

the

work

at

the

Palazzo Barberini. Cortona's Louvre project

has recently been traced."

It

always was in the

Cabinet des Dessins of the Louvre, but re-

mained unrecognized because

tant concessions to

French

it

taste

makes imporand

is

the least

'cortonesque' of his architectural designs.

The

to

have erected

when he planned

to

transform the Piazza Colonna, on which the

older family palace was situated, into the

square in Rome.

The most

first

brilliant of the pro-

in the

Vatican Library, '^ shows,

for the first time, a

powerful giant order of

jects,

preserved

columns screening

concave wall above a rusti-

cated ground floor from which the waters of the

Fontana Trevi were

to

The

repercus-

felt in

Bouchar-

emerge.

biased Ciro Ferri was certainly not correct

sions of this design can

when he maintained

don's Fontaine de Crenelle in Paris (1739-45).

that Bernini had plagia-

rized his competitor's plan.^^

The moderniza-

tion of the fafade of the Palazzo Pitti

was plan-

ned between 1640 and 1647, when Cortona

painted his ceiHngs inside the

palace.'''

His

most notable contribution, however, would

have been

a theatre in the garden, for

several sketches are preserved.

It

was

which
to rise

high above curves and colonnaded terraces on

the axis of the palace and

monumental

would have formed

unit with the courtyard.

It

is

in

these designs that Cortona's preoccupation with

still

be

Cortona once wrote despondently that he

garded architecture only as
believe

him ?

It

a pastime.^'

seems impossible

to say

re-

Can we
whether

he was primarily painter or architect. As a

painter his real gift lay in the effective manipulation of large-scale

ensembles which are insepar-

able from their settings.

One

cannot, therefore,

think of the painter without the architect in the

same person. The study of Cortona

as a painter

should not be divorced from the study of Cortona as a decorator of interiors.

BIBLOSARTE

PIETRO DA CORTONA

PAINTING AND DECORATION

The

grown

figures have

immensely strong

volume and

their

make them ap-

Thus breathing life seems

Domeni-

pear real and tangible.

The Early Works

in

tactile values

247

to replace the studied classicism of

Until recently
tona's

first

has been thought that Cor-

it

frescoes were those in S. Bibiana.''"

chino's work. There

touch and

is

broadening of

also a

and shade which,

a freer play of light

The

discovery of frescoes by his hand in the

incidentally,

Villa

Muti

development of the 1620s. Contrary

makes

at Frascati

in the

Palazzo Mattei

The

every figure appears in statuesque isolation and

hand of the beginner,"' while

Mattei, executed between

May

1622 and Dec-

1623, Cortona's style appears fully deve-

He

painted here four scenes from the

story of Solomon.

drama,

They show his sense for

manner of composi-

his characteristic

tion, his love for archaeological detail,

and

his

soliditv' and claritv' in the conception of the

main protagonists. Single figures as well as

whole scenes seem

to herald his later

work, and

the panel with the Death of Joab looks like an

anticipation of the Iron

Palazzo
style

is

Pitti

in

it

lacks vigour

Age painted

And

1637.

formed, or rather

formed,

Domeni-

though crude and weakly de-

the frescoes of the gallery of the Palazzo

loped.^-

to

chino's loose, frieze-like composition, in which

signed, reveal the

ember

keeping with the general

in

is

Frascati fres-

a revision necessary.

coes, powerful

in

and

in

the

is

in

process of being

and assurance, and the

full-bloodedness of his mature manner. Inter-

the

importance of

One

dramatic focus.

Cortona

significance,

and

figures,

diagonal

is

highly

made up

of the

dramatis personae, St Bibiana and St Rufina,

who

press forward against the picture plane;

the other

is

formed by the group of

priestesses,

unruffled bystanders recalling the chorus in the

classical

The

drama.

result of

all

bold, and poignant style which

to Annibale's

chino's

is

this

is

a virile,

closer in spirit

Farnese ceiling than to Domeni-

manner and possesses

qualities similar

to Bernini's sculpture of these years.

Yet Cortona's point of departure was not

yet although the

in the

almost equal

given

creates a diagonal surge into depth, a gradation

fact very different

The

in

from that of Domenichino.

figures, as well as the accessories like the

and the statue of Jupiter

sacrificial tripod

in

first

the background, meticulously follow ancient

major performance of a great master, by con-

models. Cortona's antiquarian taste was nur-

esting

though these frescoes are as the

trast to Bernini's

work

at

the age of twenty-five

they do not reveal the hot breath of genius

was only

it

in the frescoes in S. Bibiana, executed

between 1624 and 1626, that Cortona created

a

new historical style

The responsibility

tion

was

in

tured and determined by his early intense study

classical

for the pictorial

decora-

the hands of the old-fashioned

and even during

approach
a

fres-

of the saint above

One

of these

scenes, St Bibiana refuses to sacrifice to Idols

[151],

may be chosen

to assess the

change which

has taken place during the intervening decade

since

scientific

copying of

Cassiano del Pozzo,

at

about this time.

whom

It is

often

Domenichino's St Cecilia frescoes

[29].

his

most Baroque phase, Cor-

tona shared the erudite seventeenth-century

contribution consisted mainly of the three

life

for

he began to serve

Mannerist Agostino Ciampelli, and Cortona's

the left-hand arches of the nave.

works

not realized that throughout his whole career

in painting.

coes with scenes from the

and the

after the antique^'

to antiquity.

Thus, although there

is

world of difference between Domenichino's

rigid classicism of 1 6 1 5

and Cortona's 'Baroque'

classicism of 1625, the latter's

closer to the

than

it is

to the

which asserted
cisely at this

work

is

essentially

Carracci-Domenichino current
bold illusionism of Lanfranco,
itself

moment.

BIBLOSARTE

on the largest

scale pre-

151- Pietro da

Cortona: St Bibiana refuses to sacrifice to Idols, 1A24

6.

Fresco. Rnme. S. Bihiaiia

BIBLOSARTE

PIETRO DA CORTONA

In these early years Cortona was

work

employed

The major

primarily by the Sacchetti family.''^

Marchese Marcello was

in the service of

the decoration of the Villa at Castel

Fusano

(1626-9), 3nd this time the direction was in

Cortona's hands.
artists

chino's pupil

above

It is

known

all,

Andrea Camassei (1602-49)" and,

Andrea

Sacchi^'' - a fact of particular

interest, since their opinions

their practice

Castel

number of

that a

worked under him, among them Domeni-

on

art as well as

soon differed so radically.

Fusano frescoes

are in a poor state

The
and

sible locality they

place of

honour

would long have been given

in the

landscape painting.

was reserved

24Q

development of

The

Italian

principal decoration

for the gallery

on the second

floor,

and Marchese Marcello himself worked out the

programme

for the cycle of mythological-his-

torical-allegorical
gallery,

one

depends

is

frescoes.

On

entering

to a large extent

on the Farnese

a clear indication that in these years

tied to the

the

immediately aware that Cortona

ceiling,

he was

still

Bolognese tradition. ^^

During the same period he painted

for the

largely repainted, but the chapel with Cortona's

Sacchetti a series of large pictures (now in the

Adoration of the Shepherds over the

Capitoline

preserved.

Here

liantly painted

depicting the

all

altar is well

around the walls are

bril-

landscapes with small figures

life

of Christ; evidently derived

from Domenichino,

their painterly

freedom

is

an unexpected revelation, and in a more acces-

152. Pietro da

The Rape
Rome,

Museum) illustrating mythology and

The latest of these. The Rape
Sabine Women of
1629 [152], a pendant

ancient history.

of the

<;.

to the earlier Sacrifice ofPolyxena,^^

frescoes.

Once

again an elaborately contrived

Cortona:

Women,
Museum

of the Sabine

Capitoliiie

c.

shows him

amplifying the tendencies of the S. Bibiana

1629.

BIBLOSARTE

250

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

antique setting

and

details

is

used as a stage for the drama,

such as armour and dress are studied

with a close regard for 'historical truth'.

scene

is

none the

less

permeated by

Venetian romanticism, and indeed

the painting owes

much

to

The

sense of

in its

Venice.''''

tion.

matches

colourist.

his fiery

is

But none of them

temperament,

his wealth

of

Three

his verve in rendering incidents,

main components of the composithe right is clearly dependent

on Bernini's Rape of Proserpina, while that in

the centre seems to be indebted to poses known
stage.

superior as a

ideas in organizing a canvas on the largest scale,

The one on

from the

lends a moral weight to his canvases of

which Cortona was incapable, Guercino

colour

carefully considered groups close to the ob-

server are the

sin

Despite the loose handling of

gift as a

him

to

become

and lead

These

narrator.

the

first

and

fresco painter in

branch of painting

this

his great

virtues predestined

to a

Rome

sudden

and unparalleled climax.

The Gran Salone of the Palazzo Barberini

the brush, these powerful groups produce al-

most the sensation of sculpture

They are skilfully balanced on

in the

round.

a central axis

and yet they suggest a strong surge from right

movement,

to left; this

architectural motifs,

is

stabilized

by the three

simultaneously counter-

acted in the middle distance by the sequence of

gestures starting from the figure of

and passing through Romulus

who seems

to

Neptune

to the centurion,

be about to intervene on behalf

of old age and virginity

in their

contest with

brute force. Furthermore, these figures adroitly

fill

the gaps between the main groups in the

foreground.

It will

be noticed

how

subtly the

composition of the Domenichino

earlier frieze

type of classicism has been transformed.

The

mark

years 1633-9

Cortona's career, and

the turning point in

in retrospect

they must

be regarded as one of the most important

caesuras in the history of Baroque painting.

During these years he

the

Gran Salone

work of

carried out the ceiling of

in the Palazzo Barberini, a

vast dimensions and a staggering per-

formance by any standards

[153].'"

There was

when he paid a visit to

Florence and Venice. The Venetian painter
Marco Boschini reports that, after his return,
Cortona removed part of what he had done in
an interruption in 1637

order to apply the lessons learnt in Titian's and

Veronese's

city.

Whether

the Venetian note

is

this is correct or not,

certainly very prominent.

dynamic flow of movement and counter-move-

But we have reached the cross-roads of Baroque

ment

ceiling painting,

is

integrated with a stable and organized

distribution of groups and figures.

the Sabine

Women impressed

tions almost

The Rape of

following genera-

more than any other of Cortona's

canvases, and

its

effect

can be seen, for instance,

works by Giacinto Gimignani and Luca

in

Giordano. Nevertheless the richness of its compositional devices, typical of the

in the years

around 1630,

still

Annibale's Farnese ceiling and

Baroque trend
owes

a debt to

in particular to

Triumph of Bacchus [20].

The Rape of the Sabine Women shows both

decisive as

and one source of inspiration,

may

it

be, cannot account for the

conception of this work.

Following the tradition of quadratura painting (p.

65),

architectural

Cortona created an

illusionistic

framework which he

partly con-

cealed beneath a wealth of garland-bearers,

shells,

masks, and dolphins

all

painted in

simulated stucco. At this juncture two points

should be noted that,

:

in contrast to the

ortho-

his

dox quadratura, the architectural framework

Cortona's strength as a painter and his weak-

the vault; and that the feigned stuccoes take

ness.

Among

his

Roman

chi's characters are far

contemporaries, Sac-

more convincing, Pous-

here

is

not meant to expand the actual shape of

and transform
was

a local

Roman

real stucco decoration that

BIBLOSARTE

tradition.

up

But

it

was fashionable

153- Pietro da Cortona: Glorification of Urban VIIFs Reign, 1633-9. Fresco.

Rome. Palazzo Barherini, Gran Salone

BIBLOSARTE

252

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

Rome trom

in

Raphael's Logge onwards and

became increasingly abundant

in the course

of

to Veronese's

the sixteenth century.

The framework divides the whole

ceiling into

separate areas, each showing a painted

five

own

Moreover, he devised the middle

typically Venetian

mode ofsotto

field in

in su, in

Triumph of Venice

in the

the

analogy
Palazzo

Ducale, and for colour too he relied to a large

extent on Veronese.

Although something of

All these diverse elements are united in a

the character of the quadra nportato can thus

breathtaking and dynamic composition which

scene in

its

in fact still

the

be sensed,''' Cortona has created

same time

illusion

is

right.

coherent 'open' space.

at

The

same sky unites the

a dual one: the

overwhelms the beholder. At

threaten

him with

elaborate arrangement

work, while on the other hand figures and

attention

seem

it

to

hover within

words,

it is
it

the existence of the

and the complex formal relationships

contraction

illusionist

of

dence, which

was

to

in Central Italy

was con-

ticated literary circle gathered

that the

cerned primarily with figures illusionistically

Although

intruding into, but not extending, the space of

it is

By

the beholder.'"-

contrast the architectural

constructions of the quadratura painters aim

and foremost

sion of space.

at a precisely

defined exten-

diametrically opposed method,

in

programme of

clear that he

the Fates), requests

behind and

in front

from

coat of arms.

it

will

now be
Italian

seen, followed basi-

tradition descending

Mantegna through Veronese, but he

it by making use of the

changed and amplified

local stucco tradition,

crown

to the

insects

by applying

to the

frame-

They

surrounded by

are

a laurel

wreath held by the three theological Virtues so

as to

form

Barberini

the North

stellar

magnificent

are flying in the formation of the Barberini

of a feigned architecture,

from Mantegna's Camera degli Sposi

Cortona,

These

bees.

(themselves emblems of Divine Providence)

onwards.

cally

Immortality with com-

add the

illu-

has also a long history, mainly in Northern

Italy,

to

in painted space

decoration of domes. Finally, the double

may appear

intricate story

on clouds above Time and Space (Chronos and

Barberini

figures

had devised an

Divine Providence, elevated high

conceits."^

continuum, was applied by Correggio

to the

was due.

been discovered,

terms of allegory, mythology, and emblematic

manding gesture

where

It

round the pope,

the ceiling

his text has not yet

namely the suggestion of an unlimited space

sion,

meaning.

also the centre of

is

Francesco Bracciolini (1566- 1645), court

poet from Pistoia, a minor star of the sophis-

and wall decoration

first

to the

aureole surrounding the figure of Divine Provi-

worth recalling that Mannerist ceiling

is

and

guided through the chiaroscuro

framework that

objective space.
It

itself felt,

cynosure of the composition, the luminous

possible to perceive both the illusionist

widening and the

is

makes

In other

the vault just above the beholder.

makes

sight throngs

But soon the

their bulk.

various scenes behind the painted stucco frame-

clouds superimposed on

first

of figures seem to swirl above his head and to

The

a cartouche.

emblem and

Immortality.

putto in the top

extends the poet's crown

literary gifts.

When

suasive conceit

laurel

also another

is

another

symbol of
left

corner

an allusion to Urban's

decoded, the visually per-

tells

us that Urban, the poet-

pope, chosen by Divine Providence and himself

work quadratura foreshortening, and by em-

the voice of Divine Providence,

ploying and transforming Mannerist conven-

immortality.

tions of figure projection in front of the archi-

accessory to the central one, are like a running

tecture.

At the same time, he showed an aware-

ness of the Correggiesque space continuum.

The

commentary on
They illustrate

is

worthy of

four scenes along the cove,

the temporal

work of the pope.

in the traditional allegorical-

BIBLOSARTE

PIETRO DA CORTONA

253

mythological style his courageous fight against

hangings; duplication, triplication, and super-

heresy (Pallas destroying Insolence and Pride

impositions of architectural and decorative ele-

shape of the Giants), his piety which

in the

overcomes

and intemperance (Silenus and

lust

his justice (Hercules driving out the

satyrs),

ments; cartouches with sprawling borders incongruously linked with

palmettes,

heads and with

lions'

cornucopias,

and inverted

shells

joining,

inter-

Harpies), and his prudence which guarantees

[155]

the blessings of peace (Temple of Janus). This

locking, associating of motif with motif

summary

rivalled

barely indicates the richness of inci-

dents compressed

these

into

Never

scenes.

again did Cortona achieve, or aspire

an equal

to,

and

seemingly

illogical

The

their ebullient energy.

the Baroque,

may

Un-

the agglomeration of plastic forms

is

it

would appear

quintessence of

and

in a sense

density and poignancy of motifs animated by an

this

equally tempestuous passion. ''^

other side to these decorations. Cortona carefully

The Frescoes of the Palazzo

and

the Late

Pitti

him

passing through Florence in 1637, Cor-

Grand Duke

while and paint for

II to stay for a

room (Camera

a small

della Stufa) with

representations of the Four Ages."^

teristic sign

in

of the time

charac-

there was no painter

who could have

Florence

vied with Pietro da

Cortona. In 1640 he returned for fully seven

years, first to finish the 'Ages'

and then

to

execute the large ceilings of the grand-ducal

apartment

rooms named

in

There

is,

however, an-

observed the inviolability of the frames of

tions implies renunciation of illusionism

Work

tona had been persuaded by the

Ferdinand

to.

the ceiling frescoes; the character of the decora-

analysis

When

be agreed

after the planets

Venus, Jupiter, Mars, Apollo, and

Saturn."*'

The programme, written by Francesco Rondinelli, may be regarded as a kind of astromythological calendar to the

plishments of Cosimo

life

[154].'"

and accomEvents take

place, therefore, in the sky rather than

on

earth,

is

it

becomes evident

upon

that the decoration

placed before the architecture and not fused

with

it,

that each element of the design

defined

clearly

and

self-contained

so

is

that

the

figures could be taken out of their settings with-

out leaving 'holes'; that,

finally,

the colour

scheme of pure white and pure gold aims

and decisive contrasts. Thus the

stark

cizing note

is

undoubtedly strong

in the

of these High Baroque decorations.

too,

at

classi-

gamut

The details,

open interesting perspectives: reminis-

cences of Michelangelo (corner figures, Sala di

Marte

[154]) appear next to

(Sala di

Rubenesque

Giove [155]) and chaste

caryatids

(Sala

di

Giove);

classical

tritons

female

Buontalenti-like

superimpositions (Sala di Apollo [156], and

Sala di Venere) next to panels with trophies

derived straight from antiquity (Sala di Marte).

giving Cortona a chance to exploit in the ceiling

In a word, the basis for Cortona's decorative

frescoes the painterly potentialities of the airy

repertory

realm. But

balance between effervescence and classical dis-

tions**

it is

and

rantee these

the return to real stucco decora-

their particular handling that

rooms

gua-

a special place in the annals

wealth of these decorations baffles accu-

rate description.

figures

One meets the entire repertory

and caryatids, white stuccoes on

ground
wreaths,

or

extremely broad, and yet the strange

cipline remains unchanged.

To

a certain extent these decorations epito-

mize Cortona's work

of the Baroque.

The

is

gilded

trophies,

ones

on

white

cornucopias,

gilt

ground;

shells,

and

in

SS. Martina e Luca

and the Palazzo Barberini, with which they are

linked in

many

ways. But his earlier work as a

decorator cannot account for the

new

relation-

ship between the plastic decorations and the

illusionist paintings [154]

BIBLOSARTE

contained

in

heavy

254

THE AGE OF THE HKiH BAROQUE

BIBLOSARTE

PIETRO DA CORTONA

154 (opposite). Pietro da Cortona: Florence, Palazzo

155 (above). Pietro da Cortona: Florence, Palazzo

Pitti,

Pitti,

Sala di Marte, 1646. Ceiling. Fresco

Sala di Giove, 1643

5.

Stuccoes

BIBLOSARTE

255

256

THF.

frames.

AGE OF

The

TIIK, IIKill

explanation

is

BAROQUK

provided by Cor-

immediately engaged upon his most extensive

tona's experience of Venice. C.inquecento ceil-

ecclesiastical

ings such as that of the Sala delle Qiiattro Porte

Maria

in the

Palace of the Doges show essentially the

same combination of stucco and

Here

painting.

undertaking, the frescoes

in Vallicella. After the

frescoes of the

dome

(1647 51) there was an

interruption until 1655, and in the intervening

were the models which he translated into his

years he painted for Pope Innocent

personal luscious Seicento manner.

of the long gallery

union of dignity and

It

is

the

stateliness, of the festive,

Piazza

swagger, and grand, that predestined Cortona's

built

manner

rich

official

to be internationally accepted as the

decorative style of aristocratic and prin-

cely dwellings.

more
to

to the

any other single

finished the

56. Pietro

Palazzo

'style

Louis XIV' owes

to

work

in

in the

(1651-4),"" only recently (1646)

by Borromini. Here Cortona designed

monochrome system

creating an undulat-

ing framework for the main scenes with the

life

and apotheosis of .Aeneas.

A work

of infinite

1647 without having

equalled mastery. His palette has become even

here been approached and solved with

Palazzo

Pitti,

Cortona

more transparent and luminous than

da Cortona Florence,

Pitti,

X the ceiling

Palazzo Pamphili in

charm, the problem of changing viewpoints has

Pitti

source."''

Rome

Navona

in the

than

decorations of the Palazzo

Returning

The

S.

in

execution of the

Sala di .Apollo, 1647. Stuccoes

BIBLOSARTE

un-

in the last

i^^r

157. Pietro

and

The Trinity in Glory (dome), 1647-51,

of the Virgin (apse), 1655-60. Frescoes. Rome, S. Maria

da Cortona:

The Assumption

BIBLOSARTE

in Vallicella

>^8

THt AGE OF THK HKiH BAROQUE

158. Pietro

da Cortona:

Xenophon's Sacrifice to Diana, after 1653.

Rome, Palazzo Barherini (formerly)

ceilings of the Palazzo Pitti. Delicate blues, pale

and yellow

pinks, violet,

prevail,

the tone values used by

foreshadowing

Luca Giordano and

during the eighteenth century. While this work

easily reveals the

study of antiquity, Raphael,

and Veronese, the frescoes of S. Maria

cella

in Valli-

look back to Lanfranco and Correggio

not attempt to transplant into the church his

secular type of decoration; nor did he

Gaulli circle and by the qiiadraturisti. Faithful

to his old convictions, he insisted

division between the painted

phili ceiling

few, the

by

its

figures

Pam-

appeal to the refined taste of the

work

in the

church speaks

broad sweep,

its

to the

masses

dazzling multitude of

and powerful accentuation. Once again,

on a clear

and the decorative

areas.

Compared with

[157]; whereas the sophistication, elegance, delicacy, and decorative profuseness of the

employ

the illusionistic wizardry used in the Bernini-

his great fresco cycles, his

easel pictures are of secondary importance.

if

as

they alone had survived, he would

still

But
rank

one of the leading figures of the High Baro-

que. Pictures like the Virgin and Saints in S.

Agostino, Cortona (1626

8),

and

in the

631), Ananias healing St Paul (S.

Brera

Maria

these frescoes form an ensemble of mesmerizing

{c.

splendour with their setting, the criss-cross of

della Concezione,

heavy, gilded coffers, the richly ornamented

Remus {c. 643),

both in the Louvre, and the Martyrdom of St
Lawrence (S. Lorenzo in Miranda, Rome, 1646),

frames

(in

figures -

all

the nave), and the white stucco

designed by Cortona. But he did

Lahan

( 1

Rome,

c.

1631), Jacob

630s) and Romulus and

BIBLOSARTE

and

PIETRO DA CORTONA

with their brilliant painterly qualities, their

careful Renaissance-like grouping, their
fully

power-

conceived main protagonists, and their

Women

259

[152] the classical and archaeological

paraphernalia have grown in importance at the

expense of the figures.

The

meticulous observ-

concentration on the dramatic focus, belong to

ance of classical decorum shows Cortona in step

the highest class of 'history painting' in which

with the

the most coveted traditions of Raphael, Cor-

aimed

reggio,

and Annibale Carracci find

timate continuation.

The

their legi-

Sacrifice

to

Diana

(after 1653, formerly Barberini Gallery, present

whereabouts unknown)
trate Cortona's late

[ 1

58]

may serve to illus-

manner. True

gorical-mythological

mode

to the alle-

of thinking, Xeno-

phon's sacrifice after his happy return from the

East {Anabasis V,

homecoming of
Compared with

iii)

was meant

to celebrate the

the Barberini after their exile.

the early

Rape of

the Sabine

at

late

Poussin. But unlike the

Cortona tended to become

pastoral,

the

new

latter,

who

extreme simplicity and concentration,

diffuse, epic,

and

and to this extent such pictures prepare

stylistic position

of the Late Baroque.

At the same time, he toned down the fortissimo

of his early manner, and with the insistence on

predominant

verticals, the firm

framing of the

composition, and the arrangement of figures

in parallel layers, he

confirmed that the period

of the exuberant High Baroque was a thing of

the past.

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER

'HIGH BAROQUE CLASSICISM':

AND DUCIUESNOY

SACCHI, ALGARDI,

The

foregoing chapters have been devoted to

the three great masters of the

Older

artists,

mainly Guercino and Lanfranco,

had decisively contributed

Baroque surge,

in the

the authority of

the

1620s to the

which the Bolognese

to

cism of the second decade had to

dous,

High Baroque.

all

yield.

classi-

Although

these masters was tremen-

remained by no means unchallenged;

it

voices

of moderation,

rationalism,

and

Rome, he was

Sacchi.- Reared in

Albani,

first in his

but from about 1621 he was back

good.

In

artists a

contrast

the

to

slow producer,

training predisposed to
gospel.
Virgin

Yet his

earliest

embrace the
large

and Child appearing

to

Roman

painter

Andrea Sacchi, and

two sculptors, the Bolognese Alessandro Algardi and the Fleming Francesco

What

they stand for

is

Duquesnoy.

not a straight continua-

tion of Bolognese classicism, but a revised version, tinged

by the influence of the great masters

and, in painting, by a

new impact of Venetian

colourism which was shared by the leading

Isidoro),

is

still

classical

altarpiece,

the

St Isidore (after

much

1622, S.

Poussin, the

for

of himself, bent

critical

Lodovico Carracci. Probably

1630s

Rome

on theorizing, he was by temperament and

new men formed

a powerful phalanx. They knew how to fight
and even win their battles. The most distinguished artists of this group are the Frenchman
for long. In the

in

dynamic Baroque

partisanship with the classical cause were not

drowned

trained by

native city, later at Bologna;

indebted to

than three

less

years later he painted the St Gregory and the

Miracle of the Corporal (1625-7, Vatican Pinacoteca) [159], which reveals a

master.

With

in a light

this

its

key and

mature and great

and warm colours painted

rich
its

splendid loose handling,

work may be regarded

as the first master-

new manner. The story, taken from

Paulus Diaconus, illustrates how the cloth with

piece of the

which the chalice had been cleaned

is

pierced

with a dagger by the pope and begins to bleed.

The

stranger

who had doubted

its

magic

the Early Baroque classic-

amazed and convinced. His two companions echo his wonder-

ism, the new classicism was first rather boisterous

ment, but the pope and his deacons are un-

and painterly;

has a physiognomy of its own,

perturbed. Sacchi had learned his lesson from

by rights may be termed

Raphael's Mass of Bolsena and rendered the

'Baroque'
nini.

and

Lanfranco, Cortona, and Ber-

artists,

Compared with

it is

it

this style that

quality sinks on to his knee,

story in similar psychological terms: the calm-

'High Baroque classicism'.

ness of those firm in their faith

ANDREA SACCHI

(1599-1661)

of figures,

For Poussin's development and the principles

he believed

in,

the reader

must be referred

to

Anthony Blunt's masterly presentation.'

The Italian leader of the movement was

Sir

is

the excitement of the uninitiated.

A minimum

six in all, invites detailed scrutiny

and enhances the

The

contrasted to

effect of the silent

organization of the canvas with

minent triangle of three figures

classical.

But there

is

BIBLOSARTE

no central

is

drama.
its

pro-

essentially

axis,

and the

262

i5t) (heloir).

Andrea Sacchi:

St Gregory and the Miracle of the Corporal, 1625 7

Rome. Vatican Pinacoteca
160 (right). Andrea Sacchi

The

Vision of St Romuald,
Rome, Vatican Pinacoteca

Fusano (1627-9). At

cross of spatial diagonals allies the design to

Castel

that

time their

advanced compositional tendencies. Moreover

ideological and artistic differences

must have

Sacchi had

the tight grouping of massive figures and the

begun

to clash.

emphatic pull exercised by those turned into

moved

far

the picture belong to the Baroque repertory.

as

The

of St Romuald^ (Vatican Pinacoteca) [160]. Here

St Gregory

is

exactly contemporary with

Cortona's Bibiana frescoes [151], and

dent that

tween the two

yet

come

moment

at this

artists,

into the

open

though
-

it

is

evi-

the antagonism belatent, has not

on the contrary, both

works reveal similar intense qualities and clearly

form

'common

front' if

compared with works

We have seen that shortly after the St Gregory

under Cortona

at

later

proved by his best-known work, the Vision

under the shadow of

saint

is

magnificent tree, the

telling the brethren his

dream about the

ladder leading to heaven on which the deceased

members

of the Order ascend to Paradise.

The

choice and rendering of the subject are characteristic for

Sacchi: instead of employing the

Baroque language of

of the older Bolognese or the Caravaggisti.

Sacchi worked with and

is

few years

from the position of the St Gregory,

drama
faces

in

rhetoric, he creates real

terms of intense introspection

and attitudes, and the

BIBLOSARTE

soft

in

the

Venetian gold

SACCHI, ALGARDI, AND DUQUESNOY

symphony in white is in
harmony with the pensive and deeply
frame of mind of the hstening monks.

263

He

tone permeating this

was the model

perfect

nounced illusionism and painted the scene

serious

Within Sacchi's range, the St Gregory

by

is

comparison 'loud' and trenchant colouristically,

compositionally, and psychologically.

The Ba-

roque massiveness of the figures has now been

reduced;

considerably

moved away from

the beholder. All his later

and with

similar low key

they

addition

in

are

the picture plane and face

work

is

if

it

were

that he tried to emulate.

nportato

a qtiadro

But he did not return

the entire ceiling has

to the position

become

as

an easel-painting.

gnese classicism, for the fresco

the affinities with

re-

is

its

of Bolo-

not framed and

stage.

Although

Domenichino cannot be over-

looked, the light and loose handling

is

much

closer to Lanfranco.

painted in a

a similar attention to

The Controversy between Sacchi and Cortona

psychological penetration and concentration on

bare essentials. In the 1640s he went a step

Cortona's and Sacchi's vastly diflerent inter-

beyond the St Romiiald. The principal

pretations of great allegorical frescoes reflect,

further

work of

this period, the eight canvases illus-

trating the Life of the Baptist painted for the

Giovanni

lantern of S.

shows

that he

wanted

Fonte (164 19),^

in

to strip his style of

even

the slightest embroidery. Trained on Raphael,

he reached
is

degree of classical simplicity that

the precise Italian counterpart to Poussin's

development of these

in the

tions,

the

which were voiced

Accademia

di S.

in

the discussions of

Luca during

these years."

The controversy centred round the old problem,

whether few or many figures should be used in
illustrating a historical theme. The partisans of
classical art theory

had good reasons

to

advocate

compositions with few figures. According to

years.''

Sacchi's and Cortona's ways parted seriously

during their work

of course, differences of principles and convic-

Palazzo Barberini. \s

should be

this theory, the story in a picture

rendered

in

terms of expression, gesture, and

Cardinal Antonio Barberini's protege, Sacchi

movement. These

was given the

disposal to express the 'ideas in man's mind' -

task of painting

on the

one room Divine JfV^^o/H (1629-33)"

[161], illus-

trating the apocryphal text from the

Solomon (6:22);

ceiling of

Wisdom of

are the

means

which Leonardo regarded

cern of the good painter.

at the painter's

as the principal

It is

con-

only in composi-

in

tions with few figures (Alberti admits nine or

thrones and sceptres, ye princes of peoples,

ten) that each figure can be assigned a distinct

'If

honour wisdom,

ye delight

therefore

that ye

may

reign for ever.'

Possibly finished in the year in which Cortona

began

his Divine Providence, the

two works,

with their implicit allegorical references to the

Barberini Pope, supplement each other as far
as the

theme

is

from Cortona's
Divine

concerned. But
is

how

different

Sacchi's approach to his task

Wisdom enthroned

over the world

is

surrounded by eleven female personifications

symbolizing her qualities

in

accordance with

part by virtue of

its

expression, gesture, and

movement, and can thus contribute

teristic

feature to the whole.

In a

crowded

composition, single figures are evidently deprived of individuality and particularized meaning.

Another aspect supported these conclusions.

Since painters had always borrowed their terms
of reference from poetry (stimulated by

Ho-

race's 'ut pictura poesis')," they maintained that

must be

poem

or tragedy,

the text. Sacchi represented the scene with the

a picture

minimum number

where not only does each person have

of figures in tranquil poses;

a charac-

'read' like a

his clearly

they convey their sublime role by their being

circumscribed function, but where the Aris-

rather than by their acting. Raphael's Parnassus

totelian unities also pertain.

BIBLOSARTE

i6i.

Andrea Sacchi: La Divina Sapienza, 1629-33. Fresco. Rome, Palazza Barhenni

BIBLOSARTE

SACCHI, ALGARDI, AND DUQLESNOV

Pietro da Cortona fully accepted the traditional

assumption that the familiar concepts of

poetical theory apply to painting. But he pleaded

many

for paintings with

from

classical theory.

figures, thus departing

He compared

the struc-

and the rendering of the

He

expression.

affetti,^-

2b^

gestures and

advocated natural movement

and turned against the obscurantism produced

by rhetorical embroidery and every kind of
excess, such as the overdoing of draperies. In

ture of painted plots to that of the epic. Like an

the letter to Albani, concerned with similar

main theme and

problems, he laments with extremely sharp

he maintained,

words the neglect of propriety and decorum

which has caused the decay of the art of painting.

must have

epic, a painting

many
in

episodes.

These are

vital,

order to give the painting magnificence, to

link

up groups, and

to facilitate the division into

compelling areas of light and shade. The epi-

may be compared

sodes in painting

chorus
they

to

must be subordinate

the

to

the

chorus,

in ancient tragedy, and, like the

principal

theme. Sacchi, by contrast, insisted unequivocally that painting

must

are of the essence."

masters

made

It

is

now

clear that

both

which

the theoretical position

they defended explicit in their work.

If

we can here follow

low subjects, for which he makes the northern

consolidation of two opposing camps,

it

is

also

Against their degrading of

artists responsible.

high

upholds

he

principles,

by contrast, was on the

level of 'high art'.

out

the

in

The

.\cademy.

but modified them in a parti-

On

the other hand, the circle

round Poussin, Sacchi, Algardi, and Duquesnoy

was

a strong party

which would never waive

its

convictions. His French rationalism and discipline carried

Poussin even further than Sacchi;

as early as the
to

end of the 1620s he endeavoured

emulate ancient tragedy by reducing the

Massacre of the Innocetits (Chantilly) to

a single

The stiffening of the theomay be assessed by comparing

atmosphere of the

lofty

theoretical

rift,

though, and

practical consequences are clear enough.

ing the circle of artists

to its basic tenets

Equal

speaking to equal, and the differences are

is

not,

cular direction.

Bam-

Albani's targets were, of course, the

overboard the whole intellectual framework of

Like Bernini, he subscribed

of

ideals

boccianti. Sacchi's controversy with Cortona,

evident that Cortona never dreamed of throwing

classical art theory.

the

Raphael, xMichelangelo, and .\nnibale Carracci.' ^

fought

the formation or rather

note by

deriding the choice of tavern scenes and similar

vie with tragedy: the

fewer figures the better; simplicity and unity

new

Albani, in his answer, strikes a

It

its

did

however, prevent Cortona from frequent-

We

his views.

Cortona,

who were opposed

to

are not astonished to find that

in the Treatise^'

which he published

together with the Jesuit Ottonelli in 1652, up-

held

traditional

the

decorum and
of

But

art.

ideals

also insisted

side

by

of propriety and

on the moral function

side with this appears the

concept of Art as pure form without an extraneous raison

of

art,

Thus

d'etre.

(iocere-delectare^^

the

Baroque

makes its entry

antithesis

into the theory

and the hedonistic principle of delight

purpose of painting comes into

own.

dramatic group.

as the

retical position

In keeping with this, Cortona's art has an out-

Poussin's Massacre with Reni's, of 161

1.

Sacchi himself further clarified his theoretical

standpoint

in the studio talk

given at about this

time to his pupil Francesco Lauri (1610-35),'"

and

later in a letter written

on 28 October 165
In the former

to his teacher,

Francesco Albani.

document he

reiterated the basic repertory of

'
'

the classical theory by concentrating on

decorum

spoken sensual quality, while Sacchi,

and moralist

like

Poussin, refrains

more from appealing

There

won

is

classicist

more and

to the senses.

no doubt that Sacchi and

the day.

its

Not only did he and

his circle

his confreres

pursue relentlessly the aim of cleansing their

art

of Baroque reminiscences, but they extended

their

influence to Cortona's pupils, such as

BIBLOSARTE

266

AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

THF.

Francesco Romanelli and Giacinto Gimignani

(1611-81), and

ascendancy

in

made

Rome

possible in the 1640s the

of archaizing painters Hke

Sassoferrato (1609-85) and Giovan

Even the great Baroque

(1609-81).

Cerrini

Domcnico

up by

his pupil Carlo Maratti,

who handed on

the classical gospel to the eighteenth century

and ultimately

to

Mengs and

to

Winckelmann,

the real father of Neo-classicism and passionate

enemy of all

things Baroque. Pietro da Cortona,

masters were touched by their ideas, and Ber-

on the other hand, must be regarded

nini himself, after his abortive classicizing phase

ancestor of the hedonistic trend which led via

new approach

1630S, found a

of the

problem

his old

in

The

age.

to this

surged far beyond the confines of the

capital

and threatened

wave

classical

art centres as

point of view received

from

the painter and biographer of artists Giovanni

Passeri,

the

friend

masters of the French

to the

Rococo."

ALESSANDRO ALGARDI

(1598-1654)^'

Bologna.

literary support, not dogmatically perhaps,

Battista

Italian

artistic

to quell a free develop-

ment in such vigorous

Moreover the classical

Luca Giordano
and

as the

of Algardi

and

No

sculptor of the seventeenth century bears

comparison with Bernini. Indeed,

in the

quarter of the century there existed

in

second

Rome,

two independent

apart from his studio, only

some importance those of Algardi

latter was a solitary char-

Sacchi, and most determinedly from Giovanni

studios of

Bellori (1615-96), the learned antiquarian, the

and Duquesnoy. The

intimate of Poussin and Duquesnoy, and the

acter; with the exception of the statue of St

mouthpiece and universally acclaimed pro-

Andrew

moter of the

commission, he never had a devoted pupil, and

Even
(p. 39)

classical cause.

if it is

Monsignor Agucchi

correct that

anticipated Bellori's ideas, the old battles

were fought on new

fronts.

While Agucchi had

in

St Peter's, he never had a large

his considerable influence

was exercised through

the objective qualities of his

work rather than

through the fascination of his personality."^

turned against Caravaggio's 'naturalism' and

The

the maniera painters, Sacchi, Bellori and the

time his studio had some similarity

rest sustained the classic-idealistic theory against

Bernini. During the last fifteen years of his

the

Baroque masters and the Bamboccianti, the

painters of the lower genre. In the light of this

fact,

we may once again confirm

classicism'
1

that 'Baroque

dates from the beginning of the

630s. Before that time no serious collision took

place. It

on

was only from the seventeenth century

that there existed real dissenters, and, there-

fore, classicism

had

to

dig

in.

While

beginning of the century there was

degree of theoretical

flexibility,

large

the attitude of

the defenders of classicism had to become, and

became,

less tractable after

1630; and as the

century advanced the breach between the opposing camps widened

until in the

wake of

Academy turned the clasinto a pedantic doctrine. The Italians

Poussin the French

sical

creed

proved more supple. Sacchi's position was taken

is

different.

For

a short

to that

of

life

he had to cope with numerous and extensive

commissions; and,
tion as a sculptor

after Bernini's, his reputa-

had no equal between about

1635 and his death

in 1654.

of Innocent X's reign (1644

the greater

man was

At the beginning

ft".),

at a

time

when

temporarily out of favour,

he even stepped into Bernini's place.

Algardi,

at the
a

case of Algardi

coming from Bologna where he had

Academy of the aged Lodovico

frequented the

Carracci and studied sculpture with the medi-

Conventi

(1577- 1640),

reached

after a stay

of some years

at

with a recommendation

ocre

Giulio

Cesare

Rome in 1625
Mantua. He came

from the Duke of Mantua

to Cardinal

Lodovico

Ludovisi, himself a Bolognese and the owner

of a celebrated collection of ancient sculpture,'"

and established contact with

BIBLOSARTE

his

Bolognese

SACCHI ALGARDI, AND DUQUESNOY

compatriots, above

with Domenichino. Car-

all

dinal Ludovisi entrusted

him with

tion of antique statues,-" while

negotiated tor him his

first

of some

importance:

Magdalen

[162] and St

1628).

These data

Domenichino

162.

St

Alessandro Algardi:

Mary Magdalen,

c.

Mary

of

statues

John the Evangelist for

S. Sih estro al Quirinale

indicate the

components

of his style, which derived from the classically

tempered realism of the Carracci Academy,

work with,

the close study of, and constant

ancient statuary, and his association with

like

men

Domenichino, the staunch upholder of the

As one would

classical disegno.

rest of his life Algardi

expect, for the

belonged to the younger

circle of artists with classical inclinations;

Poussin, Duquesnoy, and Sacchi were

and

among

his friends.

Yet

of the difference of talent and

in spite

temperament, education and

x'Mgardi

style of

artistic principles,

was immediately fascinated by Bernini

witness his figure of

which

is

Mary Magdalen

[162], the

half-way between the subjec-

tivism of Bernini's Btbiatia and the classicism

of Duquesnoy's Susanna [168]. In fact Algardi

remained

dependent on

to a certain extent

great rival. This

is

his

also apparent in his early

portrait busts; that of Cardinal

Giovanni Garzia

Millini (d. 1629) in S. Maria del Popolo

is

un-

thinkable without Bernini's Be/larmine, while

that of

Monsignor Odoardo

Santarelli in S.

Maria Maggiore, probably belonging

to

x\l-

gardi's earliest productions in this field, follows

closely Bernini's

Montuya.

Nevertheless, Bernini's and

Algardi's ap-

proach to portraiture differed considerably.

comparison between Bernini's Scipione Borghese of 1632 [76] and Algardi's perhaps earlier

Cardinal Laudivlo Zaciiua

Museen, Berlin
clear.

[163],-'

in

makes

the
this

Staatliche

abundantly

In contrast to the transitory

moment

chosen by Bernini, Algardi represents his

with his

mouth

closed, in a state of

1628. Stucco.

Rume, S. Silvcstra a! Q^iiinnale

Roman commission

the

the Cappella Bandini in

{c.

the restora-

sitter,

permanence

and tranquil existence. Scipione Borghese seems

BIBLOSARTE

267

268

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

163. Alessandro Algardi:

Bust of Cardinal Laudivio Zacchia, i626(?).

164. Alessandro Algardi

Bust of Camillo (?) Pamphili,

Berlin, Staatliche Miiseen

Rome, Palazzo Dona

to converse with us, while Algardi's cardinal

remains

static,

immobile

for

most meticulous attention

Even the

ever.

down

to detail,

to

Algardi's genius for the sober representation

of character has always been admired.

The

number

con-

of portrait busts by his hand

wrinkles and warts, and the most able treatment

siderable,

of skin, hair, and fur does not help to give such

done during

portraits Bernini's

with Bernini,
to

dynamic

who never

which every part

is

vitality.

Compared

loses sight of the

busts look like aggregates of an infinite

of careful observations
All

and

whole

subordinated, Algardi's

made

number

before the

sitter.

forms and shapes are trenchant and precise

retain their individuality: this

is

a decisive

aspect of Algardi's 'realist classicism'. But for

solidity

and seriousness

his portraits are

un-

equalled the mere bulk of any of his early busts

;

brings the
in this

sitter physiologically close to us,

weightiness consists the

and

High Baroque

community of spirit not only with Bernini but

also with

Cortona and the early Sacchi.--

after 1644.

case,

from

it

seems that many of them were

his first years in

would appear

it

of the

and

is

Rome.

In any

that already in the course

630s Algardi had begun to

his intense realism.

move awav
the warm

Abandoning

and vivid treatment of the surface and the subtle

diflFerentiation of texture,

he replaced the fresh-

ness of the early works by a noble aloofness in

his later busts.

One

of the finest of that period,

the stylish Pamphili prince (after 1644,

Rome,

Palazzo Doria) [164], exhibits this classicism to

perfection.-'
steers

In

Thus, not unlike Sacchi, Algardi

towards

more determined

sufficiently established for

for

classicality.

1629 Algardi's reputation was not yet

him

to

be considered

one of the four monumental statues under

BIBLOSARTE

SACCHI, ALGARDI, AND DUQUESNOY

the

year

269

dome of St Peter's. He was in his fortieth

when the first great commission, the tomb

of Leo XI,
that he

him; and

was not

until

1640

was offered another monumental

task:

fell

to

it

the over-life-size statue of St Philip Neri in S.

Maria

which he followed closely

in Vallicella, in

the example set by

Guido Reni

same

in the

church. Then, under Innocent X, the commis-

came

sions

in

quick succession.-' Between 1649

and 1650 he executed the memorial statue of

Innocent

in

bronze as

nini's earlier statue of

Conservatori).

counterpart to Ber-

Urban VIII

Once

(Palazzo dei

Algardi was im-

again

pressed by Bernini; but instead of suppressing

detailed characterization as Bernini had done,
his

pope has been rendered with minutest care

and

indeed, a great masterpiece of por-

is,

traiture.

Yet for

all

its

intimate qualities the

statue lacks the visionary

power of

its

counter-

part. Algardi did not accept the hieratic frontality

in a

of Bernini's Lrhaii; he turned his statue

more benevolent

attitude towards the left;

down

he considerably toned

the great diagonal

165. .\lessandro Algardi:

Tomb

of Leo XI, 1634-44.

Rome, St Peter's

of the papal cope, and transformed an energetic

and commanding gesture into one of

and halting movement.
of the blessing

arm by

He weakened

restraint

the

power

structural parts to a

minimum. At

enhanced the

suited his classicizing stylistic tendencies. Al-

poignancy of benediction by pushing the arm

gardi also supplied a narrative

forcefully forward into the beholder's space.

there was no

The

execution of Leo XI's tomb [165], ex-

many

that of Bernini's

with

years,-^ ran parallel

tomb of Urban VIII. But

Algardi, beginning six years after Bernini,

must

have been familiar with Bernini's design. Leo's

tomb

is,

in fact, the first papal

on that of Urban VIII.

recur:
figures,

tomb dependent

All the salient features

pyramidal arrangement of three

the
the

blessing pope above the

sarco-

in the

relief,-''

for

which

dynamic design of the

Urban tomb. But during

his classical

phase

Bernini did introduce a relief on the sarco-

phagus of the Countess Matilda monument

in

St Peter's (begun 1633), and slightly later on

the
in

tombs of the Raimondi Chapel

in S. Pietro

made use of this device,

Matilda monument is borne

Montorio.-' Algardi

and

his debt to the

out by the fact that he

fitted his narrative bio-

graphical relief into a similar trapezoid shape.

left aisle

of St Peter's.

spatial restrictions, he

reduced the

Carrara marble. Algardi avoided the use of

zone before the papal

figure. Algardi

to plan for an unsatisfactory position in

the narrow passages of the

Bound by

room

If the compositional elements of Leo XI's

tomb were thus derived from Bernini, Algardi
departed from him most decisively in other
respects. The tomb consists entirely of white

phagus, and the allegories standing next

in a

same

time, the absolute preponderance of the figures

folds of the mantle, while Bernini

tending over

the

the linear and decorative

to

it

had

one of

BIBLOSARTE

270

colour as emphatically as Bernini accepted

i66. Alessandro Algardi:

The Meeting
Rome, St

of Pope

Peter's

Leo

and

Attila,

1646-53.

Instead of a

warm

luminous sparkle of the surface such

found

Urban tomb,

Bernini's

in

evenly-worked marbles have

surface which

it.

rendering of the skin and a

as are

Algardi's

a cool, neutralized

particularly evident in the head

is

of the allegory of Courage. Instead of the tran-

moment

sitory
gories,

we

represented

find a

in

Bernini's alle-

permanent condition

in

those

of Algardi. In fact, Algardi asserts his classical

convictions in
far

and every respect, but

all

from suggesting that the

classical

work.

result

is

am

a truly

as far or even farther re-

It is

moved from Canova's

classicism as Sacchi's

Under

paintings are from those of Mengs.

shadow of Bernini's overpowering

the

genius, Al-

gardi never even attempted to follow Sacchi

tomb of Leo XI is
High Baroque classicism.

the whole way. His

monument

of

a true

In contrast to this papal tomb, Algardi created

a

new Baroque

species in his largest work, the

relief representing the

(1646-53, St Peter's)
event of the year

.a.d.

Meeting of Leo and Attila

[166].-''

The

historical

452 was always regarded

symbol of the miraculous salvation of the

as a

Church from overwhelming danger, and

it

was

only appropriate to give this scene pride of

place in St Peter's.

Much

indebted to Raphael's

example, Algardi's interpretation of the event

is

simple and convincing. As

in

Raphael's fresco,

only pope and king perceive the miraculous

apparition of the Apostles; the followers on

both sides are

maintained
half,

still

unaware of

it.

The

rigidly

triple division of the left half, right

and the upper zone

results

from the

story,

the protagonists of which dominate the scene.

Once

the traditional reserve towards this relief

has been overcome, one cannot but admire

compositional logic and psychological

Its

unusual size of nearly 25

feet height

often led to the fallacious belief that

too, has

no forerunners; but

its

clarity.

has

its style,

in fact the history

of the illusionistic relief dates back to the early

days of the Renaissance,

BIBLOSARTE

to

Donatello and

SACCHI, ALGARDI, AND DUQUESNOY

Ghiberti. In contrast, however, to the rilieio

It

scacciato of the Renaissance, Algardi desisted

diff'erence

from creating

coherent optical space and used

mainly gradations
to

produce the

illusion of depth.

relief grows, the

of figures

in the projection

more

The

seem

the figures

the

flatter

to

recede

out, the nearer they are to us.

more they stand

Those in the most

forward layer of the

completely three-

into the distance, while the

relief are

dimensional and furnish transitions between

and

artistic

problem of

real space; the

organization

is

spatial

thus turned into one of psycho-

import and emotional participation.

logical

were preferred

reliefs

to paintings

ever circumstances permitted

bably due to the fact that a relief

it

and

for the bodies

there

is

a species

is

were, between pictorial illusion

half-way, as
reality,

when-

This was pro-

it.

real depth,

have

and there

is

volume,

real

a gradual transi-

between the beholder's space and that of

tion

More eflectively than illusionist paint-

the relief

ing, the painterly relief satisfied the

Baroque

desire to efface the boundaries between

spectator and figure.

art,

demand
to

hurry out of the

for

people of the Baroque era

this

motif that allowed them

in Attila's

miracle.
it

excitement

But now

it is

it

in

While Bernini seeks

to eliminate the very differ-

ence between painting,

His interpretation of
can best be studied

behind the main

figure

preserves

its

from the

ground. This

is

relief

is,

after

creates cannot be complete. If

nini's handling of plastic
real space

we

Decapitation of St Paul, 1641-7.

Bologna, S. Paolo

why

framed

recall

it

Ber-

(p. 161),

by placing them

167. Aiessandro Algardi:

The

who

illusion

and

would have

back-

of the fact that he was stimulated by pictorial

masses which invade

without Hmiting frames

gardi's Attila appears

all,

It

particularly revealing in view

seems that they did not

and consequently the

silhouette

sculptured or 'picturesque'

satisfy his desire for spatial interpenetration of

life.

The

saint are

to Algardi's principles to detract

clarity of these figures

presence of the

like a picture,

of St

Entirely isolated, each

block-like quality.

been contrary

against

altar.

shows an uninterrupted

was precisely

sculpture and

group

S. Paolo) [167].-'

two figures of the executioner and tht

In Bernini's work, reliefs are of relatively

it

a free-standing

in his Decapitation

Paul (1641-7, Bologna,

into being the pictorial relief of the Baroque.

consequence;

and free-stand-

relief,

the essential character of each species.

was Algardi rather than Bernini who brought

little

commissions.

different

ing sculpture, Algardi meticulously preserves

fully to participate

in the

this

proach cannot be explained by the hazards or

our space;

important to realize

that

demands inherent

Only periods which

work of art will

relief into

show

to

between Bernini's and Algardi's ap-

self-sufficiency of the

protest against such figures as the Attila,

seems

and

life

difficult

271

placed within a framing semicircle of columns

After Algardi had created this prototype,

such

would not be

Al-

by comparison temperate,

controlled, and relegated to the sphere of art.

BIBLOSARTE

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

272

impressions:

Longinus

at

was Sacchi's Murlyrdam

it

Castelgandolfo that had

oj

St

formative

Rome, S. Alarm

influence on his conception.*"

The

Attila rehef

While

Decapitation of St Paul with

work

like

the

Sacchesque

its

and psychological penetra-

tion illustrates excellently his partisanship with

the classical cause, the

more

shows that, confronted with

task,

and

Algardi
to

was prepared

relief

'official'

a truly

to

monumental
compromise

attempt a reconciliation between the

leading trend of Bernini's grand

manner and

the sobriety of classicism - between the impet-

uous

art

of a genius and his

own more

limited

talents.

FRANCESCO DUQUESNOY
Duquesnoy was probably

(1597-1643)

a greater artist

than

Algardi; in any case, he was less prepared to

compromise.*- Born

in Brussels in

1597, the

son of the sculptor Jerome Duquesnoy, he came

to

Rome

in 16 18

and stayed there

until shortly

before his premature death in 1643.**

He was

so thoroughly acclimatized that even the dis-

cerning eye will hardly discover anything northern in his

art.

Soon Duquesnoy was

a leading

figure in the circle of the classicists; after Poussin's arrival in

Rome

he shared a house with

him, and he was on intimate terms with Sacchi.

He

also

soon belonged

who worked

for

to the

group of

artists

Cassiano del Pozzo's corpus of

classical antiquity (p. 231).

by before he became

But ten years went

well-known figure

in the

Rome. Between 1627 and 1628

Bernini employed him on the sculptural decoraartistic life

of

tion of the Baldacchino.*^ His reputation established, he

was chosen

to execute the

St Andrew,

one of the four giant statues under the dome of

St Peter's.

And

in

Duquesnoy:

di Lorelo

was Algardi's most impor-

tant legacy to posterity."

gravity, simplicity,

168 and i6y. Francesco

St Susanna, 1629 33, with detail (opposite).

1629 he received the com-

mission for his most famous work, the statue

of St Susanna in the choir of S. Maria di Loreto
[168, 169]."

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

274

hoT

study of Duqucsnoy, one should

first

Susanna

strictly follows the

laws of gravity;

in

turn to this celebrated figure. Susanna originally

contrast to the individual characterization of

held the martyr's palm in her right hand; with

Bibiana's dress, Susanna

the

she

left

is

making

a timid gesture

the altar, while her face

turned

is

towards

in the direction

of Duquesnoy's

forms the base of the

maintained that

it

was

shown

in the

time-

Duquesnoy ab-

stained from any indication of time and space;

of the congregation. " Bellori, a devoted admirer

art,

is

of classical antiquity.

less attire

simple slab, instead of a rock with vegetation,

statue.

was not the

It

impossible to achieve a more perfect synthesis

individual fate of a saint, but the objective state

of the study of nature and the idea of antiquity.

of sainthood which he desired to portray.

Duquesnoy, he

worked

relates,

for years

from

the model, while the ancient statue of Urania

sequently, he represented his

ing a transitory

The

He

of the drapery are,

fall

indeed, close to the Urania and other similar

ancient figures.

The contour

and uninterrupted and the

clear

Irapposto

is

leg, the

body

is

.studied cdh-

utterly convincing: the leg on

the weight of the

which

free-standing

rests, the

sloping line of the shoulders, the gentle

turn of the head -

this

all

and supported by the

The

of the statue

is

fall

protruding right hip, and

was precisely the

evoked the greatest enthusiasm

at

Susanna

as the

the time.

canon of

No

light

is

forms are firm,

and

a fluctuating

clear,

avoided. ^^

mouth

The

face of

it

Roman

and pupil, which gives the look direction

contrasting interpretations of saints

different approaches: the

A comparison between

the Susanna and Ber-

nini's Bibiana of five years earlier [73]

makes

limpid and temperate simplicity of the

all

the

more obvious,

particularly if

one considers that the Bibiana was well known

to

Duquesnoy, and

tirely

the two
clas-

subjective as opposed to an objective

sical, a

conception, dynamic intensity as opposed to

The

similarity of Sacchi's

mere coincidence; both turn over

is

more than
new leaf in

1629, the one with the Divine Wisdom, after

Susanna.

Susanna

lie

Baroque and the

and Duquesnoy's developments

the

statues;

and individual expression. Behind these two

excluding Bernini's most important statues,

Duquesnoy's

carefully

a point to incise the

rational discipline.

that had an effect as lasting as

is

shown with

is

closed and her eyes gazing into space

whereas Bernini made

iris

Susanna

blank eyeballs of

the

move-

and unchangeable, and

modern draped figure of a saint. This judgement was perfectly justified, since there is hardly
any other work in the history of sculpture, not
the

had done.

playing on the surface, the

any departure from such objectivity

with

drapery that

Bellori regarded the

terized a fleeting instant

ment.

her

it

as Bernini

compelling logic with which Bernini had charac-

beautifully balanced

classically poised treatment of the

moment

gave shape to an ideal norm with the same

of dress and mantle.

folds are gathered together on the slightly

Con-

in a state

of mental and physical repose instead of select-

on the Capitol was always before his mind's eye.

stance and the

.saint

that even he could not en-

dismiss her existence from his thoughts.

Coming from

the Susanna, one finds the stance

having worked under Cortona

at

Castel Fusano,

the other with the Susanna, after having

under Bernini

So

far

in

have treated the Susanna and Bibiana

as basically antagonistic, but this

whole

story.

Nobody

in

is

not the

with any knowledge of

the history of sculpture would

Susanna

worked

St Peter's.

fail

to date the

the seventeenth century. Sacchi's

works have shown that

of Bernini's figure ill-defined and the mantle

and

obscuring rather than underlining the structure

'Baroque classicism' reveals symptoms charac-

of the body. In contrast to the wilfully arranged

teristic

fall

of the folds in the Bibiana, the mantle of the

Algardi's

of the period.

The head

this

of the Susanna

displays a lyrical and delicate sweetness (Bellori

BIBLOSARTE

SACCHl, ALGARDl, AND DUQUhSNOY

called

nor

275

'un aria dolce di grazia purissima')

it

such as

is

in the

found neither

in classical

adored models

antiquity

Raphael and

ot

his

but we do find the same sort of expression

circle;

of the period, such as the almost

in paintings

exactly contemporary frescoes by

in the choir

Domcnichino

of S. Andrea della \alle; and con-

versely, echoes of the

head of the Susannu arc

frequent in Sacchi's pictures. This essentially

seventeenth-century sensibility and the stronger

sensations of ecstasy and \ision do not diflcr
intrinsically,

but only

The blending

in degree.

of classical purity of form with the expression

of seventeenth-century susceptibility had an

immense appeal
is

for

contemporaries,

a tact

which

borne out by the many replicas of the head

of Susanna.^* Moreover, a direct line leads from

here to the often sentimental prettiness of the
'classicist

Rococo''' of which

may

Valle's Temperance [306]

Filippo

della

ser\e as an ex-

ample. Not only has the head of the Susanna

distinctly seventeenth-century flavour the por:

ous and

soft

treatment of the surface, of skin,

the statue - a

life to

Francesco r^uquesnoy

i(i2i)-40.

and dress, which seems

hair,

170.

life

that

is

to

impart

St

Andrew,

Rome. St Peter's

warm

completely lackto the

while the ample cloak endows him with Baroque

typical of the spirit of

the Baroque. Finally, with the subtle relations

mass and weight. Duquesnoy's eminence, however, lay in the handling of works of smaller

ing in most of the ancient models

seventeenth century -

between the
gation,

is

vance of his figure beyond

daries.

and the congre-

dimensions, and this monumental statue lacks

the spiritual rele-

the convincing oneness which in those very

material boun-

years he was able to give to his St Susanna.

steps along the

The statuesque body of the figure contrasts with

statue, the altar,

Duquesnoy enlarged

known

its

Thus he advanced some

the emotional expression of the head; and the

path which Bernini followed to the end.

The

case of the Susanna

is

closely paralleled

by Duquesnoy's St Andrew {1629-40)

The

stance of the figure and the

drapery are of almost academic

fall

[170].^"

of the

classicality,

adapted from ancient statues of Jupiter.

transference of the heroic Jupiter type to the

Christian

arms

A com-

is

had earned

emphatically the deep chasm that divides the

in

artists.

But even

sufficient, for St

this figure

is

not self-

.\ndrew turns with pleading

gesture and devotional expression towards the

heavenly light streaming

in

from the dome.

is

as

unsatisfactory

as

the

petty and feeble.

During

parison with Bernini's Longlnus [74J illustrates

two

saint

Baroque diagonal going through shoulders and

his first
his living

Roman

years

Duquesnoy

mainly by small sculpture

bronze and ivory, by wooden reliquaries, and

bv restoring ancient marbles. Nor are many of

his later

works

in

marble of large

size; neither

tomb of Andrien \'ryburch of ibzq [172]

nor that of Ferdinand van den Eynde of 1633-

the

BIBLOSARTE

276

40

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

17

both

J,

Lorenzo

Maria dcll'Anima, nor

S.

in

tomb of Bernardo Guilelmi

the earlier

Mura),"

fuori Ic

number

which he followed

Montoya

fairly closely Bernini's

less

in

(S.

bust.

171.

Francesco Duquesnoy:

Tomb

of Ferdinand van den Eynde, '6.S3-40.

Rome, S. Alaria

dell' Anima

An end-

of small reliefs and statuettes in

bronze, ivory, wax, and terracotta representing

mythological, bacchic, and religious subjects

continued
of his

to

come from

and

life;

it

his studio to the

was on these

little

end

works of

highest perfection that his reputation was main-

them

based. Artists and collectors valued

ly

very highly and regarded them as equal to antiquity

itself;

and original models and

such works belonged

of

artists' studios.

Duquesnoy's

to the

casts after

ordinary equipment

'-

special interest

was focused on

representations of the putto [172,

He

173].

gave something of the soul of children and

really

modelled their bodies so round,

cate that they

seem

to

soft,

and

deli-

be alive and to breathe;

the subtle transitions between one form and

another and the tenderness of the surface can

be as

reproduced

little

of Correggio's palette.

as the quivering sfumalo

It

was Duquesnoy's con-

ception ot the bambino that became a general

European property and, consciously or unconsciously, most later representations of small

children are indebted to him. But Duquesnoy's

rendering of the putto was not

static,

and

this

is

reflected in the differences of opinion about

the

Vryburch and van den Eynde tombs. Some

critics

regarded only the one, some only the

The truth seems to be that

monuments are entirely by

other as original.

the

putti of both

the

hand of the master; but while the Vryburch

monument,

the earlier of the two, shows a type

close to Titian, those of the van

monument
Even
it

if

Bellori

and Passed had not related

would be impossible

fully

den Eynde

are evidently indebted to Rubens.^

to overlook

Duquesnoy had studied

Titian.

how

it,

care-

We know

from the sources that he was fascinated by

Titian's Children's Bacchanal,
at

that

now in the Prado,

time in the collection of Cardinal

BIBLOSARTE

172.

Francesco Duquesnoy:

173.

Putto from the Andrien Vryburch

Rome, S. Alarta dell'Amma

Tomb,

1621).

Francesco Duquesnoy:

Putto, after 1630. Bronze.

London, Victoria and Albert Aluseum

BIBLOSARTE

278

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

174. Francesco

Duquesnoy: Putto

Frieze,

1640-2. Terracotta model for SS. Apostoli (Naples).

Formerly Berlin. Deutsches

Ludovisi

- a

Poussin.

The

comply

Museum

fascination
putti of the

Borromini's

comparatively firm treatment of the

skin, while those of the

have the

fat bellies

by Rubens. There

example being the

Vryburch monument

closely with Italian standards of beauty

and show

to

which he shared with

and

van den Eynde tomb

soft flexibility of children

are other

works which

testify

Duquesnoy's intimate study of Titian, and

would date

these,

analogous to Poussin's

Venetian period, in the early years, before or

about 1630."

On the other hand Flemish charac-

become more prominent towards the

end of Duquesnoy's career, the most important
teristics

in

relief

with singing putti on

altar of the

Cappella Filomarino

SS. Apostoli, Naples [174].^"

It

appears that Duquesnoy returned to his

native Flemish realism, which had lain dor-

mant under

the impact of the Italian experience,

and that he imparted

other words

work on

it

above

when he was

a large scale,

all

to his putti - in

not concerned with

and therefore

from the ideological Hmitations of the

doctrine.

felt

free

classical

He thus inaugurated a specific Baroque

type, the influence of which not even Bernini

and

his circle could escape.^''

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER

ARCHITECTURAL CURRENTS
OF THE HIGH BAROQ_UE

Each of the three

High

great masters of the

Baroque, Bernini, Borromini, and Pietro da

Cortona, created an idiom
Since

many

most of

or even

were erected

his

in

make

due

situation

for the

The

the great masters.

that

we must

survey

It is

And

minor

the centre ot
as so often in

stars with a dis-

arose in the

wake of

with their work in

be concerned.

first

as the 'Architect to the City' (1602)

a large

Parma,

find

him

working on

number of commissions,- and even when

Innocent

appointed him 'papal architect'

at

entrusted him with the design of the Palazzo

The

Rome

following

necessarily rather cursory, and only

is

Rome we

Piacenza, and Modena.' In

decisive factor of the

every advanced movement.

manner

architectural concep-

the advanced age of seventy-four (1644) and

Rome became

similar circumstances,

Italian

the

far into

to their activity lies in that,

time being,

tinctly personal

on the

itself felt until the later

seventeenth century and extended

eighteenth century.

right.

their buildings

after 1650, their influence,

whole, did not

new

own

imbibed North

tions during his long stays at Bologna,

Pamphili

Navona,^ he appeared un-

in Piazza

burdened by
by modern

his years -

and almost untouched

developments. Together

stylistic

with his son. Carlo, he

later

shouldered the

great task of the planning of S. Agnese. But

by

then - he was eighty-two - the initiative seems

to

have slipped into Carlo's hands. The large

design of the exterior of S. Agnese

in the

Alber-

dome
Ma-

buildings which in the author's view have more

tina,

than ephemeral significance can be mentioned.

and an unsatisfactory fa9ade derived from

Vienna, showing a heavy and clumsy

derno's St Peter's, must be attributed to the

son rather than to the father.^

ROME

however, the extent

Carlo Rain a Id i

to

It

illustrates,

which Carlo accepted

an outmoded fashion.

By

most important architect

far the

after the great trio

Carlo Rainaldi

( 1

was the

6 1 1 -9 1

).

slightly

in

younger

He commands

cular interest not only because his

Rome
parti-

name

is

His time came

1655.

after his

father's death

Soon he wasmovinginto the

developed

a typically

limelight

in

and

Roman grand manner,

though without ever ridding himself of the

mainly three works, exe-

connected with some of the most notable archi-

paternal heritage.

tectural tasks of the century, but also because

cuted during the 1660s and 1670s - S. Maria in

he achieved a unique symbiosis of Mannerist

and High Baroque

his buildings are,
in character

working

in

stylistic features.

Some

of

moreover, more North Italian

at that time.

This was cer-

tainly the result of his long collaboration with

his father,

1570 and

Campitelli, the facade of S. Andrea della Valle,

and the churches

Girolamo, who, born

a pupil

of

in

Rome

in

Domenico Fontana, had

in

the Piazza del Popolo - that

warrant a more thorough discussion.

In 1660

than those of any other architect

Rome

It is

Pope Alexander VII decided

place the old church in the Piazza

by

to re-

Campizucchi

new, magnificent structure of large dimen-

sions.^

Two

years later medals showing Rai-

naldi's design

were buried

BIBLOSARTE

in the

foundations.

28o

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

This design, a grand revision ot the project tor

S.

Agnese, had

common with the predominating dome was to rise

little in

sent building: a

above

concave

ta(;ade

framed by powerful

new building was to be erected [175]. The elevaroom followed closely, but not

tion of the oval

entirely, Bernini's S. .\ndrea al Qiiirinale, for

the strong emphasis on the transverse axis

projecting piers. The deri\ ation from Cortona's

Mannerist motif

facade of SS. Martina e Luca

da Volterra's S.

this

is

evident. Since

scheme was much too ambitious. Carlo

next designed a two-storeyed facade behind

which the dome, considerably reduced

in size,

so

was derived from Francesco

Giacomo degh

Incurabili,

was the shape of the dome, closed

at

and

the apex

and with lunettes cutting deep into the vaulting.

I

have singled out

this plan for a close scrutiny

While he retained from SS.

because the combining of the most recent High

Martina e Luca the concept of the convex

Baroque achievements of Cortona and Bernini

facade between piers, he drew on another of

modified by a deliberate return to a Mannerist

was

to disappear.

Cortona's buildings, namely S. Maria in Via

structure

Lata, for the portico in two storeys.'' At this

design, which

typical of Rainaldi.

is

In the final

stage the plan consisted of a large oval for the

w as still further reduced, Rainaldi

exchanged the oval room with its low dome for

congregation and an architecturally isolated,

a nave,

circular

domed

sanctuary for the miraculous

picture of the Virgin in honour of which the

175. Carlo Rainaldi:

ProiLLt.

i(>'i2.

S.

Rome,

Maria

in

S.

Maria

and

this

required a straight fa9ade.

The

building was begun early in 1663 and finished

by the middle of 1667 [176-8].

in Campitelli.

Campitelli

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURAL CURRENTS OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

The

final

The

scheme.

domed

plan contains a

number

which are adumbrated

features

of exciting
the

in

oval

longitudinal nave, to which the

sanctuary

again attached, opens in

is

the centre into large chapels placed between

smaller chapels.

It will

be recalled that this type

and has only

columns

281

arrangement of

pilasters; but an

identical to that of the chapels, an

and the same

identical accentuation of bays,

type of gilded decoration recur

far

at

the near and

ends of the sanctuary. Thus there are most

telling visual relations

between the large chapels

wander

of plan has a distinctly North Italian pedigree.

and the sanctuary, and the eye can

Notable among such churches

from the impressive barriers of the transverse

Salvatore
rising
S.

at

Bologna (1605 23)

is

Magenta's

[59],

which was

when Girolamo Rainaldi began

Lucia

in the

same

the transverse axis

is

city.

S.

to erect

In S. Salvatore too

strongly emphasized by

means of chapels which open

to the full height

of the nave. In S. Maria in Campitelli these

chapels have been given

bv virtue of

still

more prominence

their decoration with free-standing

columns and by the gilded decorations of the

arches.

Bv

contrast, the nave

is

uniformly white

axis along the

[176].

main direction

Moreover the bright

the sanctuary from the

S.

Maria

to the

light

sanctuary

streaming into

dome immediately

tracts attention. It appears that in this

at-

church

the Mannerist conflict of axial directions has

been resolved and subordinated

High Baroque tendencies of

to the unifying

direction deter-

mined by mass (columns) and

light.

Details,

such as door and balcony surrounds and the

curved pilasters standing

176. Carlo Rainaldi:

Rome,

easily

in Campitelli, 1663-7. Interior

BIBLOSARTE

in the

corners of the

282

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

domed

part,

owe not

a little to

Borromini. But

in

the North. In the year in which Rainaldi's

would be a mistake to believe that there is

anything Borrominesquc in the basic concep-

church was finished Lanfranchi began

tion ot the structure.

arranged

it

What

singles out this building

and gives

it

unique place among the High Baroque churches

of

Rome

manner

is its

in

scenic quality, produced by the

which the eye

is

conducted from the

'cross-arm' to the sanctuary and into depth

from column

to

column. This approach was

home in northern

Italy (p. 122), but in

at

Rome the

scenic character of the architecture of S. Maria

in Campitelli anticipates the

the Late Baroque.

Thus we

development of

find in this extra-

ordinary building North Italian planning coup-

Roman

led with

gravity

and Mannerist retro-

gressions turned into progressive tendencies.

The

plan of S. Maria in CampitelH had no

Rome. On the other hand, one need

not search long to come across similar structures
sequel in

S.

Maria

in Campitelli,

Rocco

in

to build

Turin, where free-standing columns

like

those of S. Maria in Campitelli

Moreover,

were given

a similar scenic function.

the 'false'

Greek cross with an added domed

chapel remained

common

in

the

North through-

out the eighteenth century.^

An interesting combination of North Italian

Roman tendencies will also be found in
the facade of S. Maria in CampitelH [178]. The
and

main

characteristics of this front are the

aedicules, one set into the other

1663

7.

Plan

two

and both going

through the two storeys. This type, which

have called before 'aedicule facade'

no tradition
in

in

Rome;

North of

the

it

Italy

(p. 120),

was, however,

had

common

and only needed the

thorough Romanization brought about by Rainaldi to

by

become

his father's

generally acceptable. Preceded

attempt

in the

design of S. Lucia

178. Carlo Rainaldi:

177. Carlo Rainaldi:

Rome,

S.

Rome,

S.

Maria

in Campitelli, 1663-7. Facjade

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURAL CURRENTS

at

Bologna, Carlo knew

how

to

in the

volume of the orders from

283

increase

pilasters to

half-columns and free-standing columns.

Roman High Baroque

THE HIGH BAROQUE

blend the aedi-

Roman

cule facade with the typically

01"

quality^

is

The
ex-

clearly

pressed in the powerful projections of the pedi-

ments, the heavy and great forms, and the

ample use of columns. Characteristically Ro-

man,

too, are the farthest bays,

which derive

from the Capitoline palaces ;* and the motif of

columns

the two recessed

in the

bays between

the outer and inner aedicule stems from Cortona's SS. Martina e Luca. Rainaldi's trans-

plantation of the
to

Rome

North

led to its

tive realization.

Italian aedicule facade

most mature and most

None

effec-

of the highly individual

church fa9ades by Cortona, Bernini, and Borromini lent

itself freely to imitation.

aedicule conception in

But Rainaldi's

Roman High Baroque

dress was easily applicable to the longitudinal

type of churches and was, therefore, constantly

179. Carlo

repeated and re-adapted to specific conditions."

Rome,

Almost exactly contemporary with

in

S.

S.

Maderno and Carlo

Andrea

Rainaldi:

deila Valle. Facade, 1624 g, i66i

Maria

CampiteUi runs Rainaldi's execution of one

Rome,

that of S.

of the great church facades

in

Andrea

della Valle [179].

Here, however, he

had not

a free

1624 from

The

hand.

facade was begun in

design of Carlo Maderno.

the latter died,

When

remained unfinished with only

it

naldi's design,

and since there

is

proof that

Carlo Fontana was Rainaldi's assistant during

1

66 1 and 1662,"

responsible for

all

sent fa9ade of S.

it

must have been he who was

these modifications.

Andrea

High Baroque

The pre-

della Valle, therefore,

Maderno

the pedestals of the order standing. Rainaldi

is

not only turned Maderno's design into an aedi-

design by Carlo Rainaldi, whose design

cule facade but also

managed by

a stress

on

mass, weight, and verticalism to bring to bear

upon

the older project the stylistic tendencies

of the mid seventeenth century.

which we

The

facade

see today does not, however, entirely

correspond to Rainaldi's intentions.'" As compared with his design, the present facade shows

alteration of a

turn was 'purified' and stripped of

guities

its

in its

ambi-

by Carlo Fontana.

Concurrently with

S.

Maria

in

CampiteUi

and the fa9ade of

S.

Andrea

work of S. Maria

di

Monte Santo and

de' Miracoli in the Piazza del

Here the

architect had to

della Valle ran the

S.

Maria

Popolo [180, 181].

show

his skill as a

detail, a

town-planner. His task consisted of creating an

simplification of niche and door surrounds, an

impressive piazza which would greet the tra-

a greater severity in the

isolation of decoration

structural parts,

of the upper

and

tier.

treatment of

and sculpture from the

change

in the

proportions

All these alterations go in

and the same direction: thev

classicize

one
Rai-

veller

on entering

Popolo.

From

streets radiate

Rome

by the Porta del

the Piazza del Popolo three

main

between the Pincio and the Tiber,

each of them leading into the heart of the

BIBLOSARTE

city.

284

The

rUF.

AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

decisive points were the

tions, facing the piazza

two front eleva-

between these

streets.

S.

Maria

de' Miracoli, Rainaldi

produced the

impression from the square of identity of size

On

At these points Rainaldi planned two sym-

and shape.'-

metrical churches with large and impressive

stone of the left-hand church, S.

domes

Monte

as focusing-features

Popolo. But since the

from the Porta del

were unequal

Santo, was

15 July 1662 the foundation

laid.

Maria

di

After an interruption in

in

1673 building activity was continued from a

symmetry which was here essential

was not easily attained. By choosing an oval
dome for the narrower site of S. Maria di Monte

project by Bernini, and Carlo Fontana, as acting

sites

size, the

Santo and

a circular

dome

for the larger

one of

architect,

completed the church by the Holy

Year 1675. Rainaldi himself remained

in

charge

of S. Maria de' Miracoli, which was executed

BIBLOSARTE

285

i8o (opposite).

Rome, Piazza

del Popolo,

from G. B. Nolli's plan, 1748

181 (below). Carlo Rainaldi and Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Rome, Piazza

del Popolo. S.

Maria

di

Monte Santo and

S.

Maria de' Miracoli, 1662 79

Much more

assistance."

between 1675 and 1679, again with Fontana's

The interior of S. Maria di Monte

the exteriors of these churches.

Santo shows, of course, none of Rainaldi's

with their classically poised porticoes, which

idiosyncrasies.

At

S.

Maria

de' Miracoli

on the

seem

strong accentuation of the transverse axis but

liarities

it

by emphasizing

at

the

same

time the homogeneity' of the circular space.

wedded Mannerist ambiguity

roque desire

to the

for spatial unification.

He

High Ba-

The

fa9ades

already appear in the foundation medal of 1662,

other hand Rainaldi worked once again with a

counteracted

important than the interiors are

to contradict in

doubt

of Rainaldi's

is

youthful

whom

many

respects the pecu-

style. In fact,

no reasonable

possible that he was influenced by his

assistant,

Carlo

Fontana,

through

he became familiar with Bernini's ap-

proach to architecture.'^

BIBLOSARTE

When

working for

286

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

Bernini on the plans of the Square of St Peter's,

the older chapels of Sixtus

V and

Fontana must also have been involved

the medieval apse between

them

nini's

project

in

Ber-

remained on

of 1659 (which

paper) to erect a four-columned portico

in

front

point from a great distance.

It is

compare Bernini's

the classical temple was realized in the churches

naldi's executed front. Bernini

But the Berninesque

appearance of these porticoes has an even more

tangible reason, for

it

was precisely here that

Bernini altered Rainaldi's design in 1673. R^'"

naldi

wanted

to

place the pediments of the

porticoes against a high attic. For him a pediment was always an element of linear emphasis.

Bernini abolished Rainaldi's

own

accordance with his

pediment regained

its

attic, so that,

style, the

in

free-standing

full classical plasticity.

V and

design (1673), forming an impressive view-

of Maderno's facade of the basilica. This idea of

in the Piazza del Popolo.'^

Paul

into a grand

informative to

project of i66g with Rai-

wanted

to screen

the apse with an open portico; his design

bodied

a structural organization of the

em-

utmost

sculptural expressiveness, while in Rainaldi's

somewhat

straggling front the apse stands out

from the thin and unconvincing wall of the

high

attic.

In the early 1670s Rainaldi was also respon-

and the interior decoration

sible for the fa9ade

of Gesu e Maria
the

(p. 315).

In addition, during

670s and 1680s he had a hand

in a great

Moreover, Bernini probably had a formative

many

influence on the solution of Rainaldi's most

S.

pressing problem. Bernini always had the be-

Carlo

ai

altars,

and the completion of older churches."'

mind and the optical imstructure would make on him from

holder foremost in
pression a
a

One wonders,

given viewpoint.

therefore,

smaller enterprises, such as chapels in

Lorenzo

But

in

Lucina, S. Maria

in Araceli, S.

the design of

Catinari,

tombs and

was waning. Although Rainaldi's

his star

principal works belong to the 1660s, he repre-

Roman High

whether Rainaldi would ever have devised the

sents a slightly later phase of the

pseudo-symmetrical arrangement of these chur-

Baroque than the three great masters. In

ches without the impact of Bernini's approach

Cortona's and Borromini's careers came

to architecture. In

any

case,

it is

that Rainaldi began planning the

Greek

worth noting

two churches
crosses.

This

would have made absolutely symmetrical

struc-

as corresponding 'false'

fact

to

an

decade, while Rainaldi worked on

end

in that

for

almost another generation. His life-long

attachment

to

plantation to

Mannerist principles,

Rome

his trans-

of North Italian concep-

tures possible, but at the expense of the size of

tions of planning, his scenic use of the free-

the domes. However, the final design marks a

standing column, his borrowings from Bernini,

new and important departure from the enclosed

piazza, for the churches not only create a monu-

a distinctly individual

mental front on the piazza but also crown the

wedge-shaped

sites,

unifying and emphasizing

The

the ends of long street fronts.

street

new town-planning

device

and square, was

-

High Baroque, and heralding

With the exception of the

in

foreign to the

new

fell to

Rainaldi

any way comparable with those that have

been discussed. In

S.

blended

in

never carries the conviction of any of the cogent

High Baroque

architectural systems.

Martina Loiighi

the Younger,

Vincenzo delta Greca, Antonio del Grande,

and Giovan Antonio

de' Rossi

age.

exterior of the apse

of S. Maria Maggiore no work

- all this is

manner which, however,

breaking-in

of the streets into the piazza, or rather the

weaving into one of

Cortona, and Borromini

Maria Maggiore he united

Next

to Rainaldi there

were four approximately

contemporary architects of some distinction

working

in

title to this

Rome, whose names

section.

are given in the

Apart from Giovan Antonio

BIBLOSARTE

i82.

Martino Longhi the Younger: Rome, SS. Vincenzo ed Anastasio. Fac^ade, 1646 30

BIBLOSARTE

288

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

them has many buildings

de' Rossi,

none

his credit.

Martino Longhi (1602-60), the son

ot

to

of Onorio and grandson of the elder Martino,

belonged

come

to

Rome from

to

who had

an old family of architects

Viggiu. His reputation

is

central segmental

pediment from which

com-

pressed shell juts out energetically: instead of

capping the inner pair of columns,

crowns

it

the angularly broken tablet (with the inscription)

which

is

superimposed on the entablature

mainly based on one work of outstanding merit,

above the door.

the fa9ade of SS. Vincenzo ed Anastasio in the

projections at the level of the entablature cor-

Piazza di Trevi, built for Cardinal Mazarin

between 1646 and 1650

to that

front,

ments top the outer and inner pairs of columns.-'

own and

is

as little derived

as the facades of SS.

Carlo

alle

at

a closely

three

is

in a class

is

from

earlier

The

principal

free-standing

each side of the central bay, forming

connected triad which

tiers.

To

Martina e Luca or

Quattro Fontane.

of the fa9ade

feature

columns

is

repeated in

This repetition, together with the

slight stepping

forward of the columns towards

the centre, gives the motif

The freedom which

the

its

brio and power.'"

columns have here

at-

This rather cumbersome analysis has shown

that the relationship

and the columns

is

between the pediments

as inconsistent as that be-

tween the lower and upper

inconsistency

may

triad,

very well

and

in this

part of the

lie

peculiar attraction of the facade. Seen genetically,

Longhi employed Mannerist devices but

subordinated them to an overwhelmingly High

Baroque

dencies,

Longhi combined Berninesque

for

free-moving, realistic sculpture with the rigid,

is

evidenced by the fact that their move-

hard, and tactually indifferent motifs of

ment

is

not dependent on, or caused by, a

nerism.

gradation of the wall, and their impression of

energetic strength

is

lation of massive pediments. It

inforced

logical

was obscured
farthest

is

further re-

by the large caesuras between the

and the outer columns

But the

accumu-

reinforced by the

in the

lower

tier.'"

arrangement of the articulation

in

more than one

place.

The

columns and the third columns of the

It

Carlo Rainaldi, did not entirely eliminate

nerist ambiguities,

by

and

this

view

where

in the crossing

columns matched two

the oval dome.--

The

two free-standing

construction of S. Carlo

Corso, one of the largest churches

begun by

his father Onorio,

for several decades. It is fair to

tier,

in

contrast to the upper one, no

structural link exists between the third

of the triads.-" Such a link, however,

for the

is

columns
provided

second columns by the broken pediment,

the two segments of which are connected by

decorative sculpture.

More

problematical

is

the

in

Rome,

occupied Martino

plan with an

lower

Man-

strengthened

pilasters as supports of

lower triad frame empty wall space, and that

complementary is emphasized by the unbroken

entablature that unites them. Moreover in the

is

study of his modernization of S. .\driano

(1656),

al

Man-

appears, therefore, that Longhi, like

two such columns should be regarded

as

The

of grandeur and mass.

effect

character of the decoration reveals similar ten-

tained

triads

those

the optical impression that the two lower pedi-

models

both

tier or to

High Baroque massiveness

be sure, SS. Vincenzo ed Anastasio

S.

in structure either

upper

of S. Maria in Campitelli, but the simiconsists in

its

number, but not

in

of the triad of columns. But Longhi created

is

rather than in any actual interdependence.

of

respond

to the projections of the

superficially similar

thickly set with columns,

larity

This

[182].'"

be noticed that the

will

It

assume

that the

ambulatory, quite unique for

Rome, depends on northern models. But

history of S. Carlo

is

since Cortona rather than Martino

sible for the decoration, hardly
latter's

personal style can

Vincenzo

in

was respon-

any trace of the

now be discovered.-'
who came to Rome

della Greca,-^

from Palermo, deserves

work

the

extremely involved, and

a brief note

SS. Domenico e Sisto.

BIBLOSARTE

The

tor

his

flat,

re-

ARCHITECTURAL CURRENTS OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

actionary facade, always attributed to him but

designed by Nicola Turriani

in reality

in 1628,-'

would not be worth mentioning were

its

even returned

to the

ment of Giacomo

zSi)

Late Mannerist arrange-

della Porta's Palazzo Chigi

not for

in

the Piazza Colonna, and also truly .Mannerist

superb position on high ground, of which

is

the portal with

it

its

frame of pilasters super-

Vincenzo della Greca made the most by devising

imposed on quoins. More progressive are the

an imaginative staircase (1654) which ascends

details of the

two elegant, curved

entrance.

The

idea

flights to the height

was probably derived from

Cortona's Villa del Pigneto, but

a

Roman

Baroque
to

in

of the

it

was here that

architect built for the

time a

first

staircase in an urban setting

prelude

Specchi's Port of the Ripetta and to the

grand spectacle of

De

Sanctis's Spanish Stairs.

Although more eminent than Vincenzo

Greca, Antonio del Grande,-' a

whose

activity

is

Roman

and some door-surrounds inside the

palace,

where Borromini's dynamic

documented between 1647 and

show that could com-

down

has been toned

movement. The most

life

of forms

to a peculiar staccato

interesting feature

is

per-

haps the vestibule, impressively spacious and

ample and with

treatment of detail of almost

puritanical sobriety.-"'

Giovan Antonio

della

by birth

window-frames of the second

storey

de' Rossi (1616-95), ^ con-

temporary of Carlo Rainaldi, produced some

works that might be described

as transitional

1671, also has nothing to

between the High and the Late Baroque. This

pare with Longhi's SS. Vincenzo ed Anastasio.

is

Most of his work

secular buildings.

is

domestic, done in the service

less

obvious in his ecclesiastical than his

Some

of his ecclesiastical

Pamphih families. His

monumental Carceri Nuovi (1652-8) in Via
Giulia owe not a little of their eflect to Borro-

softened High Baroque in which the influence

mini's influence, as the deeply grooved cornice

detected.

proves. In his great gallery of the Palazzo Colon-

Cappella Lancellotti

of the Colonna and

na, of impressive

Rome, begun

dimensions and the largest

in 1654,

and vaulted

in 1665,

work belongs

of each of the three great masters can easily be

We may

in

rano,'" built

he

columns

took up the theme of Borromini's gallery of the

to the finest flower of a slightly

single out the interesting

in S.

Giovanni

the whole clearly a Baroque re-

interpretation of Michelangelo's design of the

Maria Maggiore. The

Palazzo Pamphili in the Piazza Navona. At both

Cappella Sforza

ends of the gallery he screened

masterpiece of his mature style

off adjoining

rooms by free-standing columns, an

may have come

al

to

him from Bernini's

idea that
S.

Andrea

Quirinale, then rising.-' His most important

work

is

that part of the Palazzo Doria-Pamphili

which faces the Piazza

del Collegio

Romano

(1659-61).-" But the large fa9ade contains no

new

or important ideas.

It

follows Girolamo

Rainaldi's design for the Palazzo Pamphili in

the Piazza

Navona

in that the central

bays are

Campo Marzo
way

the Via della

of the facade, outside the central bays,

tradition of

Roman

is

in

the

palazzo fronts; but with the

unequal rhythm of the windows the architect

S.

Maria

in

Greek

but without drum.

The

is

devised in the best

Roman High

Baroque.

Still

Monte

di Pieta, a little jewel

resplendent with

coloured marble incrustation and amply decorated with reliefs, statues, and stuccoes.'- But

High Baroque density of space- and

wall-treatment

rest

is

he built the oval chapel in the Palazzo

an additive system which lacks the High Ba-

The

dome

Maddalena

of the

nohile.

S.

the bulk of the apse closes the view from

tradition of the
later

in

(1682-5),^' an impressive

cross with oval

articulated by orders in two tiers resulting in

roque emphasis on the piano

Late-

in

on an oval plan with projecting

Among

little

remains.

Rossi's palaces, two require special

mention: the Palazzo

.Altieri in

the Piazza del

Gesii and the Palazzo D'.Aste-Bonaparte over-

looking the Piazza Venezia.

BIBLOSARTE

The

first

is

his

THE

Zqo

AGF.

most extensive

OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

if

not his most accomplished

work. Begun by Cardinal Giovan Battista Altieri

in

1650, the palace was probably finished at

palace

is

essentially a revision of the traditional

Roman type. Only the Borrominesque roundedoff

corners and the chaste, unorthodox order in

the time ot the latter's death in 1654. After the

three

accession to the papal throne of the Altieri Pope

progressive;

Clement

an enlargement became necessary,

which Rossi carried out between 1670 and

1676.'^

The new

parts

Venezia continue the

main

Reserve

unpretentious.

and

immaculate

an

Rossi's intelligent blending of Cortonesque and

Although the

re-

interior rather than

solving his difficult task shows that

are dealing with a resourceful architect.

Palazzo D'Aste-Bonaparte [183]

is

we

The

perhaps the

most accomplished example of his mature manDesigned

the motifs, including the elegant

scheme but

earlier

the traditional facade deserves attention, Rossi's

ner. ^^

all

curved pediments of the windows, are rather

sense of proportion are the virtues of this style.

older palace stands out unimpaired as the prin-

skill in

retaining the four facades, are mildly

towards the Piazza

architecturally unobtrusive, so that the

cipal building.

tiers,

as a free-standing block, the

Borrominesque decorative

detail

and

its

trans-

formation into a comparatively light and pleasant personal idiom

such

as

we

see

it

in the

pediments of the Palazzo D'Aste and on many

occasions

predestined him to play an impor-

tant part in the

development of eighteenth-

century architecture.

It is

not by chance that

Alessandro Specchi's Palazzo de Carolis (now

Banco

Roma)" and Tommaso

di

de Marchis's

Palazzo Millini-Cagiati,^" both on the Corso,

vary Rossi's Palazzo D'Aste but
183.

Giovan Antonio

de' Rossi:

Rome, Palazzo D'Aste-Bonaparte, 1658-

little.

further

many

study would show that the style of his

some of which have been

smaller palaces
pulled

down

in recent years

determined the

character of innumerable houses of the aristo-

cracy and wealthy bourgeoisie of eighteenth-

century Rome.''

ARCHITECTURE OUTSIDE ROME

During the roughly

fifty

years between 1630

and 1680 the architectural panorama

of Italy

is

on the whole

might be prepared
had

in the rest

less interesting

to expect. Venice,

a great architect.

But Lombardy,

than one
it is

true,

after the

and varied Borromeo era, had little to offer;

Genoa was exhausted by the plague of 1657;

full

Turin, under her progressive rulers, was only

beginning to develop into an important architectural centre.

at

To

be sure, Ricchino carried on

Milan and Bianco

at

Genoa

till

after 1650,

but the climax of their activity lay earlier

century.

in the

When all is said and done, there remain

only three High Baroque architects of more than

average rank outside

BIBLOSARTE

Rome: Longhena

in

Ve-

ARCHITECTURAL CURRENTS OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

nice,

Gherardo

Fanzago

me by

to

Silvani in Florence, and

Naples.

in

far the greatest. In addition, there is

Guarino Guarini, who must be regarded

many

There

tion.

separate

to a slightly later

however, good reason not to

work from the survey of later

Piedmontese architecture

and

numbers

over the country, but historically speaking

all

many

Roman

precedent or assis-

tance but are also often retardataire by

standards.

The

Palazzo Ducale

of the largest palaces in

Modena, one

at

may

Italy,

Roman

serve as an

Roman

soil.

These

figures,

seem-

oque descendants of Leone Leoni's Mannerist

on the facade of the Palazzo degli

atlantes

Omenoni

Milan and must be regarded

at

as

an

important link with the use of the same motif

in the

German Baroque. A similar

Roman and North Italian ideas is

Austrian and

mixture of

be found

Giovan

in

Battista Bergonzoni's

(1629-92) S. Maria della Vita, which belongs

to the

end of the period under discussion. The

main body of the church was

of these buildings are 'provincial', since

they not only rely on

are not on

291

ingly bending under a heavy load, are the Bar-

to

(p. 403).

this period churches, palaces,

of intrinsic merit rose in great

villas

genera-

is,

his

During

in

High Baroque

respects as a master of the

although he belongs

we

Cosimo

Of these, Longhena seems

1686 and 1688, while the oval

erected until a century later.*"

from

S.

Agnese

in Piazza

built

between

dome was not

The derivation

Navona

is

evident in

tne elevation rather than in the plan [184].

While the

latter

is

actually a rectangle with

example. Attributed to the mediocre Bartolo-

bevelled corners and shallow transverse chapels,

meo Avanzini

the elevation

at

1608-58),"*

{c.

is

it

certain that

the beginning, between 1631 and 1634, Giro-

lamo Rainaldi had

a leading

hand

ning; the present palace shows, in

in the

with Rainaldi's Palazzo Pamphili

Piazza

Navona.

In

1651

criticism of Bernini, Cortona,

his return
tions.

from

Paris,

in the

184.

Giovan

to the

Modena in 1665 on
made further sugges-

at

of all these masters, and particularly

it

\\

doubtful whether the history of the building

s

can ever be fully disentangled.

Bologna, always an important centre of the

and always a melting-pot of Central and

North

Italian

conceptions, provides another

aspect of the situation. Between 1638 and 1658

Bartolomeo Provagha

(d.

1672), the architect

of the magnificent Porta Galliera (1661), built

the Palazzo Davia-Bargellini with an austere

and monumental fa9ade, rather unusual

Bologna, but close to

Roman

for

palazzo types.

Only the two free-moving, massive

atlantes that

carry the balcony above the entrance

cross, with

Battista Bergonzoni:

and Borromini,

of Bernini, were certainly incorporated, but

arts

Greek

resting on projecting

Bologna, S. Maria della Vita, begun 1686. Plan

Later (1681) Guarini directed the execu-

tion. Ideas

is

dome

Avanzini's design,

based on that of Rainaldi, was submitted

and Bernini, stopping

treated like a

plan-

fact, a distinct

affinity

is

the arches under the

show

that

BIBLOSARTE

v\

Till.

Zi)2

AUh OF

columns/"

to the oval

main room, and

square choir with

with the North

Ricchino had
Milan. Yet
a

century

is

it

developed

is

joined

which

Giuseppe

in S.

at

Longhena won

as an ex voto.

competition

against .Antonio Fracao and Zambattista Rubertini,

as a

who had suggested a Latin-cross plan, and,

memorandum by his hand shows, he was

church, built half

w ell aware and immensely proud of the novelty

congregational room and

of his design. Construction began on 6 Septem-

in contrast to this

earlier, the

dome

this that tallies

type of plan

Italian

fully

BAROQtt

UlUll

Till-

and

more than twent} years the

the choir are here firmly interlocked, for the

ber

arch as well as the supporting columns belong

bulk of the structure was standing though the

both spaces: they have exactly corresponding

consecration did not take place until 1687, five

to

counterparts

end of the choir. Gaetano

at the far

Gandolfi and Serafino Barozzi, by painting be-

63

years

after

the

after

Venice

death.

architect's

tween 1776 and 1779 a domed room which extends, so it seems, behind the choir, stressed

entrance to the Canal Grande; but

only the scenic qualitv contained in the archi-

wrong

tecture

of the building, as

is

getting that this

in ever}- respect

It

itself.

interest of Bolo-

was the long established

gnese quadratura painters

illusions that

found

in

ever

response in the architects

end of the century. The

at the

more daring

staircase hall of

the Palazzo Cloetta-Fantuzzi (1680) by Paolo

CanaH (1618-80)

is

Two

a case in point.

open above into arcades and are

flights

both sides under the painted ceiling

graphic spectacle which

A new

era

architects found here a

and developed

in the

model

later

Rome.

Bolognese

that they followed

The

ot

staircase

Palazzo Cloetta illustrates a volte-face

Rome

from

to

grand staircase designs

the eighteenth century (p. 391).

in the

- a sceno-

owed nothing

was dawning, and

from

to Venice.

genius of Longhena,

It

is

a tribute to the

who was

found influence on North

to

have

a pro-

Italian architecture.

much on

to insist too

is

it

would be

the picturesqueness

usually done, while for-

one of the

most interesting and subtle structures of the

entire seventeenth century.

No

needed

further credenfor

detailed

salient feature of the plan

is

a regular

are,

tials

therefore,

analysis.

The

broad

lit

is

nowadays unthinkable without the picturesque

silhouette of this church, which dominates the

octagon surrounded by an ambulatory [185].

This seems

to be

unique

in

Renaissance and

post-Renaissance architecture, but the type

of Late Antique ancestry- (S. Costanza,

and

is

common

in

is

Rome)

medieval, particularly Byzan-

tine, buildings (S. Vitale,

Ravenna). Longhena

reverted to these early sources only for the plan

and not

for the elevation.

The

latter is a free

adaptation of a well-known North Italian type

derived from Bramante,^* S. Maria della Salute
differing

from the Renaissance models mainly

in the decorative interpretation

of the columns.

Instead of continuing the columns of the octa-

Baldassare Longhena {i^g8-i682)

Longhena's span of

gon

corresponds almost

life

exactly to that of Bernini, and unquestionably

he

is

the only Venetian architect of the seven-

teenth century-

who comes

great Romans.^'

He

left

find

of each column.

It

is

these iconographically

important figures of prophets that turn each

and

same

close in stature to the

column

time emphasize the enclosed centralized cha-

della Salute [185-9],

in the

midst of his vast

life.^-

drum, we

topping the projecting entablature

one capital work,

Maria

working

into the architecture of the

a large figure

S.

which occupied him

activity for

most of

his

During the plague of 1630 the

Republic deliberated the erection of a church

into an isolated unit

at the

main room. The idea may have

Longhena from the famous woodcut

racter of the

come
in

to

Colonna's Hypnerotomachia

show s precisely

this

BIBLOSARTE

motif

Polifili,

in a section

which

through

185. Baldassare Longhena:

Venice, S. Maria della Salute,

begun

63 1.

Section and plan

BIBLOSARTE

294

'

T"H''-

'^f'F.

a centralized

OF TF^E HIGH BAROQUE

domed

building with ambulatory.

But the Hyptterotomachia, well known

to

every

Venetian, can of course have determined only

the conceptual direction, not the actual archi-

with which he was

linked in a hundred direct and indirect ways.

From

Palladio derives the colouristic treat-

ment: grey stone

for the structural parts

the walls and

and

But

Longhena

used, as

whitewash

seen. Late Antique, medieval

and Bra-

should be remembered that this was not Pal-

tectural planning.

we have

to the Palladian tradition

For

it

mantesque ideas and wedded them, moreover.

for

ladio's speciahty;

it

BIBLOSARTE

fillings.

it

had, in fact, a medieval

ARCHITECTURAL CURRENTS OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

pedigree, was taken up and systematized by

Brunelleschi, and after

him used by most

archi-

who were connected with the classical

Florentine tradition. The architects of the Roman Baroque never employed this method of
tects

differentiation,

the isolating effect of which

would have interfered with the dynamic rhythms

295

rentine procedure, where colour invariably sus-

Longhena's

tains a coherent metrical system,

colour scheme

is

not logical

colour for him was

an optical device which enabled him to support

or suppress elements of the composition, there-

by directing the beholder's

Many

vision.

details of the Salute are also Palladian,

of their buildings. In contrast, however, to Flo-

such as the orders, the columns placed on high

186 and 187. Baldassare Longhena:

pedestals (see S. Giorgio Maggiore), and the

Venice, S. Maria della Salute, begun 163 1.

View towards the chapels

(opposile)

and view towards the high

altar

segmental windows with mullions

[186], a type derived

from

in the

chapels

Roman thermae and

(above)

introduced by Palladio into ecclesiastical architecture (S. Giorgio,

II

Redentore). All these

elements combine to give the Salute the severe

and chaste appearance of a Palladian structure.

BIBLOSARTE

"rirt!;**!? '!'!'":

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURAL CURRENTS OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

But

can be shown that Palladio's influence

it

was even more

One
in

297

w indows in two tiers. "' Shape

chapels by normal

and

vital.

depend on the Re-

detail of the sanctuary

of Longhena's chief problems consisted

dentore, where Palladio had performed a similar

preserving the octagonal form outside with-

change of system between the nave and the

out sacrificing clarity and lucidity inside.

By

the seemingly simple device of making the sides

centralized portion.

third room, the rectangular choir,

is

sepa-

of two consecutive pillars parallel to each other,

rated from the sanctuary by an arch resting

he succeeded

on pairs of free-standing columns, between

which rises the huge, picturesque high altar.

in

giving the optically important

units of the ambulatory and the chapels regular

geometrical shapes/^ entirely in the spirit of

the

The

Renaissance.

organization
in the ideal

is

and

Looking from

meaning of

full

revealed only

when one

real centre of the

this point in

appear

Longhena's passionate

homogeneous

in the field

interest in

the beholder's field of vision

stands

octagon [187].

any direction, the

spectator will find that entirely

'pictures' always

this

is

of

vision.^''

determining

surely one of the

which made him choose the proble-

factors

matical octagon with ambulatory rather than

one of the traditional Renaissance designs over

a centralized plan.

It

cannot be emphasized

Inside the choir the architectural system changes

again: two small orders of pilasters are placed

one above the other. At the

Longhena, one

opening the door

not given a chance to wander

would seem

between them.

From

the entrance of the church the

and arch framing the high

through

been

have

could

not

a few steps,

nova),

any
is

Following the

Renaissance tradition of centra-

(Bramante's

S.

Maria

di

Canepa-

main room and sanctuary form almost

independent
the

carried

appears only loosely

connected with the octagon.

lized plans

domed

he found a way of unifying

it

is

important that only

is

visible -

columns

altar lie in the field

this

motif

and the beholder

is

other: from the octagon to the ambulatory and

Moreover, the sanctuary, which

Italian

that the centralization of the

further.

North

in

mean

directed to the spiritual centre of the church

octagon

reached over

units

and

off

make conquests of its own.

It

conclude, simply

spatial

these entities by creating scenic connexions

and no more

is

to

isolated

to a serious misinterpretation,

for in actual fact

of vision -

the eye

end of the choir

Renaissance-like manner. But this would

too strongly that no other type of plan allows

here

tempted

is

grouped together

only carefully integrated views to be seen

far

three small arches appear in the field of vision.^'

units.

For the two large apses of

sanctuary Longhcna employed a

sequence of arches, one behind the

the altar and, concluding the vista, to the arched

wall of the choir.

Thus,

in spite

of the Renais-

sance-like isolation of spatial entities and in

spite of the carefully calculated centralization

of the octagon, there

along the longitudinal

is

a scenic progression

axis. It is often said that

Baroque architecture owes

contemporary

stage.

a great deal to the

As regards Roman High

Baroque architecture,

it

is

correct only with

system entirely different from that of the octa-

considerable qualifications, for an architecture

gon: he used giant pilasters instead of columns

aiming

and replaced the mullioned windows of the

non-scenic. Quite different Longhena: in his

at

dynamic

spatial eff^ects

is

intrinsically

case a specific relation to the stage does exist.

In S. Maria della Salute clearly defined pros-

pects appear one behind the other like wings

188. Baldassare

on a

Longhena:

Venice, S. Maria della Salute, begun 1631

stage. Instead of inviting the eye - as the

Roman Baroque

architects did - to glide along

BIBLOSARTE

298

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

the walls and savour a spatial continuum,

ghena constantly determines the

Lon-

vistas across

the spaces.

apparent that the judicious grouping of

It is

self-contained units rather than the

Roman con-

cept of dynamic spatial unification was the pre-

condition for a strictly scenographic architec-

This

ture.

why

also explains

in spite, or just

because, of

dencies was essentially

even

the Late

its

Baroque

classicizing ten-

scenographic

style,

Rome.^^

in

In unifying separate spaces by optical devices,

Longhena once

The

hall-like

again followed Palladio's lead.

nave and the centralized

part of the Redentore

domed

entirely separate entities

are knit together optically for the view

the entrance,^' and

integration

it

was

from

this principle of scenic

Longhena developed much

that

Thus, based on Palladio, Longhena

further.

to the

Roman

Baroque. His Venetian Baroque was,

in fact,

had worked out an alternative

the only high-class alternative Italy had to offer.

It is

for

not sufficiently realized that in their search

new values many

architects of the late seven-

teenth century turned from

Rome

to

Venice

and embraced Longhena's scenographic concepts.

Like the
S.

Maria

interior, the

della Salute

deliberations [188].

dome
tory.

The

result of sober

thrust of the large

diverted on to pairs of buttresses (the

is

scrolls)

picturesque exterior of

was the

which

The

rest

on the arches of the ambula-

side walls of the chapels (aligned with

these arches) are therefore abutments to the

dome.

It is

often maintained that Longhena's

Salute follows closely a design engraved by

Labacco

in 1558.

This opinion, however, cannot

be accepted without reservation.''" Even

ghena was attracted by the large

if

Lon-

scrolls

in

Labacco's engraving, he entirely transformed

them and invented the imaginative decorative

which introduce a luxuriant note into

89. Baldassare

Longhena:

spirals

Venice, S. Maria della Salute, begun 163

his otherwise austere design.

View

into the

dome

BIBLOSARTE

1.

ARCHITECTURAL CURRENTS OF THE H

The

large

dome

of the Salute has an inner

Rome, Longhena

(i

BAROQUE

organic whole of outside and inside,

of lead over wood, in keeping with Venetian

an impressionist approach

custom (including

ing tends to obscure. '-

Palladio).

While the principal

299

has created in the Salute an

[189] and outer vault, the outer one consisting

to this

a fact

which

kind of build-

dome ultimately derives from that of St Peter

the subsidiary dome with its stilted form over a
simple circular brick drum and framed by two

main exceedingly

campanili follows the Byzantine-Venetian tradi-

to

The grouping
subsidiary dome fits

church of this type. Carlo Fontana's Jesuit Sanc-

Centralized buildings with ambulatories re-

s,'''

tion.

hiente - the

together of a main and a

well into the Venetian cim-

domes of S. Marco

are quite near -

tuary at Loyola

common

building.

No

less

domes from

the

one and the same

important than the aspect of

a distance

the near view of

is

From

the lower zone from the Canal Grande.

left

of the main

They

are therefore

here the chapels right and

entrance are conspicuous.
elaborately treated like
their

own

little

church facades

in

right; in fact they are clever adapta-

tions of the small front of Palladio's Chiesa

delle Zitelle.

Their small order

is

taken up in

the gigantic triumphal arch motif of the

entrance.

It is

motif that

this

main
on

sets the seal

central arch with the framing

columns

corresponds exactly to the interior arches of

the octagon, so that the

Spain, could not, however,

Thus a Late

della Salute.'''
in

theme

is

given before

.Antique plan,

Byzantine architecture, revised

in

seventeenth-century Venice, was taken up by a

Roman

architect and transplanted to Spain.

Longhena's other works

terra fermii

This

is

in

Venice and on the

can hardly vie with his magnum opus.

true of his two other large churches, the

early cathedral at Chioggia (1624-47)'''

Maria degli Scalzi

^nd

S.

Venice (begun 1656);^'

in

the latter, a simple hall structure with large

central chapels, stimulated a considerable

num-

ber of later church plans. As characteristic for

one

facet of his late style

immensely

we may mention the

rich fa9ade of the

little

rOspedaletto near SS. Giovanni

the entire composition.

The

in

have been designed without the model of S.

Maria

in

Lon-

and study. The only other important

see

boldly enriched by the use of entirely different

domes and drums

rare in Italy, even after

ghena's great masterpiece was there for anybody

but never before had the silhouette been so

types of

Chiesa del-

Paolo (1670-

where the structure seems submerged

8),'^"

under

many

glittering sculptural decoration. In his

palaces

we

find

him slowly turning away

one enters the church. In addition, the small

from the dry classicism of his teacher Scamozzi^'

order also repeats the one inside, and the niches

and evolving

for statues in

two

is,

in fact,

devised

the central door

in a

tiers

conform

And more than

in the sanctuary.

to the
this

like a scenae frons,

thrown wide open,

windows

the facade

and with
as

shown

contemporary engraving, the consecutive

sequence of arches inside the church, contained

by the triumphal arch, conjures up

stage setting.

It

proper

can hardly be doubted that the

scenae frons of Palladio's Teatro Olimpico had

a typically Venetian

High Baroque

manner by a premeditated regression to Sansovino's High Renaissance palaces. The formula

of rusticated ground floor, ample use of columns
in the

upper storeys, and

a far-reaching dis-

solution of wall surface suited

His

final

him

perfectly.

triumph of sculptural accentuation.

Baroque monumentality, and luminous

rich-

ness will be found in the celebrated Palazzi

Rezzonico and Pesaro

[190],'*"

which

fully ex-

on Longhena's

pose his debt to Sansovino's Palazzo Corner

thought. In a sense entirely different from Cor-

and, to a lesser extent, Sanmicheli's Palazzo

a decisive formative influence

tona's, Borromini's,

and Bernini's churches

in

Grimani. Thus, measured by

BIBLOSARTE

Roman

standards

300

THE AGE OF THE

190. Baldassare

lIKill

BAROQUE

Longhena;

Venice, Palazzo Pesaro, 1652/9-1710

of the

660s, these splendid palaces must be

regarded as retrogressive.
in

On

the other hand,

the staircase hall of the monastery of S.

Giorgio Maggiore (1643-5) [iQiJi where two

parallel flights ascend along the walls to a

mon

landing,

consummate
tecture.
its

time;

This
it

com-

Longhena once rgain proved

skill as a

of the cathedral.
del

II

planned

for the fa9ade

The members of the Accademia

Disegno opposed

this idea - not

because

they regarded Dosio's project as too tame, but

because, in their view, he had not sufficiently

taken into account the older parts of the cathe-

is

far in

advance of

northern

Italy,

and was

taken up and developed north of the Alps.

dral.

They produced

model, suffers from

design into

Florence and Naples: Silvani and Fanzago

characteristic of the situation in Florence

after the first quarter of the seventeenth

century

many

in 1635,

which,

a counter-project

in contrast to the classical dignity

moment,

It is

model of 1 587

his

deep impression on archi-

tects, particularly in

Grand Duke Ferdinand

master of scenic archi-

staircase hall

made

that in 1633

to execute Dosio's

breaking

of Dosio's

down

of their

petty motifs. At the

Gherardo

grand-ducal support, made a

(lUuseo deirOpera, Florence) which was

an improvement on the

same

who had
model of his own

Silvani,

Academy

in fact

project. In his

design Silvani combined mildly Baroque deco-

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHlTEt rURAL CLRKtNTS Ol

191. Baldassarc Longhena: Venice,

Monastery of S. Giorgio Maggiore.

rative features with

Tilt

HIGH UAROQUE

jOI

Staircase, 1643-5

neo-Gothic elements bor-

In spite of such conservative and antiquarian

Gherardo

rowed from Giotto's Campanile. Yet the weaker

tendencies,

and more conformist Academy model was

gave Florence and other Tuscan

chosen. Execution, however, never went be-

terra, Prato, Pisa, etc.) buildings of considerable

yond the

distinction.

initial stages.^"

clear that in the antiquarian climate of

It is

Florence there was no room for a free Baroque

development.
Pitti is

the

The enlargement

another case

first

in point. In

starting in 1620

of the Palazzo

two campaigns,

and the second

Giulio Parigi enlarged the palace from

nal six bays to

bays.

His

its

in 1631,
its

origi-

present width of twenty-five

simple

device

of repeating

the

command

For over

Silvani

fifty

cities

astical

(Vol-

years he was in full

of the situation; he had an extra-

ordinary capacity for work, and the

creations

1673)'''

(1579

is

work

very long. His best

is

S.

of which Nigetti
a share."-

closer to a

Gaetano,
is

list

known

in the

of his

ecclesi-

construction

traditionally given too great

The

impressive facade [192] comes

High Baroque design than any other

building in Florence. But one should not be

da

misled by the use of a massive pediment, by

Cortona's vigorous designs for the remodelling

the bold projections, and the accumulation of

of the entire palace front. ""

sculpturally conceived architectural forms in

Quattrocento parts was preferred

to Pietro

BIBLOSARTE

302

Till:

AGK OF

rilK

HKiH BAROgi

!-

buildings.'"'
to

The wide

nave with three chapels

each side separated by

with niches for

pillars

them owes its effect

statues above

to the sophisti-

cated colour scheme: the white reliefs on the

pillars

and the white statues above

them,'"' sil-

houetted against the blue-grey pietra serena

combine

architecture,

aristocratic restraint.

to give

an impression of

Nothing could be further

removed from contemporary Roman buildings

such as Borromini's S. CarHno.
Silvani's palaces, with their

unadorned plaster

fronts, simple string courses,

wooden
severe

roofs are

Roman

Palazzo Mattei
Fenzi,

1634).

emphasis by

and overhanging

Tuscan counterparts

to the

palace type such as Maderno's

Covoni, 1623, and

(e.g. Palazzi

Only the

central axis

a projecting

is

given

balcony with a richly

designed balustrade and,

the case of the

in

Palazzo Fenzi, by the superb portal with Raffaele

Curradi's Harpies.''^

Seicento architecture
at the farthest

for

at

Naples would seem

remove from

that of Florence,

Naples under her Spanish rulers with their

native love for the plateresque witnessed the

rise

of a decorative style of dazzling richness

and most intense polychromy produced by inGherardo

192.

Silvani:

laid

Florence, S. Gaetano. Facade, 1645

coloured marbles.'"' But to see the Tuscan

and the Neapolitan Seicento

lute contrasts

comparatively narrow spaces: the structure

self,

it-

based on a simple rhythm of pilasters (the

double pilasters framing the central bay are

repeated in the upper

tier),

takes

up the theme

is

in

terms of abso-

somewhat misleading;

the architecture of Naples

turally,

is

closer to that of Florence than to that of

this

is

struc-

much
Rome

revealed by such an important work as

Cosimo Fanzago's

large chiostro of the Certosa

of Giovanni de' Medici's cathedral model of

of S. Martino (1623-31)*'' with

1587, and while the three doors under their

cades which would not be out of place in

aedicule frames are derived from Dosio, other

fifteenth-century Florence. Fanzago's range

features point to an influence of Buontalenti's

however, very wide.

One need

from the courtyard

to

cathedral model.
in

fact, consists

good deal of the decoration,

of an ebullient reworking of

Buontalenti motifs. But

belongs to the
is

late

much

of the decoration

seventeenth century, and

this that gives the facade its flickering

Baroque

quality.

The

interior

it

Late

shows the noble

reserve typical of the best Florentine Seicento

his

ing

come

its

elegant ar-

is,

only step inside

face to face with

exuberant decorative Baroque [193], showhis

characteristic

Neapolitan style fully

developed.
In Fanzago (i 591 -1678)'"* Naples had a Baroque master who must be ranked very high, if

not always for the quality,

BIBLOSARTE

at least for the

ver-

ARCHITECTURAL CURRENTS OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

of his talent. Longevity, an incredible

satility

stamina, facility of production, and inexhaustible reserves

of energy

these are

some of the

sculptor

1612 he

- in

scultura di

marmo'

calls

303

himself 'maestro di

he makes his debut as an

architect probably in 16 17 with the design of S.

characteristics of this tough generation. Bernini

Giuseppe

died aged eighty-two, Longhena eighty-four,

It is

dei Vecchi a S. Potito (finished 1669).

here that he

first

planned

Greek-cross

church, a scheme to which he returned

form or another

in

most of

But since he stressed the main

zation of these plans

is

in

one

his later churches.'"''

axis, the centrali-

usually not complete.

Although he thus carried over into the High

Baroque an essentially Mannerist conflict (p.
118), his high

domes produce a new and

decisive

concentration. Only S. Maria Egiziaca (165117 1 7) [194J

is

a true

altogether from the

his other churches.

church,

finest

Rome

Greek cross and departs

more traditional plans of

The

plan of this, Fanzago's

Agnese in
must be assumed. In

so close to that of S.

is

that a connexion

dome seems

addition, the design of the

derived from Bernini's S. .\ndrea

al

and the convex portico from other

models. But

if

be

Roman

is

correct,

Fanzago

later

Roman

concep-

the date 1651

would have anticipated

to

Quirinale

Since building proceeded very slowly,

tions.

one would prefer

to believe that

he adjusted his

design after having become acquainted with the

193.

Cosimo Fanzago:

most recent

Naples, S. Martino. Cloisters, detail,

1630

Roman

treme economy

However, the ex-

events.

in detail

and the emphasis

on structural parts by painting them

Fanzago eighty-seven, and Silvani ninety-six.

In

Rome, Venice, Florence, and Naples

events

till

artistic

the last quarter of the seventeenth

century were largely determined by these

artists.

But Fanzago's position can be compared only

with that of Bernini, for

like the greater

man

he too was a master of all-round performance,

being architect, sculptor, decorator, and even

painter. Unlike Bernini, however,

struggle

all

his

first-rate artists,

seems

was

to

bom

life

who had

gamo, and

is

reserved for the high altar)

help to produce an imposing effect of simplicity,

which

is

entirely

un-Roman.

The phenomenon that Fanzago was capable of

such

a design is revealing, for

ment was

it

shows

that orna-

for him, in Alberti's phrase, 'some-

thing added and fastened on, rather than proper

and

innate'. It

is

precisely this that

makes one

to

aware of the deep gulf between Fanzago's and

against the competition of

Borromini's architecture although certain of

Fanzago's supremacy

at

Naples

have been almost unchallenged.

in

white (polychromy

laid

slightly off-

October 1591

at

He

Clusone near Ber-

settled as early as 1608 in Naples,

where he lived with an

uncle. Trained as a

Fanzago's decorative features [193] are reminiscent

of the great

Roman

master.

None of

Fanzago's designs betray dynamic concepts of

planning'"

on the contrary, he

academic patterns, and

BIBLOSARTE

is

tied to certain

search for a con-

304

Tin;

A(iF.

OK THI HKill liAROQLt

tinuous development from project to project

will therefore

be disappointing. This

how-

is,

ever, not true so far as his facades for churches

and palaces are concerned;

provided

for they

com-

large scope for a display of imaginative

Here

binations.

is

it

easy to follow the change

from the severe classicism of the portico of the

Chiesa dellWscensione (1622),

on Domenico Fontana,

Maria

S.

dependent

still

facade of

to the rich

which

della Sapienza (1638-41),^'

spite of complexities

in

remains classically acade-

mic, and further to the facade of S. Giuseppe

degli Scalzi with

its

decorative profusion and

accumulation of incongruous elements

example of

early
if

a Late

the traditional date 1660

is

crea-

Gennaro (1631-60)

tions as the Guglia di S.

surprising mixture of Mannerist and

its

Baroque

Anna

an

Taking

correct.

compound

also into account such strange

with

Baroque composition,

Donn'

features, or the vast Palazzo

(1642-4),"- bristling with personal though

perhaps provincial re-interpretations of traditional motifs (never finished,

abundance of the powerful

Maddaloni

left a

in

active

life

one

portal of the Palazzo

will find that

Fanzago mas-

the whole

gamut of Seicento

from Early Baroque classicism

bilities

While the prevailing

possito the

Late Baroque."

pictorial effervescence of the

first

ruin

the long course of his immensely

tered

the

and

earthquake of 1688), or the decorative

after the

inter-Italian classicism of

quarter of the seventeenth century had

an impersonal quality, the architectural trends

of the next

names of

fiftv^

years are as

great architects.

that in spite of the

Rainaldi's,

194.

Section and plan

be granted

Longhena's,

Silvani's,

much

as those of a Bernini

and

or as

and

Fan-

little

in

Borromini.

Nevertheless, the generic term 'High Baroque'

Cosimo Fanzago:

Naples, S. Maria

as there are

will

numerous cross-currents,

zago's buildings have as

common

many
It

Egiziaca, 165 1- 17 17.

retains

its

value,

if

only to circumscribe the age

of the great individualistic creators.

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER

13

TRENDS

HIGH BAROQ.UE SCULPTURE

IN

ROME

in

Florence with Pietro Tacca, settled

Rome

in

together with his compatriot Francesco Baratta,

The

First Generation

and soon attracted Bernini's

High Baroque sculpture came

into

its

own with

When,

attention.

1629, the commissions for the four giant

in

the full expansion of Bernini's studio. This,

statues in the pillars of St Peter's were placed,

however, did not happen

1640s,

Bernini

of

Finelli.

when Bernini had

decorating

the

The

Peter's.'

mid

until the

to face the gigantic task

and chapels of St

pilasters

building up of the studio began,

of course, at a

much

Baldacchino [86] that

earlier date.

was the

It

required extensive

first

help by other hands. In addition to the old

Stefano Maderno, some promising sculptors of

Bernini's

own

employment

generation found

the younger

much need

great brother, supported

him

a personal style.-

Nor

dangerous

return

al-

in a

number of

shall

discuss

weak and retrogressive

relief

on the

the
1

most distinguished sculptors

in

in

Rome

1622 and was immediately taken on by Ber-

nini as his first studio hand.'

direct

from

his

home town

He

did not

come

Carrara, but from

all

tomb of

the

which we

shall

sense for the finesse

lost his
;

his style

became hard
as a

a great

630s and 40s, but

lay

in

many

in

artists

to

during the

most cases the

'petrifac-

the direction of a strengthened

classicism. After his return to

life,

Rome;

the spiritual centre,

what happened mutatis mutandis

work of

of his

Giuliano Finelli (1601-57) arrived

main-

was from

it

In his youth, Finelli had thoroughly

removed from

after

tion'

great masters, the

Finelli

degeneration into provincialism of a talented

sarcophagus of the Matilda monument. Finelli

of this generation.

to

of

of the

rid

and coarse. This cannot be regarded simply

and Bolgi on the other hand were,

after the

later.

he progressively

it is

the

Rome

to

Domenico Ginnasi,

and subtlety of texture

artist

is

Naples

in spite

absorbed Bernini's grand manner. In Naples

number of years and

his only doubtful claim to

in

Rome; and

Not

Stefano Speranza. Bernini used him over a

fame

While

rival.

tained contact with

Fancelli.

enterprises (mainly in St Peter's), and never

showed

where he built up a large practice'

Cosimo Fanzago's attempts to get

Cardinal

devoted amanuensis of his

Finelli's

he was not with-

Pietro da Cortona) he soon went back to Naples,

Naples that he sent

be said about Luigi Bernini; he

ways remained

end of

out work' (mainly due to the good offices of

and

Andrea

Giacomo Antonio

Rome; and although

Du-

Finelli,

career in

preference to

in

virtually spelt the

Bolgi,

here his brother Luigi, Stefano Speranza,

quesnoy, Giuhano

recommended him
This

Finelli

direction. Like

Rome

went even further

Mochi

at

the end

in the

in his last phase,

tirely lost interest in pleasing,

same

he en-

warm, or sensuous

surface qualities."

While

Finelli

worked

fast in

Naples, execut-

commissions,

sluggish

Naples, where he had studied sculpture under

ing

Naccherino. Finelli's association with Bernini

Bolgi, the driest

lasted only a few years; in 1626 another Carra-

the better part of ten years on his statue of St

rese,

Andrea Bolgi (1605-56), who had worked

considerable

the

among Bernini's proteges, spent

Helena (1629-39) [195]'

BIBLOSARTE

Its classicizing

cool-

306

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

1653 Bolgi went to Naples, and some of his

work there shows

attempt to

a rather forced

emulate Bernini's vigorous Baroque of the mid

century.'

Among

the remaining sculptors of this gene-

ration has

been mentioned the unstable Fran-

cesco Baratta

{c.

1590- 1666), author of the

relief above the altar in the

S. Pietro in

figures (Rio della Plata)

Fountain

Menghini
worked

Cappella Raimondi,

Montorio, and of one of the giant

in the

on the Four Rivers

Piazza Navona. Finally, Nicolo

1610-65) should be recorded; he

{c.

St Peter's during the

for Bernini in

1640s and restored classical statues

lazzo Barberini. His

name

Pa-

in the

survives as the artist

of the unsatisfactory figure of S. Martina (1635)

under the high

of the

altar of

SS. Martina e Luca, one

many recumbent

statues of martyrs de-

pendent on Stefano Maderno's St

This survey has shown

nini, Algardi,

Cecilia.^"

that, apart

and Duquesnoy,

from Ber-

quarter of the seventeenth century the

195. Andrea Bolgi: St Helena, 1629-39.
Rome, Si Peter's

of gifted sculptors in
it

ness,

its

boring precision and slow linear rhythm

would seem

to

run counter

the great sweep of the mantle.

fact

work

so

at this period.

close

apparent that for the greatest task of the second

to Bolgi.
1

We

latter

have seen

630s Bernini himself

classical

ideals

circle. It is

held

affinities to

The St Helena

Bernini's

to

(1633-7) that the

Beris

in

Countess Matilda

has often been ascribed

(p.

150) that during the

made

and
It is

quarter, the giant statues in the pillars under

the contrary, however,

shows remarkable

Bolgi's style
nini's

On

died only in 1636.

may be
One might

therefore rashly conclude that Bernini and Bolgi

had parted company.

Maderno

Mochi

this period,

dynamic

to Bernini's

conception of mass, of which an echo

felt in

that the aged

and worked throughout

that Stefano

number

Rome was small. Of course,

must not be forgotten

lived

second

in the

concessions to the

by the Poussin-Sacchi

the

dome

of St Peter's, Bernini, Duquesnoy,

and Mochi were the obvious choice;

for the

fourth figure the choice lay between Finelli and

Bolgi,

no better masters being

at

hand since

Algardi's reputation had not yet been sufficiently established.

This situation changed con-

siderably about the middle of the century.

The

next generation was rich in talent, though there

was none who approached

in quality

tance the pathfinders of the

and impor-

High Baroque.

therefore understandable that at this

period he regarded Bolgi as one of his most

reliable assistants.'"

He

still

employed him

The Second Generation

in

St Peter's throughout the 1640s; but by then a

.\mong the many young sculptors working

new generation had

which responded

1650, there are three or four

new

either bv the intrinsic merits of their

arisen

enthusiastically to Bernini's

ideas.

Before

BIBLOSARTE

who

in

stand out

work or

TRENDS IN HIGH BAROQUE SCULPTURE

196. iMelchiorre Caffa:

The

Ecstasy of St Catherine,

1Q7. Melchiorre Caffa: St

finished 1667.

distributing Alms, 1661.

Rome, S. Caterma da Siena a Monte Magnanapoli

Terracotta model.

as heads of large studios.

Their names are Ercole

Ferrata (1610-86), the oldest of this group,

Antonio Raggi (1624-86), and Domenico Guidi

(1625-1701).

The

fourth sculptor

here be mentioned

is

Born

in

chiorre Caffa.

Ferrata's

Malta as

who should

relief of

St Rosa

age of thirty-two

(in

over into

later period.

The

in the short

(S.

Agnese

in S.

Domingo

at

Lima, Peru.'- These

of considerable

size,

were executed

number of

years; but

1635,

seems that only the St Catherine was entirely

1667)" - too
its

new

phase.

gifted of

nobody came

as

close as he did to the exalted style of Bernini's

cuted

Den

late as

Without any doubt, he was the most

the younger sculptors, and

in the Lion's

concurrently over a

finished

to carry the style

.Museum

Mel-

saint, in

young

ot \ illanova

pupil

But he was extremely precocious and died

at the early

307

Navona), and the recumbent figure of

all

Cafta really belongs to a Late Baroque generation.

Valletta,

5/ Eustace

in Piazza

works,

La

Thomas

by Caffa himself before

mystic exaltation,

is

his death."

it

The

carried heaven-

wards on clouds supported by angels. Higher up

the sky opens

(i.e.,

in the lantern),

and

crowd

of angels and putti play in the heavenly Hght,

out of which the Trinity

down in a radiant
The thaumaturgic

floats

glorv to receive the saint.

principal works which he exe-

character of the mystery has been emphasized

span of less than ten years are

by contrasting the white marble of the saint and

quickly mentioned; they are the Ecstasy of St

her angelic companions with the multicoloured

Catherine in the choir of S. Caterina da Siena

marble background

Monte Magnanapoli

[196], St

Thomas ofVil-

lanova distributing Alms (S. Agostino) [197], the

It

form

seems certain that the whole dhoir was

a

grand unit comprising

BIBLOSARTE

reliefs

to

along the

308

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

which death prevented him from

side walls,

and the 'Charity'

fathers of the Cathedra,

to the

executing.'^ Caffa utilized fully the ideas of

corresponding group on the tomb of Urban

Bernini's Cornaro Chapel and, indeed, no other

VIII.'" But once again these figures display a

work
is,

is

so close in spirit to the St Teresa.

however,

a significant

There

difference between

master and disciple: an almost morbid sensi-

emanates from the

bility

and

this can never

of St Catherine,

relief

be said of any of Bernini's

This difference seems

works.

be one of

to

generation rather than of personal temperament,

for the

younger

artist

was able

to

use freely those

hypersensitive spirituality, in comparison with

which Bernini's works appear

solid, firm

and

virile.

Apart from technical

learned

from

little

skill,

his

teacher, Ercole Ferrata,

Caffa could have

less

subtle

who was bom

at Pel-

infinitely

Como, and worked at Naples"' and

settling in Rome. What has

sotto, near

before

-Aquila

formulas of expression which the older one had

survived of his early work

to create.

little interest.

The Ecstasy of St Catherine belongs to the

new Berninesque category of a pictorial group

the marble decoration of the pillars of St Peter's

attached

the

to

In

wall.

his

Thomas of

St

Villanova Cafta produced a free-standing group

which

is

integrated

closely

with

the

entire

scheme of the chapel. The work forms the centre

of a large sculptured 'altarpiece', the wings of

which consist of
{c.

by Andrea Bergondi

reliefs

1760) showing scenes from the

life

of the

we

find

him

is

provincial and of

He was already middle-aged when

in

Rome, working under Bernini on

(1647). Contran,- to a persistent tradition, he

cannot have executed one of the allegories for

Algardi's

tomb of Leo XI, nor

is it

certain that

By 1653 his
reputation was such that Bernini entrusted him
with the most important figure on the tomb of
he collaborated on the Attila

Cardinal Pimentel

relief.

Maria sopra Minerva

in S.

Unlike Algardi's Beheading of St Paul

that of the Cardinal himself. Ferrata

[167],

where two

isolated figures are

preference

in the

same plane,

Caffa's composition not only

saint.

ties

deployed

together very closely the saint and the

woman

receiving alms, but by placing the latter outside

the central niche and turning her towards the
saint,

he has

real life

made

and the

her function as a link between

fictitious

world of art. Instead of

adoring a cult image, the poor

stimulated

to

who

pray here are

themselves

identify

with

the

recipient of the alms and to participate in the

charitable

work of the Church

the female figure

is

not an

'in action'.

But

anonymous woman of

over

here

distinguished Giovan Anto-

nio Mari, each of

whom executed one of the

A year or two later he

allegories in full relief.^'

had the main share

death, the latter's
tino, to

in

pictorial

the

The

model, namely Romanelli's painting of

same scene
figures,

in

the

Convent of

S.

Agostino.

by contrast, take their cue from

Nicolo da Tolenalso

contributed. During the following fifteen years

Bernini showed his appreciation of Ferrata's

skill

by employing him on

number

of great

undertakings;'" in spite of such close contacts,

however, Ferrata never

Algardian derivation.

for S.

which Guidi and Francesco Baratta

of the donor with the recipient, she appears

followed

continuing, after Algardi's

work

dynamic

composition of his group Caffa

younger Antonio

the

less

Raggi and the

the people - by an act of poetical identification

herself in the traditional role of Charity. For the

style

fully

absorbed Bernini's

but tended towards a classicism of

Characteristic works by Ferrata are in S.

.\gnese in Piazza Navona, where one can study

the different

whom we

manners of the four masters with

are at present concerned. Ferrata's

free-standing statue of St Agnes on the Pyre

Bernini, as the very attractive terracotta model

(1660) [198] recalls in certain respects

[197] shows: the saint

nov's St Susanna, for here too the dress

is

indebted to the church

was given

BIBLOSARTE

Duquesis

TRENDS IN HIGH BAROQUE SCULPTURE

Ercole Ferrata

Rome, S. Agnese

in

begun 1660

Piazza Navona

relatively unruffled

from Duquesnoy
artist

and supports the structure

from

as

working

in

in Bernini's orbit

could return to Duquesnoy's classical

1630.

Following

the

much

Niobids.

classical

1660

example

of

purity'

of

Bernini's

statues of saints, Ferrata represented a transitory

the

moment; we

witness a dramatic climax:

power of her prayer makes the

mune

against the leaping flames.

saint

The

im-

gesture

of the extended arms, the painterly treatment of

the

fire,

the wind-swept

a formal

gown

- all these create

and emotional unrest, strongly con-

Leonardo

alien to the

spirit

Emerenziana,

Retti,

Piazza Navona

of the statue and

is

of

Ferrata's art.

The

study of a

Emerenziana

relief,

in the

the large Stoning ofS.

same church (begun 1660)

[199J, leads to similar conclusions. In accord-

ance with current classical theory

Ferrata

composed

work with

his

number of figures, each

action, gesture,

(p.

263)

minimum

clearly diflerentiated

by

and expression. The clean and

simple tripartite arrangement with the attackers

on the

right, the frightened people

and the

on the

saint isolated in the centre

from

result

Along the

principles.

of the figure will be noticed

form and

in

of S.

a revealing pointer to the derivative qualit}'

trasting with the purist tendencies of the 1630s.

left side

(finished by

1689-1709). Rome. S. Agnese

of the body, while the head derives as

But no

The Stoning

tgq. Ercole Ferrata:

St Agnes on the Pyre, 1660.

309

left,

seems

to

dogmatic application of Algardi's

While the type of the

saint again

an autonomous piece of drapery, which Ferrata

shows

borrowed from Bernini's Longinus. The motif

and while certain figures are evidently inspired

is

only a weak echo of the original;

it

remains

bv the

a close

Attila

study of Duquesnoy's Susanna,

relief,

BIBLOSARTE

Ferrata reverts for the

310

THE AGE or THE HIGH BAROQUE

figures of the attackers to the

Baroque

of St Stephen (now

known

most

of

classical

Domenichino, whose Stoning

painters,

at

Chantilly)

to him.'' 'i"he reader

must have been

may

have noticed

that the sculptural principles displayed in the

upper half of the

lower half

The

relief contrast

with those of the

figures - particularly that of the

not only have different

huge shapeless angel

proportions, small heads and elongated bodies,

but masses of picturesque drapery conceal the

structure of the bodies, and the diffuse silhouettes entirely
cision. It

is

and pre-

lack Ferrata's clarity

evident that Ferrata was not respon-

sible for this part of the relief; after his

was handed over

finished

it

this year

to

Leonardo

death

it

who

Retti,-"

between 1689 and 1709, and only

in

were the two parts of the rehef joined.

Retti, Ferrata's pupil,

worked many years under

stylistic difference in the

Raggi; thus the

two

halves of the Emerenziana relief is characteristic

of the two different tendencies represented by

Ferrata

and

Raggi and even more of the

200. Antonio Raggi:

The Death

of St Cecilia, 1660-7. Detail.

Rome, S. Agiiese

Piazza Navona

in

High Baroque to
the picturesque and discursive manner of the

deserve special mention: the

Late Baroque.

Death of St

chronological change from the

In certain respects, Antonio Raggi represents

the opposite pole to Ferrata. If Ferrata

Algardi, Raggi

is

is

the

the Bernini of the second

generation. Fourteen years younger than Ferrata,

he also was

Vico Morcote;

Rome

in

in the region

of

in contrast to Ferrata,

early

studio. Little

bom

is

Como,

at

he went to

youth

and joined Algardi's

known

of his activity under

Algardi-' and, like Ferrata,

we meet him

first in

1647 engaged under Bernini on the decoration

in

Cecilia

S.

relief

Giovanni dei Fiorentini

{c.

1665), the

vast cycle of stucco decorations in the clerestory

of the nave and transept of the Gesii (1669-83)

[201], the relief

and statues of the Cappella

Ginetti in S. Andrea della Valle (1671-5), and

finally,

at

Gastaldi

high altar

beginning of the

the

monument and
in S.

Maria

It is difficult

1680s,

de' Miracoli.

to give an adequate idea of the

high quality of Raggi's sculpture without

became Bernini's most intimate and most prolific pupil, and with the exception of Caffa there

trating

was nobody who

relief in

absorbed the master's

grand manner. In addition

activity

under Bernini over

to

his extensive

a period of thirty

years, Raggi carried on independent work ot

great importance,

among which

the following

many

details.-''

larly suited to

S.

work

Agnese

in stucco,
is

collaborators

{c.

it

commands special

reasons. Originally,

1626-63), o"^ of the closest

of Algardi,

BIBLOSARTE

and the marble

perhaps not his most

number of

Giuseppe Peroni

illus-

His genius was particu-

engaging performance. But

interest for a

the

the decoration of the

of the pilasters of St Peter's. Subsequently he

so fully

7)

Baptism of Christ on the high

[200], the large

altar of S.

with the

Agnese (1660

was commissioned

TRENDS IN HIGH BAROQUE SCULPTURE

with the reUef (1660). Peroni died when the

model was

scale

over,

take

to

finished. Raggi,

who was

311

full-

asked

appears not to have entirely

discarded Peroni's preparatory work; the

left

half of the relief in particular, with the standing

figure of

Pope Urban (who was present when

the martyr saint died surrounded by Christians)

and

corresponds closely

his kneeling attendant,

to Algardi's Attila relief Here, too,

we

find the

division in the centre, and the differentiation

between the calm

faith of the

pope and the

emotional crowd on the right. This

Algardi's

influence

manner

apparent

is

in

is

Raggi's

goes.

as far as

individual

the extremely elongated

proportions of the figures, their slender build

and elegant movements,-^

as well as in the

fall

of the draperies, which betray a nervous and

temperament. This restlessness

restless

is

also

noticeable in the grouping of the figures. Unlike

Ferrata, Raggi rejected the lesson to be learned

from Domenichino, whose

fresco of the
cesi

not

is

same subject

much

poised

classically

in S.

Luigi dei Fran-

farther than a stone's

201. Antonio Raggi:

Allegorical Figures, 1669-83.

Rome.

Gesii. clerestory

of nave

throw

Agnese. Compared with the lucid dis-

prevent a commission's being transferred from

position of Ferrata's Emerenziana relief, the

the follower of one master to that of the other.

from

S.

figures in Raggi's
in

work appear crowded together

complicated, almost confused groups which

dogma of
minimum number

reveal his disregard for the classical

expressed through a

clarity

of figures.

On the other hand, the beautiful angel

In his later work, especially in his stuccoes,

Raggi vielded wholly

to the mystical late style

Bernini, and this phase in his development

of
is

best studied in the Gesii [201]. According to

contemporary sources, GauUi, the painter of

with the martyr's palm, thoroughly Berninesque

the frescoes, was also responsible for the design

and obviously derived from the contemporary

of the stuccoes.

glory of angels on the Cathedra, shows the

partly true, Raggi's stuccoes are a perfect sculp-

sweetness and tenderness of feeling characteristic

less

of Raggi's

obvious

observed
often

in

art.

qualities,

other parts of the

in a great

seem

These

like

number

perhaps

relief,

can be

of his works and

anticipations

of the lighter

charms of the eighteenth century. The story of

Raggi's St Cecilia relief illustrates the

futility

of

tural

entirely or only

fervent,

spiritualized

late

The tempestuous movement and

to

manner.

rapture of

above the cornice of the nave and transept,

must be understood

as reactions to the

main

subject of the ceiling - the fresco of the Adoration

of the

owe

not a

contrasts were not of sufficient consequence to

is

Raggi's jubilant putti on clouds, set into panels

time such

at the

this

parallel to Gaulli's intense response

Bernini's

attempting a rigid separation of the Berninesque

from the .\lgardesque current;

Whether

Name
little

of Jesus. As types, these putti

to

Duquesnoy, but no greater

contrast to the soothing composure of the latter's

BIBLOSARTE

312

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

creations could be imagined. Higher up, flank-

windows, are

ing the

mental

of

allegories-*

monu-

size, wildly gesticulating or in attitudes

of deep devotion and contemplation, clad in

draperies that seem to follow their

own

laws,

wind-blown, rearing, twisting, and zigzagging

across the figures.

Although many of them

disclose a real understanding of the late Bernini,

be found that others must be regarded

his career

really

twenty-two, he

began when,

at

Rome

to

fled

at

the age of

the time of

Masaniello's revolt and joined the studio of

Algardi.

There he remained

as a favourite pupil

until the latter's death in 1654, after

which he

established an independent studio and evolved

a

rule-of-thumb method

for

surrounded himself with

quick success.

He

of mere crafts-

a staff"

men, and with

the decorative quality of the Late Baroque

their help he was able to work

more quickly and more cheaply than the professori whom he despised. By such methods,
Guidi managed to pour out a stream of works,

appears side by side with the purposeful ten-

not only for

it

will

as an anticlimax, since virtuosity replaces spirituality. In other

sion of the

With

words, in this cycle of figures

High Baroque.

many hands

which was carried out by

over a period of

50 years, there

no other Baroque sculptural cycle

in

Rome

is

that

bears comparison with Raggi's, executed in the

short span of little

accomplish

to

more than

a decade. In

this tour de force,

order

Raggi had to

use assistants on an extensive scale, and this

may

account for the differences

allegories

The

in quality.

on the right-hand side of the nave

are on the whole weaker than the ones on the

left;

they seem to be by Leonardo Retti, whose

large share in the decoration of the Gesii

attested.

Other collaborators

were

is

well

Michele

Maglia (right transept) and the worthy Paolo

Naldini,

who was thoroughly

nini's studio

trained in Ber-

and was mentioned by Bernini

himself as the best sculptor in

Antonio

Rome

after

out being antagonists.

Guidi

is

different.

that he never

Natale Rondinini

It

The
is

case of

Domenico
him

characteristic of

went through Bernini's school;

and he was probably the only important

artist

the

650s and 60s he

up

and Raggi but concentrated on building

a large clientele of his

own.

Bom

in Carrara,

he followed his uncle Giuliano FineUi to Naples;

his

During

interest in solid

productions dur-

His figures become stocky and are

criss-crossed by angularly broken masses of

drapery.

to the

It

was he who was mainly responsible

change from the

for the

Roman High Baroque

new Late Baroque idiom

- a

change well

illustrated in his large relief over the altar of the

Cappella Monte

di Pieta

(1667-76) [202]. In

work, Algardi's painterly relief style has

this

been submitted

to

an interesting transforma-

Compared with

tion.

other works by Guidi,

the composition, rising in a great curve from

Magdalen

at the right

bottom cor-

ner to the figure of God the Father

at the top, is

not without merits; but there

tion

is

no discrimina-

between the degrees of spiritual importance

of the holy personages, nor are the single figures

sufficiently articulated to enable the beholder

ease, or

rata

to

few exceptions, an unpleasant crudeness and

rigidity.

sought by Bernini. In addition, he did not often

undertakings with Fer-

monument

ing the last quarter of the century display, with

to follow their

common

shows

still

and careful execution, but

of his generation whose services were rarely

participate in

as the

Maria del Popolo (1657),

in S.

are dry versions of Algardi's prototypes.

the kneeling

Raggi.-''

Ferrata and Raggi stand for rival trends with-

the rest of Italy,-' but

His early works, such

the exception of the sculptural decora-

tion of St Peter's,

Rome and

Germany, France, Spain, and Malta.

also for

to

even

movements with confidence and

to decide

one figure or

the

superhuman and

rated.

The

whether drapery belongs

And no longer are

human sphere sepa-

to another.

the

plane of the relief

figures without

much qualifying

BIBLOSARTE

is

covered by

diff^erentiation.

TRENDS IN HIGH BAROQUE SCULPTURE

ties

between Guidi and Algardi

313

as regards in-

dividual forms and types, the slackened tension

of the former's work

is

characteristic of a new-

period in which the passion of the High Baroque

The breaking-down of the High

Baroque sense of unity and drama may be observed not only in other works by Guidi but
has grown cold.

also,

of course,

contemporary productions

in

in the other arts.

Guidi himself played a leading

part in effecting this transition, of which hardly

an indication was to be found

in the

works of

Ferrata and Raggi.

Tumbs with

the Effigy in Prayer

Before turning to the minor masters of this

period,

we may

single out for special considera-

most common type of the High Baroque

tomb showing the portrait of the deceased, who
tion the

turns in devotional attitude towards the altar.

The best-known tomb

of this type

is

that of the

physician Gabriele Fonseca, one of the most

moving works of
S.

Lorenzo

in

the late Bernini

{c.

1668-75,

Lucina) [203]. Fonseca's fervent

devotion and spiritual surrender are called forth

202.

by the mystery of the Annunciation, painted

Domenico Guidi

above the

Lamentation over the Body of Christ, 1667-76.

Rome, Cappella Monte di Pieta

altar; thus

an intangible bond be-

tween Fonseca and the

in

altar

bridges the space

which the beholder moves. This idea

first

resulting in a flickering farrago of plastic form.

occurs in tombs of the fifteenth century, and

Algardi had worked back into depth starting

from then on may be found

from the principal

Germany, and

which stand out

figures,

al-

most three-dimensionally and thus hold the

interest of the spectator.

Guidi, by contrast,

the

Low

Spain, France,

in

Countries.-*

With the

exception of Spanish Naples, however, the type

was rare

and

in Italy,

it

was not

until well into

gave most of the figures equal relief projections,

the sixteenth century that the bust with praying

leading to a neutralization of the dramatic focus.

hands turned towards the

It is

mainly

sionistic

this

change from

a painterly, illu-

rehef conception to a 'picturesque'

one, reminiscent of Late Antique sarcophagi,

in

Rome. The

altar

began

Elena Savelli by Giacomo del Duca

vanni

in

to

appear

series starts with the impressive

Laterano

( 1

in S.

Gio-

570)-' and leads on, before

that accounts for the unaccentuated distribution

the end of the century, to such works as Val-

of sculptural form over the surface.

soldo's

Looking back from the new position, Algardi's

Attila relief

quality.

seems

And

to

have

powerful, dynamic

although there are always close

simple and sturdy Cardinal Giovan

Girolamo Albani
Bernini

first

in S.

Maria del Popolo ( 1 59

)?

took up the type in his early bust

of Cardinal Bellarmine (1622, Gesii), whose

BIBLOSARTE

314

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

V9

BIBLOSARTE

TRENDS IN HIGH BAROQUE SCULPTURE

half open as

if

murmuring

a prayer.

Thus while

listen,

315

prepare themselves for prayer, or are

the stone image of the dead appears in the

absorbed

attitude of everlasting adoration, a transient

miracle on the altar [205]; proceeding towards

moment

the altar, he finds himself face to face with

with the Divine has

in his relationship

in

colloquy about the eucharistic

been caught. This was the end of the development, and

in

future the type could only be

varied. Bernini's Fonseca complied with

numberless busts
trend of devout
toration.

Roman

in

it,

during the Catholic Res-

piet)'

Such works began

become

to

rarer,

however, with the slackening of religious

vour

and

chapels testify to a

fer-

the end of the seventeenth century.

at

Before this happened the theme was extended, and in Gesu e Maria an entire church

became

instead of a chapel

the field of action

Giorgio Bolognetti, Bishop

for the deceased.

of Rieti, commissioned the work.

church turned into

members of

He

financed

had the whole

decoration and

the splendid

kind of mausoleum for

his family. Carlo Rainaldi unified

the entire space not only architecturally but

also colouristically;

its

black,

brown, and red-

dish marbles, interrupted by the flicker of the

white figures, form perhaps the

last

sonorous

High Baroque colour symphony.^' Sculpture

was assigned
pillars

a place

for the

tombs

London, Victoria and Alherl

Museum

on the two pairs of broad

above the confessionals; the

the entrance contain double

gesticulating

Model

205. Francesco Aprile:

of Pietro and Francesco Bolognetti, after 1675.

half-figures

pillars

tombs with

near

lively

behind prie-dieus,

while behind those nearer the altar kneel single

Bishop Giorgio Bolognetti, the donor, kneeling

and with the Maltese knight

in silent prayer,

Francesco Mario, who sinks upon

his

gestures of profound devotion. But

if

knee with

one com-

these portrayals of the

pares these figures by Michele Maglia, Fran-

Bolognetti turn their attention to the gorgeous

cesco Aprile, and Francesco Cavallini with Ber-

full-size

altar

All

with Giacinto Brandi's Coronation of the

The

Virgin.
scale,

figures.

statues are placed before a small-

columned architecture suggesting the

opening into imaginary spaces, and above them,

like

heavenly protectors, are large stucco figures

of saints in simple niches. As

pella

Bernini's

Cap-

Cornaro there are here no sarcophagi, and

hardly anything
illusion
six

in

was

to

is

reminiscent of death: the

be as complete as possible.

deceased are represented

The

in finely differen-

nini's Fonseca,

one cannot overlook that they

carry considerably less conviction, and that the

most excited of them, Francesco Mario, the

one closest

in style to the late Bernini,

almost melodramatic
rance.'^

The

spatial

Baroque found

in

in his reverential

them began

The connexion

this

church

triumphant

which had

across space between figures

developed during the

Near the

and the

who

look and

High Baroque, weaves together

entrance the visitor meets those

to flag.

tiated stages of religious enthusiasm.

altar, as

exube-

conceptions of the High

realization, but the religious feeling

carried

appears

BIBLOSARTE

art

and

Roman
life

and

3l6

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

effaces the

most powerful boundary of

all,

the

one that separates hfe from death. Nowhere

else

can one pinpoint so clearly the paradoxical

the dead

who

invite the living to join in their prayers,

and

situation of the

Baroque age

it is

carry medallions with reliefs of St Stephen and

St Ranieri.

ture and space

spirituality of these

free transitions

make

between sculp-

work

this

legitimate

descendant of Bernini's Cornaro Chapel.

emo-

while the dead seem alive and the living

The convincing

and the

figures

Maglia often collaborated with Francesco

who was

tionally prepared to accept the elimination of

Cavallini, an able decorator

the borderline between fiction and reality, they

chief contributor to the sculptural decoration

commemo-

yet remain always conscious that

rative portraits greet

them from the

were

Minor Masters of the

monuments, Aprile and Maglia, were Ferrata's

pupils. There were no sculptors of importance

was

Guidi's studio ;^5 nor was Raggi the head of

The

opposite

is

true of Ferrata: as

men-

well as Caffa, Retti, and the artists just

Giuseppe Mazzuoli,

tioned, Filippo Carcani,

Lorenzo Ottoni, the Florentine Giovan

Battista

Foggini, the Milanese Giuseppe Rusnati, and

even Camillo Rusconi were

But Ferrata was not

among

a great

his pupils.^'

enough

artist to

came

consisted of

variations of the Berninesque idiom.

The major-

of his pupils belong to a later generation,

word about them

will therefore

be re-

served for another chapter. Francesco Aprile

died young,

in

1685,^'*

affinities

so

that

it

fell

to his

Cavallini,

whom we

his career

under Bernini

saw employed,

in spite

in St Peter's,

Cosimo

wherever we find the

latter

working

and decorator, Cosimo Fancelli

near

hand.

at

by him

in

Thus

there

is

as architect

sure to be

is

decorative sculpture

SS. Martina e Luca (1648-50), S.

della Pace (1656), S.

1660), S. Carlo

Cappella Gavotti

al

in

Corso
S.

Maria

Via Lata

in

(after 1665), in the

Nicolo da Tolentino

(1668), and on the vaulting of the Chiesa

(1662-5). After Cortona's death he

Nuova

still

he was one of the most distinguished sculptors

Rome

Bernini transferred to him the execu-

recumbent statue of St Anastasia under the

tion of an angel for the Ponte S. Angelo.

high altar of the church of that name, a statue

angel (1668-9) [206] shows, in the

which the type of Maderno's St Cecilia was

man-

ner. Maglia,

whose

earliest

known works

from about 1672, adhered more closely

manner of his master. His

principal

work

date

to the
is

the

decoration of the beautiful chapel in S. Maria

in Araceli dedicated to St Peter

of Alcantara

took

part in a variet\' of important tasks, and since

in

in

of

attached himself to Pietro da Cortona; and

teacher Ferrata to finish his masterpiece, the

translated into the forms of Bernini's late

how-

neither from Ferrata nor Raggi: he

on the Baldacchino. After beginning

(r.

his studio

style.

his youth,

work turned out by

commission; these are uneven

(161 9-71)

Maria

and

Corso (1678-82)

a pupil of Cosimo Fancelli (1620.^-88), the

more important brother of Giacomo Antonio

give his school a personal stamp; most of the

ity

al

and on the whole show close

with Raggi's turbulent

ever,

in

stucco

over-life-size

Seventeenth Century

Two of the artists responsible for the Bolognetti

a school.*

his largest

in quality

later

The

of Gesii e Maria.

statues of saints in S. Carlo

walls.

the third

This

somewhat

voluptuous forms and the type of the head,

how indebted
the

Fancelli was to Cortona while at

same time he paid

tribute to the current

Berninesque manner. Uneven

work, he

in his

often attempted to reconcile Cortona's and Bernini's

manners with an emphatic simplicity of

forms which he shared with Ferrata,

more than one

(1682-4),'' where above the altar the ecstatic

laborator on

saint hovers in the air before a vision of the

difficult, therefore, to distinguish

Cross, while on the side walls life-size angels

work.^"

BIBLOSARTE

his col-

It is

often

between

their

occasion.

TRENDS IN HIGH BAROQUE SCULPTURE

beauty: the recumbent St Sebastian

tiano tuori

le

Maderno's St

Mura

317

Sebas-

in S.

yet another version of

Cecilia tyf)e - a statue derived

from Michelangelo's Dying Slave

in the

Louvre

and imbued with an exquisite Hellenistic

fla-

Girolamo Lucenti (1627-92) began as a

pupil of Algardi, whose influence is still tracevour.

able in the relatively unemotional angel on the

Ponte

S.

Angelo. His tomb of Cardinal Giro-

lamo Gastaldi (1685-6)

de'

of S. Maria

in the choir

MiracoH shows him

weak imitator of

as a

Raggi's manner; while the bronze statue of

Philip

IV of Spain, under the portico of S. Maria

Maggiore, dating from the

centi's

life, is

by Bernini

last

years of

Lu-

hardly a shadow of the one planned

in 1667.^'

Looking back
on the Ponte

S.

for a

moment from

Angelo

years earlier under the

the statues

to those placed forty

dome

of St Peter's,

we

realize that, in contrast to the earlier highly

we are
among whom

personal and subjective performance,

faced with the work of epigones

Bernini appears

like a solitary' giant.

His intense

High Baroque did not only have an equalizing

influence

on most of these masters of the

younger generation but

2o().

Cosimo

The Angel
Rome,

with the Sudary, 1668-9.

Potite S.

The

also

reduced their capa-

city for individual expression,

Fancelli

their desire to attain

and perhaps even

it.

Angelo

Bernini's Studio

angels on the Ponte S. Angelo enable

the student to assess the position of

Roman

and the Position of Sculptors

in

Rome

sculpture in the year 1670. Bernini naturally

The

employed the sculptors with the highest repu-

Bernini's influence on the sculptors in

whom

last

remark indicates

that for

good or

evil

Rome

he was particularly

during the second half of the seventeenth cen-

well as the angels for which he was

tury cannot be overestimated. After Algardi's

tation

and those of

fond.

As

nobody

himself responsible, we find - as we should

death

expect - angels by Ferrata, Raggi, and Guidi;

seriously to challenge his authority.

there are those by his closest circle, Lazzaro

attempt here to reconstruct the organization and

Morelli,

Giulio Cartari, and Paolo Naldini;

finally there is the angel

by Cosimo Fancelli,

in

1654

there

was,

in

working of the studio. Suffice

became the

it

attraction for artists

fact,
I

cannot

to say that

from

all

it

over

Englishman

and there are others by Antonio Giorgetti and

Europe, and such sculptors

Girolamo Lucenti. ^^ Gioseppe" Giorgetti,^- An-

Nicholas Stone the younger, the Frenchman

tonio's brother, left one masterpiece of great

Puget,^^

as the

and the German Permoser

BIBLOSARTE

laid there

3l8

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

the foundation for their future work. Nearer

home, year by year

went

Rome, stimulated

to

less

to a large extent

there was an unparalleled

and yet

More

often than not they

were utterly disappointed, and sculptors were

lucky

they found a corner for themselves in

if

Bernini's vast organization or in one of the

in spite

hundred and eleven

the borough of

Campo

them

fifty-three of

for sculptors,

remained large

proletariat of artists

In 1656 one

boom

of the years of prosperity the

in

Rome.

artists lived in

Marzio, and no

- i.e.

less than
almost 50 per cent -

or less dependent on him. Willy-

were registered as poor.^^ But quality was so

they had to submit to the established

highly valued that the top class of sculptors,

more

studios
nilly

im-

towards the middle of the seventeenth century

getting a share in the gigantic commissions the

to ofl'er.

to Bernini's

Italy,

acquiring there a great style than by the hope of

Church had

due

by the idea of

North of

sculptors, particularly from the

was

It

mense authority that the profession of a sculptor

had become financially rewarding. To be sure,

stream of masons and

and above

hierarchy.

The

competent Lazzaro Morelli

fate of the

(1608-Q0)

may

be quoted as one example of

He came

many.

to

Rome

from Ascoli, but

in

Bernini, were paid star salaries,

all

even by modern standards. As early as 1633 an

original statue

by Bernini was estimated

worth between four and

65 1 Francis

five

thousand

of Este paid as

much

as

being

scudi.^**

spite of excellent letters of introduction every-

In

thing seemed to go wrong, and his biographer,

scudi for his portrait bust. This was, of course,

makes him exclaim bitterly 'How much

it have been for me to stay at home,
where I did not and could not earn very much,
but where, eventually, I would have taken first

exceptional, even for Bernini. In 1634 Algardi

Pascoli,

better

would

my

amon-gst

place

entirely

as

one of his most

others in

dependent on Bernini

for work. In fact Bernini

him

end,

the

many

Morelli shared the fate of so

becoming almost

In

colleagues.'

must have regarded

reliable studio hands, for

he allotted to him tasks of great responsibility

work on the Piazza of St

in the

Cathedra, and the tomb

xMorelli

Peter's,^^ the

of Alexander VII.

maintained contact with his native town

and became on

his part the

head of

was by

initiative of other

mentioned

at the

by the

Italy

and

beginning

of this chapter, the great extension of the studio

did not take place until the later 1640s,

it

will

be

apparent that Bernini's Baroque was taken up

in the rest

of Italy not until the second half and,

as a rule, only

century.

during the

last

signed his contract for the tomb of Leo

a fee of 2,550 scudi,

but

at the

as

3,000

XI with

time the tomb was

finished, eighteen years later,

when both

the

craving for sculpture and Algardi's reputation

were

at a

climax, he was granted an additional

1,000 scudi. Such prices were not maintained

from the

seventeenth century onwards.

late

good comparison

is

offered by the 7,000 scudi

Bernini was paid in 1671 for his Const an tine as

against the 4,000 scudi Cornacchini received in

1725 for

its

counterpart, the equestrian statue

of Charlemagne.^''

SCULPTURE OUTSIDE ROME

it

masters that the

was disseminated throughout

Europe. Since, as

in the

the typical constellation:

direct transmission rather than

independent
style

is

a school

through which Bernini's manner spread

Marches.^'' This

quarter of the

It

has already

become apparent

that not

much

need be said about the development of sculpture outside

incontestably

Rome. With Rome's supremacy

established,

Roman

catered for the need of patrons

all

sculptors

over Italy.

Naples, vigorously active, had room even for

Finelli

and Bolgi. But

as a rule figures

and busts

were sent from Rome. Bernini provided work

for Spoleto, Siena,

Modena, Venice, and Savona

(school piece); Algardi for Genoa, Piacenza,

BIBLOSARTE

IRtNDS IN IIIUH BAROQLK SCULPTL'RE

319

Parma, Bologna, Perugia, and Valletta (Malta).

the reliefs at S. Agnese in Piazza Navona.

The

Not Florentines

Roman High Baroque

into

or Sienese but Cafta, Ferrata,

and Raggi gave Siena Cathedral monumental

nesque statuary. Ferrata

also

worked

Modena, and Naples; Raggi

suolo,

and Loreto; Naldini

Todi. There
It

is

no need

was not

until

to

for

late

Venice,

Milan, Sas-

and

for Orvieto

prolong this

up

in

centres

Bologna, Genoa, and Venice. Apart from

Milan with her conservative cathedral school of

sculptors, a continuity

was maintained only

in

Florence and Naples, due

in

the activitv' of one

Florentine sculpture

artist.

each city mainly to

did not enter a High Baroque phase even with

who

Pietro Tacca's son, Ferdinando (1619-86),

remained Tuscan through and through. His

bronze
S.

relief of the

Martyrdom of Si Stephen

in

Stefano, Florence (1656), points back via

Francavilla

Bologna

Giovanni

and

the

to

illusionism of Ghiberti's Porta del Paradiso,

while his fountain of the Bacchino

(1665,

now Museum),

developed

beyond

far

Prato

at

with the figure crowning

the shaft and basin like a

monument,

Giovanni

is

not

Bologna's

prototypes in the Boboli Gardens. Compelling

Baroque
to

unification of parts

Florentine

remained foreign

But the

artists.

little

Earlier than any other Italian city, Naples

assimilated

Roman High Baroque

bronze

Lombard Cosimo

the

P'anzago

(p.

had an autonomous Baroque sculptor.

late

(161 5-16, St Ignatius at Catanzaro; 1620,

developed even before

a

High Baroque

Finelli's arrival

trast to the true

in Rome. Yet in conHigh Baroque masters in Rome,

the versatile Fanzago was capable of using side

by side two idioms which would seem mutually

exclusive: the

Tuscan Renaissance comes

Reale (1640-6) while the

forms

a figure like

Ignazio,

S.

Roman Baroque

masses of

its

luminous surface and strong

contrapposto movement.''- Although by training

a

sculptor and mainly active as an architect,

Fanzago's most lasting achievement was probably in the field of semi-decorative

his fountains

art,

gates in S Martino and the Cappella del Tesoro,

.

and

his

many polychrome

where he

altars,

ornament

Severino e Sosio, Naples), and there

Pitti

Tacca,'"

has

been

revealing

erroneous assessment of what was possible

Florence around

1640.

an
in

As K. Lankheit has

shown, the rehef dates from 1675-7 ^"d

'^

by

He at last exchanged the FloRoman relief style of the type ot

such as

and pulpits, his splendid bronze

ner was fully developed (1635, high

Palazzo

in-

the Jeremiah (1646, Cappella

Gesu Nuovo) with

brittle folds, its

to

Immacolata of the Cappella

in the chaste

life

chio's putti. All too often the bronze relief of the

the

towards

out contacts with events

overlook the faint family likeness to Verroc-

Pietro

tomb

style [193], certainly not with-

laid

in

be-

of Michele Gentile, Cathedral, Barletta) and

que softness and roundness although one cannot

to

He

Mannerist classicism

wedded

attributed

in

302) Naples

Bacchus on top of the fountain has High Baro-

Crucifixion

sculpture

through the activity of Giuliano Finelli; and

gan with works of

list.

the century that

in

flourishing local schools sprang

like

for

its entrj'

Florence.

Seicento sculpture. Later, Giuseppe Mazzuoli,

born near Siena, inundated Siena with Berni-

had made

flourishing sculptural

to in-

marble work. As early as the 630s this man-

beheve that

it

altar,

is

SS.

reason to

had considerable repercussions

in

Even the decorative style of an

Juvarra seems to owe a great deal

the rest of Italy. ^^

architect like
to

Fanzago, and the question to what extent the

roots of the

Rococo ornament can be traced back

Fanzago, directly or indirectly, would need

G. B. Foggini."'

to

rentine for the

further careful investigation.

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER 14

HIGH BAROQ.UE PAINTING AND ITS AFTERMATH

Baroque Classicism

Domenichino; G. F. Romanelli {c. 1610-62),

Giacinto Gimignani (i 611 -81), and Paolo

Archaizing Classicism

Gismondi((. 161 2-<. 1685),

Crypto-Romanticism

to

name

only a few,

from Pietro da Cortona.' But Sacchi lined up

The preceding

discussion

of the

Cortona-

Sacchi controversy supplies the background to

Rome

the development of painting in

during

all

these painters behind him.

that

in

worked

the
for

It is

characteristic

1640s Camassei and Gimignani

him

in the

Baptistery of the Lateran,

most of the second and third quarters of the

where

seventeenth century. Painters had to side with

master's cartoons. Camassei,

one of the two opposing camps the general trend

the high hopes of his Barberini patrons, had a

of their decision has already been indicated.

typical

also the

young Maratti painted from the

who

disappointed

Rome

har-

career; after his beginnings under

Domenichino, he painted under Cortona in

boured two immensely vigorous Baroque

fres-

Castel Fusano, only to be associated with Sacchi

At the beginning of

this period

coes of singular importance, those by Lanfranco

in the

dome

Cortona

of S. Andrea della Valle and by

the Gran Salone of the Palazzo

One would have thought that these

in

Barberini.

masterpieces would immediately have led to a

revolution in taste, even

among

the artists of

towards the end of his brief

exceptions his work

whole group. In

fact,

life.

With few

archaistic, like that of the

is

Sassoferrato's stereotyped

pictures of the Virgin and Child appeared so

anachronistic that he was long taken for a fol-

lower of Raphael. Cozza

is

the

most interesting

second rank, and there cannot be any doubt

and Romanelli the best-known of these practi-

about the impression they made. But Lan-

tioners

franco soon

Rome and

left

twelve years

in

settled for about

Naples (1634-46), where he

who had

(see below),- little

manner

career.

357)-

(P-

number of

When

fresco

large

he returned to

Rome

cycles

(1646),

moment

the

in

deserves being resuscitated from semi-obscurity

continued his dense and dramatic Baroque

in

their great

decade before the mid century. While Cozza

need be said about Romanelli's

Trained under Domenichino, he be-

came Cortona's

assistant

on

the

Barberini

shortly before his death, the climate had con-

ceiling,

siderably changed, mainly due to the ascendancy

Barberini, and was given commissions of con-

of Andrea Sacchi. Between

1640 and

Cortona too was absent from Rome, and

meant

that Sacchi

remained

in full

1647
this

command

of

the situation.
It is for this
file

among

the rank

and

of artists born between 1600 and 1620 the

pattern of development varies but

little.

Andrea

Camassei (1602-48/9), Francesco Cozza (160582),

skill.

It

watered-down and

cal,

manner

was he who introduced

classicized version of

into Paris,

allegorical,

and

gallery of the Hotel

several

rooms of

the

where

his

Cor-

mythologi-

historical frescoes in the

Mazarin (1646-7)' and

Louvre (1655-7)

in

reveal a

facile routine,

which

Giovanni

Roman work

of these years (frecoes, Palazzo

Cerrini (1609-81) stem mainly from

Lante, 1653).

Sassoferrato

Domenico

siderable size which he executed not without

decorative

tona's

reason that

was permanently patronized by the

(1609-85),

and

BIBLOSARTE

is

equally apparent in his

322

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

At the beginning of the 1630s these

were

still

too

young

to contribute

artists

independently

important commissions. Only the oldest

to

them, Camassei, was allowed

a share in the

of

most

interesting enterprise of this period, the decor-

Maria

ation with paintings of S.

Con-

della

cezione (163 1-8), undertaken on the initiative

of Cardinal

Antonio Barberini,

pope's

the

absolute purity. Nazarene or Pre-Raphaelite

paintings

have

quality.

come

to

Even

young Mattia
originality

man

tially in

the

tona

who had made Rome

after
far

his

an early Caravaggesque phase,

tow ards Bolognese classicism.

home and,
had moved

Of the younger

masters, in addition to Camassei, only Sacchi

It is

in

the

essen-

manner of Domenichino.

pieces; the Florentine Mannerist Baccio Ciarpi,

well as Alessandro Turchi {1578-1648) from

revolutionary

of a different calibre, the

Preti (1613-99), in spite of his

as ossify in their

Verona,

archaism seems to

and vigour, paints the frescoes

Here the older generation was given

pride of place: Reni, Domenichino, and Lanfranco (two pictures)^ painted mature mastercontributed a picture as

this

therefore

apse of S. Andrea della Valle in 1650-

brother.

Cortona's teacher,

mind:
and

radical

true that

all

these painters reflect as well

work

development towards

which Poussin, Sacchi, Algardi, and even Cortended, a development that had

wide

repercussions and links up with international

Late Baroque classicism. Seen

in

spective as an offshoot of Roman

classicism, this

proper per-

High Baroque

group of painters

is

therefore

neither as anachronistic nor as revolutionary^ as

it

might appear.

(two) and Cortona were commissioned. All in

all,

the church offers an excellent cross-section

monumental

of the various trends of

painting

in

the

the

1630s:

old

easel

Bolognese

207. Giovanni Battista Salvi,

The

Caspena

(Rieli). S.

Baroque classicism

classicism next to Sacchi's

and Reni's elegant and sublime

late

manner

next to Lanfranco's and Cortona's full-blooded

versions of the Baroque.
latter's
(c.

The keynote

of the

Ananias healing St Paul of Blindness

631) consists, rather typically, in a satu-

ration

of Raphaelesque

reminiscences

with

Venetian colourism.

The reversal

of values during the next decade,

the return to a dry and archaizing Bolognese

manner, the emphasis on design, and the almost

complete turning away from Venetian colour
will

be found in such works as Sassoferrato's

Madonna del Rosariii{\b^TS.

Sabina), Cerrini's

Holy Family with St Agnes and St Catherine

(1642, S. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane),

gnani's frescoes in S. Carlo

ai

and Romanelli's Presentation

(1638-42,
Peter's).^

S.

One

Gimi-

Catinari (1641),
in

the

Temple

Maria degU Angeli, from

il

Sassoferrato

Virgin of the Annunciation,

St

of the most extraordinary paint-

ings of these years [207] illustrates this trend in

BIBLOSARTE

Mana

c.

Niiova

1640-50. Detail.

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

In the meantime, the lower genre, the socalled

Bambocciate

Laer had given

(p. 77), to

rise,

which Pieter van

found scores of partisans.

These 'Bamboccianti' had become

even

coterie

before

the

1640s;

powerful

apart

Michelangelo Cerquozzi (1602-60),

Codazzi (161

1,

from

Viviano

not 1604, -72), and a few others,''

they were however mainly northerners,

among

them Jan Miel, Jan Asselyn, Andries Both,

Karel Dujardin, and Johannes Lingelbach. As
early as 1623 the Dutch organized themselves
in the Schildersbent,' a guild

their interests but

of

Bohemian

life in

their pictures,

Roman

was

street

at the

which guarded

same time

Rome. Just

a centre

like their lives,

minute and intimate records of

life,

always

in

the cabinet format,

seem unprincipled when compared with

painting in

Rome.

In their

official

work these Bamboc-

208. Michelangelo Cerquozzi and Viviano Codazzi

Roman

Ruins,

c.

1650.

Rome, Pallavictni Colleclion

BIBLOSARTE

ITS

AFTERMATH

323

324

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

Mola: Joseph making himself known

Rome, Palazzo del Qjtirinale, Gallery
209. Pier Francesco

Quirinal
specific

Palace

(1657)

problem of

this

[209],'-

group of

reveals
artists.

the

Even

to his Brethren, 1657. Fresco.

In Testa's case the

same

conflict

between an

innate romanticism and the classical theories

here the landscape plays a predominant part,

which he professed, takes on

but the organization of the painting with

for his brief career - he died at the age of

figure composition as
as to

much

Cortona exposes

indebted to Raphael

tendency towards re-

fort>'

tragic proportions,

probably ended by suicide."

Lucca, he was

in

Rome

about

Bom

at

before 1630, began

worked with

conciliation with the prevailing classicism of the

studying with Domenichino,

period.

Cortona, and became one of the main coUabo-

BIBLOSARTE

later

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

rators of Cassiano del

1

Pozzo

AFTERMATH

ITS

325

231) in the

Naples, he began under his brother-in-law,

630s and was thus drawn into Poussin's orbit.

Francesco Fracanzano, but soon exchanged him

He was

also

closely

Passeri describes

him

(p.

associated
as an

with

Mola.

extreme melan-

cholic, bent on philosophical speculations,

found that work

in

who

black-and-white was more

suitable than painting to express his fantastic

for .\niello Falcone.

From

the latter stems his

interest in the battle-piece.''

first in

1635, was back

returned to

Rome two

at

He was

Naples

in

Rome

in 1637,

and

years later. His Satire

against Bernini during the Carnival of 1639

mythological and symbolic conceptions. His

made

etchings [210]'^ have an abstruse emblematic

enemy, and

the leading
so,

Roman

artist

once a^ain, Rosa

a
left

formidable
this

time

210. Pietro Testa:

Allegory of Reason, 1640-50. Etching

quality and a poetical

his

charm only matched by

Genoese contemporary, Giovanni Benedetto

Castiglione [238].

It

was Passeri's opinion that

for Florence,

where he nursed

his genius for

over eight years, writing poems and

composing music,

acting,

satires,

and painting. His

Testa outdistanced every painter by the variety

house became the centre of a sophisticated

and

circle

nobilitv'

of his ideas and the sublimity of his

inventions.

(Accademia dei Percossi). In 1649 he

Rome and now stayed till his

A man of brilliant talent, but a

finally settled in

The most unorthodox and

extravagant of this

group was certainly Salvator Rosa.

Bom

in

death

in 1673.

rebel in perpetuity,'" remorseless in his criti-

BIBLOSARTE

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

326

cism

ot"

society, obsessed

by

pre-romantic

eenth century saw in Salvator's and Claude's

egotistic conception of genius, he took ofTence at

landscapes the quintessential contrast between

being acclaimed as a painter of landscapes,

the sublime and the beautiful. In Sir Joshua

marines, and battle-pieces. But

achievement

in

this field

great

Instiliiie

his

compositions that his post-

rests.''

approach

retical

on

(p.

True

to the Italian theo-

43),

he regarded these

'minor' genres as a frivolous pastime.

On

the

other hand, they gave him the chance of letting

his hot

temper run amok. Setting out from the

Flemish landscape tradition of Paul and Mattheus

Brill,

skies dark
trees,

many

of his landscapes have their

and laden, storms twist and turn the

melancholy

buildings

Reynolds's words, Claude conducts us

and

tranquillity of Arcadian scenes

c.

1650.

lies

over the crags and

cliffs,

crumble into ruins, and banditti

while Rosa's style possesses 'the power of inspiring sentiments of grandeur and sublimity'.

Yet

it

must be emphasized

that the romantic

quality of Rosa's landscapes

on a

is

superimposed

classical structure, a recipe of 'landscape

making' which he shares with the

The example

classicists.

of illustration 211"* shows the

repoussoir trunk and tree

left

and right

in the

foreground, the classical division into three

distances, the careful balancing of light and dark
areas. In addition, the arc of the

group of figures,

linger waiting for their prey. Painted with a

which represent the Finding of Moses,

tempestuous brownish and grey

harmoniously into the undulating

palette, these

wild scenes were soon regarded as the opposite

to

the

'to

fairy land'.

of Art

historical

humous fame

is

Landscape with the Finding of Moses,

211. Salvator Rosa:

Detroii

it

rather than on his

Claude's enchanted elysiums.

The

eight-

fits

terrain,

'protected' by the larger arc of the tree,

is

and

given prominence by the silvery storm-clouds of

BIBLOSARTE

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

the background. Based on accepted formulas,

such landscapes were carefully devised in the

studio; they are, moreover, 'landscapes of
thought', because more often than not the
figures belong to

mythology or the Bible and

tie

ITS

AFTERMATH

327

by Rosa's rather dreary and emphatically rhetorical history paintings.

Only on occasion did

he allow the fantastic and visionary-romantic
elements to gain the upper hand. A case in point
the extraordinary Temptation of St Anthony

is

the genre, sometimes by a tender link, to the

great tradition of Italian painting.

romantic approach

to

The

quasi-

landscape painting was

212. Salvator Rosa:

c.

The Temptation

of St .Anthony,

1645-9. Floreihf. Palazzo Pitli

shared to a lesser extent by Mola and Testa and,

while the work of the minor classicists of this
period was soon almost forgotten, Rosa's new
landscape style opened horizons of vast consequences.'"
It

was during the very years of the

rise

of the

'romantic' landscape that Poussin and Claude

developed their formulas of the heroic and ideal

landscape and that landscapes al fresco were
once again admitted to palace and church; and
it is

memorable

early

fact that in the late

1640s and

1650s Poussin's brother-in-law, Caspar

Dughet (1615-75), whose

early

uninfluenced by Salvator as half-way

between the

manner

may be

classical

not

described

and romantic

conception of landscape, painted the cycle of

monumental landscapes with scenes from the

lives of Elijah, Elisha, and St Simon Stock in S.
Martino ai Monti as well as landscape friezes
Colonna, Costaguti, and Doria-Pamphili

in the

palaces - thus taking

up

a tradition for

which

Agostino Tassi had been famed in the second

and third decades of the century.-" At the same
time, the Bolognese

Gian Francesco Grimaldi

(1606-80), an all-round talent, returned in his

frescoes

and cabinet pictures

to the older tradi-

tion of Annibale Carracci's classical landscape

style.^'

On

the whole, therefore, the lure of classical

discipline far

outweighed the attractions of the

sixth decades.

The

'inferiority

fifth

this

doubly

thoroughly they were steeped

current classical theory

is

and

complex' from

which the romantics suffered makes

How

spirit

of a Jerome Bosch

Not many years later - in the i66os - the law

laid down ex cathedra. The prevalent taste

was

of the

640s and 50s had prepared the climate

supreme statement of the

tor Bellori's Idea, the

classic-idealist doctrine, read to the

crypto-romantic movement during the

clear.

which conjures up the

[212].-^^

in the

demonstrated by

Testa's manuscript treatise on art-- as well as

of St Luke

in

1664.-^

This

Academy

tract, in turn, laid

the theoretical foundation for the ascendancy

of Maratti's Late Baroque Classicism. Soon

Maratti was acclaimed the

And

yet Salvator

first

painter in Italy.

and the other romantics,

from being out of touch with the

own

spirit

far

of their

time, struck chords which reverberated

through the whole of

BIBLOSARTE

Italy.

328

apse of S. Carlo

Ihe Great Fresco Cycles

Catinari (1646-7), his not

ai

entirely successful parting gift to the world;

It

is

memorable

Baroque churches

fact that

none of the High

by Bernini, Cortona,

built

and

after

February 1650 followed Mattia

Andrea

frescoes in the apse of S.

Preti's

della Valle.

Borromini, and Rainaldi had room for great

Excepting the continuation of Cortona's work

Baroque

in the

ceiling decoration,-^ the only exception

being the

dome

indication

is

of S. Agnese, and here no

extant of what Borromini would

mid

Chiesa Nuova during the mid

nothing of

sixties,

pened

real

fifties

when GauUi painted

until 1668,

and

importance hapthe pen-

From

have wished to do. All these churches were

dentives of S. Agnese (finished 1671).

designed as architectural entities which would

then on the pace quickened. In 1670 Ciro Ferri,

have been interfered with by an

break-through

moment's
surd

it

illusionistic

in the region of the

make

reflection will

would be

to

it

dome.

clear

how

ab-

imagine the domes of S. Ivo,

SS. Martina e Luca,

S.

Andrea

al

Quirinale, or

Cortona's faithful pupil, began the

Agnese

Andrea

franco's S.

of S.

Lan-

della Valle (finished in 1693,

after Ferri's death).-'*

1

dome

the tradition deriving from

in

Antonio Gherardi's (1644-

702) remarkable frescoes on eighteen fields of

the vault of S. Maria in Campitelli decorated

the ceiling of S. Maria in Trivio - the most

with grandiloquent Baroque frescoes. Only Ber-

Venetian work

certain conditions (e.g.

Baroque

in

Rome

at this

period

date from 1670. In 1672 Gaulli began in the

Cornaro Chapel). High

Gesii the most ambitious decoration of the

ecclesiastical architecture of the first

order, in other words, had no use for

contem-

Roman

Baroque, which kept him occupied for

over a decade [213].-'

Two

years later Giacinto

porary fresco paintings, and this also applies

Brandi worked on the large vault of

by and large

al

to the cities outside Rome.-'' It

doubtful whether other than

artistic

is

reasons

may account for this situation, for a man like

Cortona, who made it impossible for all time
to have the dome of SS. Martina e Luca painted,
began

in the

very same years of its construction

the extensive fresco decoration of the Chiesa

Nuova.

The

also

under

nini admitted illusionist ceiling painting

Carlo

S.

Corso and Canuti on that of SS. Domenico

Sisto (1674-5) [216].

Between 1682 and 1686

follow Brandi's ceiling frescoes in S. Silvestro

in Capite,

and immediately

Gesu

after, those in

Maria (1686-7). Filippo Gherardi's Triumph

of the

Name

of Mary

in S.

Pantaleo dates be-

tween 1687 and 1690. Padre Pozzo's immense

frescoes in S. Ignazio [217] were painted be-

paradoxical position then

is

High

this:

tween

69 1 and 1694; after 1700

fall

Garzi's

Baroque frescoes were only admitted on the

frescoes in S. Caterina da Siena and Calan-

none

drucci's ceiling in S. Maria dell'Orto (1703)

where

vaults of older churches,

originally

or certainly not this kind of decoration was

and,

planned, while contemporary architecture offer-

coes in SS. Apostoli.*"

ed no room for monumental painting. This revealing fact

must be supplemented by an equally

interesting one,

frescoes in the

namely

dome

that after Lanfranco's

of S. Andrea della Valle,

painted between 1625 and 1627, twenty years

went by

until another

rated: that

dome was

by Cortona

(1647-51). At the same

similarly deco-

Chiesa Nuova
moment Lanfranco,

in the

back from Naples,-" painted the frescoes

in the

It

finally,

from 1707 date Gaulli's

late fres-

appears, therefore, that most of the large

frescoes in

Roman

churches belong

thirty years of the seventeenth

to the last

and the begin-

ning of the eighteenth century. Gaulli's work

in S. Ignazio,

which

are rightly regarded as the epitome of

monu-

in the Gesii

and Pozzo's

mental Baroque painting, were done

when High Baroque

had long passed

their zenith.

BIBLOSARTE

at a

time

architecture and sculpture

This situation

is

213-

Giovan

Battista Gaulli: Adoration of the

jName of Jesus, 1674-9. Fresco. Rome.

BIBLOSARTE

Genii, ceiling

of nave

330

THE AGE OF THE HlCiH BAROQUE

not entirely paralleled as regards the decoration

and massiveness of each single figure were

of palaces. But in the thirty years between about

abandoned and replaced by

1640 and 1670 only three major enterprises are

of the entire ceiling with seemingly casually

worth mentioning, namely the decoration

arranged figures so that the eye seeks a focusing

of the

Navona where Ca-

Palazzo Pamphili in Piazza

massei (1648), Giacinto Gimignani (1649),*'

Giacinto Brandi, Francesco Allegrini'-

(r.

1650),

or resting point in vain.

Valmontone

a flickering dotting

Compared with

Preti's

even such contrasting per-

fresco,

formances as Cortona's and Sacchi's Barberini

com-

Cortona (165 1-4), and Cozza (1667-73) created

ceilings [153, 161] have basic features in

the most impressive aggregate of friezes and

mon.

ceilings after the Palazzo Barberini; the great

stylistic idiosyncrasies

Gallery of the Quirinal Palace, the most exten-

rent not only in painting but also in the sculpture

sive

work of collaboration, dated 1656-7, where,

under Cortona's general direction, G.

maldi (who seems

F. Gri-

have had an important

to

on the other hand, shows

Preti's work,

which soon became cur-

of the Late Baroque.

Cozza was quick

in

accepting his friend Preti's

new manner; and with

the latter's

Valmontone

share in the enterprise), the Schor brothers,"

frescoes almost entirely gone, Cozza's library

Guglielmo and Giacomo Cortese (Courtois),

ceiling in the Palazzo Pamphili [214]'" takes

Lazzaro Baldi, Giro Ferri, Mola [209], Maratti,

particular

with

Painted

importance.

on

an ex-

Gaspar Dughet, and some minor Cortonesclu

tremely light and luminous palette, the indivi-

appear side by side ;^^ and the cycle of frescoes

dual figures remain

in

Valmontone near

the Pamphili palace at

Rome,"*^ painted between

Mola, Giambattista Tassi

indebted to Domeni-

w ith

the attractive

Late Baroque open sky peopled with masses of

Cortonese'),

allegorical figures in a naive classicizing style.

In a varying degree elements of Preti's revo-

again

library

[214],

much

faced here

Gu-

('il

some of

the

most sumptuous

decorations follow after 1670. Apart from Cozza's

is

and almost unbelievable spectacle of a typically

Preti.

Once

Thus one

1657 and 1661 by

glielmo Cortese, Gaspar Dughet, Cozza, and

Mattia

chino.

ceiling

in

the

Palazzo Pamphili

mention must be made of the frescoes

in

the Palazzo Altieri by Cozza, Canuti,^'' and

lution

will

be

found

cription has to emphasize

seems close

vitality,

a vital part in the

Colonna (1675-8) [218]." And once again,

this

decoration

of

generic des-

two decisive points.

Baroque, each figure has an immense

Maratti [219] and of Giovanni Coli's and FiHppo

the Palazzo

the

In the grand decorative frescoes of the

Gherardi's immense Gallery

in

in

churches from about 1670 on.

to the beholder,

whole composition

High

plastic

and plays
[153].

By

contrast, the figures of the later series of frescoes

were, only a collective

chronological situation also prevails throughout

[213, 216, 217] have, as

Italy.

existence; they are dependent on larger units

This survey makes

monumental

fresco

it

churches belong mainly

The

stylistic

abundantly clear that

decorations
to the

in

Roman

Late Baroque.

change from the High

to the

Late

Baroque can be traced in Preti's fresco of the

Stanza dell'Aria in the Valmontone palace, dated
1661.'** It

was here

for the first

and, what

is

more, get

it

much

smaller with the

feigned distance from the spectator until they

are

lost

in

the

immeasurable height of the

empyrean. While Cortona's figures seem

before the open sky, the figures

to act

now people

the

time that the

214. Francesco Cozza:

High Baroque method of using time-honoured

concepts of firm organization and clear, incisive

Apotheosis of Casa Pamphili, 1667-73. Fresco.

Rome, Palazzo Pamphili

structure as well as of stressing the individuality

BIBLOSARTE

in

Piazza Navona, Library

BIBLOSARTE

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

33-2

'"f"f>5^

215.

Giovan

Rome,

GauUi:

Battista

Head of an Angel,

"^\ "" "'-^^^.f

after 1679. Fresco. Detail.

Gesii, apse

sky, they inhabit

it

as far as the eye can see.

secondly, dazzling light envelops them.

And
The

nearer they are to the source of divine illumination, the

more

ethereal they become. Aerial

perspective supports the diminution of figures

in

creating the sensation of infinitude.

The

Correggio-Lanfranco tradition had, of course,

a considerable share in

illusionism.

bringing about the

new

Despite such

monumental

We

saw

common

features,

some of the

fresco decorations are poles apart.

in a previous chapter (p.

174)

how

Gaulli in the Gesii became the mouthpiece of

Bernini's

ideas.

Before

(1639-1709)^" arrived in

this

Rome

Genoese

foundation for his style in his native

the impression of

above

all,

Van Dyck and

cit\-

under

Strozzi and,

of Correggio during a stay

BIBLOSARTE

artist

he had laid the

at

Parma.

2i6. Domenico Maria Canuti and Enrico Haffner: Apotheosis of St Dominic, 1674-5. Fresco.
Rome, SS. Domenico e Sisto

BIBLOSARTE

T""^

334

^'^'^

OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

brilliant talent, also

one of the

Andrea Pozzo:

217.

portrait

first

Allegory of the Missionary

painters of his time, he was capable of conveying

Work
1

drama

fresco as well as on canvas with a

in

warm and endearing

Angel of

palette.

The head
from

illustration 215, a detail

Rome, S. Ignazio,

work

arranged his figures

effects

produced

flickering light

by the application of fresh

the eyes as

seen through a haze -

if

revealing his study of Correggio's sfumato - he

managed

to

endow such

head with the languid

manner (see illuslater work his palette

spirituality of Bernini's latest

trations 78

and

79). In his

of nave

his lesson

he

Ignazio [217], as elsewhere,

S.

in

and dark areas

connected light

in loosely

proof that he too had learned

from Gaulli.

Giovanni Coli (1636-81) and Filippo Ghe-

impasto. Moreover, by painting the half-open

mouth and

Fresco.

his fres-

care of execution, the bravura of handling, the

and easy touch, and the

4.

ceiling

of the

coes in the Gesii, gives a good idea of the loving

free

of the Jesuits,

69 1

rardi (1643 -1704),

two

artists

from Lucca who

always worked together, combined their Venetian training with the study of Cortona's style

The

in the gallery of the Palazzo Colonna.^^

Cortonesque framework, executed by G.

P.

got paler and the intensity of his style dwindled,

Schor between 1665 and 1668, displays an enor-

no doubt under the influence of the prevailing

mous

taste of the ^77 de siecle.

Venetian central panel [218] dazzles the eye by

The Bolognese Domenico Maria Canuti

(1626-84), in his time a celebrated fresco painter,

had been reared

late

manner, and came

he saw there was not

in the tradition

Rome

to

lost

of Reni's

in 1672.

on him,

for his

What

drama-

Apotheosis of St Doimmc^^ [216] in the open

tic

Domenico

centre of the ceiling of SS.

e Sisto

discloses his familiarity with the grouping of

and the

figures

Gaulli's Gesii

aerial

and

light

decoration, then

conquests of
in

statu

na-

accretion of detail, while the strongly

the almost unbelievable entanglement of figures,

keels,

How

and masts,

bathed

all

High Baroque needs no

further

also evident that Gaulli's

have

from

diff'erent sources:

comment.

It is

and Coli-Gherardi's

common,

styles

little in

in flickering light.

removed from Cortona's

far this style is

arising as they

do

the one mainly from

Bernini's spiritualized later manner, the other

from

the

Cortonesque -Venetian

hedonistic

On

painterly tradition.

the other hand,

com-

also introduced a novelty.

pared with xMaratti's Palazzo Altieri fresco [2 19],

He framed the entire ceiling by a rich quadrat lira

Gaulli and Coli-Gherardi seem to be on the

scendi.*-

But Canuti

'design (executed

Rome was
for

by Enrico Haffner) whereby

which neither Bernini nor Cortona had any

use, but

which one may well expect

to find in

Genoa.

The

also took his

from the Bolognese masters. By contrast

cue

to the

decorative profusion of Haffner's design, Pozzo's quadratura

is

always

strictly architectural

in so far old-fashioned;

it

is

only the vir-

tuosity and hypertrophic size of his

schemes

typical signs of a late phase - that give

special stature.

him

his

Within the quadratura frame-

side of the fence.

Let the reader be reminded that these three

contemporary works

far

outdistanced in impor-

tance any other fresco executed during the

1

greatest of all quadratura painters. Padre

Andrea Pozzo^' (1642- 1709),

and

same

given a type of scenographic fresco

670s, and, furthermore, that Gaulli's cycle

was

infinitely

more Roman and

infinitely stron-

ger than Coli-Gherardi's ceiling.

lation that

simply

emerged

at this historic

a struggle for

The constelmoment was

primacy between Gaulli

and Maratti. Forty years

after the

Cortona-

Sacchi controversy the fronts were once again

clearly defined.

But neither the 'baroque' nor

the 'classical' wing was the same. Gaulli's style

had

distinctly

BIBLOSARTE

metaphysical

basis;

often

BIBLOSARTE

ft.

BIBLOSARTE

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

218. Giovanni Coli and Filippo Gherardi:

The

AFTERMATH

ITS

Baroque classicism of Sacchi's Dnina Sapienza

Battle of Lepanto, 1675-8.

[161] are closer to each other than either

Fresco. Rome, Palazzo Colonna, Gallery

Maratti's Late Baroque Classicism.

parison, Maratti had gone

its

appeal,

it

may have

Baroque and the

is

to

By com-

some way towards

two opposing trends, the

reconciliation of the

mystical and stirring in

337

classical.

In every sense he

strength from the forces lying behind

steered an agreeable middle course. His paint-

Bernini's late manner: the current revival of

ings contain no riddles, nothing to puzzle the

pseudo-dionysiac mysticism^^ as well as the

beholder, nothing to

derived

its

growing popularity of Molinos's quietism.

glib

knowledge of the intervening history of painting

guage,

makes

which

it

evident that the odds weighed heavily

stir

the

impersonal

generalizations

work abounds, admission of

his

against Gaulli. Just as the close followers of

right dose of festive splendour -

Bernini in sculpture had not a ghost of a chance

destined his grand

of Late Baroque rationalism which

in the face

was backed by the strong French

in

painting:

soon burnt

party, so also

GauUi's mystical Late Baroque

out in the cool breeze blow ing

itself

from Maratti's

cepted court style

ratti

was not an

all

with

just the

this pre-

manner to become the acin Louis XIV's Europe. Ma-

artist

Somewhat

theory.^**

given to speculation and

paradoxically,

was

it

his

pragmatic approach by virtue of which he came

up

classicist camp.^**

His

violent emotions.

handling of the current allegorical lan-

hybrid theoretical expectations of his

to the

friend Bellori who, like Agucchi before him,

Carlo Maratti

wanted the

( 162^-i/ij)

artist's tdea to result

from the em-

pirical selection of beautiful parts rather than

study of Maratti's Altieri ceiling [219] plainly

shows that he wanted

to restore the

character of the painted area: once again the

fresco

is

wished

clearly

and simply framed. ^^

to reinstate the

from an

autonomous

He

autonomy of the

also

indivi-

a priori concept of beauty.^''

All this

sounds perhaps scathing, yet

be admitted that Maratti was an

ordinary
in

ability.

Born

at

artist

it

must

of extra-

Cammerino (Marches)

1625, he appeared as a boy of twelve in

dual figure; he returned to the classical principle

Andrea Sacchi's

of composing with few figures and to an even,

reputation was firmly established with the Sac-

light palette

on the

which

plastically

invites attention to focus

conceived figure,

its

attitude

and gestures; he almost relinquished the

in

sii

sot to

but, characteristically, did not revive the

austere qiiadro riportato of the Early Baroque

classicism.

Moreover, the figures themselves are

more Baroque and

may have

believed

sition lacks

less

them

Raphaelesque than he
to be,

and the compo-

poignancy and incisive accents.

undulates over the picture plane, and the

impression
form.

The

is

is

first

one of a perplexing mass of sodden

closeness of this style to

Guidi's in sculpture
It

It

is

Domenico

chesque Adoration of I lie Shepherds

seppe dei Falegnami.

From

Baroque

classicism of Reni's Aurora [32] and the

High

in S.

Giu-

then on Maratti's

career was a continuous triumph, and, indeed,

one monumental masterpiece

his studio.

Nor was he

manner of Sacchi and

paintings of the

after another left

entirely partial to the

the other classicists.

The

1650s reveal the impact of

Lanfranco's Baroque; he admitted influences

from Cortona and Bernini and even had some

sympathy with the mystic trend of the second

half of the century.

What impressed

his

con-

temporaries most was that he re-established a

feeling for the dignitv' of the

striking.

also revealing that the Early

studio. .As early as 1650 his

in

great, simple, plastic

human

figure seen

forms and rendered

with a sincerity and moral conviction without

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

AFTERMATH

ITS

339

moment [220]. As early as the

mid seventies neither Gaulli nor the Cortona
parallel at that

succession was

with a serious chance, and

left

by the end of the century

Rome had to all

and purposes surrendered

At his death

command

in

to Maratti's

intents

manner.

17 13 his pupils were in full

of the situation.^"

PAINTING OUTSIDE ROME

During the period under review the contribution of

Tuscany, Lombardy, and Piedmont was

rather modest. Apart from Reni's late manner,

even Bologna had

tury. Venice slowly

schools of

first

began

would

that

quarter of the cen-

to recover, while the

Genoa and Naples emerged

most productive and

offer

to

little

compare with the great

as the

Rome.
panorama

interesting, next to

bird's-eye view

of the entire

reveals that neither the classical nor the crypto-

romantic trend was peculiar

the

Roman

constellation

is

to

Rome.

In fact,

closely paralleled in

other centres. With Reni in an unchallenged

position at Bologna, his late

manner became

the inescapable law during the 1630s. His influ-

ence extended

far

beyond the confines of

native city, bringing about,

a soft, feeble, sentimental,

One

less classicism.

w herever

it

was

his

felt,

and rather structure-

can maintain that there was

almost an inverse ratio between Reni's success

on the one hand and Cortona's and Lanfranco's

on the other. Soon Reni's Baroque classicism
through

filtered

Italy. In xMilan

who began
formed

in

the

to

North and South of

Francesco del Cairo (1607-65),'''

Morazzone's manner [221, 222],

his style in the later 1640s

on Reni and

Venice, and his work became languid, thin, and

classical.

His contemporary. Carlo Francesco

219 (opposite). Carlo Maratti:

Nuvolone, called

The Triumph of Clemency,

similar

after 1673. Fresco.

Rome, Palazzo Allien, Great Hall

220 (above) Carlo Maratti
Virgin and Child with St Francis and St James,
1687. Rome, S. Maria di Montesanto

'il

Panfilo' {1608-61?),

had

development dependent on Reni, which

;

earned him the epithet 'Guido lombardo', he

exchanged

his early leuehroso

manner

for a light

tonality.

In Florence, too, Reni's influence

is

evident; in Furini's work, superimposed on the

BIBLOSARTE

340

221.

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

Morazzone: St Francis

in Ecstasy,

222. Francesco del Cairo: St Francis in Ecstasy,

1615.

Milan, Brer a

c.

native tradition,

it

over-refined style.

the other hand, probably

impressed by Poussin's classicism, from the

1

640s on an

artist like

way out of

Carpioni in Venice found

the local academic eclecticism

through elegant classicizing

classical detente of the 1640s
larly striking in

such

stylizations.

and 50s

is

Naples. During their

artists as Battistello,

turned

The

later. Sicily, finally,

had an

in Pietro Novelli, called

who abandoned

'il

artist

some time

of distinction

Monrealese' (1603-

his early

in

Rome

and Reni

tion in Venice

agent; yet

Mattia Preti embraced the fashion in his early

it

spells a falling off of quality.

Caravaggesque

This does not, of

course, apply to the two great leaders, Sacchi

classicism

while

was
it is

at

Bologna, nor to the posi-

and Florence, where Baroque

to

some extent

tion of Carracci pupils at

Bologna

years of his

Rome

(1631-2).''-

Palermo (1624) and

journey to Naples and

generaff .)

it is

life,

influence and produced works with a strong

classical bias,

many

a limited interest;

of which have no

and

it

is,

above

more than

all,

true of

Naples, where the elan of the early Ribera

rather feeble academic manner.

to

92

manner in the last thirty

when he was open to Renins

by Van Dyck's

first

(p.

true of Guercino's

out during the fourth and

visit

a regenerative

certainly true of the

tenebroso in the early 1630s, not uninfluenced

under the impact of

which

large, the classical reaction,

broadly speaking between 1630 and 1660,

phase

Ribera, and Stanzioni

away from

lies

particu-

late

towards Bolognese classicism,

period, only to break

47),

By and

led to a highly sophisticated,

On

1630. Milan, Mtiseo del Castello Sforzesco

On
artists

fifth

fizzles

decades into a

the other side of the fence were

some

of a slightly younger generation (most

BIBLOSARTE

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

of them born between 161 5 and 1625),

who

reacted vigorously against the prevalent Bar-

oque

The

classicism.

names

principal

to

be

mentioned are Maffei from Vicenza, the Florenand the Genoese Langetti,

tine iMazzoni,

working

in

Venice and the

Genoa; Mattia
Luca Giordano in Naples.

Castello in

terra

all

ferma ; Valerio

and the early

Preti

In one

way

or an-

other these and other artists revitalized Caravaggio's heritage but theirs was a
;

High Baroque Caravaggism

new painterly
,

230,

[229,

237,

Caravaggism that was handed on

245], the

to

Magnasco and Crespi and through them to

Piazzetta and the young Tiepolo.
There is, however, an important area where
these

Baroque

classicists

individualists

the unification of the picture plane by

means

of an even distribution of colour and

These

light.

painterly tendencies, mentioned in a previous

chapter

(p.

261) and nowhere

than in Reni's

late

manner

more evident

[223], distinguish

High Baroque classicism from the

the

first

apart,

the

classicism of

quarter of the century. Although worlds

it is

these painterly tendencies that form

common denominator between

classicists

the

and the neo-Caravag^tsti. In

Baroque
other

all

respects they differed most seriously.

To

the comparatively light palette of the

Baroque

classicists

neo-Caravaggisti op-

the

posed a strong chiaroscuro;

to the relatively

smooth handling of paint, a

(stroke) and di macchia (spot)

pittura di tocco

work with the

mark of those masters

areas of colour; to the harmonious scale of

was not simply

tones, unexpected colour contrasts; to the clas-

tactical
it

reversal

had

classicists,

of their

earlier

tenehroso

a distinctly positive aim,

namely

sical

types of beauty, subjective deviations; to

the tedium of balanced compositions, unac-

countable vagaries to the

;

tory, violent
223.

341

loaded brush and sketchy juxtapositions of small

who turned Baroque

manner;

AFTERMATH

meet. For the lightening of the palette,

the most characteristic

and the Baroque

ITS

Guido Reni:

Girl with a Wreath,

Rome, Capttoline Museum

c.

1635.

facile rhetorical

mysticism. Even though this generic

contrasts

reper-

movement, drama, and even

may

be too epigrammatic,

clarify the entangled position of the

it

new

list

of

helps to

second and

third quarters of the century.

No

doubt Salvator Rosa's crypto-romanti-

cism had partisans up and down the peninsula.

But allegiance

to

changed; some

artists

one trend or the other also

were torn between them.

Giovan Benedetto Castiglione seems

the

most

remarkable example.

Bi)logna, Florence, Venice,

and Lombard)'

After this introduction, the Reni succession at

Bologna need not detain us: Francesco Gessi

(1588- 1649), Giovan Giacomo Sementi (15801636),
his

Giovanni .Andrea Sirani (1610-70) and

daughter Elisabetta (1638-65), or Luca

Ferrari

from

planted

his

Reggio (1605-54)
master's

manner

Modena. These mediocre

BIBLOSARTE

to

^ho

trans-

Padua and

talents transformed

342

224.

THt AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

Simone Cantarini:
Guido Reni,

Portrait of
c.

1640. Bologna, Pinacoteca

the positive qualities of Reni's late 'classicism'

logna only two artists stand out, namely

[223P': the unorthodox simplicity of his inven-

Cantarini

Simone

Guido Cagnacci
the former for having left a number

(1612-48)''^

and

tions into compositions of boring pedantry; his

(1601-63) ;"

refined silvery tonality into a frigid scale of light

of carefully constructed, serene, and strong

tones; his vibrant tenderness into sentimen-

works, in which Carraccesque elements are

combined with those from Cavedoni and the

tality;

and

his late 'sketchy'

manner with

its

directness of appeal was neither understood nor

followed.

Among

the Reni succession in

Bo-

early Reni to

form

well illustrated

a distinctly personal style,

by the moving

BIBLOSARTE

portrait of his

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

aged teacher [224]; the

fortune in Vienna
painter to

(<.

who sought

latter,

1(157)

his

and became court

Emperor Leopold

I,

tor

breaking

away from the orthodox Baroque classicists and

creating some works of great poignancy in
strange violet and bluish tones.

On

the whole,

the Bolognese remained faithful to their clas-

225. Angelo Michele

ITS

AFTERMATH

343

This tradition was handed on through Girolamo

Curti, called

il

Dentone (1570-1632),

to

Angelo

Michele Colonna (1600-87) and Agostino Mitelli

(1609-60). These two artists joined forces

and

for a

time almost monopolized qiiaJratura

painting, working together at Parma, Florence

I225],

Genoa, Rome, and even Madrid, where

Colonna and Agostino Mitclli; Qjnulraiura

Museo degli Araetili, third room

trescocs, 1(141

Florence. Palazzo Pitli,

sical tradition,

guarded, during the second half

of the century, by the three caposcuole, Reni's

pupil,

Domenico Maria Canuti

rini's pupil,

Lorenzo

(p.

334); Canta-

Pasinelli (i 629-1700);'"'

and Albani's pupil. Carlo Cignani,

have to return

to

whom

At the same time, Bologna continued

to

be

painting.

Their rich scenographic views,

foreshadowing the Late Baroque by virtue of

the complexin

court style in

framework

its

of motifs, form a decorative

own

right rather than a

for figure painters.

large school,

in a later chapter.

the acknowledged centre of quadrat iira

Mitelli died.

mere

They educated

and since Mitelli claimed

to

have

invented quadrattira with more than one vanishing point,''

it is

he

who must

BIBLOSARTE

be credited with

344

having

foundation for the rich eight-

laid the

eenth-century development of this speciality.

Very different from the Bolognese was the

Florentine position.*" Matteo Rosselli,

been mentioned

98),

(p.

made

who

has

sure that the

typically Florentine qualities of elegant design

and bright

colour remained for a time

local

unchallenged.

He

educated the foremost

of the next generation,

artists

among whom may be

mentioned Giovanni Mannozzi,

called

Gio-

vanni da San Giovanni (1592- 1636), Francesco

Furini

1600-46), Lorenzo Lippi (1606-65),

(c.

Baldassare
( 1

Franceschini,

Volterrano

called

6x1 -89), and Jacopo Vignali (1592- 1664)*'*

and

pupil Carlo Dolci (1616-86). These

his

artists

responded

in various

ways

to the rarefied

atmosphere of the Florentine court.

Furini, above

The

influenced by Reni, pro-

all,

duced paintings of

morbid sensuality

[226].

ultramarine flesh-tones together with his

sfumato give his pictures a sweetish, sickly

vour, but

nobody can deny

that he

had

fla-

a special

rendering the melodious calligraphy of

gift for

the female body, thus disclosing his attachment

Mannerist

to the

Giovanni had

An

artist

tradition.

Giovanni da San

more healthy temperament.

capable of handling very large fresco

commissions, even the experience of

Rome

(fresco in the apse of SS. Quattro Coronati,

1623) did not rid him of Florentine idiosyn-

Although

crasies.
226. Francesco Furini
Florence, Palazzo Pitli

Faith,

1635-

his light touch, translucent

colours, and the ease and brilliance of his pro-

duction

make him one

of the most attractive

Florentine painters of the Seicento, the retardataire character of his art'"

is

shown by

the

fresco cycle in the Sala degli .Argenti of the

Palazzo

Pitti

(1635),

glorifying

Lorenzo

de'

Medici's concern for art and philosophy, a work,

incidentally, that

was finished

after

Giovanni's

death by Furini, Ottavio Vannini, and Francesco Montelatici, called Cecco Bravo (160761)."'

Rome

The comparison

with Cortona's work in

and Florence reveals Giovanni's pro-

vincialism.'-

BIBLOSARTE

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

AFTERMATH

ITS

345

Giovanni da San Giovanni had been dead

some years when Cortona

and Furini died before he
other artists were thrown

tor

settled in Florence,

But

left.

number of

by the
study of Cortona's grand manner. Voltcrrano's
case

is

their course

oft'

He had begun

characteristic.

da San Giovanni's assistant

as

(1635-6) and painted his frescoes

to a

Cortonesque

Pitti

in the Villa

same manner, but

Petraia (1637-46)" in the

changed

Giovanni

Palazzo

in the

style in the Sala delle

Allegoric of the Palazzo Pitti

1652), a style

(r.

which with modifications he maintained in his

later work (e.g. the frescoes in the dome of the

SS. Annunziata, 1676-80/3).

similar course

was taken by Gio\anni Martinelli

(active be-

tween 1635 and 1668), while Furini's pupil

Simone Pignoni (1611-98)''^ made few concessions to the new vogue. It was mainly Giro
Ferri (1634-89), Cortona's closest follower,

who

ensured the continuity of the Cortona succes-

made

sion in Florence. Ferri

1659-65
Palazzo

in order,

Pitti frescoes

unfinished

all,

which

art,

to

his

it

to

his

when he returned

Carlo Dolci's
to

above

home

in

complete the

master had

Rome in

left

1647.*''

the Florentine counterpart

that of Sassoferrato in

Rome, deserves

special note because the languid devoutness

expressed by his half-figures of Virgins and

iMagdalens must be regarded as the

zation of one side of Late

fullest reali-

Baroque mentality.

These cabinet pictures, painted with

227. Carlo Dolci: Portrait of Fra Ainolfo de' Bardi,
1632. Florence, Palazzo Pittt

the greatest

care in a slick miniature technique, enjoyed a

great reputation in his time, and contemporaries

admired what appears

a false

to the

modern

and even repulsive note of

prodigy, Dolci

at

spectator

piety.

real

the age of sixteen painted the

excellent portrait of Ainolfo de' Bardi [227].

But

it

life to

was not only

his

own vow

to devote his

religious imagery, in acceptance of Cardi-

nal Paleotti's theoretical demand,'''' that pre-

vented him from making headway as a portrait

painter.

He had no

chance against the im-

mensely successful Fleming Justus Sustermans

(1597- 1 681), court painter

BIBLOSARTE

in

Florence from

346

228. Giulio Carpioni: Bacchanal, before 1650. Culumbta, South Carolina,

1620 on and

master of the

style of portraiture

of

official

international

which developed

in the

wake

Finally, Stefano della Bella (1610-64)*"' ni"st

be mentioned, whose place

the

tissue

of Florentine

is

really outside

Seicento

art.

The

Art

oj

of which his style changed under the impact of

Rembrandt and
must rank

Van Dyck.

Museum

as

the

Dutch

his

more than a thousand etchings, often peopled

with tiny figures, being concerned with

The

pects of popular

attracted by the latter's etchings, della Bella

on the further course of

in his

work something of their

spirited

elegance. His best and most productive period

was the ten years

in Paris,

1639-49,

if"

i^he

course

He

Italian etchers,

but he was a typical master of the petite muniere,

teacher of his choice was Callot; magically

preserved

landscapists.

one of the greatest

life.

Italian

was probably greater than

The development

in

all

influence of his

is at

as-

work

genre painting

present realized.

Venice'" shows certain

parallels to that in Florence, in spite of the

BIBLOSARTE

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

exquisite

work of the great

who brought

Strozzi,

triad Fetti, Lys,

new

entirely

ITS

AFTERMATH

and

painterly

values to bear on the Venetian scene between

1

62 1 and 1644, the year of Strozzi's death.

What Matteo

Rosselli had been for Florence,

Padovanino was

for Venice.

Most

painters of

the second and third quarter of the century

stemmed from him; they

demic eclecticism

carried over his aca-

and often lan-

into a refined

guid Seicentesque idiom. Girolamo Forabosco

from Padua (1604 5-79), distinguished as a porMuttoni, called della Vec-

trait painter, Pietro

chia*'"

(1605-78), Giulio Carpioni'" (1613-79),

who worked mainly

Pietro

facets of this

at

Vicenza, and the feeble

represent

(1614-87)

Liberi

somewhat

superficial

different

manner. The

Paima Vecchio character of Forabosco's portraits,

Vecchia's neo-Giorgionesque paintings,

and Carpioni's Poussinesque Bacchanals would

be nuances of the same classicizing

seem

to

vogue

[228]."'

Like Cortona's appearance

Giordano's stay
lutionizing

in

eff^ect

his early phase,

Venice

on

in

in

Florence,

Luca

1653 had a revo-

local artists.

Riberesque

Giordano brought

to

Venice

in
a

NeapoHtan version of Caravaggio's 'naturalism'

and

tenebroso.

This dramatic manner found im-

mediate response

in the

work of the Genoese

Giambattista Langetti'- (1625-76),

who

pro-

bably began under Assereto, then worked in

Rome under

Cortona,"' and appeared in Venice

towards the mid century. His work

is

distin-

guished by violent chiaroscuro applied with

loaded brush [229]. Langetti's manner was followed, above

all,

by the German Johan Karl

Loth (1632-98), who had settled in Venice after

1655,'^ and by his competitor Antonio Zanchi
from Este

(i

631 -1722). Further, Pietro Negri,

Zanchi's pupil, the Genoese Francesco Rosa,

and Antonio Carneo (1637-92) from FriuH'^

should be mentioned in this context.

But long before Luca Giordano's

to

Venice two 'foreigners', both

first visit

artists ot ex-

ceptional calibre, revolted against the tacile

229. Giambattista Langetti:

.Magdalen under the Cross, after 1650.

Venice,

Palazzu Rezzomcojrom Le Terese

BIBLOSARTE

347

348

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

230. Francesco Maffei; Parable of the

academic practices: Francesco

Vicenza

{c.

Workers

Maflfei^^

in the Vineyard,

from

1600-60) and the Florentine Sebas-

tiano Mazzoni'^

Soon

(161 1-78).

after

1620

Maffei liberated himself from the fetters of

current Mannerism.

The

study of Jacopo Bas-

sano, of Tintoretto and Veronese, and, above

all,

of such Mannerists as Parmigianino and

Bellange led to his characteristic manner, which

was

fully

developed

in

the

Glorification

of

Gaspare Zane (1644, Vicenza, Museum). Painting with a nervous and rapid brush, he delighted
in exhibiting sophisticated dissonances.

Much

of his work has an uncouth and almost macabre

Museo

di

Caslelveahiu

Oratories delle Zitelle and of S.

Tolentino (Vicenza).

Workers

the

tn

The

Nicola da

ghostly Parable of the

Vineyard (Verona,

Museo di
man-

Castelvecchio) [230] exemplifies his late

ner,

showing
debt

his

how he transformed
The younger
of this generation who

in addition

Domenico

to

Mazzoni, the only

artist

Fetti.

took the teachings of Fetti and Strozzi to heart,

was surely impressed by Maffei's work. His

brilliant

as

649

and,

and

free

brushwork, to be found as early

in the paintings in S.

slightly

later,

in

Benedetto (Venice),

the

most remarkable

Annunciation [231], makes him

a real

forerunner

which

of the Venetian Settecento. Another Florentine,

best be studied in such late works as the

Mazzoni 's contemporary Cecco Bravo, shows

quality, a refreshingly

may

1650. Verona,

c\

unorthodox

style

Glorification of the Inquisitor Alvise Foscarini

(1652,

Vicenza,

Museum) and

those in the

similar

unconventional handling of paint

[232].

BIBLOSARTE

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

231. Sebastiano Mazzoni: Annunciation,

Venice,

232.

1650.

Accademia

AFTERMATH

ITS

Cecco Bravo: Apollo and Daphne,

c.

349

1650.

Ravenna, Pinacoteca

With Giovanni Coli and Filippo Gherardi

Roman grand manner reached

tonio Bellucci (1654- 1727),'''

many

who

spent his best

echoes of the

years abroad, and

Venice, but the strongest impact came once

be named. But neither Maffei nor the tenebrosi

again from
S.

Maria

Luca Giordano, whose pictures

della

painted in the

Salute

late

in

and other churches,

1660s and the 1670s, show

the light palette of his mature style, derived

mainly from impressions of Veronese.

was

set for the artists

The stage

born between about 1635

They accepted Giordano's neoVenetian manner to a greater or lesser extent

and helped to prepare the way for the great
and

1660.

luminous

art of the

eighteenth century. Andrea

Celesti"''

(1637-r.

171

1),

whose masterpieces

are in the parish church at

Desenzano (Lake

Garda); Federico Cervelli from Milan (active

1674-f. 1700), Sebastiano Ricci's teacher; An-

others"*"

were forgotten. Thus Celesti

were indebted
nari""

as well as Bellucci

to Maffei, while

(1665-1727), working

in

Antonio Moli-

Zanchi's manner

and revealing Giordano's influence,

the

way

should here

also

opened

to Piazzetta's tenehroso style [233].

In conclusion

it

must be

said that, with the

exception of Langetti, Mazzoni, and Maffei,

few of these painters

fully relinquished the facile

manner of a Forabosco and a Liberi,

nor were they capable of a new and coherent
vision - in spite of the fact that some of them
decorative

lived far into the eighteenth century.

While Venice and the

ing with painters to

BIBLOSARTE

terra

whom

ferma were teem-

magnificent oppor-

350

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

233. Antonio Molinari:

Fight of Centaurs and Lapiths,

i(

c.

Venice, Palazzo Rezzonico

tunities

were offered, Milan's decline

Borromeo

era

was irrevocable.

after the

Apart from

contemporary of Evaristo Baschenis (1607 ?-77)

and helps an understanding of the ambience in

Francesco del Cairo, who has been mentioned,

which the

there were no painters of real rank. Carlo Fran-

greatest

cesco Nuvolone (1608-61), to

whom

reference

latter's art flourished.

still-life

known, concentrated on one

has also been made, a minor master, a brother

pictorial

of the even weaker Giuseppe (1619-1703), had

What

the most flourishing school.*^- Giovanni Ghisolfi

the polished

(1623-83) contributed

little

to the art of his

Probably

painter, Baschenis, as

rendering

Italy's
is

well

speciality,

the

of musical

instruments.

him was the warm tonalitv' of

wood as much as the complex
stereometry of the shapes. By means of a dry,
attracted

native city. At the age of seventeen he went to

almost 'photographic' reahsm he thus produced

Rome, where he made

abstract-cubist designs in which highly sophis-

his fortune as Italy's first

painter of views with fanciful ruins (p. 498).

The Lombard

tradition of the

unadorned

rendering of painstakingly observed facts was

kept alive in

Bergamo

rather than Milan.

recently have these qualities

in
in

Only

become apparent

Carlo Ceresa's (1609-79)**^ portraits, painted

an austere 'Spanish

taste'.

Ceresa was a

ticated space definitions are supported

contrast and superimposition of

flat,

by the

bulging,

smooth, broken, or meandering forms [234].

These
to

truly

northern

monumental
still-life

creations, so foreign

painters, have, of course,

their intellectual focus in Caravaggio's 'realistic

stylization' of the Italian

BIBLOSARTE

still life (p.

43).

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

ITS

AFTERMATH

351

234. Evaristo Baschenis:

Still life, after

Brussels,

1650.

Musee

des

Beaux Arts

much

they received as

as they gave. Strozzi

is

a case in point. After his early 'dark' period with

The beginning
opened up
ters.

of the

seventeenth

rich possibilities for

century

Genoese pain-

vigorous native school developed which

flourished
in spite

unbroken

into the eighteenth century

of the disastrous plague of 1657.

a sign of the innate strength of the

school that

it

It is

Genoese

also survived the loss of its greatest

strong chiaroscuro effects [235], not indepen-

Lombard
w hile he was still
became rich, warm,

dent of the early seventeenth-century

masters, his palette lightened
in

Genoa;

colours

his

glowing, and succulent, and the flesh tones

ruddy.

The

impression

masters, above

all

removal

the

Veronese,

Venice

great

Venetian

made upon him

1630 should not

Seicento painters; Bernardo Strozzi went to

after his

Venice, Castiglione spent most of his working

be underestimated [236], but the sketchy touch,

Rome.
Genoa had

minosity of his paint he owed to Fetti and Lys.

life

outside Genoa, and GauUi settled in

While

at

the

dawn

of the century

been a melting pot of various foreign trends,

after
in

1630 her

artists influenced artistic

events

to

in

the bravura of the brush-stroke, and the lu-

In contrast, however, to the 'modernity' of

these masters - Fetti's petite

mamere with

its

Venice and Rome.

emotional intricacies and Lys's romantic ex-

To be sure,

travagances

these masters belong to the broad

stream of the intra-Italian development and

Strozzi remained essentially tied

to the tradition

of the grand manner with

BIBLOSARTE

its

352

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

236. Bernardo Strozzi

235. Bernardo Strozzi:

St Augustine washing Christ's Feet,

c.

1620-5.

David,

Genoa, Accademia Ligustica

focus on rhetorical figure compositions."^

On

the other hand, the painterly, festive, and dy-

namic

qualities of his

Genoese-Venetian man-

ner destined him to become the third in the

triad of 'foreign' artists

who rekindled

the spirit

influence exercised by Strozzi in

Genoa

can hardly be overestimated. Only recently

has been

shown how

strongly Giovanni

de Ferrari {1598- 1669) leant on

prolific artist

1635.

it

Andrea

him.**^

was himself the head of

among

artistic

Van Beuningen

climate at

Collection

Genoa

reveals echoes of

Tuscan Mannerism as well as of Caravaggism,

of Rubens and Van Dyck as well as Velasquez
who was in Genoa in 1629 and 1649. Unequal
in

quality, towards the

end of

his career he

ridded himself of academic encumbrances and

of great painting in Venice.

The

(.

Vterhouten,

This

a large

produced works of considerable depth of expression in a free and painterly

Whether

or not this

style.'"'

happened under the

influence of his pupil Valerio Castello (162459),

son of Bernardo,

is

difficult to

decide."

Giovanni

Valerio had also gone through Fiasella's school

Bernardo Carbone, Valerio Castello, and Casti-

but soon set out on conquests of his own.

studio through which,

glione passed. Ferrari's

work -

others,

true to the special

Impressed by Correggio, Van Dyck, and Ru-

BIBLOSARTE

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

ITS

AFTERMATH

353

237. Valerio Castello:

Rape of the Sabines,

Genoa. Coll.

Dm a

c.

1655.

Nicola de Ferrari

bens, he produced a few masterpieces of extra-

of

Van Dyck an

ordinary intensity during a career of hardly

to

the taste of the

more than

ten years.

violent contrasts

he

is

at

the

and

real painter,

he loved

fiery, scintillating

hues;

dramatic, sophisticated, and spontaneous

same time.

A work

like the

rapid

oil

sketch for the Rape of the Sabines [237 J, dating

from
for

his last years, clearly prepares the

way

Magnasco. Under Castello was trained the

gifted

Bartolomeo Biscaino who died during

the plague of 1657 at the age of twenty-five.'*'*

As the century advanced

three different trends

developing on

can be clearly differentiated,

all

the foundations of the past

first, in

the

wake

'aristocratic'

Genoese

Baroque much
nobility,

mainly

kept alive in the portraits of Giovanni Bernardo

Carbone (1614-83) and

those of Gaulli;

to a certain extent in

secondly,

also

of Flemish

derivation, the rustic genre which triumphed

in Castiglione;

Baroque

and

fresco, for

finally, the great

decorative

which Luca Cambiaso had

prepared the ground.

Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, called

Grechetto (before i6io?-65), ran through

most the whole gamut of stylistic

il

al-

possibilities in

the course of his astonishing career."*' .Attracted

early

by the Flemish animal genre, he seems

BIBLOSARTE

to

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

354

have studied
1631),

who

in

as Jan

Roos

( 1

in

Sinibaldo

with

Scorza (1589-

turn depended on such Flemings

1638), Snyders's pupil, active

591

Genoa from

same time a
Rubens and Van Dyck,

16 14 on. At the

passionate student of

he was also the

first

Italian to discover

Rem-

brandt's etchings - as early as about 1630 -

which means that Caravaggism reached him

mained
life.

in

Rembrandt

re-

permanent stimulus throughout

his

the northern transformation.

A stay in Rome for more than a decade from

1634 on led him to appreciate Poussin's as well

as Bernini's art. In these years he evolved his

fluent technique of brush drawings in

oil

on

paper and invented the monotype technique.

Back

in

Genoa

he painted such

in 1645,

monu-

mental Baroque works as the St Bernard adoring

della Cella)

and

St James driving the Moors from Spain

(S.

Maria

Christ on the Cross (S.

Giacomo

della Marina). Slightly later he treated

philosophical subjects in a picturesque

which shows him close

[238]

to the

mood

Testa Rosa

Rome. His appointment as court

Mantua in 1648 brought him in con-

current in
painter at
tact

with the art of Fetti, whose freedom of

touch was soon reflected

in his

238. Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione:

The Genius of Castiglione,

1648. Etching

work. At the end

of his career he produced ecstatic compositions

of great intensity, reminiscent of Bernini's style

animal genre, while his grand manner had

of these years. Perhaps more clearly than any

formative influence on the younger generation

other artist Castiglione exposes the particular

of great decorative painters.

problems which assailed

throughout his

life

his

generation,

for

he was torn between a

The

protagonists of the older Genoese fresco

Giovanni Andrea (1590-

style are the brothers

philosophical scepticism and an ecstatic sur-

1630) and Giovanni Battista (1592- 1677) Car-

render.

lone,"

Being equally

manner

the grand
religious

at

imagery

home

in the rustic

mythology, and

- history,

- a brilliant

genre and

draughtsman and

engraver, he influenced artists as distant in time

and as different

Nearer home,

nard.

manner found
(d. 17
at
c.

in style as

6),

his

Tiepolo and Fragorustic

who succeeded him

Mantua;

and bucolic

followers in his son Francesco

as court painter

Anton Maria Vassallo'"' (active

1640-60); and inanumberof speciaHstsof the
in

who belong

to

that

fertile

family which had great decorators

members

for three centuries.

style

mainly

is

represented

Piola'- (1628- 1 703)

(1647- 1 726).

It is

Lombard
among its

The

later fresco

by

Domenico

and Gregorio de

they, above

about the glorious climax of

all,

Ferrari''^

who brought

this art at

Genoa.

In their mature works both artists influenced

each other, but the younger

the stronger master.

The

their later style derives

BIBLOSARTE

man proved

to

be

essential character of

from a wedding of Pietro

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

239. Gregorio de Ferrari

ITS

AFTERMATH

355

Decorative Frescoes,

1684. Detail.

Genoa, Palazzo Balhi-Groppallo, Sala

delle

Rovine

da Cortona's grand manner with Bolognese

quadratura'^^

and of Castiglione's verve with

Correggio's sfumato
rich, festive,

- resulting in

an immensely

and luminous manner with

a strong

emphasis on the ebullient decorative element

[239].

The

early Piola leant heavily

glione, Strozzi,

and Valerio Castello.

on Casti-

It

has been

one of his masterpieces on canvas,

this style at its best. Still tied

by

illustrates

a tender link to

Bernini's late manner, the languor and sensibility

of expression, the suppleness of the bodies,

the great musical curve of the composition, the

sweetness and elegant rhythms of the angels

all

this presages the art of the

Rococo.

A man-

suggested that he turned to his Cortonesque

ner similarly delicate and refined was practised

manner under the

by Bartolomeo Guidobono (1654- 1709) who

influence of Giovanni Maria

Bottalla, Cortona's assistant

ceiling,

who

on the Barberini

died, however, in 1644, the year he

returned to his native Genoa.

The

Correggi-

again had

made Correggio

spent almost

thirtj-

of Duke Vittorio

his special study.

years of his

life at

He

the court

Amedeo in Turin.

esque note of the style was due to Gregorio de

Ferrari

who had

spent four years

at

Parma

Naples

(1669-73), ^n experience that contributed to

the formation of the proto-Rococo character of

Gregorio's

art.

His Death of St Scolaslica [240],

When

Caravaggio came

1606-7,

'^he

to

work

Mannerists were

BIBLOSARTE

in

in full

Naples

in

command

356

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

241. Giovanni Battista Caracciolo:

240. Gregorio de Ferrari:

Death of St

Scolastica,

c.

Liberation of St Peter, 1608-Q.

1700.

Genoa, S. Stefano

Naples, Chiesa del

of the situation, and he never swayed artists

Fabrizio Santafede

like

Bernardino Azzolino

Imparato
{c.

(i

{c.

(r.

1560- 1634), Gian

1572- 1645), Gerolamo

550-1 621), and Belisario Corenzio

560- 1 643) from their course they continued

their

outmoded conventions,

to the Cavaliere

of the seventeenth century.

to the rule

largely indebted

d'Arpino, through the

was Giovanni

called Battistello

{c.

The

first

half

only exception

Battista Caracciolo,
''^

1570- 1637),

the solitary

founder of the 'modern' Neapolitan school who,

in

opposition to the Mannerists, developed his

new manner based on

the deeply

felt

experience

of Caravaggio. His Liberation of St Peter in the

Monte

church,

is

Monte

della

monument

not only a

Caravaggism, but

its

AUsencordia

of orthodox

hard

specific qualities, the

contrasts, the compositional austerity and

intensity' reveal a talent

of the

first

mute

rank. Yet the

pattern of Baroque painting in Naples was deter-

mined neither by Caracciolo's

early

manner nor

by him alone.

He had a younger rival in the Spaniard Jusepe

de Ribera

through

(i

591 -1652)'*" who, after journeys

Italy,

settled in

Naples

in

16 16

and

soon painted Caravaggesque pictures utterly

different
latter

from those by Caracciolo. While the

hardened and stiffened the more

style of the

master

in

an attempt

at

flexible

rendering

Misericordia [241],

internalized drama, the former loosened and

painted two or three years (1608-9) after Cara-

externalized what he had learned from Cara-

Chiesa del

vaggio's Seven

della

Works of Mercy

in

the

same

vaggio by an aggressive and vulgar realism and a

BIBLOSARTE

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

ITS

AITtRMATH

357

painterly chiaroscuro with flickering Hght effects.

Ribera found

Duke

of Osuna, the Viceroy of Naples,

powerful patron

appointed him court painter, and

the

in

who

later viceroys

and Neapolitan nobles were equally attracted by

his art.

It

is

phenomenon

an interesting

that

Ribera's passionate and violent pictures satisfied

What

the taste of the Neapolitan court society.

them was probably the

attracted

essentially

Spanish sensual surface quality of Ribera's

realism - his permanent contribution to Euro-

pean Seicento painting.""

From about 1630 on Naples was drawn

into

main stream of Baroque painting owing

the

the considerable contributions

coming from Rome.

trends

were

that

to

made by painters

mainly three different

It is

acclimatized

Naples:

in

Domenichino's Baroque classicism, Lanfranco's

High Baroque, and

intense

the discursive Cara-

vaggism of the second generation."'* Domeni-

somewhat disappointing

chino's

Naples has been discussed

(pp. 81-2). Lanfranco
settled in

Naples

in

active years during

in a

in

activit)'

previous chapter

was more successful; he

1633 for thirteen extremely

which he created, among

242. Artemisia Gentileschi:

Judith slaying Holofernes,

1620.

c.

Florence, Uffizi

dome of the
Nuovo (1635-7, only the pendentives pre-

others, four large fresco cycles: the

Gesii

served), the nave

and choir of the Certosa of

S.

Martino (1637-8), the entire decoration of SS.

Apostoli (1638-46), and finally the

Cappella

di S.

Gennaro

dome

of the

in the cathedral (1641-

3),

where he vied with the pendentives painted

by

his

arch-enemy Domenichino. Despite the

hostility of the

Neapolitan

artists,

Domenichino

was an immediate success; the dynamic orchestra

of Lanfranco's Correggiesque illusionism, by

contrast, appealed above

all to

the masters of the

second half of the century"" and made possible

Rome

Arcangelo a Segno'*"^ from

more important, through

(1593-r.

bom

in

1652),

in

1623 and,

.\rtemisia Gentileschi

Orazio's daughter,

Rome, spent some

who was

years in Florence

(1614-20) - which were not without influence

on the formation of her

style -

Naples

in 1630. to leave this city

visit to

her father in

London

and

settled in

only for a brief

(1638-9).

An

artist

of a high calibre and fierce temperament, she

showed an

inclination

for

gruesome scenes

painted in lively translucent tones and with a

Neapolitan

meticulous attention to detail [242]. This almost

painting which began with Mattia Preti and

romantic form of Caravaggism impressed the

the

rose

grand

to

decorative

international

phase

importance with Luca

Giordano and Solimena.

younger

of

Caravaggesque

Contact
trend

with

was

through Vouet, who sent the Circumcision

the

made
in S.

Neapolitans as

much

Vouet's decorative
hardly

revealed

or

even more'"'

than

Baroque manner, which

his

Caravaggio.

BIBLOSARTE

early

infatuation

with

THE AGE OF THE HIGH BAROQUE

358

Long

Domenichino's

before

conning

to

Naples, Caracciolo had turned to pre-Manncrist

and Bologncse models, possibly stimulated by

impressions he received during a hypothetical
journey to Rome. In any case, his

Certosa of S. Martino,

Maria

in S.

work

later

from the end of the second decade on,

la

in the

Nova,

S.

Diego airOspedaletto, and elsewhere shows the

strong impact of Bolognese classicism. Equally,
Ribera's early

fire

subsided

in the

1630s, his

realism mellowed, his compositions

and

became dry
and the chiaroscuro made way

classicizing,

for a light palette with cool silvery tones. '"^

Although Neapolitan artists stuck tenaciously

Caravaggism - epitomized by the names of Caracciolo, Ribera, and
to the various facets of

Artemisia

Gentileschi

the

swing towards

Bolognese classicism from the mid 1630s on

general phenomenon.

minor masters such

It

may be observed

Pacecco

Such

1597- 1649),

Nancy, who

lived

Naples

was specially import-

in

may

of Charles

Lorenese',

in

Rosa (1607-56),

de

purist tendencies

paintings

the

manner

academic works, or

purist, the Sassoferrato of Naples,

whom Domenichino

for
ant.
in

classicizing

(Francesco)

determined

Francesco Guarino

as

(1611-54)^^ whose early Riberesque

was followed by

is

with

and died

in

also be

found

Mellin ('Carlo

Frenchman from
Rome, but worked

243.

Massimo

Stanzioni: Virgin with

SS. John the Evangelist and Andrea Corsini,

c.

1640. Naples, S. Paolo

Maggwre

1643-7,'"^ as well as in those of

Giovanni Andrea Coppola (1597-r. 1659) who

refined,

practised his art in distant Apulia.

his art, characteristic of the

A much greater artist than all these, the most

somewhat tame and nerveless

the century, will be apparent

important caposcuola of the mid century, Mas-

SS. John

simo Stanzioni (1586- 1656), turned

[243]

direction.
clear;'"^

His early development

but his Caravaggism

is

in a similar
is

still

un-

allied to that of

Vouet, Saraceni, and Artemisia rather than to

that of Caracciolo

and Ribera. In

his best works,

belonging to the decade 1635-45, he displays a

distinct

sense

melodious

famed

of

if his

Virgin with

Evangelist and Andrea

compared with an equally

work of the second decade such

Corsini

characteristic
as

Cavedoni's

Virgin with SS. Alo and Petronius [38]. Stanzioni's

painting

also

shows the Neapolitan

blending of Caravaggism and Bolognese classicism.

At the end of

his career the

Bolognese

values,

note, increasingly noticeable from the late 1630s

gracefully built figures, and

on,""' quelled the subtle qualities of his earlier

for

lines,

mellow and

is

the

qualit}'

second quarter of

subtle

chromatic

lyrical expressions.

as the 'Neapolitan

Stanzioni was

Guido Reni'; and

the

manner

(see the very late Consecration of St

Ignatius, Naples, Palazzo Reale).

BIBLOSARTE

HIGH BAROQUE PAINTING AND

AFTERMATH

ITS

359

mid century died before they reached maturity.

Their sophisticated

germs

art

hardly contained the

to generate a strong

Other painters had

new

style.

a share in the rich life

of

the Neapolitan school during the three decades

The more important names

after 1630.

should

be mentioned: Andrea Vaccaro (1604,

at least

who found

not 1598, -1670),""'

a rather vulgar

formula of combining second-hand Caravag-

gism with Bolognese classicism (Reni, Domenichino), was a popular success at his time, but a

master of the second rank; the Riberesque

Cesare

1605-53) ^nd Francesco (1612-f. 56)

(c.

Fracanzano, sons of Alessandro, the younger

brother

an

being

calibre;'"" Aniello
cialist

considerable

luminous battle-pieces 'without

in

hero',""'

of

artist

Falcone (1607-56), the spe-

and

his pupils

Andrea de Leone (1610,

not 1596, -1685)'" and

Domenico Gargiulo,

Micco Spadaro (1612-75), ^ho under

Callot's influence produced the typically Neacalled

politan topographical genre peopled with great

numbers of small figures.

must be made to the
Desiderio'

In addition, reference
well

known 'Monsu

'pseudonym' covering

least

at

244. Bernardo Cavallino:

three different artists, as recent research has

The Immacolata,

revealed."-

c.

1650.

Milan, Brer a

came
later

Stanzioni mediates between the art of the

older generation and that of his pupil, Bernardo

CavalHno (1616, not 1622,

gista strongly influenced

-56).'^

in a category

Caravag-

Rome

in

1602, settled at Naples not

than 16 10 and seems

of his

life

to

have spent the

there (the year of his death

is

rest

un-

known). His bizarre and ghostlike paintings of

crumbling and

often

architecture,

fantastic,

belong to the world of Late Mannerism rather

His work

than to that of the Seicento, and the suggestion

of its own; a great colourist, his

tenderness, elegance, gracefulness, and delicacy

are without parallel at this

moment

[244].

Yet

mutatis mutandis such contemporaries as Furini

in

to

trio,

1593,

by Artemisia, Caval-

lino gave his best in cabinet pictures.

is

The major figure of this

Nome, was bom at Metz in

Fran9ois

Florence and Valerio Castello

represent a similar stylistic phase.

R. Causa that his style

is

ultimately

derived from the stage settings of Buontalenti

and Giulio Parigi has much

The second

artist,

to

recommend

it.

Didier Barra,"' also from

Genoa

Metz,

left his

interest-

lowed

his compatriot to Naples,

in

It is

made by

native city about 1608 and fol-

where he was

Nome

he was

ing to note that the giants of the Baroque epoch

still

with their massive energy lived to a ripe old

a faithful recorder of views, while the third -

age

(p. 303),

while these effeminate artists of the

active in 1647. In contrast to

hitherto

anonvmous

BIBLOSARTE

- artist imitated

Nome's

rut AGt OK THt H Id H BAROQLfc

3()0

Unduly boosted in our own days,

'Monsu Desiderio'-Nomc was in fact a minor
figure, but it was he who opened up a taste in

work.

Naples

for the

weird type of cabinet picture and

tently in Venice'"' but returned to

1641

2,

1650-

during the

1,

fifth

him ;"' the frescoes in

Modena, executed between 1653

cosmic views as well as Salvator's romantic

and 1656,

battle-pieces.

mature works created during

belong essentially

The

social

revolt

to the first half of the century.

upheaval caused by Masaniello's

1647 also resulted in some artists

in

leaving the city;"^ but

more

serious was the

great plague of 1656 during which

many of them

died. Pacecco de Rosa, Falcone, and, above

all,

Massimo Stanzioni and Cavallino were among

the victims. The year of the plague may therefore be regarded as an important turning-point.

The

character of Neapolitan painting in the

second half of the century

siderably from that of the
is

mainly due

to

differs

first half.

still

reveal that influence."" In the

Battistello, Ribera,

Luca Giordano's

powerful

to

both show

by the bozzetto [245]

now

lost,

245. Mattia Preti:

.\aples. Mitseo

The

rank,

in their

moment. They are

also

similar in that their art received lasting stimuli

from Venetian colourism

Roman
them

as well as

grand manner. Moreover,

that

intra-Italian

it

from the

was with

Neapolitan painting assumed an

and even international

status. In

other respects they differ most decisively Preti,

:

grave, problematical, dramatic, a moralist, and

throughout

his life a Carazaggista,

is

man

typical of the Seicento, while Giordano, in

and everything the

more about him

all

antithesis, truly belongs to

the eighteenth century.

will

It is

be said

for this reason that

later (p. 462).

him up and down the

as 1630 he was in Rome

Preti's career took

peninsula. .\s early

painting,

it

is

seems, Caravaggesque pictures;"^

between 1640 and 1646 he stayed intermit-

BIBLOSARTE

result

generis,

was
the

well illustrated

one of the frescoes,

Plague of 1656.

Nazwnale

quality almost without parallel in Italy

or elsewhere at this

for

The

sui

painted as an ex-voto on the

work an immense vigour, an innate power and

dynamic

style

apocalyptic quality- of which

two different genera-

tions, they are similar in that

early work.

dramatic

and Luca Giordano (1634-1705).

1613-99)

and Guercino with those of

;

to

Mattia Preti from Calabria ('Cavalier Calabrese'

Although belonging

Neapolitan

Tintoretto and Veronese nor was he impervious

The change
first

his

period (1656-60) he wedded reminiscences of

indeed con-

two masters of the

in

was

decade that Sacchi, Domeni-

S. Biagio at

mentioned

It

chino, and Reni attracted

thus helped to prepare Micco Spadaro's micro-

All the Neapolitan painters so far

Rome

and once again, 1660-1.

citv'

gates

HIGH BAROQLE PAIMINU AND

during the plague of 1656. In 1661 Preti went

to

Malta where he stayed, with brief interrup-

tions,"" to the end of his

life.

His major work

immense

there was the decoration of the

vault

of S. Giovanni at Valletta (166 1-6) with frescoes

in

which Venetian luminosity

never again did Preti

rise to the

prevails.

But

dramatic height

of his Neapolitan period.

His contemporaries Luca Forte (active

c.

still-life

painters

by

sumptuous Caravaggesque flower-pieces,

and a few pictures have now also been ascribed
to Porpora's teacher, Giuseppe Recco's father
their

Giacomo (1603-54)

246. Giovanni Battista

" ^'t^h

most

it

is

still

Al-

IhR.VlATH

how much

Ruoppolo;

justifi-

Still life, late

jf)!

too early to say.'-" Porpora's

pupils, Giovan Battista

Ruoppolo (1629, not 1620, -93) and Giuseppe
Recco (1634-95),'-' both much better known

distinguished

than their teacher, continued the tradition to

The name

the end of the century.

Battista

Recco,

probably

of Giovan

Giuseppe's

brother, has to be added to theirs.

1640-70) and Paolo Porpora (1617-73) open

the long line of Neapolitan

cation

ITS

elder

recently

discovered painting (signed and dated 1654)

of exceptional quality stimulated
construction

Ruoppolo

is

of

Giovan

famed

a tentative re-

Battista's

ceuvre.^--

for his vigorous, succulent,

and ample flower-pieces [246], monumental

like Preti's paintings in the grand manner and
thus utterlv different from Flemish

seventeenth century. Naples. Musen

BIBLOSARTE

di S.

Mariino

still

lifes

rut AGt OF

}h2

Till.

HIGH baroque

with which, however, he must have been conversant.'-*

less

Giuseppe Recco's temperament was

exuberant. His speciaHt}- was fish-pieces,

painted with impeccable taste and an incomparable sense for tone values. Dominici reports
that in his

youth Recco spent some time

Milan working with

On

this slender

famous

evidence

art

still-life

in

painter.

historians have

concluded that he was trained by Baschenis.

True

or not, Recco's

still

lifes

often have a

Lombard

quality of austerity

and immobility.

Intimate and noble rather than extrovert and

grand, they seem to presage the age of Chardin.'

No

such painter arose

in

Rome, and

this is

indicative of the future course of events. In the

last analysis

it

was the memory of Caravaggio's

conquests, always treasured

trast to

Rome,

that

made

in

Naples

in

con-

possible the remark-

able ascendancy and varietv' of the Neapolitan

school.

BIBLOSARTE

PART THREE

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

CIRCA 1675-CIRCA 1750

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION

After the death of Alexander VII (1667) papal

patronage in

Rome

rapidly declined, and even

the aged Bernini was starved of official

missions.
this

On

the other hand,

moment, during

it

com-

was precisely

at

the last quarter of the

(1730-40) saw teeming

mental

scale. It

of the finest and most cherished

saw the

on

activit}^

monu-

was under these popes that many

Roman works

such as the Spanish Stairs,

light of day,

the facade of S. Giovanni in Laterano, and the

seventeenth and the beginning of the eigh-

Fontana Trevi. Moreover, foreigners streamed

teenth centuries, that the Jesuits and other

to

Orders

and

as well as private patrons gave painters

unequalled opportunities. Yet Maratti's international Late

Baroque

in painting, the fashion-

able style of the day, had as

little

power

to

Rome

numbers than ever

in greater

artists

from

all

before,

over Europe were

still

magically drawn to the Eternal City. But the

character of these pilgrimages slowly changed.
Artists

no longer came attracted by the

lure of

new

splendid opportunities as they did in the days of

ventures as Carlo Fontana's parallel manner in

Bernini and Pietro da Cortona; more and more

electrify

and galvanize and

architecture. In fact,

to lead

on

to

Rome's artistic supremacy

was seriously challenged not only by much more

stirring events in the north

but above

all

by the

and south of

artistic

France, which followed

in

Italy,

renaissance in

the

wake of the

they came only to study antiquity

To
this

as early as

development, and

the students of the

XIV's centralized autocracy. The time was

close at hand when Paris rather than Rome

tirely

came

in all

regarded as the most dynamic art

centre of the western world.

None

the less the

had an

With

the growth of French influence

spheres of life, political, social, and

into a powerful force in

and

Pope Clement XI (1700-21) Rome began to

rally, and the pontificates of Benedict XIII

culture on

(1724-30) and Clement XII Corsini

it

artists

for

eighteenth century

in the

Academy were almost en-

the classicizing milieu of the

Roman Baroque

in

1666, anticipated

concerned with the copying of ancient

statuary.

unexpectedly brilliant exodus. Under the .\lbani

Orsini

French .Academy

a certain extent the

Rome, founded

amassing of power and wealth under Louis

to be

the fountain

at

head.

was due

Rome's

to this centre of

Roman

soil that

artistic life;

French

BIBLOSARTE

art

and

countless French

were able, often successfully,

commissions with native

artistic,

Academy developed

artists.

to

compete

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

364

The popes themselves nourished

antiquarian

spirit.'

now became

of the remains of antiquity

From

serious concern.

mid

the

tury on antique statues had

left

siderable numbers.- This trade

further

hibited
edicts of

cal

also inaugurated a

programme by planning

Museum

and the

daria

Battista Piranesi (1720-78),

con-

in

new museologi-

the Galleria Lapi-

of Early

Christian

XIV (1740-58) followed

took shape, the

art.

in his

them the Museo Capitolino

footsteps; under

first

public

museum

of ancient

In keeping with the trend of the time, the

learned Benedict

XIV opened

four Academies

Rome, one of them devoted to Roman antiquities. Clement XIII (1758-69) set the seal on
this whole movement in 1763 by appointing
in

Winckelmann, the

father of classical archaeo-

Roman

in 1534. Finally,

XIV's

it

was

eighteenth-century

in the

Nowhere

is

work of Giovanni

who, coming from

Venice, where he had studied perspective and

Rome

stage design, settled permanently in

The drama and

1745.^

Roman

in

poetry of his etchings of

ruins {Le Antichita romane, 1756) have

no equal, even

at this

time when other

artists

of

considerable merit were attracted by similar

subjects, stimulated,
a

more than ever

before,

by

public desirous to behold the picturesque

remains, true and imaginary, of

Roman

Although Piranesi was deeply

ness.

pathy

with

new

the

tendencies,

great-

sym-

in

devoted

partisan of Roman pre-eminence and a belliger-

ent advocate of the great variety in

and architecture,^
technique

ally

him

Roman

his vision, procedure,

to the

art

and

Late Baroque masters.

Yet he never tampered with the archaeological

correctness of his views in spite of his play with

antiquities, an

scale - contrasting his small, bizarre figures de-

established by Paul III

rived from Salvator to the colossal size of the

logy, director general of

office, incidentally, first

more evident than

Rome

assumed such

Antiquities in the Vatican. Clement XII (173040) and Benedict

the

in

fascination with the ancient world.

this

701 and 1704 confirmed this policy.

Clement XI

be sure, a strong nostalgic and

to

romantic element

sixteenth cen-

Clement XI's

and

export,

their

XI (1676-89) pro-

proportions that Innocent

There was,

the growing

Preservation and restoration

in 1772,

during Clement

pontificate (1769 74), that construction

ruins - or in spite of the

light

warm glow

of Venetian

pervading his etchings and of the boldness

began of the present Vatican museum, the

of his compositions, in which, true to the Baro-

largest collection of antiquities in the world.

que

Archaeological enthusiasm was also guiding

the greatest patron of his day. Cardinal Ales-

sandro Albani, when he planned his

villa

outside

Porta Salaria.' Built Hterally as a receptacle for

his unequalled collection of ancient statues

mainly

in

Munich), the

villa,

(now

erected by Carlo

Marchionni between 1746 and 1763, was yet

intended as a place to be lived
villa

in -

an imperial

suburhana rather than a museum.

Cardinal's friend and protege

helped

to

assemble the ancient treasures; and

was on the
lery that

The

Winckelmann

ceiling of the

sumptuous great

it

gal-

Anton Raphael Mengs, the admired

apostle of Neo-classicism, painted his Parnassus,

vying,

murals.

as

his

circle

believed,

with

ancient

is

the

plates,

so

tradition, telling diagonals prevail. It

Baroque picturesqueness of these

different

from the dry precision of Neo-classical

topographical views, that determined for

many

generations the popular conception of ancient

Rome.
Piranesi's vedute of ancient

Rome no less than

those of the contemporary city

published from
stage designer,

Vedute di Roma,

1748 on) reveal the trained

whose

early

and most famous

series of plates, the Career! d'ltivetizione, first

1745 and re-etched in 1760 i, are

romantic phantasmagorias derived from Baroissued in

que opera

sets

[247].

The

Career! and

the

Vedute, with their oblique perspectives which

add

new dimension

of drama and spatial ex-

pansion, reveal the influence of Ferdinando

BIBLOSARTE

247-

Giovanni Battista Piranesi: Plate from the Careen, 1745. Etching

BIBLOSARTE

366

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

may

be gathered from Pozzo's work

Bibiena's 'invention' ot the siena per antiolo

operations

Note 47) [335]. Thus in the vedute

Piranesi wedded two traditions which seem

Perspectiva pictorum

mutually exclusive: that of the Baroque stage

Church

with that of topographical renderings of an

growing obsession with the theatre during the

(Chapter

19,

'architectural landscape'. Piranesi's case,

ever,

was

from unique,

far

how-

course of

for in the

the eighteenth century ideas and conceptions

of the stage designer invaded

the other
It

many

sectors of

should be recalled that during most of the

first

Late Baroque period:

in 1678, for instance,

130
in

Rome alone.** In the early eighteenth century the

theatre had even greater importance;

was

it

conventions and patterns as cinema and

tele-

vision are in the twentieth century."

new

If in the

era

it is

pertinent to talk of the

ascendancy of the stage designer over the

developed for the stage were

painter (often, of course, one and the same

permanent character."

person), the ascendancy of the painters over the

works of

also used in

and the

illuminate the

facts

of course, true

usually believed.

that effects

Statistical

comedies were represented on private stages

on painting and architecture was more limited

is

alike.

anhileclorum (Rome,

et

to serve the theatre

certainly as significant for the creation of visual

arts.*"

seventeenth century the influence of the stage

than

which was

i6()3)

It is,

But the basic High Baroque concept of the

unifi-

sculptors seems equally characteristic. There

is

cation of real and artistic space, that illusionism

circumstantial documentary evidence that on

which blurs the borderline between image and

many

reality, is

not by

device. It

may

very nature a 'theatrical'

its

be argued that the theatre and

the art of the seventeenth century developed in

the

same

direction, for in both cases an emotion-

ally stirring

and often overwhelming chain of

occasions painters were called upon to

make designs

for the sculptors to

work from

Only

few examples can here be given. Maratti

seems

have had

to

sculptors.

He was

hand

in the

work of many

a close friend

and constant

made

seemingly true impressions was to induce the

adviser of Paolo Naldini; he

beholder to forget his everyday existence and to

four allegorical statues in S. Maria in

participate in the pictorial 'reality' before his

din,^" for

eyes. Yet

Roman

fresco painting

from Cortona's

Barberini ceiling to Gaulli's work in the

shows

as little direct

Gesu

impact from the theatre as

Borromini's architecture. In another chapter

demonstrate that the Vene-

have attempted

to

tian Baldassare

Longhena, by contrast, owed

- a

situation utterly unthinkable in Bernini's circle.

and

designs for

Cosme-

Monnot's tomb of Pope Innocent XI,

for the

monumental

statues to be placed in

Borromini's tabernacle niches

Giovanni

in Laterano.'^

in the

Gaulli

is

nave of

S.

credited with

the designs of Raggi's rich stucco decorations

in

the

Gesii.'-

Bianchi,

who

The Genoese painter Pietro

Rome, maintained close

settled in

was he

contacts with the sculptors Pietro Bracci, Gio-

foundation for the scenographic

vanni Battista Maini, Filippo della Valle, Fran-

architecture of the eighteenth century. Simi-

cesco Queirolo, and others and supplied them

decisive impulses to the stage and that

who

laid the

larly, in

it

the history of Late Baroque painting

from Padre Pozzo

to

Tiepolo stage requisites

with

sketches,

detail.''

as

his

biographer

The new custom appears

relates

also to

in

have

such as the proscenium arch, the curtain, the

spread outside Rome, to mention only the Nea-

quadratura backdrop, and the painted 'actors'

politan

stepping out of the painted wings play an im-

Lorenzo Vaccaro with

portant and often overwhelming part.

extent painting in the grand

To what

manner and

stage

design were then regarded as basically identical

Solimena

who helped

trend, which of course

dawn

designs.'^

came

to

the

sculptor

This whole

an end with the

of Neo-classicism, was not in the

first

place the result of the inability of sculptors to

BIBLOSARTE

INTRODUCTION

cope with their own problems.

was, to a

It

.'\11

this required a high

367

degree of sophisti-

certain extent in any case, connected with a re-

cation on the part of the public.

valuation of the sketch as such, a question which

sketches no less than the works of the masters of

must be discussed

the loaded brush

in a

wider context.

In the age of the Renaissance, drawing be-

came

approach

tific

the basis for the experimental and scien-

means

The

painting.

was prepared by many

latter

from the

stages,

But drawing remained

and the end was the finished

to nature.

to an end,

first

sketches and studies from

nature to the carefully executed final design and

cartoon.

began

As

early as the sixteenth century artists

to feel that this laborious

process

the freshness and vitality of the

Vasari, writing in 1550,

made

first

the

observation that 'many painters

first

by

a sort

of

fire

ing

it,

unknown

the spectator to 'decipher' a

Domenichino

in finish-

the boldness vanishes.' So, an academic

it

claims
surely

Magnasco than

or a Bolognese academician.

The

eighteenth-century virtuoso was the answer.

Keyed up

to a purely aesthetic

approach, he

could savour the peculiar qualities and characteristics

of each master; he would be steeped in

find in the drawing, the sketch,

of inspiration ... a certain

for

rapid

needs more acti\c collaboration on the part of

thought.

achieve in

measure of boldness; but afterwards,

hitherto

the study of individual

sketch of their work, as though guided

the

made

and understanding,

sensibilit\-

maimed

memorable
.

on

The

manner and

style

and

and the boz-

zetto equal or even greater merits than in the

Behind

finished product.
lay not only the

this

new

appreciation

pending emergence of aesthetics

as a philosophical discipline of sensory experi-

ence, but above

all

the concept of the uniqueness

The new

of genius.

Mannerist arose as the mouthpiece of anti-

made

academic spontaneity of creation. Throughout

seventeenth

the seventeenth and even the eighteenth century

changes

interpretation of genius

entry from about the middle of the

its

in

century

on,

and

comparative

the artist as a type were not long

the Renaissance

method of careful preparation,

fully re-instated

by Annibale Carracci, remained

was not the genius of the romantic age who

foundation of academic training, but a

revolted against reason and rule in favour of

the

number

of progressive artists, although never

working on canvas

alia

prima (possibly with the

delayed. But the early eighteenth-century artist

and creation

feeling, naivete,

tude.

By

contrast, the Late

in

sublime

Baroque

artist

soli-

was

something of the brio of spontaneous creation,

man of the world, rational and immensely versatile, who produced rapidly and with the greatest

with the result that the finish itself became

ease;

exception of Caravaggio), attempted to preserve

sketchy.

During the eighteenth century, from

Magnasco
a

to

Guardi, the masters working with

rapid brush-stroke assumed steadily

free,

greater importance and foreshadowed the posi-

the

first flash

of the idea was 'pure ex-

pression' and 'truth issuing from the soul'.

in

It is

the context of this development that the

painter's sketch as well as the sculptor's bozzetto

were conceded the status of works of

in their

own

architects,

right,

such

as

and even the

the

first

brilliant

art

ideas of

'notes'

Juvarra, were looked upon in the same way.

by

felt

himself part of a living

had no compunction

in

using the

heritage of the past as a storehouse from which

to

choose

at will.

Juvarra and Tiepolo are the

supreme examples.
But now

tion of romantic painters like Delacroix, for

whom

and since he

tradition, he

the

it

is

new terms

highly significant that none of

of reference arising during the

Late Baroque were of

as

Italian origin. .Aesthetics

an autonomous discipline was a

German

accomplishment;'" the nature of genius was

defined in England; and

it

Jonathan Richardson who

the

'science

was the Englishman

laid

down

of connoisseurship'.'"

Italy a collector of

the rules of

Nor had

drawings of the calibre and

BIBLOSARTE

368

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

discriminating taste of the I'renchman Mariette.

The

theory of

art, that

old

domain of

Italian

thought, lay barren. In the eighteenth century

the relationship between Italy and the other

nations was for the

and French
lations.

first

treatises

While

in

time reversed

appeared

English

in Italian trans-

England the whole structure

of classical art theory was attacked and replaced

by

subjective

criteria

at this

than an able vulgarizer, dished up

premises, precepts, and

all

maxims of the

It is all

classical

the

more surprising

had

Italian art attracted so

treasures of Italy

the whole of

supremacy

roles.

that never before

many

seemed now

foreigners.
to

belong to

Europe and nobody could boast

gentleman's education without having studied

were

more

Italian

day. France and, as the century

The

them.

the old

its

advanced, England assumed the leading

Conte

the foremost Italian critic but in fact no

Not only Roman, but

had seen

period

of sensibility,

Francesco Algarotti (1712-64),''

theory.

It is

equally surprising that never before

Italian artists a similar international suc-

cess. In

an unparalleled spurt they carried the

torch as far as Lisbon,

burg

just before

it

London, and St Peters-

was extinguished.

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER

l6

ARCHITECTURE

introduction: late baroque

classicism and rococo

tecture without any aesthetic blinkers

An

nini,

measured drawings of the Pantheon

from
Brunel-

Sanmicheli, the Palazzo Farnese, Ber-

leschi,

authoritative history of Italian eighteenth-

to

and Borromini, among many others. This

nowadays usually condemned

century architecture cannot yet be written.

attitude

Many

wicked, academic and eclectic, and, to be sure,

monuments

of the

are not at

all

or only

many

insufficiently published; the dating of

buildings

is

controversial or vague; the build-

names of archi-

ings without architects and the

without buildings abound.

tects

It

it

is

as

cannot be dissociated from the intellectualism

of the academies and their steadily growing

influence. Hesitatingly, however,

have

to pro-

has been

nounce once more the all-too-obvious common-

the

place that ever}' artist and architect in so far as

province of Treviso alone, about 2,000 palaces,

he works with a traditional grammar and with

churches, and oratories were built in the course

traditional formulas

pointed out that

of the century.
to sift this

in

one corner of

Nobody

enormous

recently that a

Italy,

has seriously attempted

and

material,

number of major

it

been made the subject of individual

Any attempt

studies.'

coherent vision of the period

at a

would therefore appear premature. And

seems that certain conclusions of

may safely
From the end

nature

onwards

yet

it

general

hand and

close at

still

fresh

a large reservoir

classical antiquity

is

itself

fully

It

is

at

tradition,
it

that of

once evident

Juvarra

is

architect

choose had almost no limits, and

aware of

new period
this

that architects

and regarded

it

it

were

as an asset.

a case in point. His studies ranged

over the whole

field

in its

of ancient and Italian archi-

The

depend.

and purposes the

Italian

broadest sense spanned an

-

the larger

course, the serviceable repertory.

How

is,

of

did the

architects from the late seventeenth century

onwards handle

No

it.^

patent answer can be given, and this

there are those, typical of a

from the end of the seventeenth century

a sign of the

intents

all

characterizes the situation.

onwards the repertory from which an

to

to

on which

quality but

artistic culture lasts -

and

There was, moreover, the older

and behind

was able

and

homogeneous

it)

its

also the evolution of new concepts

of new ideas and con-

that of the Cinquecento,

'language' (and,

not only the personal style and

epoch of more than 350 years

cisively altered the course of architecture

that

common

naturally, also the reaction against

longer a

by the very

the mixture and the

of the seventeenth century

Roman seventeenth-century masters, which de-

cepts.

'eclectic'

Renaissance

before everybody's eyes the great work of the

formed

interpretation of this

an
It is

be drawn.

architects looked back to a dual tradi-

There was

tion.

only

is

architects have

is

nature of his activity.

On

the one hand,

w aning epoch, who

reach positions of eminence by skilfully manipulating the repertory without adding to

it

many original ideas, and among their

number Carlo Fontana, Ferdinando Fuga, and
Luigi Vanvitclli must be counted. Then there
are those who fully master the repertory, choose
great

here and there according to circumstances, and

yet

mould

greatest
ists is

it

in a

among

new and

exciting way.

The

these revolutionary traditional-

certainly Filippo Juvarra. Finally there

BIBLOSARTE

370

is

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

band of masters, possibly smaller

the

in

numbers, who contract the repertory, follow

one distinct

line,

and arrive

surprising solutions.

known and

unexpected and

at

They

are

the least

still

most active architects

often not the

of the period; thus the names of Filippo Raguzzini,

Gabriele Valvassori, Ferdinando Sanfelice,

and Bernardo Vittone,

to

mention some of the

most important, convey very

even to the

little

Admittedly our division

may

is

different

at

process

style. In the

of revaluation Carlo Fontana must be assigned

Venice with Tirali and Massari

a leading part.

soon followed, and various facets of a

classi-

cizing architecture remained the accepted cur-

merged

rent until they

into the broad stream

of Neo-classicism. But by comparison with the

architecture

of Neo-classicism

architecture

of

the

classical

pre-Neo-classicism

appears

varied and rich and

student of Italian architecture.

architects

became the prevalent

again

We may

full

of unorthodox inci-

therefore talk with

far too rigid, for

dents.

periods of their

fication of 'Late

some

justi-

Baroque Classicism', and

it

terms to circum-

careers or in individual works tend towards

would be

one side or the other. But on the whole one may

scribe this style by the generic epithet 'academic'.

safely postulate that the

on the store of

classical

first

two groups drew

forms and ideas rather

The

a contradiction in

process of transition from 'Late Baroque

Classicism'

Neo-classicism

to

can

intimately followed, and before the

however, excluding a temperate admixture from

themselves there

the latter.

The

last

group, by contrast, found

its

to

When

romini.

discussing Bernini's and Cor-

tona's architecture,

tried to assess the specific

quality of their 'classicism'. Architects could

not a

be

apply the terminological division.

What

inspiration directly or indirectly mainly in Bor-

is

often

monuments
shadow of doubt when

than on the Borrominesque current, without,

from

differentiates Late

Baroque Classicism

previous classical trends

all

immense

versatility,-

alluded. In

and

to this

is,

first,

its

have already

Rome, Turin, and Naples

it

may

dynamic

be flexible enough to admit a good deal of

vigour of their work. Dotti's draining of Cor-

Borrominesque and pseudo-Borrominesque de-

follow their lead without accepting the

Bologna

is

Madonna

Luca near

coration; even Late Mannerist elements, such

as characteristic as Vanvitelli's for-

as undifferentiated framing wall strips, often

tona's style in the

di S.

malization of Bernini's S. Andrea

in the
(c.

al

Quirinale

Chiesa dei PP. delle Missioni

1760).

The

classicism that

at

Naples

emerged often

belong

to the repertory.

One

of the strangest

Morte in
Rome, where Fuga weds Ammanati's Man-

cases

is

the facade of S. Maria della

Giovanni Evangelista (Flo-

replaced the wholeness of vision of the great

nerist facade of S.

masters by a method of adding motif to motif,

rence) with the aedicule fa9ade stemming from

373);

Carlo Rainaldi. Venice, by contrast, steers clear

permissible to talk of 'academic

of any such adventures and returns straight to

each clearly separable from the other

to this extent

classicism',

it is

(p.

but we shall see that the term

should be used with caution.

rather severe classicism was the leading

style in

Italy

between about 1580 and 1625.

After that date a tame classicizing architecture

Scamozzi, Palladio, and beyond,

antiquity.

the style
is

The second
is its

to

deliberate scenic quality, which

not only aimed

at

by men born many years

apart, hke Fontana, Juvarra,

and Vanvitelli, but

by the masters of the non-classical trend,

(e.g. S.

Anastasia and Villa Doria-Pamphili in

also

Rome;

cathedral at Spoleto) was practised by

as a glance at Raguzzini's Piazza S.

some minor masters parallel to the work of the

giants of the High Baroque. Towards the end
of the century a new form of classicism once

classical

feature characteristic of

Ignazio

proves. Finally, both classicists and non-classicists

favour a similar kind of colour scheme

broken colours

light

BIBLOSARTE

in

tone, blues, yellows,

ARCHITECTURE

much

pinks, and

white

in

eighteenth-century colours, and

word
in

typically

Carlo Fon-

who brought about

architects

371

the anti-classical

vogue were born between 1680 and 1700, the

work the turning away from the warm,

majority in the nineties, just like the sculptors

full,

and succulent colours of the High Baroque

may

be observed. Thus, on a broad front the

and painters with similar tendencies. From

about 1725 on and for the next twenty-five years

tana's

classical

and non-classical currents have essen-

quahties in

tial

common.

In the over-all picture of eighteenth-century

architecture Late Baroque Classicism appears
to

these masters had an ample share in the production of important buildings.

have the lead. But one should not under-

but other

here

which may

tic

Rococo'

to

Rome,

the

cities

can also boast a number of

unorthodox Rococo designs, of which we may

estimate the importance of the other trend,

safely be styled 'Italian

Next

chief centres are Naples, Sicily, and Piedmont;

remember Gianantonio Veneroni's majes-

Palazzo Mezzabarba

at

Pavia (1728-30), so

not only because of the free and imaginative

similar to Valvassori's Palazzo Doria-Pamphili,'

decoration and the relinquishing of the orders

the extravagant Palazzo Stanga at

as a rigid

system of accentuation, but mainly

[248],'

and the fayade of

because of the rich play with elegant curvilinear

Modena

(1727)

shapes and spatial complexities. Most of the

southern

German

248.

which

recalls

Baroque.'^

Cremona, Palazzo Stanga,

early eighteenth century

BIBLOSARTE

S.

Cremona

Bartolomeo

at

works of the

372

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

By and

large

it

may

be said that the

Church and

style of the

Baroque Classicism and

official

the courts was Late

that the Italian version

Rococo found tenacious admirers among

ot the

the aristocracy and the rich bourgeoisie.

In

Rome, in particular, numerous palaces of unknown authorship were built" which form a
distinct

and coherent group by virtue of

their

elegant window-frames and by the fact that the

windows

in dif}erent tiers are

so that for the

first

time in

its

interconnected;

Roman

history the

academic subject during the seventeenth cen-

Frenchmen

tury by

When

Blondel."

century

it

Derizet

(a

M. Durand and

like

was taken up again by the

Frenchman by

M.

Galiani, F.

G.

Preti,

Scamozzi, and others,

rigidity given to

had the stereotyped

proportions can, of course, be applied only

where divisions are emphatic, unambiguous,

and

easily readable - in a

word,

accomplished not by the

was dawning, and

concept

orders but by the lights.

There cannot be any doubt

that the rocaille

decoration which one finds in Northern Italy

rather than
the

Rome

derives from France,

Rococo conquered Europe. Yet

wrong

to believe that

it

whence

would be

France had an important

moy
must

in

as the

all

the major

Spanish Stairs

Rome or Vittone's churches in Piedmont,

are

firmly grounded in the Italian tradition and

have

little

in

the period.
it

common

not so strange, however, that

It is

was the other, the

took

its

filtered

with French buildings of

classical current that often

be expressed in

lazzo
at

in

concept of

Antique

also in

itself strongly

France that two theoretical

developed which, when handed back

became instrumental

in

to Italy,

undermining the

rela-

freedom of both the Late Baroque Clas-

sicism and the Italian Rococo.

One

of these,

proportion in architecture, which had always

fascinated

the

Italians,

'functional'

in origin, the principle

had always been

tectural theory; nothing else

the

its

is

adumbrated by

demand of 'decorum'. But now,

as simplicity

implicitly

bias.

architecture

cornerstone of Italian archi-

interpreted

and naturalness, the concept had

in the

and

anti-Baroque

strong

The new

anti-

ideas found an energetic

Venetian Padre Carlo Lodoli

Abbe Laugier but

also

for

the neo-classical

philosophy of Francesco Milizia, who, by describing Borromini's followers as

was

must

architecture -

not only for the influential works of the French

concepts, Italian in origin, were taken up and

tive

its

Juvarra's Pa-

felt.

It

his

(1690-1761);" he in turn prepared the ground

to Vanvitelli's palace

Caserta the French note makes

in

and simplicity

stately

models of

And from

Turin

by

and the character of

a building

advocate

iMadama

preached

of the correspondence between the purpose of

through a process of stringent

imperial architecture.

all clarit}'

rational

architecture.**

Rococo

rationali-

first

I'job that truth

requirements behind which one can

the

cue from France; for French classicism,

zation, gave the world the

second

The Frenchman de Corde-

an architect's approach to his

dictate

sense

such

age of reason

subject and that the purpose of a building

intellectual

style,

in a rational, i.e.

The

also belongs the

it

had

(1651 -1722)

Nouveau Traite o(

The Italian Rococo has many facets and cannot

be summed up by an easy formula; but far from
works of the

to

in question.

formative influence on the style as a whole.

being foreign transplantations,

Italians

Ricciolini,

by the French. Canonical

it

classical architectural system.

element of the

birth),

F. Cristiani, Bertotti-

it

palace shows a primarily vertical accentuation

solid

F.

course of the eighteenth

in the

was turned into an

sect',

'a

delirious

determined the pattern of thought

more than

hundred

for

years.

Venetian architects returned

to

pure classical

principles at a remarkably early date, probably

owing
rise

to

an intellectual climate that led to the

of Lodoli, the prophet of rationalism.'"

This helps

to explain

what would otherwise

look like a strange paradox. Venice, where in

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE

the eighteenth century gaiety had a permanent

home, the

and carnivals as well

city of festivals

as of polite society, the only Italian centre

seemed predestined
and her painters
contrast to

dominated

element

feminine

the

for a

fulfil

most other

Venice

broad Rococo culture,

our expectations. But

Italian cities,

no Rococo architecture. In the

It is

in

Venice had

pri\ acy of the

Rococo

palace, however, the Venetians admitted

decoration.

where

there that one finds rocaille

CampiteUi
but

His manner
al

Piazza Capizucchi).

formed

fully

is

Corso (1682-3)

in the

facade of S.

[249], probably his

most successful work, which impressed the

younger generation of architects very much.

This facade must be regarded

on the way
in fact,

as a milestone

Late Baroque Classicism;

to

High Baroque

without parallel

sionist niche of the

It is in

keeping with the

Rome,

political constellation

the two Italian kingdoms,

is,

fa9ades, despite the use of such

devices as the concave curvature and the

that, next to

it

separated by a deep gulf from the great

ornament of a daintiness and delicacy probably

in Italy."

373

(originally at the foot of the Capitol

now reassembled on

Marcello

upper

tier.

illu-

Here everything

unequivocal, proper, easily readable. Like

is

Maderno

at the

beginning of the century, Fon-

North,

tana works again with wall projections dividing

absorbed most of the great architects of the

the whole front into single bays framed by

period and offered them tasks worthy of their

orders.

Naples

in the

South and Sardinia

in the

While we can, therefore, discuss sum-

skill.

marily the rest of Italy, these three centres

By

require a closer inspection.

far

the

most

But by contrast

member of the order

(thus a

full pilaster

ponding
is

of Sardinia; for this reason a special chapter will

static in spite of the

Piedmont.

Maderno, every

to

precise
at

complement

the inside of each

outer bay below, behind the column, corres-

place in the Piedmontese realm of the Kings

in

its

appears

interesting architectural events, however, took

be devoted to architecture

has

and

to the pilaster at the corner),

one of the reasons why the facade

in the centre.

By

is

this

essentially

accumulation of columns

contrast to

Maderno,

too, the

wall projection corresponds exactly to the dia-

ROME

meter of the columns, so that the encased

column forms an
Carlo Fontana

( 1638-IJ14)

Carlo Fontana, born in 1638'- near Como,

Rome

before

shoulders

Baroque

fell

the mantle of the great

He

High

his career in the

began

1650s as an architectural draughtsman and

later

clerk of works to Cortona, Rainaldi,

We

in

man on whose

1655, was the

architects.

have often

come

across his

pages. His suave and genial

and Bernini.

name

in these

manners and

his

made him an ideal collaborator, and

one soon finds him playing the role of mediator
easy talent

between the masters

employed him
his

for

whom

he served. Bernini

about ten years on

major undertakings, and

it

many

ot

was he who had

the strongest formative influence on Fontana's

style.

Before 1665, he came into his

the interesting

little

isolated motif, clearly sepa-

rated from the double columns of the central

church of

S.

own

with

Biagio in

bay.

The

aedicule framing this bay

easily detachable,

as

is,

it

were,

and behind the pairs of free-

standing columns are double pilasters which

have their precise counterpart

Thus
is,

in the

upper

tier.

the orders in both tiers repeat, which

however, obscured by the screening aedicule.

It is

precisely the 'detachability' of the aedicule

motif that gives

its

superstructure - the broken

pediment with the empty frame'^ between the

segments

its

scenic quality.

The

principle

here employed corresponds to that of theatrical

wings which are equally unconnected, a principle, as

we have noted

foreign to

before (p. 297), that

Roman High Baroque

is

structures but

inherent in Late Baroque Classicism. Essentially

different both

from the Early and the High

BIBLOSARTE

249- Carlo Fontana:

Rome,

S. Marcello.

Facade, 1682-3. Detail

the Piazza of St Peter's, Rome, 1694

250 (right). Carlo Fontana: Project for the completion of

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE

Baroque, the conception of the facade of

Marcello provides

key

tecture as well as to

many

to

S.

Fontana's archi-

other Late Baroque

study of Fontana's largest ecclesiastical

ensemble, the Jesuit church and college

in

talent.

The

landscape

at

Spain, reveals the limitations of his

Loyola

layout as a whole in the wide hilly

is

impressive enough but the church,

;

designed over a circular plan with ambulatory

(p. 299), lacks

among
is

the finesse of Longhena's Salute,

others, because the shape of the pillars

determined by the

makes trapezoid
avoidable.'^ In

which

radii of the circle,

units in the ambulatory un-

many

and the Cappella Albani

Sebastiano (1705)

may

in S.

be mentioned. In these

smaller works, which hark back to the rich

polychrome tradition of the Roman High Bar-

classicist buildings.

Peter's (1692-8),

375

respects the design echoes

oque,'' he gave his best.

An

endless

number of

designs for tombs (among them those of Cle-

ment XI and Innocent

festival decorations,

his studio,

and

it

XII),'" altars, fountains,

and even statues came from

is

much

probably not too

to

say that at the turn of the century there was

hardly any major undertaking in

his

name

attached to

Rome

without

His eminence was

it.

publicly acknowledged by his election as Principe of the

Academy of

St

Luke

in

1686 and,

again, for the eight years 1692- 1700 - a

mark

drum

of esteem without precedent. As a town-planner

derives from that of S. Maria de' Miracoli on

he indulged in somewhat fantastic schemes on

current

Roman

conceptions; the high

paper, such as the building of a large semi-

unexecuted

circular piazza in front of the Palazzo Ludovisi

the Piazza del Popolo,'^ while the facade

classicizing adaptation of Rainaldi's

is

plan of 1662 for S. Maria in Campitelli. Other

features,'*'

Even

the destruction of the Vatican Borghi, finally

Fontana cannot be made responsible

details, this

for the

gathering together of diverse ideas

into a design of

dubious merit

for the leading master of the

is

new

characteristic

many

chapels in

Roman

which the Cappella Ginetti

in S.

carried out in Mussolini's

Rome. \ second,

Piazza of St Peter's [250] elaborates Bernini's

oval, set

main

back into the Piazza Rusticucci. But

contrast to Bernini's decision to

make

churches, ot

in

Andrea

building part and parcel of the Piazza

della

less

ambitious project for the completion of the

idea of erecting a clock-tower outside the

era.

Apart from some undistinguished palaces,

he built

Montecitorio, which he finished with

classicizing alterations of Bernini's design) or

point to a study of S. Maria della Salute.

if

(later

besides the idea of the ambulatory,

remove

this

(p. 195),

from the

Valle (1671), the Cappella Cibo in S. Maria del

Fontana intended

Popolo (1683-7), the Baptismal Chapel

oval that the beholder, on entering the 'fore-

in

St

to

it

so far

500 FT
150

BIBLOSARTE

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

37<>

would have seen the main area as a

The near and far ends of the

court',

separate entity.

arms of the colonnades, moreover, would have

appeared

on

of vision like isolated wings

in his field

a stage - a

model example of how, by seem-

ingly slight changes, a

dynamic High Baroque

Both chapels

later (1691).

a strange type

are daring essays in

of picturesque architecture, trans-

lations of (juudratiiru painting into three

based on a close study of Bernini's use of light

and on

his

experiments

unifying architecture

in

structure could be transformed into a sceno-

and

graphic Late Baroque work.'' Theatrical

Chapel,-' moreover, Gherardi

would have been Fontana's

sense

different

in a

dimen-

sions (Gherardi himself was also a painter),

sculpture.

realistic

In

the

Cecilia

S.

fell

back upon

the Guarinesque idea of the truncated

dome

planned transformation of the Colosseum into

through which one looks into another differently

forum for a centraHzed church. A telling

symbol of the supersession of the crumbled

shaped and

pagan world by Christianity, the ancient ruins

the broken wall surfaces, that stamp the chapel

would have formed sombre wings

as a

to the centre

of the stage on which the house of

brilliantly

space.

lit

and quantity of motifs,

It is

the variety

freely distributed over

work of the Late Baroque.

God was

to stand.

The Eighteenth Century

As an engineer, Fontana was concerned with

the regulation and maintenance of water-ways

Carlo Fontana had a large number of pupils

and pipe-lines and, above

and collaborators, most of

all,

tion into the security of the

He

many

supported

prises with erudite

with an investiga-

dome

of St Peter's.

of his schemes and enter-

and lavishly produced pub-

left

unrecorded. Mention

whom

can safely be

may be made

of his

son Francesco (1668- 1708), whose death pre-

ceded that of the

father.

He

the architect of

is

which the Templum Vaticanum of

the large but uninspired church of SS. Apostoli

1694 must be given pride of place. Numberless

drawings and many hundred pages of manu-

the academic two-tower fa9ade of the cathedral

lications, of

script survive as a

industry.-"

monument to his indefatigable

was

It

this

man, methodical and

ambitious and without the genius of the great

masters of the earlier generation,

about

Rome

in

who brought

the turn to a classicizing, book-

( 1

702-24). Carlo's nephew, Girolamo, designed

at Frascati

of

(1697 1700, towers

later); in spite

scheme

typical for this

traditional

its

it

is

phase of the Late Baroque by virtue of

rhythm and an accumulation of

Among

its

slow

trifling motifs.

names stand

Carlo's other pupils, three

architecture.

out, that of the

worthy Giovan Battista Contini

Nevertheless his influence was enormous, and

(1641-1723),--

who

academic manner

and

ish,

such

different

in

masters as Juvarra

in

Italy,

Poppelmann and Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt in Germany and Austria, and James
Gibbs in England looked up to him with
veneration.

the

at

the time

of adventure was not quite extinguished.

spirit

Rome

erected a

number of tasteful

but had to find work mainly

outside, e.g. at Montecassino and

even

in

Ravenna and

Spain (Cathedral, Saragossa); further,

those of Carlo Francesco Bizzacheri (16561721)

when Carlo Fontana was

undisputed arbiter of taste in Rome, the

Even

chapels in

The

and Alessandro Specchi (1668- 1729).

former, the architect of the facade of S.

Isidoro

1700-4), would be worth a

{c.

thorough study ;-"* the

known

latter

is

more

a better-defined

Proof of it are Antonio Gherardi's (1644- 1702)

personality,

Avila and Cecilia Chapels, the former in S.

his

Maria

Carolis (1716-22),-^ his largest building, some-

in S.

in

Trastevere built before 1686, the

Carlo

ai

latter

Catinari dating from a few years

work

as

to a

wider public through

an engraver.-^

what anachronistic

BIBLOSARTE

in 1720,

The

Palazzo de

has been mentioned

ARCHITECTLRE

(p. 290).

His name

is

connected with two more

.Messandro Galilei:

1732-5

Giovanni

interesting enterprises: the port of the Ripetta

(1704), formerly opposite S.

Girolamo degH

The

death in

superseded him

But

Staircase.-''

architect

as

of the

pendulum began

to

Thus

lines.

swing back

Galilei facade of S.

734

there was a dearth of

tasks in

century
it

is

monumental

Rome. While during

Rome

left

Maria

cit}'

occasions.

the seventeenth

first

quarter of the

new

looked as

would

if

Rome

But once more

Santos^'' (and

Giuin

atrium

to the

74 1 -3

Fuga: facade of S. Maria Maggiore

74 1 4

Paolo Ameli Palazzx) Doria-Pamphili, fa9ade

:

towards Via del Plebiscito'"

1

Pietro Passalacqua and

74 1 4

rini

it

re-

Fuga: Palazzo Corsini

:'"

Domenico Grego-

facade and renovation of S. Croce in

Gerusalemme

the stagnation of the Fontana era

last for ever.

di

of S. Cecilia

17 14, to return only on rare

The whole

Nome

Forum"

Fuga: monumental entrance

1741

century was comparatively uneventful, and

Trajan's

Via Condotti

had attracted the greatest names,

in

in

seppe Sardi): SS. Trinita de' Spagnuoli

characteristic of the early eighteenth that

the

Laterano

Giovanni de' Fiorentini^^

Manoel Rodrigues dos

1741

architectural

the real genius of the period, Filippo Juvarra,

in

dalena"

1736-after 175

At the beginning of the eighteenth century

Giovanni

1736-41 Antonio Derizet: church of SS.

which one may associate with the name of

Borromini.

.^fter Salvi's

Giuseppe Pannini

Giuseppe Sardi(.'): fa^adcofS. Maria Mad-

1735

the

in a direction

finished by

Carlo de Dominicis: SS. Celso e Giuliano"

1733-5

an interplay of gently curved

[258]

with the classicizing repertorj' of his teacher

and found new scenographic values based on

75

Galilei: fac^ade of S.

17.33^6

designs Specchi broke

in these

f255l

port no longer exists and Francesco de

Sanctis

Cappella Corsini, S.

Laterano

in

1732-62 Nicola Salvi: Fontana Trevi.

Schiavoni, and the design of the Spanish Stairs.

377

1743-63 Carlo Marchionni: Villa Albani^"*

covered to such an extent that she seemed to

reconquer her leading position. For twenty

years,

between about 1725 and 1745, talents

works of sublime beauty crowded

as well as

there.

A chronological list of the more important

structures of the period

may prove

it

The new
is

Rome

flowering of architecture in

mainly connected with the names of Raguz-

zini

{c.

1680-1771),'" Valvassori (1683-1761),^"

Galilei (1691-1737),^'

De

Sanctis

(i

693-1 731,

not 1740), Salvi (1697-1751), and Fuga (16991782).^-

1723

Francesco de Sanctis: facade of SS. Trinita

1723-6

De Sanctis:

1725-6

Filippo Raguzzini: Hospital and Church of

first five

created one great

facade of the Palazzo Doria-Pamphili, the facade

de' Pellegrini-'

the Spanish Staircase [251, 252)

S. Gallicano

1727-8

Each of the

masterpiece, namely the Piazza S. Ignazio, the

of S. Giovanni in Laterano, the Spanish Stairs,

and the Fontana Trevi, and only the

sixth,

Fuga,

the most profuse talent of the group, secured

Raguzzini: Piazza S. Ignazio [253

1728-52 Girolamo Teodoli SS.PietroeMarcellino-'^

:

1730-5

Gabriele Valvassori: Palazzo Doria-Pam-

1732-7

wing towards the Corso [254]

Ferdinando Fuga: Palazzo della Consulta

number of first-rate commissions for himself.

Our list opens with two major works of the

Roman

Rococo, the Spanish Stairs and the

phili,

Fuga: Chiesa deU'Orazione

Giulia^o

the one grand, imposing,

fabulous in scale, aristocratic

[256]^'

1732-7

Piazza S. Ignazio

Morte, Via

in character,

com-

parable to the breathtaking fireworks of the

Baroque age; the other intimate, small

BIBLOSARTE

in size.

251- Francesco dc Sanctis:

Rome,

the Spanish Staircase, project, 1723,

redrawn from the original in the

Ministcre dcs Affaires Ktrangcres, Paris

IJife^o

o Altatt <lcl1a Scaliiute..

da^ani ctu <lalURutaJi

SctUntc

N.

rontifjcA\aino.

CKiua

BIBLOSARTE

Spwn&.

(UlU Santintmk Trmiti

<U Monti.

uiUllua m^Mi[||[iiiiLmuimJ ll

ARCHn tC ILRh

379

252. Francesco de Sanctis:

Rome,

the Spanish Staircase, 1723-6

and with

its

simple

middle-class

dwelling-

houses typical of the rising bourgeois

tion.

civiliza-

Also, in the urban setting these works

belong to diametrically opposed traditions.

Spanish

Staircase [251, 252]'*^ is in

The

the line of

although

Specchi's

longer existing) and

port

De

(unfortunately

no

Sanctis's staircase are

not on the same axis, they look on old town-plans

(e.g. that

by G. B. Nolli of 1748) like the overscheme exactly equi-

ture and the finale of a vast

piazza, a 'nodal point'

succession from Sixtus V's great town-planning

distant from the

schemes focused on long straight avenues and

characteristic viewpoints. For seventeenth-

widening out on the main artery, the Corso,

century
ruler

Roman

had

architects the town-planner's

far less attraction.

But influenced by

they

lie at

little

the far ends of straight, narrow streets

which cut the Corso

at similar angles.

While the Spanish Staircase

Carlo Fontana, the early eighteenth century

the far as well as the near view

was again smitten with the concept of long per-

approaches

spectives, to which the

French of the seventeenth

century had so enthusiastically responded.

comprehensive vision unites now the whole

area from the Tiber to the Trinita de' Monti, and

it

composed for
the more one

the richer and the

vating are the scenic effects

Piazza S.

is

more

capti-

the enclosed

Ignazio [253] only offers the near

view, and on entering

it

an act of instantaneous

perception rather than of progressive revelation

BIBLOSARTE

380

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

The Roman

determines the beholder's mood.

masters of the seventeenth century preferred

the enclosed court-like piazza to a wide per-

spective and exploited fully the psychological

moment

of dazzling fascination which

experienced

monumental

ness of
piazza

always

architecture. Raguzzini's

in this tradition.

is

is

unexpected physical close-

at the

But he performed an

interesting volte-face, for, in contrast to the

square of S. Maria della Pace,

dwelling houses, arranged

and not the

like

the

a stage -

- that

church facade

(older)

now

is

it

wings on

form

the scenic focus.

What

30

Staircase and the Piazza S. Ignazio

is

the ele-

gance of the curvilinear design, ^^ and the same

spirit

unites the conceptions of the Spanish

may

ment of

also be

found

in the playful

window pediments,

the

253 (above). Filippo Raguzzini:

Rome,

Piazza S. Ignazio, 1727-8. Plan

move-

the balconies

254 (below). Gabriele Valvassori:

Rome, Palazzo Doria-Pamphili, 1730-5. Detail

and balusters of .Valvassori's fa9ade of the

Works

Palazzo Doria-Pamphili [254].

like the

Maddalena or the Fontana

somewhat different category. In

fa9ade of S. Maria

Trevi are
spite of

former

in a

its
is

contains,

flourishing rocaille decoration, the

structurally rather conventional;

it

255 (above, right). Nicola Salvi:

Rome, Fontana Trevi, 1732 62

256 (below,

right).

Rome, Palazzo

Ferdinando Fuga:

della Consulta,

however, distinctly Borrominesque

motifs, above

all,

the dominating central niche,

so close to that of the Villa Falconieri at Frascati.

The Fontana

Trevi

is

not without marginal

Rococo features such as the large rocaille shell

of Neptune, but Salvi's architecture is remarkably classical [255].^' Taking up an idea of
Pietro da Cortona,

who had

first

thought of

combining palace front and fountain

Salvi

classical

triumphal arch with

its

(p. 246),

wed

the

allegorical

and

had the courage and vision

to

mythological figures to the palace front.

he, too,

who

filled

It

was

the larger part of the square

with natural rock formations bathed by the

gushing waters of the fountain.

The Rococo

features in the Fontana Trevi are entirely sub-

ordinated to a strong Late Baroque classical

design that

is

as far

tion of Bernini's

from Fontana's formaliza-

manner as it

is

from the puristic

approach of Neo-classicism.

BIBLOSARTE

1732-7

BIBLOSARTE

382

LATK BAROQUK AND ROCOCO

The

years 173 1-3 are the most varied and

that

exciting in the history of

ism.

century architecture.

Rome's eighteenthTo them belongs the peak

in

of the regeneration after the Fontana period.

Next to Valvassori's Palazzo Doria-Pamphili and

true that Galilei had spent five years

England (1714-19) before he returned

his native Florence.

London

from

departure

to

the time of his

hardly

any

Neo-

of S. Giovanni shows a family likeness to cer-

superabundance of indi-

tain projects

rooted

of Michelangelo's

among

re-interpretations

elegant

Mannerism. Fuga's easy

and

liance

the

the

in

others, features from IVladerno's fa9ade

sophistica-

from Valvassori's deft

Roman

bril-

grandeur.

Galilei's reticent

belonged

to the repertory of all Italian architects

of the period and were usually incorporated

into the highest class of

Thus some
the

facade from

simple hemispherical

dome with
when com-

pared to the other works of these years, the

is

from

far

still

Neo-classicism,

real

Peter's,

is

257. Carlo

its

not only

its

The

Maderno: Rome,

symphony of its

year 1732 also saw the most

notable architectural event of the period, namely

Galilei's

victory

the competition

in

for

the

fa9ade of S. Giovanni in Laterano arranged by

Pope Clement XII.

Never before

in the history

had there been such a

Twenty-three

mammoth

architects,

non-Romans, took

part.

of architecture
competition.^''

number of them
The jury under the
a

chairmanship of Sebastiano Conca, president

of the Academy,

was entirely composed of

academicians, and the intrigues were fabulous.

Nevertheless,
Galilei's

was an

it

historic

model was chosen.

It

event

meant the

that

official

placet to a severely classical design at a time

when

the prevalent taste was

good deal

that

is

less

essentially static structure.

St Peter's. Fa9ade, 1605 13. Detail

marbles with pale violets and mottled greens

prevailing.

his

great model, the facade of St

mainly on account of the sculptural decoration

438) and the subtle colour

design.

same vocabulary. What distinguishes

Cappella Corsini, a balanced Greek-cross de-

classical coffers. Severely classical

monumental

of Galilei's competitors worked with

sign articulated by a uniform Corinthian order

chapel

firmly

combining,

Capitoline palaces; features, incidentally, which

Salvi's sense for

tradition,

Wren.

an extremely

in

Tuscan

same moment belongs

crowned by

Roman

is

of St Peter's [257, 258] and Michelangelo's

refined style with a note of

tion, so different

Sir Christopher

virtuosity resulted at

phase of his career

this early

by the aged

In actual fact, however, the facade

vidual motifs, which to a certain extent are

at

was rising in these years [256]. Based on the

this palace contains a

(p.

Although

Palladian building had gone up,^' the fa9ade

simple rhythm of light frames and darker panels,

To

reveals the impact of English Palladian-

It is

Fontana Trevi, Fuga's Palazzo della Con-

Salvi's

sulta

it

non -classical. But

than half-truth has been

said about Galilei's work. Critics usually believe

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE

achieved by a process similar to that described

of Fontana's S. Marcello, but also

in the case

the

new

up

relationship between open and closed

Here the whole

parts.

front

so that the chiaroscuro

tant;

it

practically

opened

becomes most impor-

helps define the orders and entablatures

The

sharply.

precision

which

is

is

is

effect of classical discipline

partly

due

and

to this pictorial device

an element of Late Baroque Classicism

rather than of Neo-classicism. In his facade of

S.

Maria Maggiore, Fuga used exactly the same

compositional characteristics.

Add

to all this

Galilei's magnificent sense of scale, so similar

Maderno's

to

much
the

in the fa9ade

of St Peter's and

superior to any of his competitors, further

crowning of the fa9ade with the

Baroque
central

traditional

figures

and the freak design of the

pedestal

with the blessing figure of

Christ - and

it

must be admitted

that

we have

before us a severe work of Late Baroque Clas-

sicism that

intrinsically

is

revolutionary

less

than art historians want to make

Once

it.

the facade was standing (1736), the

Roman Rococo was almost

monumental structures were

impetus of the
broken

as far as

concerned. After Galilei's death

in 1737,

Fuga's

predominant position was never challenged, and

development along Late

that alone spelled a

Baroque

classicist lines.

Moreover, the vigour

manner slowly faded into a somewhat monotonous form of classicism. I do not

mean his felicitous design of the ta^ade of S.

of his early

Maria Maggiore; but

compare

Maria

S.

for this aspect

della

Morte with

for S. Apollinare or the Palazzo della

Chapter

see

8,

design

Consulta
(c.

Note 87) and with the

Giovanni

6.

Detail

745

long,

Gardens of the Quirinal

(174 1 -3) his puristic classicism was already

this

late

Neo-

was mainly modelled on

style

Rome,

in Laterano. Fat^ade, 1733

rather dry front of the Palazzo Corsini. In the

coffee house in the

firmly established, but far from being

S.

may

one

his

[256] with the Palazzo Cenci Bolognetti

classical,

258. Alessandro Galilei

383

Cinquecento examples. In 1751 Fuga

Rome

for

Naples

was blowing
during the

and

last

an indication
it

how

the

left

wind

was there that he practised

decades of his

life.

In 1752 he

began the enormous Albergo de' Poveri (length

of the facade
larger

c.

1000

feet)

and

in

1779 the even

Granary (destroyed). Shortly before

his

death he designed the Chiesa dei Gerolamini

(1780),

which shows that up

remained

faithful to the Late

long after the

rise

to

of Neo-classicism.

With Fuga's departure from Rome

and

point he

Baroque tradition

brilliant flowering of

centurv architecture was to

Roman
all

the brief

eighteenth-

intents

and pur-

poses over. Neither Marchionni's Villa .Albani

with

its

impressive Late Baroque layout^" nor

Piranesi's few picturesque essays in architecture^*^

could retrieve the situation. Contrary to

usually said, the Late Baroque lingered

what

is

on

Rome

in

until the days of the great Valadier

(1762- 1839), whose work belongs mainly to

^A^^i.

the nineteenth centurv.

BIBLOSARTE

259-

Andrea

Tirali: Venice, S. Nicolo

da Tolentino. Favade, 1706- 14

BIBLOSARTE

385

26o. Giorgio Massari: Venice, Chiesa dei Gesuati, 1726-43

BIBLOSARTE

386

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

NORTHERN ITALY AND FLORENCE

be mentioned.^' Rossi,

in particular,

who

built

the richly decorated Baroque Chiesa dei Gesuiti

Longhena's

activity in

Venice was not

in vain.^^'

(1715-29),^' prepares in the Palazzo Corner

Regina (begun 1724) the return

Although he had no successor of the highest

della

rank, architects vacillated for a time between

sical architecture.

The

the ebullient plasticity and chiaroscuro of his

from one manner

to the other

manner and
This
(c.

is

the linear classicism of Scamozzi.

apparent

in the

work of Giuseppe Sardi

1621-99), Alessandro Tremignon, and the

younger Domenico Rossi (1657-1737). They

may

turn Longhena's

High Baroque sense

for

real

is

Andrea

(1657- 1 737). Although he designed

Late Baroque chapel of

Giovanni

ment
his

in the

to a clas-

master of transition

S.

in

Tirali

1690 the

Domenico

Paolo and the profuse Valier

in

SS.

monu-

same church (1705-8),'* he turned

back on the Baroque tradition

in the

facades

structure into typically Late Baroque diffused

of S. Nicolo da Tolentino [259] and S. Vidal

and flickering pictorial effects, for which only

Tremignon's notorious facade of S. Moise need

(Vitale).
first

Both fa9ades are Palladian

261. Giorgio Massari:

Venice, Palazzo Grassi-Stucky, 1749

revivals: the

(1706-14) resuscitates a Vitruvian portico

ff.

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE

wake of

in the

S. Nicolo,^"* the

Palladio's project ol 1579 for

second (datable 1734)" follows

closely S. Giorgio Maggiore.

More important than

the greatest Venetian architect of the

of the eighteenth century

first

half

Giorgio Massari

387

Matteo Lucchesi (1705-76) be dissociated from

vigorous Late Baroque classicism. It was only

with

and probably

Tirali

Tomaso Temanza

pupil

G.

Antonio

(1705-89)'" and his

Selva

(1753-1819)

Venetian architecture became

that

branch of the

(1687-1766).^'' His masterpiece, the Chiesa dei

European movement. In S. Maria

Maddalena (1748-63), Temanza, the friend of

Gesuati (1726-43) [260], has

Milizia,

is

powerful temple

fa9ade derived from the central portion of Pal-

Giorgio Maggiore, while the interior

ladio's S.

indebted to Palladio's Redentore, a debt

is

hardly obscured by the typically eighteenth-

general

produced

a corrected

version of his

teacher's and uncle's design of SS.

Giuda:

it

spelled an

Simeone

uncompromising return

to classical standards.

In Vicenza Antonio Pizzocaro

(i\

1600 80),

century features. Massari's finest domestic work

Carlo Borella, and others kept Scamozzi's clas-

the majestic Palazzo Grassi-Stucky (1749 fl);

sicism alive throughout the seventeenth cen-

is

its

staircase

hall

with the frescoes formerly

ascribed to Alessandro Longhi^"^

is

the grandest
262. Giovanni Antonio Scalfarotto:

in

But the facade,

Venice.

faithful

to

the

characteristics of the Venetian palazzo type,

almost as sober and

It

flat

is

as Scamozzi's [261 1."

be noticed that,

will

Venice, SS. Simeone e Giuda, 1718-38

in contrast to the

course of Venetian painting, Venetian architecture of the eighteenth century lived to a large

extent on
its

its tradition,'*'*

Scalfarotto

Simeone
colo,

and

great practitioner,

last

(c.

this is also true for

Giovanni Antonio

1690-1764), the architect of SS.

Giuda

(also called S.

Simeone Pic-

1718-38) [262, 263]. This church, which

greets every visitor to Venice

clearly based

classical portico, to

staircase

on

somewhat

is

which one ascends over

modelled on ancient temples,

Byzantine-Venetian dome.

stilted

his arrival,

on the Pantheon. But above the

varies the

The

rises a

interior

Pantheon motifs. There

is,

however, one decisive change: the congregational

room opens

into a

domed

unit with semi-

circular apses, a formula derived via the Salute

from Palladio. This blending of the Pantheon

with Byzantium and Palladio

is

what one would

expect to find in eighteenth-century Venice,

and that

it

really

happened

is

almost too good

to be true.^'

The

analysis just

made

has

shown

that Scal-

farotto did not yet take the definite step across

the Neo-classical barrier.

Nor can

his

pupil

BIBLOSARTE

263- Giovanni Antonio Scalfarotto

Venice,

SS. Simeone e Giuda, 1718-38.

Section and plan

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE

264. Francesco
Villa Pisani,

tury.''

Maria

Preti

Stra,

1735-56

The

eighteenth century

witnessed a

windows

in the fa9ade.

The

simple house which

may be

splendid Palladian revival to which such a great

Tiepolo built for himself

master as Francesco Muttoni (1668- 1747) con-

mentioned

tributed with sensitive works (Biblioteca Berto-

also illustrates the middle-class aspect of eigh-

liana,

1703)'- and

which ran

course with

its

as an

enormous growth

for

totti-Scamozzi (1719-90) and Count Ottone

villas at the time.

A word must

villas

of the

Most of the villas of the Venetian

numbering at least a thousand, were

built in the eighteenth century,

their variety

is

immense, certain

tures can be found.

the

There

The

though not

and the

common

Maria

fea-

splendid Palladian

at

latter, built to a

Preti,

possesses

design by Francesco

in

museum

veritable

pageantry which culminates

pile of the Villa Pisani at Stra

the

Palladian substance

Baroque grandeur.
portant than the

first,

is

the imposing

(1735-56) [264],

not obscured by

second type, no

less

im-

derives from the Venetian

palace as regards spatial organization as well

as

the

typically

Venetian

grouping

of the

rich

painterly

of the Venetian school, a

tradition of the aristocratic villa all'antica had,

villas,

its

decoration - traditional since Palladio's day - a

of course, an indelible influence, and even in

the pearl of the Settecento

with Versailles,

Passariano (1738)

which has been mention-

Villa Pisani,

The

ed.*"^

number of

vie in magnificence

in architectural style

such as the Villa Manin

and although

the

in

are infinite transitions

which

to the princely villas,

be added about the

terra ferma.''^

hinterland,

example. This type of house

teenth-century civilisation, the primary reason

the Palladio scholar and architect Ottavio Ber-

Calderari (1730- 1803).''''

Zianigo

at

in

Tiepolo's Glory

of the Pisani Family painted on the ceiling of

the great hall.

Bologna had
tects

at least

of distinction.

two Late Baroque archiCarlo

Francesco Dotti

(1670- 1 759)'* and Alfonso Torreggiani. Dotti's

masterpiece
di S.

is

Luca, on

the Sancturary of the

a hill

high above the

BIBLOSARTE

Madonna

cit}'

(1723-

3Q0

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

265. Carlo Francesco Dotti: Bologna,

266. Giambattista Piacentini:

Madonna

Bologna, Palazzo di Giustizia. Staircase

di S.

Luca, 1723-57. Plan

The Baroque

57) [265].

As widely

sanctuaries.

age was fond of such

visible

symbols, they

dominate the landscape: they suggest nature's

infinitude controlled by

men

God. The

was made particularly

architect's task

difficult since

in the service

of

he had not only to emulate the

grand forms of nature herself by creating a

stir-

ring silhouette for the view from afar, but had

also to attract those

who would ascend

the

hill

of

the sanctuary. This dual problem was solved by

Dotti

in

masterly

elliptical shape,
is

way.

encasing

crowned by the dome

tion of simple geometrical

a distance.

A homogeneous

Greek-cross design,

than the analogies. Dotti convention-

alized Cortona's

dynamic motifs, returned

drum), emphasized the

vertical tendencies, and,

by reducing the transverse arms

cal chapels,

direction.

gave the building

The

to

form of the

traditional conceptions (e.g. in the

to

deep

ellipti-

a distinct axial

attached sanctuary, into which

one looks from the congregational room, owes

not a

little to

Rainaldi's S. Maria in Campitelli.

Thus adapted

to

new

conditions, the

Roman

prototypes retain their formative influence.

Alfonso Torreggiani

(d. 1764),

the architect

an effective combina-

of the charming Oratory of St Philip Neri (1730,

forms

partly destroyed during the war), led Bolognese

to

be seen from

For the near view he placed before

the approach to the church a varied, richly

articulated,

telling

1695

hall,

and undulating building, reminis-

architecture close to a

Rococo phase. This

is

also apparent in his facade of the Palazzo

Mon-

tanari (formerly Aldrovandi, 1744-52),

which

cent of the work of the the eighteenth-century

represents the nearest approach at Bologna to

Bolognese quadrattimti. Less interesting

Valvassori's style in

interior,

is

the

where Dotti followed Cortona's SS.

Martina e Luca. But the changes are even more

tini (staircase,

Rome. Like G.

Palazzo di Giustizia,

and Francesco Maria Angelini

BIBLOSARTE

B. Piacen-

695)

(i

[266]'^'

680-1 731:

ARCHITECTURE

391

50 FT

Antonio Arrighi:
Cremona, Palazzo Dati. Staircase
267.

staircases, Palazzo

staircases.

He

was

master of grand

executed

that

of the

Palazzo Davia-Bargellini, designed by Dotti in

1720
-

- the

and

impressive stuccoes are by G. Borelli

later

those of the Palazzi Malvezzi-De

Medici (1725) and the Liceo Musicale (1752),

where the ornament has a particularly light
touch.

The

tradition of this type of

mental staircase was continued

to the

at

Cremona, Palazzo Dati.

Plan; staircase by Antonio Arrighi, 1769

1769

Lombardy was comparatively unproductive

Montanari and Casa Zuc-

chini) before him, he

scenic

268.
hall,

monu-

Bologna right

end of the century, mainly by Dotti's

during this period.'' In Milan, after the building

boom

of the Borromeo and post-Borromeo era,

church building decHned. Next

Bolli's (d.

Note

5)

staircase,'- only

climax

that of the Palazzo Dati at

is

(d.

c.

1743)

are very large in size but not as similar as they

is

much more

Rococo

Giovanni Ruggeri's

are usually beheved to be: Ruggeri, the

Like the

found.'''

16,

Palazzo Cusani need be mentioned. Both palaces

pupil Francesco Tadolini (1723- 1805),'"* and in

reached in the largest and most complex of

Bartolomeo

with Carlo Giuseppe Merli's impressive

other cities near Bologna not a few splendid

examples may also be

to

1761) Palazzo Litta (Chapter

S.

latter,

in his

Francesco

Roman,

reticent than the Milanese Bolli."

Marco Bianchi favoured

the

almost identical facade designs of

di

Paola (1728) and S. Pietro

all,

Celestino (1735). With Vanvitelli's pupil Giu-

Cremona [267, 268],

unknown architect

seppe Piermarini ( 1734- 1 808), the builder of the

attributed to the otherwise

Scala (1776-9), the period of true Neo-clas-

Antonio Arrighi (1769). Bologna also possesses

in Antonio Bibiena's elegant Teatro Comunale

sicism opens at Milan. '^

(1756-63) one of the finest Baroque theatres in

work

Italy.'"

surprisingly,

Genoa, by contrast, harbours Late Baroque

in

unexpected quantity and

it

still

BIBLOSARTE

quality. But,

remains almost

terra

392

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

While

tncoamta.

seventeenth-century

late

monumental Palazzo Rosso

palaces, such as the

(1671 7) built by Matteo Lagomaggiore for the

brothers Brignole Sale, are well known, '^ the

eighteenth century has attracted

Who

little

attention.

knows the names of Antonio Ricca

i688-f.

1748),

of S. Torpete

architect

the

{c.

'natural' English landscape

into

its

own

and

his school (p. 447).

that of Scipione

deserve

sini

the present Via Cairolo and the rebuilding of

front.

the Palazzo Balbi with

case,

same

the

in

scenographic stair-

its

street

of Andrea

(1780);

Among

special

is

a reticent

The

and noble building with

anonymous, abound

the palace at

(e.g.

Piazza Scuole Pie 10). But Genoa's main glory

The

are the interior decorations.

the

Genoese

close,

nobility to Paris

relationship of

was particularly

and French Rococo designs are therefore

(d.

according to tradition,
the entrance.

in

one wing

This disposition
its

is

very long

large, airy staircase hall

sive,

usually

former,

741), possibly from a design by Carlo Fontana,

and typically eighteenth-century palace designs,

25),

The

mention.

1705 by Ferdinando Ruggieri

as the staircase itself with

the late palaces

Capponi and the Palazzo Cor-

who erected superb villas in

the vicinity of Genoa ? The city is rich in Late
Baroque churches, among which the delightful
Oratorio di S. Filippo Neri may be singled out,
Tagliafichi (p.

garden which came

moment.

Florence has some typically Late Baroque

erected in

of Andrea Orsolino,

);

precisely this

chapels built by Foggini and decorated by him

who built the

majestic Ospedale di Pammatone (1758 80);
of Gregorio Petondi, to whose genius we owe
(1730-

at

far

placed,

is

away from
antiquated

as

four flights ascend-

ing along the walls (thereby forming a well).

How

different

are

the

imaginative staircase

designs in the cities of the Po valley

The

by Pier Francesco Silvani (Note 79

chapter) for Marchese Filippo Corsini

may

exten-

sober mass of the Palazzo Corsini, designed

to

this

(d. 1706),

not appear very attractive, but the interior

contains

Antonio

masterpieces.^'*

Maria

Ferri's

The monumental

1716)

(d.

staircase

{c.

common.^'' Side by side with this foreign import,

1690), richly decorated with stuccoes by Gio-

however, developed an autonomous Genoese

vanni Passardi in the manner of Raggi,

The

Rococo, dazzling, ebullient, and masculine.

most splendid example of

gallery

in

Camera

di

this

manner

the Palazzo Carrega-Cataldi

is

the

(now

Commercio, Via Garibaldi) designed

by Lorenzo de Ferrari, surely one of the most

sublime

of the

creations

eighteenth

entire

adaptation of the

Equally autonomous

Genoese

new Bolognese

is

The

villa.

unorthodox
its

for

Florence

is

the gran salone with

canopies formed of heavy coupled columns

and, above them, the undulating entablature

examples, this time by such

Villa

Roman works

in

wed

the house to the land-

scape. Staircases and terraces extend from the

house into the

hilly

landscape

Man's work ennobles

without subduing

it;

this

is

like

enormous

man

as

Laterano.

The major

ecclesiastical Settecento structure

Florence

the impressive front of S. Firenze.

is

Ruggieri executed the facade

Nuova

to

the

Chiesa

(on the left-hand side) in 1715.'' Zanobi

Filippo del Rosso (1724-98),

who had

studied

with Vanvitelli and Fuga, copied this front

from the

between 1772 and 1775 for the Oratory on the

right-hand side and united the two facades by

as far

as

in

the landscape

French method of making the landscape subservient to the will of

Once

layout of the

equals: terraces, grand undulating staircases,

to

hall.

again Ferri's imagination was fired by foreign

Borromini's nave of S. Giovanni

tentacles.

type rather

the development of

at Albissola, built in

and water combine

is

a clever

than the work of an independent talent. Equally

1744 for Francesco

Maria della Rovere, Genoa's last Doge, has few

Gavotti

is

it

and gallery encompassing the entire

century."

the

revolutionary for Florence; yet

it

is

from the

the palace-like elevation of the monastery.

BIBLOSARTE

The

ARCHITECTURE

design of this remarkable front

extent

still

is

to a certain

Mannerist precepts; thus the

tied to

inverted segments of pediments, derived from

Buontalenti, provide a conspicuous crowning

To

feature.

the end the Florentines remained

faithful to their

who were

tects

Excepting Sanfelice,
to the first group.

work

of S. Nicola

anti-Baroque tradition.""

responsible for most of the

monumental buildings in

tectural

is

alia

393

this

manner.

space can be given

little

Solimena's only major archi-

the simple and dignified fa9ade

Carita (1707?). Otherwise, his

contribution to architecture consists mainly in

the design of tombs (Prince and Princess of

NAPLES AND SICILY

For no

was

Italy

as a rule

V of Spain lost his south

for good, but in

in

misgoverned by Spanish

At the Peace of Utrecht,

viceroys.

Philip

Piombino, Chiesa deH'Ospedaletto, 1701) and

than two hundred years southern

less

Italian

III,

and

for the next sixty-

four years until the Napoleonic era the

in

17 13,

1734 his son was crowned King

Palermo as Charles

remained

in

dominion

Bourbons

possession of their throne, only to

return in 18 16 for another uneasy forty-five

years. Charles III

governed

his

country by en-

lightened despotism until 1759,

herited the Spanish crown.

It is

when he

in-

mainly during

the twenty-five years of his reign that Naples

and

Sicily

the arts,

saw an unprecedented flowering of

and

to this period

largest architectural
Italy.

Such

belong some of the

schemes ever devised

in

vast enterprises as the palaces of

(high

altars

altar,

Tesoro,

Cappella del

Gennaro, 1706) and, above

all,

S.

in the influence

exercised on his pupils. Nauclerio and Vac-

may

caro"^-

who

is

be passed over

favour of Sanfelice,

in

the most gifted and most prolific

politan architect of the

first

more than

teenth century. His work, even

of Vaccaro,

is

the precise counterpart to

and Valvassori's buildings

zini's

spirited,

Nea-

half of the eigh-

Rome.

in

that

RaguzIt is

light-hearted, unorthodox, infinitely

imaginative, and ranges from a severe elegance

to decorative

profusion and richness.

duced with almost incredible

He

pro-

and the vast-

ease,

ness of his oeuvre vies with that of the most pro-

ductive architects of all time. In this as in other

respects he recaUs Juvarra; like the latter, he

was

also specially gifted as a

manipulator of

Capodimonte"*' and Caserta, the Albergo de'

perishable decorations,"*' and his sure instinct

Poveri, the Granary, and the theatre of S. Carlo

for

may be

characteristic traits of his art.

recalled.

After Fanzago's long and undisputed lead,

scenographic effects

ecclesiastical

is

one of the most

His work in

architecture began in

1701

(S.

architecture in Naples developed in two stages.

Maria

followed by innumerable additions, alterations,

specifically

tectural

Neapohtan group

design

over

into

the

carried archistyle

usually

and renovations

in

Naples and smaller towns.

The

particular jewel

is

the small Chiesa delle

associated with the term 'barocchetto'.

principal practitioners of this group were pupils

of the painter Francesco Solimena,

has

some

Among

architectural

to

who

his

also

credit.

ziatelle,

Nun-

probably dating from the mid 1730s,

with a colourful facade which forms a splendid

point de vue at the end of a narrow street.

The

Giambattista Nauclerio

simple polychrome nave with two chapels to

Domenico Antonio Vaccaro

each side blends perfectly with the lofty vault

his followers,

(active 1705-37),

works

delle Periclitanti at Pontecorvo), to be

(1681-1750), painter, sculptor, and architect,

decorated with Francesco de Mura's grandilo-

and Ferdinando Sanfelice (1675 -1750) are the

quent fresco of the Assumption. ^^

most important. The second,

more

international.

character;

Fuga and

Late

later

phase has a

Baroque

classicist

Vanvitelli are the archi-

It

is

as the architect of

domestic buildings

that Sanfelice gives his best.

distinguished

among

BIBLOSARTE

One

the long

of the most

list

of palaces

394

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

attributed to
tan artists,

him by

Cassano (1725-6),

ground

the biographer of

de Dominici,

with

rhythm given
felice's free

is

a long structure

front

of sixteen

to the fa9ade

NeapoH-

the Palazzo Serra

is

on sloping

The

bays.

typical of

San-

handling of the tradition. Giant

pilasters over the rusticated

ground

floor

frame

the

first, fifth,

twelfth,

and sixteenth bays (with

the pilasters of the fifth and twelfth bays over

rich portals); bays 2, 3, 4,

and

13,

15 are

14,

evenly spaced, without orders, while bays

8,

and

are

11

10,

9,

grouped together

with a large gap between bays 8 and

in the centre

ascends

is

and other palaces by

in

monumental

the

two

which

staircase,

each of which

parallel flights,

forming

returns,

9, that is,

The main

of the entire fa9ade.

glory, however, of this

Sanfelice

6, 7,

as trios

system

complicated

of

bridges in a large vaulted vestibule.

Sanfelice's ingenuity

designs [269,
peer.

It is

was focused on

270];**^ in this field

he

staircase

is

without

impossible to give even the vaguest

idea of the boldness, variety, and complexity

of his designs. In the crowded conditions of

Naples these staircases often seem tucked away

in the

most unexpected

their

surprise effect.

places,

and

this

De Dominici

adds to

gives the

crown to the staircase of the palace of Bartolomeo

di Majo as the most 'capricious' in the whole of
Naples

and there

is

no reason

him. This staircase ascends

269 (above). Ferdinando Sanfelice; Naples,

Palazzo Sanfelice, Staircase, 1728

to disagree

in

convex

270. Ferdinando Sanfelice: Naples,

palace in Via Foria.

Double

staircase

and plan

30

BIBLOSARTE

with

flights

ARCHITECTURE

inside a vestibule reminiscent of the plan of

Borromini's

There

Carlo

S.

nothing

is

Quattro Fontane.

alle

in the rest

of Italy to match

Sanfelice's scenographic staircases; in addition,

no note of the

central and northern Italy took

unconventional development of staircase de-

On

signs in the South.

been pointed out that

the other hand,

a link exists

has

it

between some

of Sanfelice's and certain Austrian staircase

designs.**"

And

centuries,

it

contrary to the previous two

was the North that influenced

mainly

and

ideas,

- as will

be shown

comment

this invites

admit northern

which

to

shall

turn in the next chapter.

The

following year the

same year,
King called to

Naples the two architects Fuga and Vanvitelli,

who,

moment, must have been

at this historical

regarded as the leading Italian masters, and

was

to

them

tectural

Naples.

it

that he entrusted the largest archi-

tasks

century

of the eighteenth

The two

common in the eighteenth

He worked at Pesaro, Macerata,

century.

Perugia, and Loreto (tower, Santa Casa),

a

in

architects were almost exact

(1745), and practised in Siena and again in

Rome,

where

monastery

sober

the

Maria degli Angeli, and, under

lengthening

Odescalchi

of

Bernini's

(p. 186) are

Charles III

mainly

summoned him

to

be recorded.

in

Naples has already been

(p. 383). It

years before him. Fuga's activity

remains

to give

briefly

mentioned

an account of Van-

vitelli's career.

about 20 miles north of the

at Caserta,

pressive

is

swansong of the

of the entire layout

is

the son of the painter Caspar van Wittel from

Utrecht, spent his youth in

painting under his father.

Rome,

first

studying

He emerged

as

an

architect of considerable distinction during the

Lateran competition,
design. His

first

to

which he contributed a

period of intense architectural

activity coincided with the building

Rome (p.

377).

in

Commissioned by Pope Clement

XII, he constructed
utilitarian

boom

at

lazzaretto,

Ancona
the

the pentagonal

austerely

classical

Arco Clementino, began the quay and

light-

house, and erected the Gesii (1743-5), which

foreshadowed the
dell'Annunziata

infinitely
at

grander

Naples.

In

late

Chiesa

these

years.

capital.**

the overwhelmingly im-

Baroque.

Italian

scale both of the palace with

1,200

its

The

rooms and

immense. For miles the

landscape has been forced into the strait-jacket

of formal gardening - clearly Versailles has been
resuscitated on

Italian soil.

wrong

matter rest

to let the

But

it

would be

at that, for into

the

planning has gone the experience of Italian and

hundred

years.

The

a period of

palace

is

a high,

regular block of about 600 by 500 feet, with

four large courtyards formed by a cross of wings.

The Louvre,

the Escorial, Inigo Jones's plans

Whitehall Palace come

for

Luigi Vanvitelli (1700-73),*" born in Naples,

for the

express purpose of erecting the royal residence

French architects accumulated over

fertile

Chigi-

Naples

to

more than

most

S.

the

Salvi,

Palazzo

zenith of his creative power, Vanvitelli had

his

of

Agostino, the rebuilding of Michelangelo's S.

contemporaries, but while Fuga had passed the

still

made

design for the facade of Milan Cathedral

In a sense Caserta

Sanfelice and Vaccaro died in the

1750.

he assumed the role of an

in the 1740s,

itinerant architect, so

Naples. At precisely the same time Naples and

Piedmont

395

obviously

in this tradition.

residences,

logic

geometrical

which have

classicism.
strict

of these great

and the same love

pattern,

for the

characteristics

long Italian ancestry and reveal,

same time,

the

mind; we are

however, was designed with the

same compelling
absolute

to

None

Vanvitelli's

rationalism

at

and

similar spirit will be found in the

organization of the elevations.

The

entire

structure rises above a high grourfd floor treated

with horizontal bands of sharply cut rustication.

Projecting pavilions, planned to be crowned by

towers in the French tradition and articulated

by

a giant order, frame each of the long fronts.

The

pavilions are balanced in the centre of the

main and garden

fronts by a powerful pedi-

BIBLOSARTE

begun 1752. Detail of ta9ade and (opposite) plan

271 and 272. Luigi \ anvitelli; Caserta, former Royal Palace,

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE

397

merited temple motif [271]. While the long wall

had been reared

of the principal front remains otherwise austere

the Italian Late Baroque, and

without articulating features, on the garden

that scenographic principles were carried farther

front the giant composite order

is

carried across

the entire length, creating a long sequence of

narrow bays. Apart from certain national idiosyncrasies, such as the density

forms and motifs,

in

and

plasticity

of

was internationally

this style

vogue during the second half of the eigh-

may be found not only in

G. Gammas' Gapitole, Toulouse,

teenth century.

France

(e.g.

It

1750-3), but also in England

(e.g. Sir

William

Ghambers's Somerset House, London, 177686) and even in Russia (Kokorinov's

Academy

of Art, Leningrad, 1765-72).

But

in

different

one important respect Gaserta

from

all

than anywhere

open

in the

else.

scenographic tradition of

From

in several directions:

it

was

at

Gaserta

the vestibule vistas

courtyards appear on

the diagonal axes, and, looking straight ahead,

the visitor's eye

the

is

captivated by the vista through

immensely long, monumental passage which

cuts

right

through the entire depth of the

structure [272], and extends at the far end along

the main avenue into the depth of the garden.

From

the octagonal

Italy's largest

vestibule

in

the centre

ceremonial staircase ascends at

right angles. Its rather austere decoration

may

be fashioned after Versailles, but the staircase

is

similar buildings. Vanvitelli

hall as

such and the staircase [273] with

tral flight

its

cen-

leading to a broad landing from where

BIBLOSARTE

398

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

273. Luigi \ anvitelli: Caserta,

former Rojal Palace, begun 1752. Staircase

two

flights turn

along the walls and end under a

screen of three arches Italian

all

this has a

North

pedigree (Bologna), which ultimately

rominesque, Vanvitelli's basic approach

a last great

triumph

But he emulates

all

spells

Longhena's principles.

for

that

went before;

for

from

points back to Longhena's scenographic stair-

the return flights of the staircase the beholder

The staircase

looks through the screen of arches into stage-

case in S. Giorgio Maggiore [191].

leads into a vaulted octagonal vestibule corres-

ponding

to that

on the lower

level,

similarity of

which

and

inspiration

is

ties

of Versailles has

Once

again,

from

Vanvitelli's

source

doubt.

all

of

These

in

this

light

that his classicism

The
vitelli's

principal ecclesiastical building of

immensely

the Chiesa dell' Annunziata (1761-82).

cave facade in two tiers

on Carlo Fontana's

Although

many

decorative

interior are specifically

della

Salute.''

features

Roman and

of the

even Bor-

its

S.

graphic interior with

columnar motif

that

BIBLOSARTE

Van-

active Neapolitan period

from

Maria

takes on

particular flavour.

vestibules, octagons with ambulatories, derive

S.

The

stone.

it is

evident beyond

Longhena's

solid

Vanvitelli firmly to the Late Baroque, and

out.'*''

here

in

into the chapel, the

rooms and

the vestibules on both levels vistas open in

directions,

scenery beyond, viewing a Piranesi or

scenographic way of planning and seeing

to that

always been pointed

like

Bibiena phantasmagoria

there doors open into the state

opposite the staircase

and from

is

Its

is

con-

ultimately dependent

Marcello, and the scenoits

severely conceived

encompasses the three

ARCHITECTURE

separate units of the church takes

Maria

Rainaldi's S.

in

cue from

its

Among

CampitelH."'

may be mentioned
CaroHno (now Piazza Dante, 1757-65).

VanviteUi's remaining works

the Foro

The large segmental

246),

is

which he despised

a tradition

in the interior

of

motifs derived from S. Maria in Campitelli,

But the slow rhythm of

Wood

rhythm of the colossal Corinthian order usher

in a new period. And yet even he paid homage to

interrupted in the centre by the

retro-

late

gression to the Nkchione of the Vatican Belvedere.

with the even, sonorous

the church the attentive observer will discover

dominating motif of the niche,

calls to

Moreover, the

tradition.

of the nave

walls

399

reminiscent of Pietro da Cortona

a giant order,
(p.

palazzo front articulated by

chrome Neapolitan

Cortona's

to

this architecture

mind northern counterparts, such

as J.

the younger's Royal Crescent at Bath

(1767-75), and the similarity - in spite of

differences - once again

dome is, in fact, a memorial

dome of S. Carlo al Corso."-

while the large

shows

all

what extent

to

Little can here be said about the

volatile,

charming,

and often abstruse Apulian Baroque,

which has some contacts with the Neapolitan

Vanvitelli's style falls into line with the inter-

and even Venetian development.

national classicism of the period.

been shown that the often overstated connexions

word must be said about Vanvitelli's

Finally, a

uncommon

structures. This

is

cavalry barracks

'al

74), a

an architect of utilitarian

ability- as

work of

demonstrated not only by

his

Maddalena' (1753simplicity and compelling

ponte

utter

di

with

and

Plateresque

the

Francavilla Fontana, Galatone, Nardo,

lipoli,

provincial capital, Lecce.

by

all

Acquedotto

the

places.

But

it

monumental

miles length which supplies Naples with water.

imposing ensemble.'"

As regards engineering

skill as

More

structures.

than

works indicate that

The

anything

such

else,

new age was dawning.

Neapolitan architect of the eigh-

last

teenth century deserving attention

its

main home

For

in the

small size

its

structures,

which form

a strikingly

In spite of a building history extending from

well as the gran-

Roman

has

Lecce can boast an unequalled number of

Caroline (1752-64), the aqueduct of about 25

deur of the bridges this work vies with

may be

found at Barletta, Gravina, Manduria, Oria, Gal-

influence on Italian twentieth-century archi-

above

Churrigueresque

of this highly decorative local style

and other

but

has recently

Spanish Baroque are most tenuous. Examples

beauty (which seems to have had a considerable

tecture),

It

mid

the

sixteenth to the eighteenth century,

Lecce's Baroque conveys the impression of

stylistic
is

harmony and uniformity. The reason

evident: this style

is

pure surface decoration,

Mario

often strangely applied to local building con-

Gioffredo (1718-85). Schooled by Solimena, he

ventions which, in this remote corner of Italy,

began before 1750 with works

had an extraordinarily long

still

is

in

keeping

with the Neapolitan Baroque. Overshadowed

M.

by Fuga and Vanvitelli, Gioffredo has never

to-day: 'AH that

been given

may

his

tion of architecture.
Architettiira

(1768),

a Neo-classical

His dogmatic

completed

in

the

treatise Dell'
first

this as clearly as his

church

1774.

concep-

of which only the

volume appeared, shows

masterpiece,

1760 he steered

After

due.

determinedly towards

of

Spirito

Santo,

Unlike Vanvitelli, Giof-

fredo breaks here for the

first

time with the poly-

S.

Briggs wrote
is

lease of

in 19 10 (p.

unique

in

248)

life.

What

is still

true

Lecce architecture

be accounted for by the combination and

fusion of these three great elements - the

Renaissance

remote

spirit

new

slowly percolating to the

city, the unrivalled relics

Ages standing around

its

gates,

of the Middle

and the long rule

of Spain.'

The

strange union of what would seem in-

compatible

is

particularly evident in the facade

BIBLOSARTE

400

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

of S. Croce (also called Chiesa dei Celestini),

Witness the three-storeyed Quattro Canti

the most impressive structure at Lecce, where

Palermo, monumental buildings on the piazza

elements of the Apulian Romanesque are hap-

(created in analogy to the Quattro Fontane in

pily

wedded
At

ation.

to wildly

exuberant Baroque decor-

a first glance this facade

uniform, but

appears to be

was begun before 1582 by

it

more than

sixty

years later (1644) by Cesare Penna (upper

tier).

Gabriele Riccardi and finished

Again, the adjoining monastery (now Prefettura)

its

would seem of one piece with the church

however, lie between 1659 and 1695

dates,

and the architect

the

built

is

cathedral

Giuseppe Zimbalo, who

(1659-82),

S.

Agostino

Rome) where

the two

or

intersect;''^

main

at

arteries of the city

the severe Arsenal (Palermo,

designed by the Palermitan .Mariano

1630),

Smiriglio (1569- 1636), painter and architect;

Giovanni

Vermexio's

Comunale

at

lifted

straight out of Vignola's treatise;"'' or,

finally,

lege

Palazzo

block-shaped

Syracuse (1629-33) with a portal

Natale Masuccio's imposing Jesuit Col-

and church

With Angelo

Trapani (finished 1636).

at

Italia

Amato

(1628- 1700), Paolo

(1663), and the magnificent fa9ade of the Chiesa

(1633-1714) and his namesake Giacomo Amato

del Rosario (begun 1691). Less bizarre than the

(1643- 1 732), Palermitan architecture entered a

window-frames of the monastery, but otherwise

new. High Baroque phase.'" In 1682 Paolo

close in character,

is

the front of the Seminario,

erected between 1694 and 1709 by Zimbalo's

Giuseppe Cino. The

pupil,
sible,

among

latter

was respon-

other works, for S. Chiara (1687-

.\mato began

Salvatore, the

pieces of the Palermitan

Giacomo Amato's

91), the fa9ade of SS. Nicola e Cataldo (17 16),

Pieta (1689,

and the Madonna del Carmine (1711);

S.

in these

S.

Baroque

church consecrated

powerful orders of columns

como had

may

be

S.

Matteo, which

is

covered over and over with

Sicilian

attention than

Baroque would deserve closer

it

can here be given. "'^ Artists

in

(1673-85) where he had a share

and of

at

tiers.

in the

Gia-

Rome

design of

Maria Maddalena. His

the monastery of S.

work

two

spent more than ten years in

Palermo leans heavily on Roman pre-

instance, following closely that of S.

della

Valle.

Thus by Roman

to a large extent

belated

High Baroque

pre-Seicento art and architecture in Sicily. This

Angelo

Italia's

from the mainland supplied

situation

changed

in the

teenth century, and for

Sicilians,

who,

Syracuse,

Catania, and Messina - were devastated in the

continuous

only at Palermo that a

development

can

be

followed

throughout the seventeenth century.

During the

first

the Cappella del

cuted between 1688 and 1692, with exuberant

in cities large

Since the eastern towns

'^ is

is

more than 150 years

were almost without exception

earthquake of 1693,

rather conservative.

is

masterpiece

Crocifisso in the cathedral of Monreale, exe-

and small were carried out by

incidentally,

Andrea

standards this

course of the seven-

most major building operations

priests.

in 1723)

cedent, the facade of the Chiesa della Pieta, for

scales.

The

however,

Teresa della Kalsa (1686- 1706), both with

Baroque may be noticed. Before taking leave of

Lecce, the most eccentric building

are,

fa9ades of the Chiesa della

buildings a spirit closer to the international

mentioned, namely Achille Carducci's fa9ade ot

Sicilian

first

church over a curvilinear plan. The master-

half of the

new century

building practice was on the whole retardataire.

and colourful Hispano-Sicilian stucco decorations.

They seem

intensity

as

the

to

which were possibly

Byzantine mosaics

a source of inspiration to

Baroque architects and

The

be on the same level of

hieratic

decorators.'"*

stage reached by

Giacomo Amato was

superseded by Giovanni Biagio Amico from

Trapani (1684- 1754), who erected important

buildings in his native

citv^

as well as in other

provincial towns and in Palermo. Although his

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE

Late Baroque fa9ade of

(1736)'' with
is

its

superficially

Anna

S.

Palermo

in

convex and concave curvatures

Borrominesque,

additive in

it is

conception and lacks the dynamic sweep of

similar

Roman

The

are

the

the

in

villas

Some

particularly at Bagheria.'""

vicinity,

of them have

extravagant plans and form part of large and

complex layouts, such

the earthquake of

in

1908. Syracuse had an architect of distinction in

Pompeo

who

Picherali (1668- 1746),

how-

is,

wrongly credited with the impressive

ever,

facade of the cathedral.'"' Magnificent struc-

structures.

glory of eighteenth-century Palermitan

architecture

destroyed

large extent

401

as the villa built

Tom-

by

Modica and

tures arose in small towns such as

Ragusa; Noto and Grammichele were entirely

rebuilt

on new

Noto,

sites;

monumental

array of

its

in particular,

with

structures erected by

Paolo Labisi, Rosario Gagliardi (worked 1721-

and

maso Maria Napoli (1655- 1725)

for

Francesco

70),

Ferdinando Gravina, Principe

di

Palagonio

Sinatra,'"^

the
is

neo-classicist

late,

Vincenzo

matched only by Catania

itself

(171 5); the Villa Valguarnera, begun by the

The greatest figure of the reconstruction period,

same

Giovan

architect before 17 13; the Villa Partanna,

erected 1722-8 for Laura

Partanna; or the

di

Cattolica

(1737?)-

La Grua,

of the Principe di

villa

The

Palagonia

Villa

notorious for the strange 'baroque'

late

Principessa

is

whim of its
who had

eighteenth-century proprietor,

Battista Vaccarini (1702-68),'"^ turned

Catania into one of the most fascinating eighteenth-century

Europe.

in

cities

Palermo, he was educated

Rome

in

Born
in

in

Carlo

Fontana's studio, but, being a contemporary of

the

Roman

'Rococo' architects, his develop-

the entire place decorated with crudely carved

ment

monstrosities - the supreme example of a play

Ottoboni, he settled

parallels theirs.

protege of Cardinal

Catania in 1730 and in

at

in

the next two decades brought about a Sicilian

his often-quoted description of the villa coined

Rococo by blending the Borrominesque with

with emblematical Baroque

the

concetti.

phrase 'Palagonian paroxysm'

seemed

to

Goethe
for

what

him the epitome of aberration from

Like Naples, Palermo abounds

graphically effective staircases.
in

He

sceno-

in

The most famous

the Palazzo Bonagia, designed

by

entirely superseded the

- that effusive

popular 'Churrigueresque' style

manner which owes

good taste.""

of them

the local tradition.

so

much

to

Spain and of

which Catania has splendid examples

in

the

Palazzo Biscari and the Benedictine monastery,'"" the largest in

Europe, the impressive

Andrea Giganti (1731-87), forms a picturesque

screen between the cortile and the garden. All

bulk of which dominates the town.

the large villas can boast extravagant staircase

distinguished, from the fa9ade of the cathedral

made an

designs of which V. Ziino has

nating

study.

Once

Austrian architecture

again,
is

the

never

illumi-

thought

of

from one's

far

mind before such works. For twenty

years from

17 13 to 1734, the political links between Sicily

and Austria were

of
it

close.'"-

do not

find records

many Sicilian architects visiting Vienna, but

is known that Tommaso Maria Napoli made

The

list

of Vaccarini's works

is

long and

(begun 1730, reminiscent of Juvarra's

style),

which shows an interesting play with the position of the orders, and the powerful and extravagantly

imaginative

design

of the

Palazzo

Municipale (1732) to the large Collegio Cutelli

(1754), where, keeping abreast with the times,
he

is

well on the road to a

most important

new

ecclesiastical

classicism.

His

work, S. Agata

eastern part

(begun 1735), has a facade with a deep concave

recession between flanking convex bays - alto-

of the island saw a fabulous reconstruction

gether an unexpected transformation of Borro-

the journey twice.

After the earthquake of 1693

period.

The Baroque Messina

'^he

in turn

was

to a

minesque ideas and wholly unorthodox

BIBLOSARTE

in the

402

detail.

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

Vaccarini's

manner was continued

in

the second half of the eighteenth century by the

festive art of the

Roman

Stefano

Ittar.

If his

Chiesa Collegiata, where he combined features

from Carlo Fontana's

from the facade of

S.

S.

Marcello with some

Maria Maddalena, could

almost have been created

in

Rome

between

1730 and 1740, his

S. Placido, a refined

Rococo

subtle jewel of classicizing

its

nearest parallels in Piedmont.

taste,

Thus

it

and
has
is

in

the two parts of Italy which are the farthest

removed from each other

that the resistance

against the cool objectivity of the rising

Neo-

classicism remains strongest.

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER

17

ARCHITECTURE

IN

PIEDMONT

THE PRELUDE

the city in the direction of the Porta Susina with

Juvarra in charge (begun

The

extraordinary part played by Piedmont in

gramme was extended

This pro-

17 16).

later in the

eighteenth

and during the twentieth century

the art and architecture of the Seicento and

century,

Settecento cannot be dissociated from the coun-

Turin's great Baroque tradition was continued

It

began with

by one of the most extensive town-planning

Filiberto,

who made

schemes of modern times.

try's rapid poHtical

the energetic

Turin

development.

Emanuele

his capital in 1563.

The

enlarging of the town gathered

momentum

under his successor Carlo Emanuele

1630).

(1580

For about three generations building

Turin was mainly

activit}^ in

hands of

in the

three architects in succession: Ascanio Vittozzi

Carlo di Castellamonte, and his

(1539- 161 5),

son

Amedeo

Turin was

1683).

(d.

castrum town, and

its

Roman

chessboard layout sur-

vived the Middle Ages. Carlo Emanuele

pur-

sued with energy the modernization of the

whole

city,

with Vittozzi and, after the

first

with Carlo Castellamonte as his

latter's death,

architect. Castellamonte was in charge of

building activity

foundation of the

who was

all

when in 1620 the ceremonial

new town was laid. It was he

responsible for one of the

street-fronts in Italy (Via

These few remarks

rebuilding and

first

coherent

Roma) and

for the

entirely unified Piazza S. Carlo (1638).

indicate that there

an adventurous and vigorous

spirit

was

alive

in

seventeenth-century Turin.^ Nevertheless, what

Castellamonte and Lanfranchi had to offer was

somewhat
they

provincial in spite of real distinction;

combined Roman and North

skilfully

Italian with

French aspirations. But

1666

in

Guarini appeared on the Turinese stage, with

consequences of the utmost importance. In

fact,

matters of architecture Turin became the

in

most advanced
the

Italian city

began

almost precisely

at

creative energies in

Rome

to decline. Guarini's settling in

Turin

moment when

opens the era of the extraordinary flowering of

Piedmontese architecture which lasted

a

hundred years and

of three

men

for

about

epitomized by the names

is

of genius:

Guarini

himself,

Juvarra, and Vittone.

While

Central Italian architects hardly ever abandoned

GUARINO GUARINI

(1624-83)

the individual palazzo front, the break with that

old-established tradition in Turin suggests a

strong French influence.

II

(1638-75)

Amedeo

Under Carlo Emanuele

di

Castellamonte carried

on the enlargement of the town

in the direction

of the River Po (1673).' Next to the leading

architect,

Francesco Lanfranchi showed more

than ordinary
after the
a great
II

abilit\^

in

transforming Turin

middle of the seventeenth century into

Baroque

city.-

Under

Vittorio

Amedeo

followed the third great systematization of

It

may

be reasonably argued that Guarini's

architecture belongs to a late stage of the

Baroque and

common

that

with the

it

High

has certain qualities in

Roman

architecture of the

mid seventeenth century, such

as

the

full-

blooded vigour and the preference for deter-

mined

articulation

and

for strong

and

effective

colour schemes. But while nobody will doubt

that his architecture

is

nearer to that of Borro-

mini and Cortona than to that of Juvarra, his

BIBLOSARTE

404

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

Roman

aims transcend those of the

whom

from
is

he

masters,

separated by a deep gulf There

is

considerable justification, therefore, for dis-

cussing his work

born

Guarini was

at this late stage.

Modena on

at

January

17

1624.^

In

1639 he entered the Order of the Theatines

and

in

the same year

moved

Rome, where he

to

studied theology, philosophy, mathematics, and

At

architecture.

Borromini's

S.

this

Carlino

the

period

of

interior

7] as well as the

[ 1 1

facade

of the Oratory of St Philip Neri [134] were

and these events were certainly not

finished,
lost

upon him. Back

was ordained
in

philosophy

Modena

at

1647, he

in

and soon appointed lecturer

priest
in the

house of his Order. During

these years he began architectural work in a

modest way

Vincenzo, the church of the

at S.

When

Theatine Order.''
arose between

Modena.

in

1655 differences

him and the ducal

court, he left

In 1660 he settled in Messina, teaching

philosophy and mathematics.

It

was then that he began

with

tragi-comedy'

and

his literary career

architectural

his

career with two important buildings.

While

his

design of the church of the Padri Somaschi was

never executed, the fa9ade of the SS.

Annun-

ziata together with the adjoining

Theatine palace

What was

standing of his

were certainly

built.

work was destroyed

in the

earthquake of

but his designs are preserved

Architettura

civile,

Vittone in 1737.

distinct

facade, raised

strongly influ-

is

Roman church

retrogression

to

fa9ades and

Mannerist

compositional and decorative principles.

church of the Padri Somaschi

its

is

The

more revealing;

regular hexagonal plan with ambulatory

strange enough."
[274],

for

Even stranger

the transition from

body of the church

to the

is

the hexagonal

zone of the

circular cornice but not - as one

is

the elevation

dome

accomplished by pendentives above which

a cylindrical

274. Guarino Guarini Messina,

Church of the Somascian Order.
:

Engraving from Architettura

Project, i66o(?).

civile,

1737

posthumously published by

enced by traditional
a

in the plates in his

The Annunziata

over a concave ground-plan,

shows

1908,^*

is

is

would expect

drum. Instead of the normal drum

and dome, the design shows

a hybrid structure

consisting of a hexagon with six large

and parabolic
such

way

created:

ribs

windows

spanned between them

that a kind of

drum and dome

diaphanous dome

in
is

are telescoped into

one and the same structural zone. The novelty

of this

is

no

less

surprising than Guarini's use of

pendentives for the transition of the hexagon

into the round, only to return to the

again.

Crowning

the

pseudo-dome

hybrid motif, a proper small

is

hexagon
another

drum and dome,

together exactly as high as the pseudo-dome

and therefore much too

BIBLOSARTE

large as a lantern.

ARCHITECTURE IN PIEDMONT

405

would probably have remained extravagant

freaks.

Modena, from where

In 1662 he was back at

he soon

moved

During

to Paris.

his stay there

he built the Theatine church, Sainte-Anne-laRoyale, and wrote an immensely learned mathematical-philosophical tome, Placita philosopluca
(1665), in which he defended, rather surprisingly at this late date, the geocentric universe

The church

against Copernicus and Galilei.

[275], not finished until 1720 with considerable

changes and entirely destroyed

was

in 1823,^

erected over a fairly normal Greek-cross plan

with undulating facade, similar to that of S.

Carlo
rini's

alle

Quattro Fontane. Once again Gua-

extravagance

most apparent

is

in the

zone

of the vaulting. In this case he built a real

drum

above pendentives but crowned

dwarf

dome which

interlaced double ribs. This

truncated

a smaller

by

it

he decorated with a system of

dome

dome

is

from the

tional design, to be seen

topped by

with lantern of tradifloor of the

church through the large octagonal opening of

the dwarf dome.'' Externally the church rose

pagoda-like in

dome

five tiers,'-

and the encased dwarf

with windows reminiscent of bellies of

drum above

violins looked like a second

275. Guarino Guarini:

principal one.

Paris,

Sainte-Anne-la-Royale, begun 1662. Destroyed.

Section from Architettura

civile,

Borromini's use of bandlike ribs

1737

in

fronts,

and

this

is

contrasts

Baroque tendency

identical on

with

the

all six

Roman

to regard the facade as an

movement
The ample use of

essential manifestation of the spatial

and direction of the

interior.

free-standing columns links the building superficially to

the

Late

Guarini stayed on

at

ManHad

Messina, his buildings

new

an entirely

this

was

On

the contrary,

note. Far

may have

settling in Turin.

may have gone

Maria

della

is

will

from being

a pro-

soon be seen that

travelled

Although
to

again
is

his design [276].'^

earthquake of 1755,

civile.

before

unrecorded,

Spain and Portugal, where

known only from

Architettura

this

Divina Providenza

was erected from

in the

it

a deliberate artistic principle.

Guarini

S.

engraving

together a whole structure, no

vincial 'atomization',

he

nerist tabernacles rather than a church.

tie

each of the major units of the church strikes

un-

related tiers as well as the carpentry-like detail

order to

such idea guided the former.

main current of Baroque archi-

tecture, but the superimposition of three

recall - at least in the

for vaults (p.

221), but while the latter introduced this device

Reminiscent of centralized churches of the

Renaissance, the exterior

the

Guarini had certainly studied

this

at

Lisbon

Destroyed

important church

the engravings

of the

Like St Mary of Altotting

BIBLOSARTE

406

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

\ A

//

/''

A /M

/vt^<:^x
<\\

!\

^;>

//.--V;/

Guarino Guarini;

276.

Lisbon, S. Maria della Divina Providenza.

Plan from Architettura

civile,

Prague (1679) and

in

church has

1737

S. Filippo in

a longitudinal plan

from the traditional North

a

Turin, the

which derives

Italian type

showing

sequence of domed units; but here the walls

undulate, and the salient points across the nave

by an arch; they contain

windows

are no longer linked

instead, in the zone of the vaulting,

set into lunettes.

An

intricate

and baffling com-

bination of spatial shapes results which one

cannot easily visualize or describe

in

simple

geometrical terms. This architecture required

a

new kind

of mathematics, and Guarini himself

the foundation

laid

for

it

by devoting long

passages of his treatise to conic sections. Al-

though they must be regarded

the development of the

as essential for

German and

Austrian

Baroque, Guarini's longitudinal churches take

up

a place

secondary

in

importance compared

him

to

to live,

Carlo Emanuele

II

Turin, Guarini had

and

tures for

in these years

which he

is

still

Filippo Neri, which remained unfinished,

collapsed, and

was

of Savoy called

seventeen years

he erected the struc-

mainly famous. Apart from

by Juvarra's

finally replaced

church,'^ he built two great palaces, the Collegio dei

NobiH

now

(1678,

the

Academy of

Science and Art Gallery) and the magnificent

Palazzo Carignano (1679),'^ and three centralized churches: the Cappella della SS.
S.

The

latter

the

is

buildings and not

is

Sindone,

Lorenzo, and the sanctuary La Consolata.

interesting

least

much of the

of these

present structure

by Guarini.^'' His two other

ecclesiastical

works, however, belong to the finest class of

Italian Seicento architecture.

After his arrival

at

Turin, Guarini was ap-

pointed architect of the Cappella della SS.

Sindone,

itself the size

of a church [277-80].

The House of Savoy possessed one of the holiest

relics, the

Holy Shroud, which Emanuele

berto transferred from

with his centralized buildings.

When

S.

Chambery

to the

Fili-

new

capital with the intention of having a

church

was decided

to build

erected for
a large

and

it.

But

finally

it

chapel at the east end of the cathedral

in close

conjunction with the palace. In

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE IN PIEDMONT

1655 Carlo Emanuele

di

II

commissioned Amedeo

Castellamonte, and work was begun

When

Guarini took over, ten years

up

structure was standing

the lower tier.'"

The

in 1657.

later,

the

to the entablature

of

cylindrical space of the

design.

He

407

introduced the convex intrusions of

three circular vestibules into the main space;

he entirely changed the meaning of the regular

articulation

by creating above the cylinder

zone with pendentives; and he spanned every

chapel was articulated by the regular sequence

two bays by

of an order of giant pilasters and, placed be-

'enclosed' bays alternate with the 'open' bays

tween them,

a smaller

called Palladio

order forming the so-

motif According

to Castella-

in

which

lie

a large arch, three in

the segmental projections of the

monte's design, the cylindrical body of the

Now

large arch has

this perfectly

normal

the giant pilaster in the centre of each

no function; he crowned

dentives

with

open

into

large

circular

windows,

set into the arches.

Thus,

reversing the division into arches and penden-

277 and 278. Guarino Guarini: Turin,

Cappella SS. Sindone, 1667-90.
civile,

it

complex ornamental motif The three pen-

corresponding to those

Plan and section from Architettura

and these

entrances. All this led to peculiar contradictions.

chapel was probably to continue into a spherical

dome. Guarini disturbed

all,

tives, the

1737

sequence of

regular rhythm.

It is

BIBLOSARTE

six

windows produces

even more puzzling that

408

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

Guarini borrowed the pendentives from the

pendentive zone, and even the opening up of

Greek-cross design, adapted them to three

the pendentives;"* but even

instead of four arches

an unheard-of idea

and used them, paradoxically,

as a transition

between the circular body of the chapel and

the circular ring of the

Guarini's

name

of Borromini.

It is,

his design of the

is

drum.

often coupled with that

indeed, not unlikely that in

Sindone chapel Guarini was

will

be admitted,

again that the aims of the two architects were

entirely

diflierent.

creation of
spite of

for

the

structures which, in

their complexities, can be 'read'

all

Guarini,
deliberate

unorthodox insertion of the

sonances.

the

Borromini strove

homogeneous

along the walls without encountering difficulties.

influenced by Borromini as regards triangular

geometry,

such influence

if

has to be emphasized once

it

on

the

other

incongruities

One zone

BIBLOSARTE

hand,

and

worked with

surprising

dis-

of his structures contains

ARCHITECTURE IN PIEDMONT

no indication of what the next

and

it

is

going to reveal

is

only safe to say that the unlikely and

improbable are going

happen.

to

The

stimuli

and unrest which his architecture

to conflict

contains link

and on the

with the Mannerist tradition,

it

level of decoration these

beyond any doubt.

are evident

He

connexions
clearly re-

doughy forms of Buontalenti and

turns to the

his school, but he juxtaposes these

forms with

the

summit

the

at the

star,

dome opens

No

less

into a twelve-edged

lit

by the twelve oval

the lantern.

remarkable than the interior

follows another [280].

the lower zone

Above
any

is

The

principal motif in

the six large

windows of the

without transition and even without

it,

intelligible

reason (in any case for the

ment, and the different austere, geometrical

shapes placed side by side increase the impression of unrest.'"

next zone above the pendentives consists

drum where

six large

alternate with solid pillars

arched openings

which contain Borro-

minesque convex tabernacle niches

this

[279].

With

unbroken rhythm of pillar and arch the tur-

moil of the lower

would expect

tiers

seems resolved, and one

a spherical

dome above this drum.

Yet once again we are faced with an entirely unexpected feature,

in fact the

most extraordinary

of the building. Segmental ribs are spanned

from centre
in a

to centre

hexagon.

centre of the
this

method

arches
the

first series

six

times in

created, of

is

same

of the six arches, resulting

By spanning

less

a welter of thirty-six

which three are always on

vertical axis.

Since each rib has a

vertical spine (bisecting a

no

other ribs from the

of ribs and by repeating

all,

segmental window),

than twelve vertical divisions result,

which are

clearly visible outside as the structural

skeleton of the

dome

[280].

Objectively, Guarini's cone-shaped

dome

is

not very high; but subjectively, seen from the

floor of the chapel, the

diminution of the ribs

appears to be due to perspective foreshortening

so that the
[279].

dome

looks

This impression

judicious use of colour.

much
is

higher than

it

is

supported by the

The

contrast between

the black marble and gilding below and the

grey of the

dome seems

to

result

from the

softening of tone values at great distance. At

the

drum, united under an undulating cornice.

the crystalline star-hexagons and cross-patterns

The

is

where again one unexpected feature

exterior,

of the arches, the pendentives, and the pave-

of a high

409

centre of which there hovers the

Holy Dove strongly

windows of

279 and 280. Guarino Guarini:

Turin, Cappella SS. Sindone, 1667-90.

View

into

dome (opposite) and

dome (above)

exterior of

BIBLOSARTE

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

410

who does

beholder

not

appears the exciting maze

know

the

interior),

of zigzag steps,

are actually the segmental ribs of the

Finally, there

is

similar to that in the Cappella della SS. Sindone.

which

Pendentives are placed

dome.

and

the serene horizontal motif of

the diagonal axes,

in

octagon

at this level the

transformed into

is

Greek cross with very short arms. The

extra-

crowned by the

ordinary fact must be clearly grasped that the

pagoda-like structure to which nothing cor-

pendentives and arches of the cross are func-

responds inside.

tionally divorced entirely

diminishing

rings

It

may

in

size,

be noticed that a trinitarian concept

pervades the whole building: witness the

tri-

angular geometry of the plan, the intrusion of

the three satellite structures into the

main space

with their columns arranged

triads,

in

the

multiples of three in the drum, dome, and

as

spatial

How

entity.

conception
pares
S.

it

is

will

from their supports,

we have

which belong,

seen, to another

revolutionary

be realized

Guarini's

when one com-

with the slightly earlier Greek cross of

Agnese

in Piazza

Navona

pendentive zone there

is

[128].

a gallery

Above

lantern; further the three circular steps and

three-storeyed 'pagoda' of the exterior.

The

whole building therefore assumes an emble-

new geometrical realiall-embracing dogma of the Trinity

matical quality: in ever

zations the
is

reasserted.

Hardly

less exciting

SS. Sindone
zo.-'

is

Plan from Architetliira

civile,

1737 (belom) and

view of the interior (opposite)

than the Cappella della

Guarini began work on

it

in

it

1668; in 1679

was not entirely

The

finished until 1687 [281-3].

is

Turin, S. Lorenzo, 1668-87.

the nearby church of S. Loren-

the building was standing, but

the plan

281 and 282. Guarino Guarini:

basic form of

an octagon with the eight sides

curving into the main space. Each of these

sides consists of a 'Palladio

open arch. For

even impossible

this

motif with

reason

it

to perceive the

is

wide

difficult

or

octagon as the

constituent shape of the congregational room.

The

eye

is

led past the arches to the real

boun-

dary of the church. Behind the screen of sixteen

red marble columns are niches with statues,

white before a black background and framed

by white

pilasters.

Thus

there exists a certain

continuity of motifs along the boundary, but

they compHcate rather than simplify an under-

standing of the structure; for so

units and so
side

many

by side and

vision

is

at

possible.--

many

different

similar motifs are found

odd angles

The

that no coherent

strong, uninterrupted

entablature above the arches emphasizes and

clarifies the

octagonal shape. But

zone there

an unexpected change of meaning

is

in the

next

1f::::

BIBLOSARTE

the

with oval

BIBLOSARTE

412

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

windows, and between them arc eight

from which the

These

piers

ribs of the vaulting spring.

ribs are arranged in such a

way

that they

star

and

octagon

We

are thus faced with

hybrid feature similar

Church of

And

to that

a regular

planned

for the

the Somascian Fathers at Messina.

precisely as in the design of that church,

By

device

this

dome

bed dome

The

chapel

Maggiore with

added

is

may be made

is

Particular reference

to the insertion

of a zone with

windows between the dome and the lantern.

These cast their light through an open ring of
segments laid round the inner octagon of the

room.

delimited by two Palladio motifs,

is

one opening into an

recess

altar

the

more complex.

a simpler rib-

to the congregational

drum and dome - just as high as

the main dome itself Also, outside, the dome
has again the appearance of a drum which is
crowned by a second small drum and dome.
In spite of these similarities, S. Lorenzo

considerably

In the longitudinal axis of the church, the

circular Cappella

vaulting, the other into the

infinitely

is

enhanced.

there rises above the central opening a lantern consisting of

diaphanous and

the

mysterious quality of the

open

form an eight-pointed
in the centre.

dome.

main

with oval

Thus

space.

same Palladio motif which appears

as a

convex penetration into the main room forms

boundary of the chapel. In

the concave

spite

of such interpenetrations of different spatial

each of the three

entities,

a separate unit

of

its

domed

spaces forms

with architectural characteristics

own. With

well within the

this

arrangement Guarini kept

North

more-

Italian tradition;

over the scenic effect produced by the longitudinal vista links his plan to the tradition leading from Palladio to Longhena.

We can now summarize a few of the principles

Guarino Guarini: Turin, S. Lorenzo, 1668-87.
View into main dome and dome of the presbytery
283.

which seem

have guided Guarini.

to

have pride of place

in his

Domes

system of architecture.

Guarini opened the chapter on vaulting

in his

Architettura civile with the remark 'Vaults are

the principal part in architecture', and expressed
surprise that so

little

had been written about

new about Guarini's own

domical structures? The Baroque dome, continuing and developing the formula of the dome
them.-'

What

so

is

of St Peter's, was of classical derivation. Al-

though Borromini broke with

this tradition,

he too relied on classical prototypes and maintained the solidity of the domical surface.
this

principle

that

Guarini

abandoned.

It is

Of

domes
were not Roman. The similarity of the dome
of S. Lorenzo to such Hispano-Moresque
course, the models of his diaphanous

structures as the eighth-century

mosque

at

but even

dome

in the

Cordova has often been pointed

if

admitted,-^

out;

an influence from this side can be

it is

the differences rather than the

similarities that are important.

Moresque domes

The Hispano-

are not diaphanous, for their

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE IN PIEDMONT

vaults rest on the structural skeleton of the

Guarini's

ribs.

domes

are infinitely bolder than

413

the reversal of accustomed values, the deliberate

contradictions in the elevation, the interpene-

any of the Spanish models; he eliminated the

tration of different spatial units, the breaking

wall surface between the ribs and perched high

up of the coherent wall boundary with the

resulting difficulty of orientation -

structures on their points of intersection.

It is

an imitator, turned over a

tectural history.

to reveal

perspicacity

unknown

the

difference

architecture.

at that date,

Roman

by

that

it

he analysed

maintained that

architects,

churches

their

With

Roman and Gothic

to the qualities of strength

at

leaf of archi-

his intentions.

between

He

new

and

in contrast

solidity

aimed

Gothic builders wanted

appear structurally weak so

to

should seem miraculous how they could

stand at

all.

Gothic builders

he writes

arches 'which seem to hang in the

erected

air;

com-

crowned by pointed

pletely perforated towers

pyramids; enormously high windows and vaults

without the support of walls.
high tower

may

opposing methods, the

Which

Roman

more wonderful, would be

the

corner of a

on an arch or

rest

or on the apex of a vault.

is

The

column

of the two

or the Gothic,
a nice

problem

all

may

this

be regarded as serving one and the same purpose.

passage in the Architettura

seems

civile

from being

clear then that Guarini, far

would be

It

futile

search in Guarini's

to

treatise for a single sentence in

And yet the

clue. More than

support of this
contains

interpretation.

treatise

an indirect

one-third of the

text

concerned with

is

new kind of geometry,

namely the plane projection of spherical surfaces

and the transformation of plane surfaces of

given shape into corresponding surfaces of a

different shape. Guarini
Italian architect

Projective Geometry,-"
in

was perhaps the only

who had

studied Desargues's

published

in Paris

1639, which was informed by the

modern

conception of

As

first

infinity.

a writer-'

Guarini sides with seventeenth-

century rationalism, but for him as a

priest-**

the suggestion of infinity by architectural devices

must have been

lem.

We may

pressing religious prob-

surmise that

it

was the balance

does not appear far-

between the new rationalism and the modern

fetched to conclude that the idea of his daring

mathematical mysticism epitomized in Guarini's

for an

academic mind.'

diaphanous domes with

which seem

It

their superstructures,

to defy all static principles,

was

suggested to Guarini by his study and analysis

of Gothic architecture.

And

work

that

made

his architecture so attractive

masters of the Late Baroque

to the

in

Austria

and southern Germany.

he also used the

formula of Hispano-Moresque domes

to display

FILIPPO JUVARRA (1678-1736)

structural miracles as astonishing as those of

When

the Gothic builders.-^

domes
They seem

But

his

freaks.

are

more than

structural

the result of a deep-rooted

urge to replace the consistent sphere of the

ancient dome, the symbol of a finite

heaven,

by

the

diaphanous dome

mysterious suggestion of
correct, not only his

infinity.

domes but

intelligible.

The element

rini's death.-'

Thus

nuity in

varra's buildings at

If this

its
is

also the other

of surprise,

in 1683,

Juvarra was five

Turin

as a fully fledged

to

architect in 17 14, thirty-one years after

dome of

the entirely unexpected, the seemingly illogical.

He came

with

essential characteristics of his architecture be-

come

Guarini died

years old.

there

is

Gua-

no trace of conti-

Piedmontese architecture, nor do JuTurin show any Guari-

nesque influence.

On

the contrary, Juvarra's

conception of architecture was diametrically

opposed

to that of Guarini.

And

yet there

is

peculiar link between them, for Juvarra was

born

at

Messina and grew up with Guarini's

BIBLOSARTE

LATK BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

414

buildings before his eyes. His father was a

mediately raised to a position which had no

silversmith of distinction, and Juvarra's

equal

life-

designing works of applied art

long interest

in

and

decorative detail probably dates

rich

in

back

His early training and

to these years.'"

impressions were, however, overshadowed by

a ten years'

stay

in

Rome

joined Carlo Fontana's studio, and

him

that his teacher advised

He

(1703/4- 14).
it is

reported

to forget

what he

had learned before. Juvarra followed

this advice,

absorbed Fontana's academic Late Baroque,

that of

171

him

Tiepolo

draughtsman,

and

his

extraordinary imagination,

his ceaselessly active

from perpetuating

his

He

gave proof of his great and original talent

when

1708 he entered the service of Cardinal Otto-

in

boni, for

whose theatre

in the Cancelleria

he

order to design

in

When

Juvarra settled

twenty-two years

superhuman.

It

ing aside the

Many hundreds

Turin and

onwards he directed

as 1705

gies

as early

his creative ener-

towards the most diverse enterprises, such

as the vast plans for the systematization of the

area round the Capitol, the designs for the

completion of the Palazzo Pubblico

at

Lucca, '-

for a palace of the

Landgraf of Hesse-Cassel,

and the

altars

in

S.

addition

there

are

Martino

designs

at

for

Naples; in

innumerable

but what he accom-

impossible to give even a

is

remote idea of his splendid achievement. Leav-

after stage design of

drawings show, moreover, that from

Turin, he had only

in

to live,

plished in this relatively brief span seems almost

unmatched

of

a royal palace for

Madrid he suddenly died on

31 January 1736.

poured out stage design

boldness."

Vienna theatre.

1735, he was given permission to go

Madrid

Philip V.^" In

mind prevented him

master's manner.

early as

John V." The year 1720 also saw him in

London*' and Paris. He dedicated a volume
with drawings to August the Strong of Saxony;
finally, in

as a

.'\s

of .Austria had asked

for stage designs for the

to

gift

compared only with

a generation later.

Between 1719 and 1720 he spent a year in

Portugal planning the palace at Mafra for King

and studied ancient. Renaissance, and conHis immense

soon enjoyed a unique inter-

Emperor Joseph

temporary architecture with enthusiasm and

impartiality (p. 369).

He

in Italy.

national reputation, to be

work done

or planned outside

neighbourhood

its

at

Como,

Mantua, Belluno, Bergamo, Lucca, Chambery,

Vercelli,

the

Oropa, and Chieri; leaving aside also

many important

projects for

Rome*" and

omitting the mass of minor and occasional work

at

Turin, there

of buildings,
capital.

The

still

remains an imposing array

in

or near the Piedmontese

all
list

contains five churches*"" apart

from the facade of

S. Cristina

(1715-28); four

royal residences;*'* four large palaces in town;^"

occasional works like the funeral decorations

and

for

Emperor Leopold I, King Peter II of

Portugal, and the Dauphin; for coats of arms,

mine-Corso Valdocco (1716-28) and Via Mi-

cartouches, tabernacles, lamps, and even book

building periods of

illustrations.

Very

little

of

all

this,

however,

was executed.

when

Vittorio .^medeo II

King of

came
of Savoy

Sicily) asked

service at Messina.^'

we

find

him

at

lano-Piazza

are long

Emanuele

him

in

17 14

(recently

to enter his

At the end of the year

The

of these structures

it is

therefore difficult

development of Juvarra's

would seem more

between the

Via del Car-

Filiberto (1729-33).

many

and overlap, and

to see a clear

Juvarra's great opportunity

created

finally the entire quarters of

style. It

to the point to differentiate

styles used for diflerent tasks,

as the richly articulated

such

facade of the royal

palace in town, the Palazzo

Madama

[284], in

Turin, and with his appointment

contrast to the classical simplicity of the royal

King' he was im-

hunting 'lodge', Stupinigi [285], or the relative

as 'First Architect to the

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE IN PIEDMONT

415

284. Filippo Juvarra: Turin,

Palazzo

Madama,

17 18-21.

Fa9ade

sobriety of aristocratic residences. Moreover,

determined articulation he creates an essentially

The

with his absolute mastery of historical and con-

Italian palace front. ^'

temporary

dent of French sources;

styles, Juvarra,

with admirable ease,

used what he regarded as suitable for the purpose.

Thus when designing

Cristina or S.
to

Andrea

Rome, while

at

the

the facades of S.

Chieri (1728) he turned

Palazzo

IVIadama

fashioned on the model of Versailles.

was

The way

grandest

staircase

halls

it

interior

is

indepen-

contains one of the

Italy,

in

taking

up

almost the whole width of the present facade.

It

also

affords an

excellent

opportunity for

studying Juvarra's decorative

entirely his

own.

It

style,

which

is

derives from a fusion of

he absorbed and transformed the models from

Cortonesque and Borrominesque conceptions;

cue shows that he was more

boldly treated naturalistic motifs appear next

than an immensely gifted practitioner. In this

respect a comparison of the front of the Palazzo

to flat dynamic styHzations; exuberant ornament next to chaste, almost Neo-classical wall

Madama

treatment.

which he took

his

with the garden front of Versailles

most illuminating.
the former

is

much

It

is

cannot be doubted that

superior to the

latter.

In-

stead of the petty co-ordination of tiers in Versailles,

Juvarra's piauu uobile dominates the

design; and by introducing bold accents and a

While planning Stupinigi, Juvarra wavered

for a

time between the French and the Italian

tradition.

He

considered

both

chateau type with the staircase

the

French

hall adjoining

the vestibule and the Italian star-shaped plan.

BIBLOSARTE

4i6

285 (below). Filippo Juvarra: Stupinigi, Castle, 1729-33

286 (opposite). Filippo Juvarra: Stupinigi, Castle, 1729-33. Plan

where corresponding units are grouped round

a

He

central core/-

chose the

design [285, 286], extended

has no parallel

formed

it

in a class

If

it

is

in

northern

it

type of

latter

and trans-

so thoroughly that Stupinigi

of

its

which

to a scale

Italy,

is

really

development of

Juvarra's architecture in the traditional sense,

- or

fundamental
observed.

On

even revolution

spatial

the course of the previous 300 years.

conceptions

of certain

may

the one hand, Juvarra

yet be

must be

On

the

other hand, he broke away from that tradition

more

decisively than any other Italian architect

since the Renaissance. This

own.

difficult to discern a

an evolution

regarded as the most distinguished legatee of

architectural thought accumulated in Italy in

strated by

comparing

may

first

be demon-

his design of S. Filippo

Neri (1715)^* with that of the Chiesa del Car-

mine (1732-5)
and

[287, 288].^"' Despite the

ample

airy proportions, the design of S. Filippo

does not depart from the old tradition which

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE IN PIEDMONT

goes back through Alberti to ancient thermae

and

is

epitomized

in Palladio's

The

Redentore.

Chiesa del Carmine also has a wide nave and

three chapels to each side, but the design has

been fundamentally changed. Here there are

high open galleries above the chapels, creating
the following result:

(i)

along the nave two

most important, the wall

as a

nave has been replaced by

boundary of the

a skeleton

of high

pillars.

All this
Italian

is

without precedent

architect

of the

Baroque had wanted

in

Italy.

or dared to sacrifice the

coherent enclosure of the wall and to create

such immensely high openings resulting

of the chapel and that of the gallery;

shift of

clerestory

is

eliminated, and the nave

through the windows of the gallery;

the

importance from the vaulting

in a

to the

lit

slender supports. This was a thorough reversal

and

of the Italian tradition, indeed, of the classical

is

(iii)

No

Renaissance or the

arches always appear one above the other, that

(ii)

417

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

ARCHITECTURE IN PIEDMONT

287 and 288. Filippo Juvarra Turin,

Chiesa del Carmine, 1732-5.

it

View towards

altar (opposite)

and section (above)

was acclimatized

High open

did Juvarra turn for inspiration?

galleries are well

known from

the architecture

of the Middle Ages, even in Italy

Milan);

brogio,

appearance

in

but their

first

(e.g. S.

in

Renaissance architecture

Michael,

the

cr\

pto-Gothic

Am-

monumental

nexion with the classical barrel vault

found

Where

in

at the

same time transferred from

whole

in the

was no

North

doubtless aware of

it.

For the

first

North had

for the

So we

in

Italy

to the traditional longitudinal

nave with

and although the chapel fronts of the

galleries,

Chiesa del Carmine preser\ e something of the

St

assume

bution to make to Italian architecture.

first

churches with

for

of

time since

happened

see Italian ideas adapted in the

character of the Italian altar,

a vital contri-

to

simple reason that there

be

Munich (1583 97). The type rein Germany, and Juvarra was

altars

plausible that this

^''

tradition

galleries.

that Juvarra

device by

mained common

the Renaissance, the

It is

North,

to

is

design

con-

Austria through Andrea

in

Pozzo and Fischer von Erlach^' and was

chapels.

foundation of Renaissance architecture.

419

The

German

it

was guided

seems

safe to

also for this

or Austrian examples.

highest aspirations of Italian architects

were always focused on the centralized church

with dominating dome. True to that tradition,

Juvarra was constantly engaged on fresh solu-

Another point deserves close attention. The

tions of the old problems. Characteristically,

chapels of the Chiesa del Carmine are not self-

the series begins with an ideal project which

contained units with their

own

source of light

but have oval openings through which light

streams from the windows of the gallery.

The

idea of using hidden light and conducting

through an opening behind or above an

was conceived by Bernini (St Teresa

it

altar

altar);

he presented

Luca on

in

1707 to the Accademia di S.

his election as academician.

And typical

of his Late Baroque \ersatility, he integrates

in

this

project

the

most diverse tendencies

without,

however,

approach

to centralized planning.^'

BIBLOSARTE

eclipsing

the

customary

The same

420

I.ATt

BAROQUt AND ROCOCO

applies to his

first

executed centralized struc-

the church of the Venaria Reale near

ture,

He combined

Turin (1716-21-28).

here the

Greek cross of St Peter's with ideas derived

from S. Agnese and also introduced the sceno-

three-quarters of

from the straight

its

circular exterior jut out

line of this building.

This

side,

facing the plain of Turin and a glorious range

of Alpine peaks,

is

stone-faced and treated as a

coherent unit which conceals the long brick

The

graphic element of screening columns in ana-

fronts of the monastery.

logy to Palladio's Redentore/'*

used are of utter simplicity the square portico

In the

on

same year

in

this design, he also

the Superga, high

in front

in length exactly to the straight walls

his masterpiece,

a hill a

few miles east

The Superga is by far

number of Baroque

the grandest of the great

sanctuaries on mountains, of which

spoken before
tains

but

little

it

is

(p. 390).

that

have

future,

the brilliant epitome of current ideas,

a part of the

side

Again, the church con-

would point into the

brought together

in

an unexpected way. While

church

is

of the church has sides corresponding

which he was engaged

began

up on

of Turin [289, 290].^"

principal ratios

enclosed by the short

of an extensive rectangular monastery,

the church, a measure which

is

adjoining

half that of the

church's diameter; the body of the church, the

drum, and the dome

to the

are of equal height. Similar

Venaria Reale, the ground plan shows

large openings in the cross-axes

chapels

in

the diagonals.

One

and

satellite

tends to read into

the plan the bevelled pillars of a

Greek cross

with columns in recesses (reminiscent of S.

Agnese). But the elevation reveals that there
is

no pendentive zone and that the columns

BIBLOSARTE

289 and 290. Filippo Juvarra:

Superga near Turin, 1717-31
exterior (opposite)

and section and plan (below)

BIBLOSARTE

LAIK liAROQLl.

422

ANU

KOCOCO

analogy to S. Agncsc, one would

therefore, informed the principle of unification,

expect to support the high arches of the Greek-

the relationships are utterly difierent. In keep-

which,

in

cross arms, carry

ring of the entablature,

uninterrupted

the

instead

on which

rests the high

cylinder of the drum. In contrast to

Guarini's structures,

/one

is

in

which

many of

pendentive

unexpectedly introduced, here, equally

Baroque tendency which has been

ing with a

discussed (p. 217), Juvarra increased the height

of the

drum and dome

body of the church, and

expense of the

at the

in this respect

beyond the position reached

far

he went

in S. Agnese.'^'

has been suppressed. But Ju-

Indirectly the portico also stems from Michel-

varra's design lacks the quality of contradiction

angelo's St Peter's. In 1659 Bernini had tried

unexpectedly,

it

which we found
bined

in

com-

Guarini. Juvarra has

one building the two principal types of

in

domical structure: the Pantheon type, where

the

dome

rises

from the cylindrical body, and

and from then

to revive Michelangelo's idea,

on

all

classically-minded architects placed a

portico in front of centralized buildings.

The

example of the Pantheon was, of course, close

the Greek-cross type; and these two different

at

centralized systems remain clearly discernible.

classicizing

The body

from the ancient masterpiece. But he went

should be

of the church

in a

is

octagonal, as

Greek cross with bevelled

and the transition from the octagon

is

pillars;

to the circle

boldly conceived,^" for the circular entabset into the

octagon touching

lature

is

in the

centre of the four arches.

The
to

it

it

as to Bernini.

much

Borrominesque are

windows of the drum, while the

the undulating

combination of ribs and coffers

dome

in the

is

it

characteristic of Juvarra's

Late Baroque that he took

even further and endeavoured

firstly

it,

by integrating

to

his

cue

improve upon

his portico

with the

body of the church, and secondly by reducing

the

number

of columns. This enabled him to

Vitruvius's

fulfil

decoration of the church owes as

Borromini

only

hand, and

demand

for a

wider central

intercolumniation and, moreover, to create a

and

light

structure, true to eighteenth-

airy

century aspirations.

is

It

may

well be said that this building repre-

But the colour

sents the apogee of a long development: the

and

problems of centralized planning, the double-

yellowish tones has no relationship to the past

tower facade, the high drum and dominating

close to Bernini's Castelgandolfo.

scheme with
and

is

its

prevailing light

bluish

typically eighteenth-century.

small

dome, the

tetrastyle portico

the church

gational room,

previous realizations,

is

treated as an isolated unit.

all

this

Without being attracted by Guarini's pioneer-

might expect

ing interpenetration of spatial entities, Juvarra

one's mind. Yet there

returns in this respect to the North

about

Italian

this

if

and

wedding

its

was carried

centralized altar room, attached to the congre-

a step

in a direction

to

beyond

which one

the whole evolution were before

work.

It is

is

something un-Italian

mainly the way

in

which

the monastic buildings have been connected

Renaissance tradition.

One cannot

In the exterior he took

up the old problem

with the church.

of the high

dome between

flanking towers. Al-

the large monastic structures north of the .^Ips

though the

latter are clearly

indebted to those

such as Weingarten, Einsiedeln, and Melk, the

of S. Agnese, he returned to Michelangelo's

dates of which, incidentally, almost correspond

design of St Peter's for the alternating rhythm

with that of the Superga.

of wide and narrow bays in the body of the

to

church

as well as for the vertical continuation

hardly possible

doubt that Juvarra was conversant with such

works.

And

it

was precisely the impact of the

of the pilasters into the double columns of the

North that

drum and

centralized building.

the ribs of the dome. If Michelangelo,

It is

avoid recalling

also revolutionized his

BIBLOSARTE

approach to

ARCHITECTURE

His

late centralized

from 1729,

in

which

essentially he returned to

the grouping of Leonardo's schemes. But this

is

true only for the plans and not for the eleva-

The

tions.

strangest

Once

church designs were not

Most important among them are the

many projects tor the new cathedral, dating

executed.

among

the latter [291]

again

German

IN

PIEDMONT

423

buildings provide the

key to this development.

When

uninfluenced

German architects never accepted the

southern drum and dome, not even for their
centralized churches. They always preferred
by

Italy,

anti-Renaissance) skeleton struc-

(essentially

tures capped by low vaults." While the late

2QI. Filippo Juvarra;

Sketch for the

shows
piers

Duomo Nuovo,

with immensely high

a skeleton structure

and arched openings

them.''-

The dome

as an

Turin, after 1729

in

two

tiers

independent, domi-

nating feature has been eliminated.

the

drum

now
the

between

Nor has

a raisoti d'etre in such a design. It

clear that in his late

is

to the plan-

ning of both longitudinal and centralized build-

The volte-face expressed in the designs

the new cathedral corresponds exactly to

ings.

for

organization, he
articulation

Carmine.

still

adhered

of his units and

to

the

Italian

sub-units.

No

vaulted structures corresponding to his cathedral designs will be

work Juvarra applied

same revolutionary principles

that of the Chiesa del

Juvarra consented to this principle of spatial

found

in

Germany.

In the central hall of Stupinigi Juvarra's

ideas reached the stage of execution [292].
in this hall

so

much

one

will also

new

And

understand why he was

attracted by the northern approach to

planning. These skeleton structures, with their

uninterrupted vertical sweep and the unification

BIBLOSARTE

4^4

LAIt BAROQLt AND ROCOCO

tese

by

rare

Outside Piedmont Vittone

birth. ''^

still little

known, and

ability,

yet he

ideas and

of original

full

is

was an architect of
of

creative capacity equalled only by few of the

greatest masters. His relative obscurity

due

tainly

to the fact that

are in small

most of

is

Piedmontese towns, seldom

by the student of architecture.

cer-

his buildings

He

visited

studied in

Rome, where he won a first prize in the Accadedi S. Luca in 1732.^'' Early next year he

mia

returned to Turin,

in

Juvarra's late works.

completed,

the

time to witness the

The Superga had

large

hall

at

rise

of

just

been

Stupinigi

was

almost finished, and the Carmine was going up.

It

was

this architecture that

made an

indelible

impression upon him."'

Shortly after his return

from Rome, the

Theatines who owned Guarini's papers won

Vittone's collaboration in editing the Architettura civile,

which appeared

in 1737. In this

way he acquired his exceptional knowledge of

Guarini's work and ideas; nor did he fail to
learn his lesson from the long chapters on

292. Filippo Juvarra:

Stupinigi, Castle, 1729-33. Great Hall

geometry.

On this firm

foundation he

set

out on

of central and subsidiary rooms, have a marked

his career as a practising architect,^**

and from

scenic quality. In spite of his classical leanings,

shortly after Juvarra's death until his

own death

Juvarra never ceased

to think in

terms of the

resourceful stage designer.

Juvarra not only perfected the most treasured of

Italian architectural ideals,

but also abandoned

them. Just because he was the greatest of his

is

of local or provincial import.

end of Italian supremacy

1770 we can follow his activity almost year by

His few palaces are without particular

year.

When all is said and done, it remains true that

generation, this surrender

in

more than
It

a matter

adumbrates the

distinction.

that,

rarely happens, but

happen sometimes. An architect arose

of Juvarra. His

it

in

is

does

Turin

manner of Guarini with

name

a remarkable fact

- are centralized

buildings or

One would

therefore presume that as a rule he followed his

counsel and that the clergy of the small

His
(1702, not 1704/5-70)

reconciled the

is

for

which he worked hardly

inter-

fered with his ideas.

BERNARDO VITTONE

who

it

derive from centralized planning.

communities

The improbable

and

with one or two exceptions, his churches -

and they are many

own

in architecture.^^

His interest was focused on ecclesi-

astical architecture,

that

Bernardo Vittone, and

he was, unlike Guarini and Juvarra, a Piedmon-

first

building, to our knowledge, the

Sanctuary

at Vallinotto

of Turin),

is

also

one of his most accomplished

masterpieces [293-5].

1738 and 1739

^^ ^"^^

erected between

as a chapel for the agricultural

labourers of a rich Turin banker.'"

immediately

little

near Carignano (south

illustrates

BIBLOSARTE

what

The

has

exterior

just

been

ARCHITECTURE

pointed

out:

it

combines features of both

Guarini's and Juvarra's styles.

specific interpretation of the

the

derives

tion

tiers.'"

But

From

Guarini's

North Itahan

tradi-

pagoda-hke diminution of

in contrast to

Guarini's High Baro-

que treatment of the wall with

pilasters

and

columns, niches and pediments, ornament and

statues,

we

find here walls of utter simplicity,

accentuated only by unobtrusive pilasters and

plain frames

and panels. Obviously

done under the influence of Juvarra's

detail

and

was

425

If anything, the impression of the "interior

surpasses that of the exterior. All the characteristic

The

of Vittone's

features

assembled

it is

climax right

style
at the

are

here

beginning.

plan consists of a regular hexagon with six

segmental chapels of equal width spanned by

six

equal arches [294]. But the treatment of the

chapels varies; for open chapels alternate with

others into which convex coretli
placed.

Since,

therefore,

have been

non-corresponding

classicist

chapels face each other across the room, the

geometrical simplicity and regularity of the plan

a gay

this

is

also to be

economy of

detail, the

church

and cheerful Rococo impression,

due not only

found

to its brilliant whiteness,

in Stupinigi,

but above

the lively silhouette and the undulating

all

to

rhythm

is

not easily grasped."'

church

is

its

dome

Vittone formed

its

The

[295].
first

glory of this

little

Following Guarini,

diaphanous

shell

of

Through the large hexagonal

opening appear three more vaults, one above
intersecting ribs.

the other: two solid ones with circular openings.

of the walls.

2Q3 and 294. Bernardo Vittone:

\'allinotto near Carignano, Sanctuary, 1738-9
Exterior, and engraving of
section

such as the exterior of Stupinigi. In spite

of the utmost

makes

this

PIEDMONT

IN

and plan

BIBLOSARTE

295- Bernardo Vittone: Vallinotto, Sanctuary, view into

dome

BIBLOSARTE

diminishing

in

and, capping them, the

size,

dome

idea of a soHd spherical

with a

into a second

large opening, allowing a view

dome,

also Guarini's,'- but the latter never

is

combined

427

from any point

in the

invisible to the beholder

church. Precisely the same type of lighting was

hemisphere of the lantern.

The

ARCHITECTURE IN PIEDMONT

this type with the

diaphanous dome,

and neither Guarini nor any other architect

used by Guarini
Vicenza.

found

to be

in his

design of S. Gaetano

The two forms

in the

Sanctuary derive therefore

from Juvarra's Carmine and Guarini's

common

Their

tano.

at

of concealed lighting

source

S.

Gae-

of course,

is,

counting

Bernini. But while Bernini focuses the con-

the lantern, which forms part of the scheme,

cealed light on one particular area, the centre

ever produced a

dome

four) different vaults.

with three

(or,

The adaptation and

of Guarinesque domical

Vittone a means to a different end.

fusion

was

for

It will

be

structures

recalled that Guarini always separated the zone

of the

dome from

the

working with isolated and

to his principle of

contrasting units.

body of the church, true

Not

so Vittone; in his case

the ribs of the vaulting are continuations of the

He

pillars.

lature

even omits the traditional entab-

above the arches of the hexagon, thus

of dramatic import, no such climax

by Vittone.

the whole space and the differently

dome

of the

intended

is

gay and festive bright light

fills

realms

lit

are only gradations of this diffuse

luminosity. Vittone himself

made

it

clear that

he wanted the different vaults to be seen as one

unified impression of the infinity

On

the vaults

is

of heaven.

painted the hierarchy of angels,

of which Vittone writes in his htruziom diverse:

'The

visitor's glance travels

through the spaces

avoiding any break in continuity. Instead, he

created by the vaults and enjoys, supported by

introduces a second ring of high arches above

the concealed light, the varien of the hierarchy

Thus he

the arches of the chapels.

creates a

system of arches with which the ribbed

lofry

vaulting forms a logical entity.

of arches has a further purpose

from the

light

into the

The second
it

windows of the

large

ring

conducts the
first

'drum'

main room and under the ribbed

vault.

which gradually increases'

towards the

(i.e.

spectator).

The
two

altar in this

pillars

church stands

free

between

through which one looks into

space behind.

Thus even

concerned himself with

Vittone,

who always

strict centralized

plan-

At the same time these windows supply a strong

ning,

skv-light for the chapels, the vaults of which

screened-oft space, a tradition with which he

is

the

Palladian

evident that the arrangement of the

arches as well as the lighting of the main

room

rini.

of a

But we have seen (pp. 1 82-3) that this device

made

it

possible to preserve the integrity of the

and the chapels derive from Juvarra's Carmine.

centralized space and, at the

We

overcome

are faced with the extraordinary fact that

its

duced by Juvarra into

thoroughly exploited

a longitudinal building,

time, to

more

once used and varied this motif and

than

has here been transferred to a centralized struc-

same

limitations. Vittone, in fact,

the northern nave type with galleries, intro-

No

tradition

was conversant through both Juvarra and Gua-

have oval apertures.

It

accepted

its

scenic possibiHties and

mysterious implications.''

more imaginative union

In a small sanctuary of this character a high

of Guarinesque and Juvarresque conceptions

standard of finish cannot be expected. All the

could be imagined.

architectural

ture.

stranger and

While the ribbed dome

indirect light, the second

of light

at all.

directlv

lit

By

is

lit

dome

by a strong

has no source

contrast, the third

dome

is

bv circular windows, but thev are

painted.

The

ornaments are rather

roughly

colours used here and in other

churches by Vittone are predominantly

light

grey and reddish and greenish tones, in other

words

typical

Rococo colours somewhat

BIBLOSARTE

similar

428

LATt UAROQUt AND ROCOCO

which correspond exactly

to the arches of the

by Juvarra, but entirely different

from the heavy and deep High Baroque colour

chapels beneath and cut deeply into the lower

contrasts with which Guarini worked.

part of the vault. IVluch

to those used

The church

of S. Chiara

at

Bra of 1742

is

probably Vittone's most accomplished work

[296, 297].

Here four identical segmental chapels

are joined to a circular core.

at Vallinotto,

As

in the

Sanctuary

the external elevation follows the

basic shape of the plan. S. Chiara

emphasizing the richly

quatrefoil form of the building.

to his centralized plan.''^

Of

the low domical vault Uttle remains, and what

there

is

seems

to

hover precariously above the

head of the beholder. This impression

is

streng-

thened by an extraordinary device each of the

is

white-

four sectors of the vault has a window-like

undulating

opening through which one looks into the

Inside, four

The

section [296] immediately recalls Juvarra's de-

new

Carmine

varra's

simple

relatively fragile pillars carry the vaulting.

signs for the

closely than at

is

brick structure, and only the top part

washed,

more

Vallinotto, Vittone adjusted the system of Ju-

cathedral [291]. But Vittone

introduced a nuns' gallery with high arches

painted sky with angels and saints in the

second

which forms the exterior

shell,

sil-

houette of the dome, and receive direct and

And

strong light from the nearby windows.

these

296. Bernardo Vittone: Bra, S. Chiara, 1742.

field

of vision. Sky and figures are painted on the

windows

also serve as sky-lights to the

gallery.

Elevation, section, and plan. Engraving

Vittone found in this church a

new and un-

expected solution for Guarini's idea of the

diaphanous dome:

seems

to separate

man-made

fragile

shell

constructed space from the

realm in which saints and angels dwell [297].

Although structurally
is

still

dome
By

insignificant, the

the spiritual centre of the building.

transformed Guarinesque concep-

means of

tion, the

antichmax of Juvarra's

late

designs

was here endowed with new meaning.

Also

in Vittone's later

work hardly any

fully

dome will be found. This is paralleled

Austrian and German church building where

developed
in

the native tradition led to a general acceptance

But Vittone's designs

of low vaults.

from those of the North that

different

contact

are

so

a direct

must be excluded. The stimulus

re-

ceived from Juvarra's Chiesa del Carmine, from

the latter's late centralized projects, and the
great hall at Stupinigi, in combination with
ideas derived

Vittone's

from Guarini,

strange

fully

development.

account for
In

his

later

buildings he found ever new realizations of the

same problem.

S.

Gaetano

at

Nice shows the

adaptation of the design of S. Chiara

to

an oval plan. In S. Bernardino

BIBLOSARTE

at

at

Bra

Chieri

297- Bernardo Vittone: Bra, S. Chiara, 1742.

View

into

dome

BIBLOSARTE

430

LATE BAROQUK AND ROCOCO

church of the

taken by V ittone in

Ospizio di Carita

Carignano''' which

at

744

new concept brought

later in the choir of S.

in the

Maria

di Piazza at

Here he designed

(175 1 -4) [298].

shows

two years

to full fruition

Turin

normal

crossing with four arches and pendentives be-

tween them. But instead of separating the zone

of the pendentives from the

drum by

ring, he fused pendentives

and 'drum' indis-

a circular

This he achieved by hollowing out the

solubly.

pendentives and giving them a deep concave

shape;

other words, he transformed them

in

into a kind of inverted squinches.

Thus

the

medieval squinch, which had been swept away

by the Renaissance and was revived by Borromini

some marginal works

in

(p. 212),

found

strange resuscitation just before the close of a

long epoch. As a result of the

new motif

it

was

possible to arrange the piers of the 'drum' in

the form of an octagon and to

let

the

tall

win-

dows between them return to the square of the

crossing there are two windows at right angles
:

above each pendentive. Entirely unorthodox,

Vittone's domical feature, so rich in spatial and

geometrical relations, belongs in a class with

Bernardo Vittone: Turin,
Maria di Piazza, part of the church and choir,
4. Section and plan
1 75 1

298.
S.

Guarini's hybrid

dome

sibilities

and

it is

which the inverted squinch

idea. The maturest

new concept is to be found
Villanova di Mondovi (1755)

my

building and was forced to use a more tradi-

manifestation of the

tional

form of dome. But he made the dome

to

hang weightless

in

space above the

chapels and created diaphanous pendentives

through which

fall

the rays of the sun. In other

designs he transformed the

like feature.

tively early project for S.

dria:''^ its

dome

This may be studied

Chiara

into a shaftin his relaat

Alessan-

diaphanous vault owes a very great

deal to Guarini and

is,

indeed, far

removed

offered,

remarkable that no other architect, to

(1740-4) he was handicapped by an existing

appear

conceptions.

Vittone availed himself of the infinite pos-

knowledge, took up the

in S.

Croce

at

[299].'" In this

church the square of the crossing

consists of very wide

and high arches. By widen-

ing the 'pendentive-squinch', Vittone found

new way of transforming the square

Thus arches, pendendrum, and dome merge imperceptibly

an entirely

into a regular octagon.

tives,

into an indivisible whole.

Towards

the end of his

life

Vittone seems to

from the broad stream of the northern develop-

have returned to more conventional designs

ment.

(church

The

next

important

step,

which further

widened the gap with northern designs, was

phase

is

at

Riva

di Chieri,

reflected in the

followers such as

BIBLOSARTE

begun 1766).'"* This

work of pupils and

Andrea Rana from Susa, the

ARCHITECTURE IN PIEDMONT

431

299. Bernardo \ ittonc:

Villanova di Mondovi, S. Croce, 1755.

View into vaulting

architect of the impressive Chiesa del Rosario

at

Strambino

(1764-81),'"' or Pietro Bonvicini

(1741-96),

who

(1784).'"

was these men, among others, who

It

built

S.

Michele

in

carried on Vittone's Piedmontese Late

Turin

Baroque

almost to the end of the eighteenth century.

When

quering Europe. In historical perspective his

Baroque may therefore be regarded

But judged on

its

of rare distinction.

as a provincial backwater.

own

merits, his

attacked

work

centralized

is

boldness and

with equal devotion and ingenuity.

the broadest foundation.

Through

the

merging

of Guarini and Juvarra he looked back to the

'bizarre' as well as the 'sober' tradition in Italian
;

to

Carlo Fontana, Bernini, and Palladio on the

other.

He

himself differentiated between the

classical trend

and the architecture

e bizzaria', for

which he named Borromini and

'di

scherzo

He

Guarini. Moreover he incorporated in his work

old

and

the scenic qualities of the North Italian Pal-

Italian architects,

with

ladian tradition. Finally, Juvarra familiarized

planning,

most urgent problem of

it

His architecture could be conceived only on

architecture - to Borromini on the one hand

Vittone died, Neo-classicism was con-

intense Late

studied

imagination;

that

and

perhaps no

him with Germano-Austrian conceptions of

had

planning, and Guarini with a theoretical know-

architect before him, not even Leonardo,

BIBLOSARTE

432

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

ledge ot

modern French geometry. It was

that enabled him to discover

this

research

the

splitting

knowledge

potentialities of a

with squinch,

combination

of

pendentive

combination geometrically ex-

but for what purpose.' Newton's

up of white

the rainbow

is

for

light into the colours

of

him the supreme confirma-

tion of the old musical theory of proportion.

the one and

tremely intricate, used neither by French nor

Proportion

German eighteenth-century architects.

What little we know about him suggests

and Vittone's terms of reference are precisely

that

is

all

of these treatises,

those of Renaissance theory.

He

even inter-

also the

sperses his text with musical notations, and by

impression one carries away from reading his

squaring his paper he claims to have found an

his

two

was an obsessed genius. This

treatises, the

is

htruzioni element an of 1760

and the Islnizioni diverse of 1766. The

treatise

is

earlier

one of the longest ever written, and

the later consists to a large extent of appendices

method of ensuring

infallible

of correct proportions.
treatise

which

he

commissioned from

in spite of all the

formal development

small part of his literary production.

Large

contribution.^'

far

not been traced.

Now

thing about his treatises

not

moved

far

from

is

the extraordinary

Thus

that basically he has

.\lberti's position.

sure, the language has changed:

wanted
wants

to elevate

to delight.

To

be

where Alberti

and inform the mind, Vittone

He

also incorporates recent

assistant

he never paid for the

Giovanni Galletto,

masses of manuscripts existed which have so

his

whom

only a

But the published work

second

with a special long paper on music

is

to the first.

the application

He concludes the

during 300 years of Italian architectural history,

beginning and end meet. .\nd
spirit

dedicated his
to

it

is

also in the

of the Renaissance treatises that Vittone

God

first

work

to the 'Signore

Iddio\

Himself, and the second to 'Maria

Santissima,

Madre

BIBLOSARTE

di Dio'.'^

CHAPTER

l8

SCULPTURE

Towards

the end of the seventeenth century

French influence, particularly on sculptors,

increased rapidly.

After

vious.

Academy
went

reason for

foundation

the

Rome

in

to the

The

it

of the

'^-:ii

French

French sculptors

(1666),

Eternal City in great numbers, often

not only to study but to stay. But this

part of the story.

would appear

It

was no longer strong enough

that

is

only

Rome

to assimilate the

national idiosyncrasies of the

may

^/rj^mg

seems ob-

Frenchmen.

It

be recalled that during the preceding 150

Roman

hardly any

years

Roman

artist

had been

by birth. Bernini was half Tuscan, half

Neapolitan; the Carracci, Domenichino, and

Algardi

came from Bologna; Duquesnoy from

Brussels; Caravaggio, Borromini, and a host

of others from Northern Italy; and this

list

could be continued indefinitely. Yet since the

days of Bramante, Raphael, and Michelangelo,

Rome

had had

most extraordinary formative

influence on artists: they imbibed that specifically

Roman

word

quality which
-

gravitci

stamp

these

all

however widely

is

described by the

grandeur and severity that

artists

Roman,
may difter.
we find Germans

typically

as

their personal styles

In Bernini's immediate circle

and Frenchmen, but without documentary evidence'

it

would be

cover their
origin.

entirely impossible to dis-

non-Roman

Now,

at the

or even

tury, the position changed. In the

Monnot,
a

non-Italian

end of the seventeenth cen-

Theodon,

works of

Legros [300], or

later

of

Michelangelo Slodtz [313], we sense some-

thing of the typically French biemeance and

linear

grace.

In

spite

of these

un-Roman

BIBLOSARTE

'^^^sfv^

^I^Ki^^l

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

434

Support

for

French influence came Irom the

and

Italians themselves,

whom we

from

artist

from an

in particular

Roman

who was

sculptor ot his generation

1

least,

it

alive

still

700. After the deaths of Ferrata and Raggi

in the

same

year,

ledged as the

686, he was generally acknow-

Rome.

sculptor in

first

we have

previous chapter

In

discussed the some-

what dubious practices of

whose

this artist,

workshop supplied the whole of Europe with

sculpture. His social ambition led

higher regions of

official

Academy

principe of the

him

academic

of St

Luke

again in 1675, while Bernini was

his position put

into the

art;
in

still

he was

1670 and
alive,

and

him on an equal footing with

Charles Lebrun, the embodiment of the suave

and accomplished professional

Guidi who proposed Lebrun
principe of the

which the

Academy

latter

was

It

artist.

of

for the post

of St Luke, an honour

arrival in Versailles.

its

must not be forgotten that the exchange

Academic niceties between Lebrun and

It

of

Guidi took place

still

Paris,

it

was

ar-

ranged that Charles Errard, the Director of

rounded by

friends, old

remained true
the older

men

recoil in fear before

Italian genius, the

academicians were, symbolically

Rome

due

unsophisticated Guidi

of the professori.

tween

tomb of Alexander VII, and many other

works; among the younger there were Giulio

the

Cartari,

who had accompanied

Rome and

Giuseppe Mazzuoli. The

the

Giuseppe Mazzuoli: Angels

carrying the Ciborium,

the

to the initiative of the

Paris were further stren|:-

asking him to keep an eye on

in

for

him

in

Rome.

1677 the commission

In accordance with

at Versailles.

French custom, Lebrun himself supplied

drawing from which Guidi was expected
work.

The wheel had turned full

Roman artist taken

before had a

Paris. Guidi,

however, was

still

circle;

his

for

group was Mazzuoli (1644-

Lebrun, moreover, repaid Guidi's compliment

group

employed them

tomb of Alexander VII. The most impor-

tant artist of this

301.

all

three were actually

Ferrata's pupils, but Bernini

same

at least,

work of the French students

for a

last

on more than one occasion and particularly

pointing Guidi one of the Rectors of the Paris

by obtaining

Bernini to Paris,

Michele Maglia, Filippo Carcani, and above

thened when the French reciprocated by ap-

the

Among

on the Cathedra,

90), the faithful collaborator

who began as the archThe academic ties be-

enemy

Academy and by

and young, who always

there was Lazzaro Morelli (1608-

had made the Paris academicians and courtiers

masters of

when Bernini was

to the art of their master.

Academy in Rome, should act as

Thus a mere decade after Bernini

the French

time

at a

vigorously active. Bernini himself was sur-

accepted for 1676 and 1677.

But since he could not leave

his deputy.

satisfaction after

little

-'

should expect

namely Domenico Guidi, the only important

in

grand manner, and the Baroque exube-

rance of his group gave

to

never

cue from

steeped in the

BIBLOSARTE

c.

1700. Siena. S. Martino

SCULPTURE

1725),* a slightly older

contemporary of the

from Montecassino (destroyed)

435

to Rieti, Pesaro,

Frenchmen Theodon, Monnot, and Legros;

and it was he rather than anybody else who

Ancona, and Mantua.

kept the Berninesque tradition alive into the

carried out in the twenty years between 1670

and

century

eighteenth

entirely

by-passed

fashionable French classicism. Instead of illus-

many monumental

trating one of his

we show
angels

who

altar in S.
spirit

works,

as illustration 301 a detail of the

carry the ciborium above the

Martino

at

Siena

{c.

of the Cathedra angels

two

main

1700); here the

is

still

alive.

Filippo Carcani, most of whose work was

and i6qo, commands particular

bued with Bernini's

by Raggi, and

with this diflerence:

in

model even

if

the

body

mass of drapery and even

if

is

trasts with the stance. Carcani,

no longer interested

French trend

in his

monumental marbles;'

the

fragile, as if

however, was

in classical structure.

his stuccoes, bodies are

and

hidden under

the drapery con-

century (1648- 1736), remained Berninesque in

stucco works but followed the classical

but

Raggi's as well as in

born towards the middle of the seventeenth

many

remained important; one can always sense the

one of the most

his

who

all,

manner

Bernini's late style the structure of the body

classical

of the generation

was Carcani, above

carried on Raggi's highly-strung

Another of Ferrata's pupils, Lorenzo Ottoni,

prolific artists

it

Im-

interest.

he was attracted

late style,

In

immensely elongated

they were without bones, while

same observation may be made in the case of

some minor artists of the period. Works by

envelop them [302].

Ottoni found their way to

particularly the stuccoes in the Cappella Lancel-

all

parts of Italy,

draperies

laid

Giovanni

lotti in S.

302. P'ilippo Carcani: Stucco decoration,

Rome. S. Giovanni

in

c.

1685.

Laterano, Cappella Lancellolti

masses

in

Some
in

of

parallel

folds

of Carcani's work,

Laterano

(c.

1685),^ can

only be described as a strange proto-Rococo,

and the eighteenth-century charm of the sweet

heads of his figures would easily deceive
a connoisseur. It

is

many

surprising that this 'Rococo'

transformation of Bernini's

late

manner could

be performed, so soon after the latter 's death,

by

a sculptor

who had worked

in close associa-

howRome.

tion with him. Carcani's proto-Rococo,

ever,

had no immediate following

in

Despite the continuity of Bernini's

at the close

who were
had the

of the century

late style,

was the French

given the best commissions.

lion's

sculptural

it

work of those

Ignatius in the

They

share in the most important

left

years, the altar of St

transept of the Gesu.''

Con-

fidence in the victory of Catholicism had never

been expressed so \ igorously

in

sculptural terms

and with so much reliance on overpowering

sensual effects. Unrivalled is the colourful opulence of the altar,

its

wealth of reliefs and

statues; but a typically Late

Baroque

diffuse,

picturesque pattern replaces the dynamic unity

of the High Baroque. In this setting one

BIBLOSARTE

is

apt

LATK BAROQUt AND ROCOCO

436

Matthew, 171 ^ 15.

Rome, S. Giinanni in Lateraiw

303. Camillo Rusconi: St

overlook the mediocre quality of the over-

to

life-size

marble groups supplied by the main

contributors, the

Next

don.

Frenchmen Legros and TheoFrenchman Monnot, the

the

to

Bernardo Ludovisi,'

Italians Ottoni, C^ametti,

Angelo

Rossi,

de'

Francesco

and

Moratti,

Rome

Camillo Rusconi were given subsidiary tasks,

Parodi, but after his arrival in

which show, however, more distinction than

had turned more and more towards the

the work of their French colleagues.

cizing French current. Moratti from

Rusconi (1658- 1 728), who had

first

been

selected for one of the large marble groups but

was replaced by

his

contemporary Legros,

re-

asserted his position at the beginning of the

next century.

To

be sure, he was the strongest

among Roman

personalin

sculptors in the

first

also Parodi's pupil; he died

1720, and his auvre

Though

in

1689

classi-

Padua was

young,

about

in

therefore rather small.

is

not influenced by Monnot, his Apostle

Simon, next to Mazzuoli's Philip,

is

the only

other Berninesque statue of the whole series.

With eight of the twelve

work of

statues the

quarter of the eighteenth century.^ After an

Rusconi, Legros, and Monnot,

early and brief 'Rococo' phase (Cardinal Virtues,

firms the preponderance of different facets of a

Cappella Ludovisi,

S. Ignazio, 1685),

deriving

Late Baroque classicism,

like

Carcani's style from Raggi rather than from

the

his

Roman

paralleled in

teacher Ferrata, he reverted, per-

The

haps under the influence of his older friend

Carlo Maratti, to Duquesnoy and Algardi and
also

absorbed the teachings of the French

artists in

Rome

without, however, discarding

the Berninesque heritage.

The

result can

be

of Carlo

painting

this

survey con-

a style anticipated in

Maratti,

but

exactly

contemporary architecture.

next generation (born between

1680

and 1700) did not pursue wholeheartedly the

powerful Late Baroque for which Rusconi
stood.

Among

many

the

practitioners of that

generation four names stand out by virtue of

studied in the heroic Late Baroque classicism

the quality and quantity of their production

of his four Apostles for Borromini's tabernacles

those

in

S.

Giovanni

They form

in

Laterano (1708-18) [303].

part of the series of twelve

monu-

mental marble statues, the largest sculptural

task in
tury.'

Rome

during the early eighteenth cen-

These

statues provide an opportunity

of assessing the prevalent stylistic tendency

1754), Giovanni Battista Maini (1690 1752),

Filippo della Valle, and Pietro Bracci 1 700-73).
(

Cornacchini, educated

came to Rome in 1712 working in a

manner which watered down his teacher's
reminiscences of Ferrata and Guidi. His work
mawkish

between 1700 and 171 5, and the distribution

is, at the same time, a good

often has a
sionally

yardstick for measuring the reputation of con-

artistic climate,

temporary sculptors. Rusconi has pride of place

of taste, as

Monnot executed

two statues each, and only one was assigned to

each of the following: Ottoni, IVlazzuoli, Angelo
de' Rossi,

and Francesco Moratti. Of the two

far the more

Genoa in 1671,
he had imbibed Bernini's manner under Filippo
latter,

Angelo

distinguished

de' Rossi

artist."'

was by

Born

in

in Foggini's studio at

Florence,

of commissions

with four figures. Legros and

(1685-after

Cornacchini

Agostino

of

aspired

is

1727) with
as

well

as

to

flavour,

grandeur

if

in

the

he occa-

Roman

he became guilty of grave errors

proved by

its

and

his St Elijah (St Peter's,

borrowings from Michelangelo

by the equestrian monument of

Charlemagne under the portico of St

(1720-5), which

is

theatrical travesty of
Coiistanlitie.^'

The

its

Peter's

weak and

counterpart, Bernini's

less pretentious .Archangels

Michael and Gabriel

BIBLOSARTE

nothing but

in the cathedral at

Orvieto

BIBLOSARTE

4.^8

BAROQliK AND ROCOCO

I.ATF.

(172c)) [304

show

that he could

typically cightccnth-ccntury

manner

command

charm, and

in

such

he together with Giuseppe Rusconi (1687 1758,

who upheld

not related to Camillo)

Camillo's

works

his

close to that of Pietro

heroic classicism during the thirties and forties

Bracci.

Giovanni Battista Maini,'- coming from

of the eighteenth century. Maini's most impor-

Lombardy

and, like Rusconi, learning his art

from Rusnati
in

Rome

is

in

Milan, was for a time associated

with his older compatriot, and

it

was

tant

works are

Giovanni

S.

in Galilei's

in

Clement XII

Cappella Corsini

in

Laterano: the bronze statue of

(1734), almost a straight classi-

cizing copy after the

pope of Bernini's Urban

tomb, and, more characteristic, the monument

Cardinal Neri Corsini" (1732-5) [305], in

to

which the Marattesque figure of the Cardinal

de Champaigne's Richelieu

in

the Louvre, while the allegory of Religion

is

recalls Philippe

tomb of

closely related to that of Rusconi's

Gregory XIII.

The

Cap-

rich sculptural decoration of the

pella Corsini

is

our understanding

as vital for

of the position in the 1730s as the Lateran

Apostles were for that of about 1710.

No

less

than eleven sculptors were employed and at

of them were directly or indirectly

least six

indebted to Rusconi.'^ But they tend

form Rusconi's

'classicist

to trans-

Baroque' into a

'clas-

Rococo' [306], very different from Car-

sicist

cani's passionate 'Rococo' of almost fifty years

before.

Most

of this

characteristic

style

is

perhaps Filippo della Valle's Temperance. Like

Cornacchini, this

artist

(1698-

through Foggini's school

1768)'''

had gone

Florence; in

at

Rome

he attached himself closely to Camillo Rusconi.

He
304 (above). Agostino Cornacchini:
The Guardian Angel, 1729.

is

most

sculptors of the

attractive

Roman

and

eighteenth

century. But the French note in his work

Orvietu, Cathedral

is

very

marked, and there cannot be any doubt that

305 (right) Giovanni Battista Maini:

to Cardinal Neri Corsini, 1732-5.
Rome, S. Ginvamii in Laterano, Cappella Corsiiu

Monument

Frenchmen

right). Filippo della Valle:

Temperance, c. 1735.
Rome, S. Giovanni in Laterano, Cappella

like

angelo Slodtz

about 1728

him
306 (far

certainly one of the

poetical

in S.

S.

contemporary

whom

Maria

Michel-

he collaborated in

della Scala -

brought

in contact with recent events in Paris."'

His monumental
Corsini

his

with

relief of the

Annunciation

in

Ignazio (1750), a counterpart to the relief

created

fifty

illustrates,

for all his

years earlier by

Legros [300!,

however, that Filippo della Valle,

engaging and craftsmanlike

was an epigone:

BIBLOSARTE

this relief,

qualities,

embodying

a late

SCULPTURE

version of Algardi's painterly relief style, shows

eighteenth-century

an accretion of subordinate detail not dissimilar

and Bracci represent most

to the

manner introduced by Guidi

in the first

phase of the Late Baroque.

Finally, there
prolific artist

number

is

Pietro Bracci,''

of this group.

of tombs,

the

He made

among them

most

a great

those of the

Popes Benedict XIII [310] and Benedict XIV,

and many portrait busts with a fine psychological

penetration and a masterly vibrating

treatment of the surface.

Still

Bernini's idiom, he transformed

and

lyrical,

Roman

style.

439

Filippo della Valle

fully

the

Rococo

They belonged to
the generation of the masters who brought
about the brief flowering of the Rococo in Rophase

man

in

architecture.

sculpture.

Both

artists

were, of course,

the chief contributors to the sculptural decoration of the last great collective

Roman
[255].'^

Late

The

Baroque,

legend

the

is difficult

work of the

Fontana
to

kill

Trevi

that only

dependent on

Bernini could have designed the combination

into a tender

of figures, masses of rock, sculptured vegeta-

it

though sometimes sentimentalizing.

tion,

and gushing waters;

BIBLOSARTE

similarly, he

is

also

440

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

made

responsible for the design of the figures

themselves. But Bracci's slightly frivolous AV/)tune,

standing

enormous

like

dancing master on an

rocaille shell, is as far

the spirit of Bernini's works as

quality of the

is

removed from

the picturesque

many rivulets or the artificial union

of formalized basins with natural rock. Nevertheless,

the

Fontana Trevi

is

the

swansong of an epoch which owed

impulses to one great

artist,

splendid

all its vital

Bernini.

remained, of course, the most important sculp-

end of the eighteenth

tural task right to the

century. Its history

is

touchstone not only for

assessing the contributions of the leading sculptors, their style,

and the quality of

their work,

but also for the appreciation of the profound

development

spiritual

period.

Monnot
in a

occurred

that

this

at

Between 1697 and 1704 Pietro Stefano

erected the

tomb of Innocent XI [307]

tomb of Leo XI. '^

niche opposite Algardi's

Features deriving both from Bernini and Al-

tomb of Urban

gardi are here combined: the

Typological Changes

Tombs and

Allegories

\ III served as

Instead of pursuing further individual contri-

butions by minor masters,

it

may

be well to

scrolls clearly

allegories

another angle the change that took place from

lowed Leo

High

to the

Late Baroque.

The

papal

tomb

polychrome

for the

shows; but

for the types of the

and the narrative

XFs

tomb.

relief

He

however, not on the sarcophagus

of this pedestal

Tomb

Monnot:

made

it

Monnot

placed the
itself,

The

the pedestal of the papal statue.

307. Pietro Stefano

treat-

ment, as the dark bronze sarcophagus with large

turn to a few specific problems and discuss from

the

model

fol-

relief,

but on

insertion

necessary to reduce

considerably the size of the papal figure, com-

of Innocent XI, 1697-1704.

Rome, Si Peter's

pared with Algardi's.

The

figure of Innocent XI,

too small for

statues

by

is

its

Leo XI fills
somewhat gaunt

latter's

the whole niche; the weak and

by contrast, seems rather

niche.

To

be sure, one of the

a great master, the other

mediocre follower; but apart from

by

this,

the

increased importance of decorative elements at

the

expense of the figures illuminates the

stylistic

change from the High

to

the Late

Baroque. Precisely the same observations apply

tomb of .Alexander VIII

to

Angelo

in

St Peter's (1691-1725), the design of which

de' Rossi's

closely follows that of

Urban VIII; but

again

the addition of a high pedestal with a narrative

relief results in figures of considerably

shrunken

volume and an undue emphasis on the architectural

More

and decorative

parts.

interesting than these

monuments

is

Camillo Rusconi's tomb of Gregory XIII [308],

erected between 17 19 and 1725 in a niche in the
right

aisle

of St

Monnot's tomb

Peter's

corresponding

in the left aisle.

to

While being

profoundly indebted to Bernini's conception

BIBLOSARTE

3o8. Camillo Rusconi;

Tomb

of Gregory XIII, 1719-25. Rome, St Peter's

BIBLOSARTE

442

LATE BAROQUF. AND ROCOCO

of sculpture, Rusconi blended elements from

Leo XI and Monnot's Innocent XI.

Algardi's

The

and

allegories

reveal

their position

on the

scrolls

Monnot's influence; from Algardi derive

monu-

the unrelieved whiteness of the whole

ment, the trapezoid sarcophagus with

relief,

of the deceased by their presence and actions,

'Courage' here raises

without

Rusconi's design

an

isolating

pedestal.

however, not a simple re-

is,

order to be

reform of the calendar. This implies

in the

meaning of

allegories, to

change

which we

shall

presently return.

The

and the idea of placing the seated pope on the

sarcophagus

a curtain in

able to study the relief celebrating Gregory's

history of papal

tombs continues with

those of Clement XII by Maini and Monaldi

in

the Cappella Corsini of the Lateran (1734)

petition of the pattern established by Algardi

and of Innocent XII by Filippo

and modified by Monnot. His monument

St Peter's (1746) [309], the former with a ten-

asymmetrically arranged

on the central

sit

is

the pope does not

nor do the allegories

axis,

dency towards

della Valle in

classicizing coolness, the latter

showing almost Rococo elegance.-- These monu-

follow the customary heraldic arrangement.-"

ments repeat the structure of papal tombs, by

The tomb was

then conventionalized from the type created by

as a

evidently

whole from one

composed
This

side.

is

to

be seen

proved not

Bernini

at

the height of the Catholic Restora-

only by the attitude and gesture of the blessing

tion as an adequate expression of papal power.

pope and the postures of the

In Rusconi's

allegories,

but also

by such

details as the direction given to the

realistic

dragon, the armorial animal of the

Buoncompagni. Moreover, 'Courage'

a

large

piece of drapery (the pall

covered the sarcophagus,

lifts

high

that

had

tomb of Alexander VII); viewed from

the

this

left,

309. Filippo della Valle:

Tomb

of Innocent XII, 1746.

Rome, St Peter's

motif taken from

Bernini's

which

work something of

dominating diagonal

creates a

links the allegory to the figure of the pope.

Rusconi composed
the passage

is

so

for the side

narrow that

view on the central axis

is

view because

comprehensive

not possible.

By taking

such issues into consideration and limiting himself to

one main view, Rusconi had recourse

principles

to

which we associate with Bernini

rather than Algardi.-'

The

High Baroque has

come

also

spirit

of Bernini's

to life again in the

powerful gesture of the blessing hand which

recalls the attitude of

Urban VIII.

If this

tomb

represents a rare synthesis of the classicizing

and Baroque tendencies of Algardi and Bernini,

successfully accomplished only in what

called Rusconi's 'heroic Late Baroque',

exhibits a

Whereas

new departure of
in

the older

have
it

yet

great importance.

tombs

allegories

were

personal attributes expressing particular virtues

BIBLOSARTE

this spirit

had

SCULPTURE

been kept

alive -

one might almost say

ana-

chronistically; for in the course of the seven-

the political influence of the

teenth centur}

Papacy had been gradually waning, and

this

is

443

the altar of the chapel in deep veneration.

The

type had been anticipated about sixty years

before by Bernini in the

though

[89]

it

tomb of Alexander VII

had not been followed

in

any of

reflected in the papal

monuments of the period.

Already Guidi's Clement IX in S. Maria

the later papal

Maggiore (1675) and Ferrata's Clement X in

St Peter's {c. 1685) had shown a considerably

an almost impersonal and eternal attitude of

weakened energy of the blessing gesture and

a shrinking of

volume;

though not without interruption,

della Valle

man

made

his

went on,

this process

until Filippo

Innocent XII a

fragile old

rather than the symbolic head of Chris-

tianity.

Shortly before, Pietro Bracci had re-

placed the ritualistic gesture by a purely

attitude.

human

His Benedict XIII on the tomb

Maria sopra Minerva (1734)

[310]-^^

is

in S.

kneeling pope shows an unshaken confidence,

prayer, Bracci portrayed his Benedict XIII as

man

ot a less stable constitution,

who seems

aware of the troubles of the human heart and

the frailty of man's existence.

Canova

to carry this

conclusion. In his

was

It

development

to

left

to a logical

tomb of Clement XIII (1788-

g2) he even discarded the customary Baroque

allegories.-^

What remains is the unheroic figure

of the custodian of Faith lost in deep prayer.

The

bare-

headed, sinks on one knee, and turns towards

tombs. But where Bernini's

series of papal

tombs represents the

most coherent group of Baroque monuments,

the high political character of which did not,

however, admit too many expressions of per310. Pietro Bracci and others:

Tomb

sonal idiosyncrasies either of patron or

of Benedict XIII,

1734. Rome, S. Maria sopra Minerva

On

the other hand, turning to the

artist.

tombs of the

higher and lower clergy, of aristocracy and

bourgeoisie,

immense. In

we

find that the variety of types

is

spite of the kaleidoscopic picture

some significant changes in the broad development from the seventeenth to the eighteenth
century can be discovered.

The

leading motif

tombs from about 1630 onwards is the figure

of the deceased represented in deep adoration,
in

turned towards the

altar.

This type of tomb

lived

on into the eighteenth century, but

ready

in the

al-

1670s and 80s such figures began

to lose their devotional fervour,

and during the

eighteenth century they appear more often than

not

like

rical

fashionable courtiers attending a theat-

performance.

nini's

comparison between Ber-

Fonseca bust [203] and Bernardo Ca-

metti's-^ bust of Giovan

Andrea Giuseppe Muti

Rome (1725) [311], illuminates

the change. On the opposite wall Cametti
represented Muti's much younger and equally
in S.

Marcello,

fashionable wife.

The whole chapel forms an

BIBLOSARTE

444

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

architectural and colouristic unit of a light and

and the new eighteenth-century

airy character,
spirit

is

expressed by the graceful

as perfectly

elegance of the worshippers behind their priedieus as was that of the seventeenth centur}' by

mystic devotees

profound contemplation.

in

Besides the kneeling worshipper, the seven-

knew the completely different

tomb which Bernini introduced in the
Valtrini and Merenda monuments. In the
teenth century

type of

former, a winged skeleton, seemingly flying

through space, carries

which

portrait in relief to

by

attention

medallion with the

it

directs the beholder's

reahty, that of the 'reaF skeleton

understand that

it

and

We are, as

'image' of the departed.

to

The tomb,

pointing gesture.

contains two diff^erent degrees of

therefore,

that of the

were, given

it

would be anachronistic

represent a dead person

'alive'

and that

to

his like-

ness can be preserved for us only in a portrayal.

new

This idea shows

conception

funeral

of

rational

approach

to the

monuments, and

its

occurrence simultaneously with the type of the

mystical worshipper

is

more revealing

for the

seventeenth-century dichotomy between reason

and

would

faith than

however,

at first

appear.

was

It

not,

end of the seventeenth

the

until

century that the medallion type began to gain

prominence, while
teenth century

it

with the deceased

end of

in the

course of the eigh-

entirely supplanted the

in

this process

belong tombs

low

seemed too

placed by a painted

realistic

S.

in

where even

delle Fratte (1746) [312],

relief

of

like that

Cardinal Calcagnini by Pietro Bracci,

Andrea

tomb

devotional attitude. At the

and

so

portrait-'' set in a

was

re-

pyramid

of Fame writes the

From about 1600 on-

on which

a flying figure

memorial

inscription.

wards the pyramid,-" the symbol of Eternity,

was used
in

of Giovan Andrea Giuseppe Muti,

1725. Rome, S. Marcello

tombs
Italy,

in ever-increasing

and soon also

numbers

in the rest

of

Europe; but the combination with the painted

311. Bernardo Cametti

Tomb

for

Rome and

portrait hardly ever occurred before the early

eighteenth century. Although in the personifi-

BIBLOSARTE

SCULPTURE

Fame

cation of

Bracci employed the traditional

Baroque language of forms, the

tombs

Baroque. What

is

of such

High

expressed through the para-

monument is the somememory of the

phernalia of Bracci's

what

spirit

very different from that of the

is

assurance that the

trite

deceased

will

be kept alive

in all eternity.

No

monument concerned with the

union of the soul with God - it is now purely
commemorative, a memorial made for the
longer

the

is

No longer can

living.

the 'dead' worshipper and

the beholder meet in the

same

memorative picture

far

sphere of life,
turn

in

is

The com-

reality.

removed from our

cannot step out of its frame and

it

adoration towards the

The magic

altar.

transformation of time and space was a thing of

We

the past.

are in the age of reason,

new approach

and the

the problem of death, an

to

approach much closer

to

our

own

than to that of

the broad current of the seventeenth century,

admitted neither the High Baroque conception

of space nor the more elaborate type of Baroque
allegory.

Allegory was, of course, not banned from

eighteenth-century monuments, but

went

a characteristic change.

cance.

home

was meant

to

convey

terms notions of general moral

signifi-

allegory, for
in visual

under-

it

High Baroque

all its

Though

realism,

its

realism aimed at pressing

convincingly the timeless message, the

allegory never acted out a scene.

This was

precisely the eighteenth-century procedure

consequentlv allegory

lost in

and

symbolical mean-

now

ing what

it

hands

coin to her child-companion, 'Dis-

gained

in actuality. 'Liberty'

interestedness' refuses with violent gestures to

accept any of the treasures from an overflowing

cornucopia, or 'Justice' orders the

little

bearer

of the fasces to carry his load to the place which

seems proper
coni's

tomb

to her.

of

We

'Courage' was engaged

in

XIII

Rusthat

an activity which lay

outside her allegorical vocation.

was turned

in

[308]

found even

Gregory

into genre, a visual

When

allegory

mode of express-

312. Pietro Bracci:

Tomb
1746.

of Cardinal Carlo Leopoldo Cakagnini,

Rome, S. Andrea

delle Fratte

BIBLOSARTE

445

44^1

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

ing abstract concepts

peculiar to the arts from

ancient times onwards - began to disintegrate.

similar

change may be observed

teenth-century religious imagery.

in

eigh-

poignant

incident replaced, whenever possible, the simple

part of the

own

in its

movement

must be valued

- all this

and not judged with Bernini's

right

work before one's mind. Such

trates

a figure illus-

extremely well the elegant French Rococo

Roman

trend in

sculpture of the mid eighteenth

When Michel-

century. Obviously this style was not possible

angelo Slodtz was commissioned to execute the

without Bernini's epoch-making achievement,

rendering of devotion and vision.

statue of St

Bruno

for

one of the niches of the

nave of St Peter's (1744) [313],-'' he chose for

representation the saint's dramatic refusal of the
bishop's mitre and

seems

to

staff.

but it stands in a similar relation to his work as did

Giambologna's refined Mannerism

Michel-

to

hundred years before.

angelo's temhilita two

Interest in the episode

weaken the supra-personal content.

SCULPTURE OUTSIDE ROME

This does not mean, of course, that Slodtz's

statue lacks quality.
saint's

The

graceful curve of the

body, the elegant sweep of his cowl, the

precious gesture as well as the putto

who forms

In contrast to the flowering of Baroque painting

in

many

regions of Italy throughout the seven-

teenth century,
ture that
rest

its

it is

peculiar to Baroque sculp-

wide dissemination

in Italy

and the

of Europe coincides with the waning of the

High Baroque
that

Rome.

in

It

has been mentioned

no coherent school of High Baroque sculp-

Rome. But from the late

we find hundreds

ture existed outside

seventeenth century onwards

of

names of sculptors and

plastic

works

over

all

scores of thousands of

As

Italy.

Rome

before,

remained the centre - different from the develop-

ment
tor

in the

other

endeavoured

arts.

Every provincial sculp-

to receive his training there or,

failing that, in the school of a

worked

in a

Rome

studio.

The

master w ho had
artistic

pedigree

of most provincial sculptors leads back, directly

or indirectly, to Bernini; he

was the ancestor of

the largest school of sculptors that ever existed.

However, no attempt can here be made

even

to give

vague impression of the diffusion

Berninesque idiom. In

of the

fact the details of this

story are, with few exceptions, of no

more than

marginal interest.
It

characterizes the situation that

customary

for

portance to be placed
Vittorio

Amedeo

II

Superga with large

313. Michelangelo Slodtz: St Bruno, 1744.
Rome, St Peter's

it

remained

commissions of outstanding im-

Rome. Thus, when

in

wanted

reliefs,

to decorate the

he turned to

Rome

and placed the work with Cornacchini and

Cametti, the former born

BIBLOSARTE

in

Tuscany, the

latter

SCULPTURE

Piedmontese, and both

the height of their

at

reputation in about 1730.

Httle earlier, the

(d.

We

monks of Montecassino asked Roman and not

Neapohtan sculptors

to carry out their vast

programme; masters

sculptural

Legros and

Campi,

his collaborator Pier Paolo

Francesco Moratti, and Maini worked

Needless to say,

popes

Ottoni,

like

many

so were

were carved

portrait busts

tombs commissioned not only from

Italy but also

them.

the memorial statues of

all

for cities of the papal state

Rome, and

for

in

and
over

all

Roman

by foreign admirers of

1798),

who brought about

Neo-classicism

in

in

have seen

Lombardy

like

the change to

Florence.

how Late Mannerist

lived

on

Giuseppe Rusnati

(d.

And

yet at the

beginning

end of the seventeenth and the

Italian centres

had sculptors who were capable

taste.

1713), the pupil of

Rome and teacher of Camillo Rusconi,

the situation had changed. Rusnati's Elijah on

the exterior of Milan Cathedral looks like an
anticipation of Rusconi's ^7

Matthew

Simonetta

the

while

seems

have come under the influence of

to

Carlo

form the transition

to the lighter

eighteenth century.

(d.

1693)

rhythm of the

This process may have

begun with Francesco Zarabatta and can be

Rome.

distinguished Florentine sculptor of

the period, Ferrata's pupil Giovanni Battista

Foggini (1652-1737),^" introduced to his native

city a style

which combined

details reminiscent

of his teacher with the discursive painterly

compositions characteristic of Guidi's work."

Cappella Corsini

in the

Carmine (1677-

AnnunRome, one would regard

91) [3 14] and his Cappella Feroni in SS.

ziata (169 1 -3)
as

were

in

somewhat exaggerated products of that

rather crude, patchy, crowded, and disorderly

manner which we

associate with the

first

phase

of the Late Baroque. In Florence, however,

these chapels are the high-water

nesque

sculpture.*-

Ferrata

mark of Bern i-

also

instructed

Massimiliano Soldani (1656, not 58, -1740),

who

in

Lateran,

These artists kept

abreast of the stylistic development in

The most

most

century

eighteenth

of the

of satisfying up-to-date

them

second

With sculptors

Puget.'" Other slightly younger masters per-

art.-'"

If his

traditions

virtually into the

half of the seventeenth century.

Ferrata in

447

led

bronze

to

of working in

the

native

new

heights; his rich ceuvre has been

tradition

masterly reconstructed by K. Lankheit.'*

The

older sculptors of Foggini's school were medi-

ocre talents.*^

The

best

among

his

younger

pupils was Giovanni Baratta (1670 1747), a

member

of the great family of sculptors from

Carrara; in his painterly Baroque a typically

Florentine reserve
pupil of the

Roman

may be

detected.*'' It

was

Maini, Innocenzo Spinazzi

314. Giovanni Battista Foggini:

The Mass of S.

.Andrea Corsini, 1685-91.

Florence, Chiesa del

Carmine

BIBLOSARTE

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

448

followed to the Late Baroque charm of Carlo

and stayed

Francesco Mellone

Bernini's and Cortona's style in

(d.

1736), to the easy ele-

gance of Carlo Beretta, and the typically mid-

works

eighteenth-century fragility of Elia Vincenzo

and

Buzzi.^'

But

this has

more than

master

toni

it

cannot be maintained that

in his

all

strictly limited interest.^**

own

right

was Andrea Fan-

from Rovetta (1659-1734) who worked

exclusively in the provinces. His

fessional in S.

wooden con-

Maria Maggiore, Brescia,

as his celebrated pulpit in S.

Martino

at

and flying

Italian

Rococo quality and

matched by anything produced

period

in

at

same

Parodi (1630- 1702), Genoa's

Cappella Franzoni in S. Carlo. In 1661 the

French sculptor Pierre Puget

settled in

Genoa

years with Bernini (1655-61),'" and on his re-

Genoa met

to

of the 1660s and 70s

flavour.

Tomb

Puget an

in

S.

High Baroque
emotional and

Martha.

Maria

with

to the

sensitive style of Melchiorre Caff a

(see his Ecstasy of St

artist

Some of his works

have

still

They correspond

S.

and Raggi

Marta, Genoa,

Carignano); he often

di

( Virgin and Child, S.

Genoa) which occasionally endows his

introduced a graceful note

Carlo,

works with an un-Roman, rather French

gance. Later, in his

Morosini
315. Filippo Parodi:

and greatest

first

native Baroque sculptor; he had studied for six

and St John,

Milan.

The impact of the Roman High Baroque first

came to Genoa through Algardi's work for the

in that

But even more important was Filippo

city.'"

tendencies similar to his own.

the

his

of expression had a decisive influence

on the formation of a school of sculptors

Alzano

are probably un-

Rome, and

Berninesque vigour

turn

have an almost un-

putti,

their

as well

Maggiore, both richly decorated with statues,

reliefs,

He had absorbed

years.

six

Genoa with

at

fire

for

ele-

tomb of Bishop Francesco

1678) in S. Nicolo da Tolentino at

(d.

Venice, he combines recollections of Bernini

of Bishop Francesco Morosini, 1678. Detail.

Venice, S. Niculo da Tolenlinn

with proto-Rococo features [315] not unlike

the style of the

Roman

Filippo Carcani. At the

same time, the picturesque composition of

tomb

is

characteristic of the

new

this

tendencies of

the Late Baroque.^'

Filippo Parodi was the

further

man

of destiny for the

development of Genoese sculpture.

Among his pupils were Angelo de'

we found working

in

Ponsonelli (1651-1735)
to

Venice and Padua,

Rossi

(whom

Rome), Giacomo Antonio

who accompanied him

Domenico (1668-

his son

1740), sculptor, painter, and architect, and the

two

Schiaffino.^-

Bernardo Schiaffino (1678-

1725) and his younger brother Francesco (16891765) gave the style the lighter eighteenth-

century touch of the Rusconi school. In

and

after his

the latter's
serpina

great

to

model the celebrated Pluto and Pro-

group of the Palazzo Reale.^' The

name

sculptors

fact,

Rome, studied with Rusconi,

return to Genoa executed from

Francesco went

is

last

of the Genoese school of Baroque

Bernardo Schiaffino's pupil Fran-

BIBLOSARTE

3i6.

Giuseppe Mazza: St Dominic baptizing,

c\

1720. Venice,

SS.

Gwiunm

I'.

BIBLOSARTE

450

LATE BAROQUt AND ROCOCO

cesco Qucirolo {1704 62). But he hardly ever

worked

in his native city.

He soon went

to

Rome

where he spent some time in Giuseppe Rusconi's

studio and also had independent commissions
he was called to Naples to take

until, in 1752,

coming down from

proved by his masterpiece, the

bronze

Genoa

had a flourishing school

also

of woodcarvers/ but

was only Anton Maria

it

'

Maragliano (1664 1739) who raised

tradition to the level of high art.

popular

He

often

worked from designs of his teacher, the painter

Domenico

Piola.

The

style of his

many

multi-

figured pictorial groups

is

close to that of the

knew how

to

combine the expres-

Schiaffino he
:

sion of ecstatic devotion with true

Sculpture
too.

The

wood had

in

principal

Rococo

home

Baroque sculpture

ious development of almost two hundred years

comes

Next

to

Francesco Ladatte (1706-87),^" who studied

in

period with which

we

are concerned.

Paris and was entirely acclimatized to France

but was appointed court sculptor

1745, the most distinguished

an end. Just as in the history of Vene-

to

in

names

Turin

in

are those of

was broken, and

tian painting, the continuity

hardly

bridge exists to later Seicento sculpture.

only

sculptors arose only towards the end of the

Girolamo

1623) belong to a history of

(d.

half of the century

strange that a local school of

1608),

(d.

Campagna

his

it is

1607), and even

sixteenth-century sculpture; with them a glor-

popular Late Baroque

Turin,

Venice does not begin

(d.

tagliata

in

fully

Tiziano .^spetti

first

century. In view of the architectural develop-

is

monumental
Domenico in

six

teenth century, .\lessandro Vittoria

Giuseppe Plura (1655-1737)^^ and Stefano

Maria Clemente (1719-94) who continued a

ment

in

The

eighteenth

a classicism

middle or second half of the seven-

until the

Piedmont

far into the

is

of the Cappella di S.

reliefs

were Carlo

in

practitioners

grace.

it

SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice [316].'"

part in the sculptural decoration of the Cappella

Sansevero.

.Algardi, but

drained of High Baroque vigour. This

name of

distinction belonging to the

is

that of Nicolo

Rocca-

(1539- 1636) who, Genoese by birth,

was thoroughly acclimatized

many bronzes

to Venice; but in

he adhered faithfully to the

older tradition and even reverted to Jacopo

Sansovino,

in

other words to pre-Vittoria ten-

dencies in Venetian sculpture.^'

Up-to-date ideas reached Venice belatedly

through two different channels:

first,

through

coming from North of the Alps,"" and

secondly through Italians who, for longer or

sculptors

shorter periods, resided in Venice.

Of the

latter,

Giovanni Battista Bernero (1736-96) and of the

both the Genoese Filippo Parodi and the Bolo-

brothers Ignazio (1724-93) and Filippo Col-

gnese Giuseppe Mazza have been mentioned;

but most of their work belongs to the

they exerted a strong influence on further events

lini;^'

history of Neo-classicism.

Bologna had a

in

first-rate sculptor

generation in Giuseppe

Mazza

Venice which

of Rusconi's

gated.

653-1 741),

artists

(i

is

not yet sufficiently investi-

The most vigorous among the northern

who settled in Venice was Josse de Corte

fused the general stylistic

(1627-79), in Italy called GiustoCort or Lecurt,

tendencies with local traditions. His Late Baro-

who was born at Ypres and, after a stay in Rome,

made Venice his home from 1657 onwards.

who harmoniously

que classicism has nothing of

Roman

and the emotional moderation of

veals that he had

in

re-

many

statues

and

stucco, marble, and bronze, to be

found not only

Ferrara,

work

imbibed the 'academic' atmo-

sphere of Bologna. In his

reliefs

his

grandeur

in his native city

but also

Modena, Pesaro, and above

all

at

Venice,

he appears to perpetuate the classical current

Many

of his

numerous works

by Longhena, who seems

to

to

any other sculptor. His

are for buildings

have preferred him

style

may

best be

studied in Longhena's S. Maria della Salute

where Giusto's rich sculptural decoration of the

high altar (1670) [317] perpetuates in marble
the

theme of the dedication of the church:

BIBLOSARTE

317- Josse de Corte

The Queen of Heaven expelling the Plague, 1 670. Venue. S. Maria

BIBLOSARTE

delta Salute, high altar

452

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

'Venice' kneels as a suppliant before the Virgin

who appears on

clouds while the horrifying

personification of the 'Plague' takes to flight,

Though

gesticulating wildly.

tableau vivant

is

we have

sense which

in the

the style of this

Baroque

characteristically Late

indicated in these

pages, the soft surface realism, the almost Gothic

brittleness of the picturesque drapery,

weakness
his

composition give

in

works

distinctly

detail like that of

note

is

De

shown

Flemish quality. In

Clemente

all'Isola

as illustration 318, this

Flemish

in S.

very obvious.'*'
Corte's collaborators and pupils con-

manner

tinued his
1700.

and the

and others of

one of the caryatids from the

Morosini monument
(1676),

this

to a certain extent until after

Among them

were

artists

of considerable

merit, such as Francesco Cavrioli from Treviso

(who worked

in

Venice between

Penso,

Francesco

called

645 and 1 685),

Cabianca

(1665?-

1737)1" Orazio Marinali (1643-1720)," and

others. These sculptors, together with some
foreigners,^^

were responsible

the

for

rich

sculptural decoration of the exterior of S. Maria

della Salute. Profuse sculptural decoration of

church fa9ades became fashionable from Tre-

mignon's

S.

Moise on. Giuseppe Sardi's facades

of S. Maria del Giglio (1678-83) and of the

Chiesa degli Scalzi

( 1

672-80) as well as Domeni-

co Rossi's fa9ades of S. Stae and the Chiesa dei

Gesuiti (1714-29; executed by G. B. Fattoretto)
and Massari's Chiesa dei Gesuati (1724-36) are
characteristic examples.

sions

the

required.

For

collaboration of

The

large Valier

all

commis-

these

many hands was

monument in SS.

Giovanni e Paolo, designed by Tirali

and the fa9ade of

S.

in 1705,

Stae of 1709 give a good

idea of the position at the beginning of the

eighteenth century.

born

318. Josse de Corte:

Atlas from the Morosini

Monument,

Venice, S. Clemente all'Isola

1676.

in the

1660s

It

was mainly sculptors

who were

responsible for the

and refresh-

somewhat bombastic,

painterly,

ingly unprincipled Late

Baroque of these monu-

ments." Most of us no longer have the eye

see

and savour the magnificent scenic

BIBLOSARTE

to

spirit that

SCULPTURE

created the tightly intertwined group balancing

precariously free in space

upon an enormous

bracket high above the portal of S. Stae.

Twenty

years later the situation had changed.

The sculptors born in the

i68os and 90s brought

about a refined and serene

quite independent

style parallel to,

but

the Filippo della Valle

of,

style in Rome. The transition to the

new manner may be observed in such works as

and Bracci

the Cappella del Rosario in SS. Giovanni e

Paolo (1732)
(1736).^'' It

or

the

facade of the Gesuati

was mainly three

the change depended.

The

artists

on

whom

oldest of them,

Antonio Corradini" (1668- 1752), belongs to

the generation of the well-known Andrea Brus(1662- 1 732), who never broke away
from the early phase of the international Late
Baroque. Corradini began in this manner, to
tolon^**

which he

still

adhered

in

his

monument

Marshal von der Schulenburg^7 18.

But

Maria

del

in

of

Corfu of

his allegory of Virginity [319] in S.

Carmine, Venice, of 172 1, shows the

new idiom. This style is precious, harking back
not to antiquity but to Alessandro Vittoria is,

in

it

other words, a sentimental revival of the

Venetian brand of Late Mannerism. Corradini's

neo-Cinquecentistno even led

him back

to

San-

sovino {Archangel Raphael and Sarah

at

but he combined

a typically

this

archaism with

Udine),

post-Berninesque virtuosity of marble treatment."" If my analysis

is

correct,

one cannot re-

gard this style as an anticipation of Canova.

A similar development may be observed with

Giovanni

Marchiori (1696- 1778) and Gian

Maria Morlaiter (1699-1781)."' Only fairly

more than

recently

hundred bozzetti from

Mbrlaiter's studio were discovered

their style,

highly sensitive, ranges from a light imaginative

touch

like

might be
Tiepolo

to

German Rococo and from what

called a sculptural interpretation of

an elegant classicism comparable to

the early Canova. Marchiori, the pupil of Andrea

Brustolon, developed towards a refined 'classicist

Rococo'

after

neo-Cinquecentesque

319. Antonio Corradini:

Virginity, 1721.
Venice, S.

Maria

del

Carmine

BIBLOSARTE

453

454

LATK fJAROQUF. AND ROCOCO

320. Giovanni Marchiori; David, 1743.

Venice, S. Rocco

phase. Although his style seems to contain

the formal elements of Neo-classicism,

all
is

it

again precious and picturesque and not unlike

Serpotta's. This

is

It

(1743).
in

his figures of St

shown by

Ccciha and David [320]

in S.

Rocco, Venice

appears, then, that the general trend

Venetian sculpture

is

close to that in Venetian

painting. Also in sculpture

is

the eighteenth

century more specifically Venetian than the

seventeenth,

and

this

'home-coming'

was

achieved by reviving the local tradition of Vittoria

and Jacopo Sansovino.

and notorious monument of the
Neapolitan Baroque is the Cappella San-

The
late

great

severo de' Sangri, called Pietatella, founded in

1590, continued in the seventeenth century,

and decorated for Raimondo del Sangro between

1749 and 1766.'- There were older monuments
in the chapel,

but they were entirely eclipsed by

the rich sculptural decoration of the eighteenth

century. At this time the chapel was transformed

into

Valhalla of the

veritable

del

Sangro

family, but the allegorical statues before the

pillars

overshadow the medallion

portraits of

the dead to such an extent that the beholder

doubt

as to the

Nothing

is left

in

of the spiritual unity of the great

Roman Baroque
monuments

is

primary function of the place.

churches and chapels, and the

excel

by virtue of

their technical

bravura rather than through Christian spirituality.

Emphatically Late Baroque

in character,

the chaotic and unrelated impression of the

chapel seems closer to the mentality of the nine-

teenth than that of the eighteenth century.

Queirolo and Corradini, the main contributors
to the sculptural decoration,

tioned.

The former

is

have been men-

responsible for the group

of the Disingamo [321], representing a personification of the human mind in the shape of a

winged angel who liberates a nude man, the

personification of humanity, from the entangle-

BIBLOSARTE

321. Francesco Queirolo: Allegory of 'Deception

Unmasked',

after 1750. Naples. Cappella Sansevero de'

BIBLOSARTE

Sangri

45^

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

merit

ot

symbolically significant

the

deception.

With such

only by other tours de force

we have reached

which

a work,

net

the end of a development.

While Bernini used realism and surface

ment

of

matched

same chapel,

the

in

is

refine-

express convincingly the ethics of the

to

Catholic Restoration, here the shallow symbolical

genre seems to be a pretext for a display of

technical bravura.

trophic virtuosity

Corradini's Chastity, where

is

piece of similar hyper-

the thin veil through which the

as if

body

is

visible

The

nude, belies the theme of the figure."

same device was imitated by the

prolific

seppe Sammartino (i720.'-93.')

in

lying under the

Shroud

contemporary

Francesco

among

1814) executed,

crowded

relief

cluding the

(1753).''^

Sammartino's

Celebrano

(1729-

others, the heavy

of the Pieta over the

stylistic

Giu-

his Christ

altar,

and
con-

epoch which began with

garden

There

at Versailles.

portant

however, an im-

is,

group stood

Girardon's

difference.

originally not in a cave of natural rock (executed

by Hubert Robert, 1778) but under an isolating

The figures in
They seem

canopy.

landscape.

open rocks; water,

figures

combine

Superficially

to

move

freely over the

woods, rocks, and

hill,

Arcadian ensemble.

in a great

might seem that Bernini's prin-

it

had been carried

ciples of sculpture
fullest

Caserta form part of the

conclusion - that this

is

not so

The
laid

cascade

is

has gone into giving an appearance of reality

the groups of Diana and Actaeon are, in
tableaux vivants,'"' and

we know we

which show

part of an old tradition of popular

polychrome

seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Naples

connected with

has pride of place.'" These cribs, often consist-

circle

is

and the garden too with

is

of making Christmas cribs; they form

Baroque achieve-

the last great

fountains. Caserta follows the example of Ver-

and parterres

art

sculpture and, though they were created in

many

Rome,

ment of the Neapolitan

sailles,

few words must be added about the pictur-

end of the eighteenth

century. ""^
in

fact,

are specta-

tors, not participants.

As

we cannot

help being very conscious of the artifice which

esque

style right to the

to

nicely terraced, the approach

out with ruler and square, and

Celebrano had many other notable commissions

que

due

the lack of seriousness and organic integration.

Guidi's relief compositions. Sammartino and

that they retained their Late Baro-

to their
is

long avenues

its

fashioned after this model,

towns particularly during the

Italian

ing of hundreds of small, even tiny, figures,

gaily

dressed

and

placed

realistic architecture

in

painstakingly

and landscape, are the

last

although an English landscape garden was added

buoyant descendant from the medieval miracle

Even the mythological

plays; this truly popular art of vivid narrative

at a late date

(1782).

programme of

the nineteen fountains, planned

by Vanvitelli from 1752 onwards, is reminiscent

of Versailles. What was eventually carried out
(1776-9) under Luigi's son Carlo

is

much

less

power and intense

liveliness

developed into a

great industry requiring the specialized

many

skill

Even sculptors of repute

hands.

Celebrano, Vaccaro, Sammartino, and Matteo

work in

modest

elaborate than the original projects, but the

Bottiglieri did not hesitate to

fountains which exist surpass in extent and

medium.

grandeur anything that had been done

nism between the boundless realism of

before.

There

are,

above

groups of Diana and Actaeon

great cascade [322].
classical,

in Italy

the multi-figured

all,

at

both sides of the

These elegant, pseudo-

white marble figures play out their

roles as if in a

pantomime,

in a

way

ately recalls Girardon's Apollo

that

immedi-

group

in the

of

like

It is

significant that there

this

is

no antagotheir

small figures for cribs and the virtuosity of their

works

in

marble. Their monumental sculpture

may perhaps appear

no more and no

less

in a

new

zation of a style which has

popular traditional

BIBLOSARTE

light if regarded as

than the sophisticated

art.

its

reali-

roots in an old and

322. Luigi Vanvitelli: Caserta, Castle.

The

great cascade,

c.

1776

BIBLOSARTE

45^

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

one great boast during

Sicily's

the sculptor

this period

was

Giacomo Serpotta (1656-1732), an

exact contemporary of Camillo Rusconi. Ser-

now

potta appears to us

meteor

as an isolated figure, a

This

in the Sicilian sky.

consistent

w ith

is

probably not

the historical facts.

after the fifteenth-

true that

It is

and sixteenth-century work

Lombardy,

of the Gaggini, immigrants from

had no great sculptors. There were, how-

Sicily

ever, local schools throughout the seventeenth

century working primarily

and masters

like

in

wood and

Tommaso and

stucco,

Orazio Ferraro,

active at the turn of the sixteenth to the se\ cn-

teenth

century,

foreshadowed

reached with Serpotta's

tion alone

activity.

climax

the

But

would perhaps not have

that tradisufficed to

develop Serpotta's genius. Although a stay

Rome

is

in

not documented, there are sufficient

indications'^ that he spent a few years there in

youth and so studied sculpture

his

fountain-head. His

mo

1682

in

in

name

first

appears

at

the

in Paler-

connexion with the equestrian

cast in

German Emperor and King

Of this statue, which was
bronze by Gaspare Romano from Ser-

potta's

model and destroyed

statue of Charles II,

of Spain and Sicily.

cast survives (Trapani,

that

Serpotta was an

in 1848, a small

Museum), which shows

artist

conversant with
in

Mad-

rid as well as with Bernini's Constantine.

Soon

Pietro Tacca's

monument

of Philip

IV

afterwards, with the decoration of the Oratory

of S. Lorenzo at Palermo (1687 ?-q6?) he in-

augurated that long series of church interiors

where he covered the walls with stucco

and

The

it is

for these decorations that he

is

figures,

famed.

highlights of his later activity- are the

decoration of S. Orsola (i6g6;

much

ruined and

badly restored); the Chiesa dell'Ospedale dei

Sacerdoti (1698; partly executed by
Castelli); the

Museo

Domenico

Chiesa delle Stimmate {1700,

now

Nazionale, Palermo); the Oratories of S.

Cita (begun 1686-8, continued 1717-18, execution partly

by Domenico

Castelli), del

Rosario

323.

Giacomo Serpotta: Courage,

Palentui, S. Ddmeiiiai.

BIBLOSARTE

Oratuno

17 14

17.

del Rosario

SCULPTURE

in S.

Domenico

(17 14- 17), and di S. Caterina

airOlivella {1722-6); and the churches of S.

Francesco d'Assisi

and

(1723)

Agostino

S.

(1726-8, with the help of pupils).

Roman

His figures are often reminiscent of

some

are extremely elongated, elegant,

and nioiivemente; others follow antique proto-

Neoimbued

types so closely that they look almost

classical.

All of them, however, are

with a delicacy and

fragility, a

simple sensual

charm and grace far removed from the dynamic

power of the Roman High Baroque. Possibly
nowhere

has Italian sculpture

else

close to a true

Rococo

spirit [323].

come

so

Serpotta was

master of the putto; playing, laughing,

a great

weeping,

flying,

and tumbling, they accompany

every one of his decorations, spreading a cheerful

and

figures

atmosphere.

festive

show

If his individual

connexion with

Rome,

the

context in which they are placed does not. As a

rule,

peep-show. This,

his principle of organization

is

simple:

producing

the effect of a rich and diffused pattern.

part

often formed by deeply re-

which tiny

to Sicily. In the

with a bias towards dressing them

grammes of
than

less

figures appear as if

in

contem-

gories

grew more rather

his decorations

complicated, and his charming

show

that to the

alle-

end he remained deeply

steeped in Baroque cnnceltismo.

None

collaborator

his

comes

of his Sicilian contemporaries

anywhere near equalling

his quality,

Domenico

neither

Castelli,

whose

figures entirely lack Serpotta's grace, nor his

son Procopio
tion

who

carried on the paternal tradi-

nor even contemporary masters of some

merit like

Carlo dWprile and

Messina, although the

latter's

Vincenzo

di

stuccoes in the

church of Partanna (1698) reveal something of

Serpotta's spirit.

With

Serpotta's school the

particular Sicilian expression of the Late Bar-

97),'"

reliefs in

un-Roman

porary costume. At the same time the pro-

oque came

to cover the walls like creepers,

ceding

entirely

an increase in the realism of his figures, coupled

the stuccoes - statues, reliefs, and decoration -

is

is

which the Gaggini had brought

seem

of this pattern

too,

and evidently continues the Lombard tradition

course of his development Serpotta tended to

Baroque sculpture, some of Raggi, others of

Ferrata;

in a

459

to

an end. Ignazio Marabitti (1710-

the last great Sicilian sculptor of the

Baroque, closely imitated his master Filippo

della Valle,

and maintained

end of the century.

BIBLOSARTE

this

manner

to the

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTER

IQ

PAINTING

INTRODUCTION

zigzag compositions which are precariously 'an-

chored' along the lower edge of the picture,

The history of Italian eighteenth-century

ing

paint-

above all, the history of Venetian painting.

is,

Better

known than almost any

period and school

through elegant and elongated types of figures

mind

calling to

the Mannerist Jigura serpen-

through the gallant or voluptuous or

tinata,

discussed in this book, the names of Sebastiano

arcadian or even flippant interpretation of their

Ricci and Piazzetta, Canaletto and Guardi, not

subjects

to

mention the greatest genius, Giambattista

happened

in

Venice

during the 1720s and 30s, the leading

Roman

while

all

this

Tiepolo, immediately evoke lively associations.

and Bolognese masters continued

their feeble

fairly

thorough treatment of this school alone

would have gone

far

posal; nor could

beyond the space

have added

at

my dis-

to the researches

of such pioneers as G. Fiocco, R. Pallucchini,

and others,

to

whose works the reader must be

The

referred for further guidance.

painting of the period

outside Venice

- a

is

history of

so rich in talents also

few of the

and many of

first

Late Baroque

They

century.

far into the

to practise

eighteenth

believed themselves to be the

legatees of the great Italian tradition and looked

with scorn upon

was

felt

may be

its

perversion.

How

deeply this

gathered from the anti-Rococo

cry raised in 1733 by .\ntonio Balestra (16661740).

Himself trained by Maratti, but

practis-

ing mainly in Venice, he wrote from a position

the second rank - that any attempt at doing

of eminence: 'AH the present evil derives from

them

start

condemned

in the

Foreword,

was from the

pointed out

chosen

most

compass of

justice within the

fail.

the

As

have

working from the imagination without having

have therefore

This course, moreover, seemed

because

England assumed

it

was then that France and

a leading position

Venetian painting and

apart from

few events

in

other

centres, the Italian contribution ceases to be a

major factor in the intra-European development.

As

far as the histor\'

of painting

is

concerned,

the seventeenth century was by and large a

'dark' century.
a

Roughly between 1660 and 1680

change came about and

a trend

pernicious habit, generally accepted, of

book

to discuss eighteenth-century painting

cursorily.

justified

to

this

towards the

learned

first

maxims.

come
In

Rococo painting through

derived from a
colours, through

luminosity

new scale of airy, transparent

new patterns of undulating or

after

good models

where such study

is

derided

Bologna, however, some

artists

had followed

much

to realize that they

too long the well-trodden path of the 'good

maxims' which were,

in

fact,

formulae of the Late Baroque.

revolt (G.

M.

the worn-out

Few dared

to

Crespi), others sought salvation

return to the great models of the past, doing

precisely

tion to

draw

and obnoxious.''

Rome and

began

in a

transi-

to

accordance with the good

longer does one see young artists

to a point

as useless

Tiepolo and the Rococo masters of the Venetian

While Venice accomplished the

No

in

studying the antique; on the contrary, we have

lightening of the palette began, culminating in

school.

how

and compose

what Balestra had despaired of Their

proto-Neo-classicism,

first

noticeable in

Rome

from about 1715 on, was far from a clear-cut

decision. Nor was the break with the Baroque
tradition

brought about by the new and broader

BIBLOSARTE

462

AND ROCOCO

LATI, BAROQL'K

wave of proto-Neo-classicisni which began in

Epitomized in the figure of Anton
1 740s.

the

Raphael Mengs,

Late Baroque classicism

this

tbund an echo throughout the peninsula and

even

Venice, where the

in

late

some contact with

reflect

manner of artists

Amigoni, and Pittoni seems

like Piazzetta,

to

move-

the all-Italian

ment. In the end, disastrous results followed

wake of the academic,

in the

and

from

painting derived

new type of

fresco-

fusion of Venetian

colourism with Pietro da Clortona's grand

ner,

which on

its

part

owed much of its

man-

vitality

Venice (p. 253 flf). This synthesis of Rome

and Venice was accomplished by the prodigious
to

Luca Giordano (1634

1705),-

who must be

although most of his work belongs to the seven-

Neo-classicism

it

kill

itself.

teenth century.

of proto-Neo-classicism and

artist,

Italy

in

were primarily con-

cerned with the restoration of the theory and

practice of the grand manner, which had outits

ti\e painting. Briefly, the

contribution

of grand decora-

tradition, but the perennial tradition

The champions

lay,

vital

to the future course

regarded as the quintessence of the new epoch

of Italian painting

lived

was made

the

Not only did

classicizing reform.

Baroque

rationalistic,

Naples that the most

also in

day.

The

present as well as the future

however, with those masters

had attacked, those who

tried

whom Balestra
more

or

less

successfully to discard the ballast of the grand

historical style. It

was they who committed the

The

prototype of the itinerant

down Italy, worked

Rome, Florence, Venice, and Bergamo, and
for ten years was court painter in Madrid (16921702). The speed with which he produced his
he travelled up and

in

grand improvisations was proverbial ('Luca Fa

Presto').

Perhaps the

first

virtuoso in the eigh-

teenth-century sense, he considered the whole

past an open book to be used

purposes.

He

for

his

own

studied Diirer as well as Lucas

of the

van Leyden, Rubens as well as Rembrandt,

they destroyed clear

Ribera as well as Veronese, Titian as well as

contours and plastic form, and implicitly the

Raphael, and was capable of painting in any

capital sin against the letter

great

tradition

in

that

customary concept of

and the

finish.

own

looked back to their

spirit

Naturally, they

tradition: the old

contrast between Venice and

Rome, between

colour and design, also adumbrates the events

of the eighteenth century.

They crowned

the

work of the Seicento masters di tocco, for they

painted with short, rapid, and often nervous
brush-strokes and obliterated the clear borderline

between sketch and execution.

foregone

conclusion

which helped

that

this

It

seems

development,

Italian painting secure a last spell

of international importance, took place in Venice

rather than in the centres where the fetishes of
plastic

form and of the

classical tradition

could

manner he
played with
to one,

and

all

He

traditions rather than being tied

his personal

manner

is

always un-

mistakable. Whatever he did, his light touch

and the brio and verve of

his

performance

carry conviction, while his unproblematical and

joyous interpretation of subjects anticipates the

spirit

of the eighteenth century. Clearly, the

purpose of painting
330]. In

Rome and

for

him was delight

[324,

Venice his influence became

extraordinarily strong, and on the international

stage the effect of his art can hardly be over-

estimated.
politan

never be discarded.

chose. But he never copied, a fact

noticed by his contemporaries (Solimena).

He immensely

attracted his

Nea-

successors by his typically southern

grandiloquent manner and telling rhetoric, qualities

NAPLES AND ROME

In the seventeenth century Naples had
as an art centre of

one associates with the next

grand decorative painting

emerged

primary importance.

It

was

fifty

years of

in his native city.'

Luca's heir-apparent was Francesco Soli-

mena (1657- 1747),' who headed

BIBLOSARTE

the Neapolitan

324.

Luca Giordano: Triumph of Judith,

1704. Fresco. Naples, S. Marlltw, Cappella del Tesoro

BIBLOSARTE

464

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

school unchallenged during the

first

half of the

From

the latter stem the brownish

much

mark of

shadows of

eighteenth century. Next to Luca Giordano

his figures - as

and Cortona, Lanfranco and Preti exercised

the most formative influence upon his work.

vivid modulation, the flickering patterning of

325. Francesco Solimena:

The

Fall of

Simon Magus,

his style as the

the picture plane, and, in his later work, the

1690. Fresco. Naples, S. Paolo Maggiore

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING

somewhat pompous elegance

his

of

figures.

Although carefully constructed, many of

make

multi-figured compositions

his

the impres-

sion of an inextricable melee, in line with the

general tendencies of the Late Baroque I325]/

But
by

if

one takes the trouble of surveying figure

their studied

figure,

manner

is

evident, and

poses and academic

it is

easy to distinguish

conventional and even canonical figures and

groups deriving from such acknowledged

sical authorities as

chino,

he settled

in

Rome, Giaquinto

joined

pupil of Solimena, Sebastiano

1764),"'"

who,

after Maratti's

Conca (1679-

and Luti's deaths,

W 9M

clas-

and even Raphael.'' In studying the

have found

This

a similar discursive

rationalistic

approach

we

to the

tendency was nourished

own Academy, which became

of Neapolitan artistic life. Number-

Solimena's

in

the centre

painters

less

foremost

were here educated,

among them Francesco de Mura (1696- 1784),

Corrado Giaquinto (1703-65), and Giuseppe
latter, who ended his

Bonito (1707-89).' The

Academy,

career as Director of the Neapolitan

is

now remembered

less for his rather

academic grand manner than

genre pieces

(p. 495).

Solimena worked
yet

dreary

popular

for his

in

Naples

became one of the most

all

his

influential

life,

and

European

painters; after Maratti's death and before the

rise

of Tiepolo's star he had no peer. His repu-

tation secured large

his pupils.

De Mura

commissions abroad

for

did his best work as court

painter in Turin (Palazzo Reale, 1741-3). Gia-

quinto spent

many

Rome

(1723-53),

as court

painter in

years in

and succeeded Amigoni

Madrid (1753-61) where he was also appointed

Director of the Academy of San Fernando; he
left

Madrid upon

the arrival of Mengs.** Gia-

quinto was a more subtle

frigid

artist

than the often

de Mura." Although both used typically

eighteenth-century light and transparent colours, only Giaquinto carried Neapolitan paint-

ing over into a Rococo phase, and

work

is

stylistically

parallel to

Boucher's

some of

and qualitatively
in

France [326].'"

his

a close

465

the studio of an older Neapolitan painter and

Annibale Carracci, Domeni-

architecture and sculpture of the period

past.

When

326. Corrado Giaquinto:

Minerva presenting Spain

to Jupiter

Oil sketch for a ceiling,

1751,

now

c.

and Juno.

in the Palazzo Sanseverino, Rome.

London. National Gallery

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING

Conca:

327. Sebastiano

The Crowning
Rome, S.

467

Guglielmo Cortese (1627 79), who had begun

Cortona pupil" and Gaulli follower, em-

of St Cecilia, 1725. Fresco.

as a

Cecilia

braced the new manner.

The

oldest of Maratti s

pupils was the Palcrmitan Giacinto Calandrucci

(1646-1707),"

most

the

Giuseppe

faithful

Chiari (1654-1727),'^ the most original Giu-

held a position of unequalled eminence. His

ceiling fresco with the

Crowning

in S. Cecilia, painted in

tif

St Cecilia

1725 [327], gives the

measure of his achievement and allows an assess-

ment of

Rome

the situation in

after the first

quarter of the eighteenth century. This work

is

seppe Passeri (1654- 17 14), the biographer's

nephew; but only the distinguished Benedetto

Luti from Florence (1666- 1724), a figure of

renowned

international reputation,
collector

also as a

and teacher, accomplished the trans-

formation of the Marattesque into an elegant

clearly in the tradition of Maratti's fresco in the

and sweet eighteenth-century

Palazzo Altieri [219J, but not without a difference: here the balanced symmetrical composi-

manner was

half of the eighteenth century by artists like

Baroque paraphernalia, an indica-

Agostino Masucci (1692- 1768) and the more

tion belies the

tion of the

growing academic mentality. Of

course, gone for ever are the intensity and

spirituality,

hot breath and

the

the

vigour,

considerable Francesco Mancini"'

and

his pupil

The general

moment

but purely conventional

is

the competent handling of well-worn

This had been the position

monumental painting

in

for

some time

Rome was

in

the hands of facile successors. Giovanni Odazzi

(1663- 1 731) and Lodovico Mazzanti

1760) -

formahsm without

who

also

worked

at

(d. after

Perugia, Viterbo,

embodied

In a

more

limited sense, however, and

less distinctly

than

in

Late Baroque classicism.

The

of Maratti's

reader will recall

that the ascendancy of Maratti dates

from the

670s, which corresponds fairly precisely

with Guidi's

in

in architecture.

sculpture and Carlo Fontana's

At about

this

moment

artists

of the second and third rank changed their

in with the

Giuseppe Ghezzi

new
(i

man-

fashion. Painters such

634-1 721), the father of

the better-known Pier Leone, Lodovico

Gimi-

gnani (1643-97),'- the son of Giacinto, and the

rather banal Luigi Garzi

(i

638-1 721)

may

here

much

one may discover an antithesis between

manner and

a brief

Rococo

a classicizing

Rococo

trend on the other. But the camps are not

clearly divided.
in point.

Next

Benedetto Luti's work

to his

is

a case

Roman man(1656- 1746),""* who

monumerttal

ner, Francesco Trevisani

never forgot his Venetian upbringing under

Antonio Zanchi, produced cabinet pictures

true

Rococo

style. Rivalling

children'

ready market

Romans came
Rococo

Niccolo Berrettoni (1637-82) and even

1751)"

than

all

in a

Sebastiano Conca's

popularity, Trevisani's 'sweet

porcelainly

be mentioned; and more considerable masters

like

names

contemporary architec-

phase on the one hand and

to versions

in the

of Sacchi and Cortona was a thing of the past.

But the day belonged

as

It is

Maratti's international Late Baroque, the old

contrast of artistic ideals

ture,

fall

and feeble

hope of regeneration.

the Marattesque

ner to

pleasant

in a

art, a soft

and Naples - continued Gaulli's manner, sapped

ended

it

of its strength, far into the eighteenth century."

mid

1700-58)

only to be expected that with the victory of

formulae.

past:

{c.

verdict on the course of Maratti's

succession must be that

remains

Maratti's

Stefano Pozzi (1708-68).

chiaroscuro and mysticism of the Late Baroque

represented by Gaulli [213] - what

style.

carried over even into the second

Madonnas and

(Waterhouse)

found

over Europe. But none of the

closer to a

Michele

BIBLOSARTE

French version of the

Rocca

(1670,5-after

468

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

were, the

Batoni (1708 87), by steering more decisively

wing' of Marattesque

towards the newly rising ideal of the antique

Rococo phase forms,

If the

anti-conventional
classicism, a

'left

new

'right wing'

as

it

began

to

emerge

which that insipid manner was too Baroque

for

and formalistic.

made

was mainly three

heroic attempts at leading

back

ing

It

to

artists

Roman

sounder foundation:

who

[329].'' In a varying degree,

up

take

special

positions on

all

three artists

the

borderline

between Rococo and Neo-classicism. These

paint-

masters, and even Batoni in pictures farthest

Marco

on the road

to Neo-classicism, stuck tenaciously

to

Late Baroque formulae of composition. Nor

Bolognese Bonaventura Lamberti, by an intense

is

the lyric, languid, and often sentimental range

study of nature and by returning to the classical

of expressions really divorced from contem-

foundations of Raphael and Annibale Carracci

porary painting.-"

Benefial (1684- 1764), half French, pupil of the

remarkable Transfiguration^* [328] shows

(his
to

what extent he succeeded); the Frenchman

who spent the

Rome, by intro-

Pierre Subleyras (1699- 1749),

last

twenty years of his

ducing

in

his

work

life in

noble simplicitj- and

It is

well

known

that the

more

radical turn

towards a Neo-classical mode of painting was

taken

by

the

romanized Bohemian,

Anton

Raphael Mengs (1728-79). A mediocre talent,

but enthusiastically supported by Winckel-

precision of design and expression together

mann, the

with a limited but carefully considered Hght

he was hailed by the whole of Eurof)e as the

scale

328.

of tone

Marco

Vetralla, S.

values;

and,

finally,

Benefial: Transfiguration,

Andrea

c.

Pompeo

1730.

intellectual father of Neo-classicism,

re-discoverer of a lost truth.

329.

Pompeo

The work and

Batoni: Education of Achilles, 1746.

Florence, Uffizi

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING

ideas of this moralist and rationalist,

salvation in a denial of

who saw

469

FLORENCE AND BOLOGNA

Baroque and Rococo

and pleaded

un-

Until well after the middle of the seventeenth

conditional return to principles of design, can-

century Florentine painting was provincial but

not here be discussed. Suffice

had

traditions

painterly

Baroque

method

allegorical

ciosity of

Rococo

an

for

to say that the

it

as well as the pre-

on

art linger

in

Mengs's

art,

while elements of his style (such as the choice

of clear and bright local colours)

back

to

some of

his

Mengs himself had

started

was not impervious

may be

traced

contemporaries.

older

under Benefial, yet

to the qualities of Soli-

own. This changed

a distinct character of its

later in the century. If the

reasons for the loss of

identity

cannot be wholly accounted

may

least

at

for,

one

point out four different events

which determined the further course of painting

in

Florence: Cortona's work

in

the Palazzo Pitti

(1640-7); Luca Giordano's frescoes, executed

between 1682 and 1683,

dome

the

in

of the

as

Corsini Chapel (Chiesa del Carmine), in the

much an end as a beginning.

He set the seal on that characteristically
Roman classic-idealistic trend, the tenets of

Biblioteca Riccardiana, and in the long gallery

which were constantly shaped and coloured by

Medici dynast) with dazzling elan and

the ever-changing 'Baroque' antithesis. Refer-

ingly fresh and vivid colours [330]; the visit in

mena's Baroque. In the

last

analysis he

is

ence to the three sets of names: Carracci

Caravaggio Sacchi
;

Cortona; Maratti

summarizes the course of events

of the Palazzo Riccardi - the latter a grand alle-

pageant glorifying the

gorical

reign

of the
strik-

1706-7 of Sebastiano Ricci, whose frescoes

in

Gaulli,

the Palazzo Marucelli-Fenzi [338] gave Floren-

con-

tines their first sensational experience of modern

in three

secutive generations. In the struggle of artistic

Venetian

convictions and sentiments the fronts remained

Maratti's style as well as of Bolognese classi-

As the theory hardened

fluid.

(Bellori) in the

cism,

art;

and,

leading master. Carlo Cignani.

practice began to

is

out of step (Maratti).

Late Baroque classicism was on the whole the

weak shadow of

a great past. If

Mengs saddled

two

The

enough; there developed

clear

of

through the work of the

particularly

second half of the seventeenth century, the

fall

influence

the

finally,

pattern then
in

Florence

different trends, both rather international

one

in character, the

anti-classical, accepting

the classic-idealistic horse again, he lacked the

the Cortonesque Baroque or

genius and strength for a bold ride. Measured

Ciro Ferri version and, in turn, Luca Giordano

against his greater forerunners, and even

ratti,

the

work of

sweet,

Jacques-Louis David, he seems

sentimental. Baroque, and

inert,

without the affectation of

produced on

The

much

not

of the art

his doorstep.

classic-idealistic

Winckelmann

in its

theory,

no longer did

it

by

most rigorous form, once

have the power

monumental painting on
greatest

revived

Rome, but
to revitalize

the soil which had

triumphs in the wake of Raphael

and Michelangelo.-'

classical,

following Marat-

tesque or Bolognese precepts.

The

classical trend

by the precise and

is

frigid

most

fully

represented

Anton Domenico Gab-

biani (1652- 1726), the painter dear to the heart

of

Grand Duke Cosimo

III

and the Florentine

whose palaces abound

in his work.--

While Gabbiani was primarily

a Maratti fol-

nobility,

again conquered the world from

its

and Ricci the other

a fully-fledged Neo-classicist of

real talent like

seen

Ma-

he appears a dry pedant; measured against

thinned-out

its

lower, Giovan Camillo Sagrestani

came from Cignani, whose

maintained; this made him
Matteo Bonechi
to

{c.

French Rococo

ration

Giovanni

slick

( 1

660

73 1 )r^

modelling he

as well as his pupil

1672 1726)-^ an easy prey

influence. In the next gene-

Domenico

BIBLOSARTE

Ferretti

(1692-

470

LATK BAKOQUt AND ROCOCO

Luca Giordano: Pluto and Proserpina. Oil stud\ tor the Galler\
London. D. Mahun Cdlleclion

330.

1768), a profuse decorative talent, carried on

Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, 1682.

ol the

might almost have been painted by

contem-

Once again he was mainly formed

porary Venetian master. Gherardini's worthy

by the Bolognese Cignani and Marcantonio

Franceschini and to a certain extent remained

pupil, Sebastiano Galeotti (1676- 1746.'), also

this tradition.

tied to their

On

Late Baroque classicism.-^

the other side of the fence were the

Cortoneschi,

who have been mentioned

previous chapter (Chapter 14, Note 65).

real rebel against the

in

The

artist in a class

his transparent frescoes in S.

of his

Maria degli Angeli,

of his

life

as a

Liguria,

If

the frescoes in

S.

Maria degli Angeli (now

Universita Popolare), Pistoia (after

- as

artistic

M. Marangoni

pointed out

1 ),

which

many years ago -

Lombardy, and Piedmont,

in

practising

Florence had no longer an organic school

could boast

at

least

its

own, she

of competent painters,

though some of the more enterprising ones,

The
The

new

also be seen in his principal work,

three decades

of painting with a physiognomy of

To what

extent he mastered the

last

most successful fresco-painter

his truly international art.-'

such

may

on Cortona, Giordano, and

spent more than the

Florence (1709) [331], combined the lessons

learned from Giordano and Sebastiano Ricci.

language

his style

He

worn-out academic con-

own was
Alessandro Gherardini (1655-1726),-'' who in

ventions and an

formed
Ricci.

as Luti, Batoni,

and Galeotti, sought

their

fortunes permanently outside their native town.

situation at

Bologna was vastly

tradition of the Carracci

different.-'*

'Academy' had

an extraordinary power of survival, and through

all

vicissitudes Bolognese classicism, even in a

provincial and sometimes debased, feeble, and

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING

331. Alessandro Gherardini:

Florence, S.

Maria

The Dream

degli Angeli

good or

centres.

evil

made

delta

Meridiana)

many other
but also Romans

itself felt in

Not only Florentines

and Venetians were convinced that

in

Bologna that an

training

design.

artist

it

was only

could procure a solid

the perennial principles of good

in

Carlo Cignani (1628- 17 19), Albani's

was the celebrated guardian of this

tion and the head of an immensely
pupil,

studio.-"

The

late

tradi-

active

Reni and a renewed study

Genoa, Piedmont, Spain, and Germany. His

great cycle of frescoes in the church of

Domini, Bologna (1687

fully this facet of

to
in

what extent

this ver-

with Late Baroque

From Cignani comes, above

principles.

all,

Bologna's greatest decorative talent of the Late

Baroque,

Marcantonio

1729),^' the

Franceschini

(1648-

Bolognese Maratti, whose manner

was widely diffused through

his

works

in

Rome,

much sought

'il

after,

kind of Late Baroque classicism.

A new

situation arose in the next generation

which reacted

two contrary ways

in

to the

conventions of the academicians.

group,

falls

most

dexterous practitioner of this rather sentimental

polished style, which contemporaries admired.

classicism

Corpus

illustrates

Bolognese painting. Next to

Guido moderno', was

facile

satile

94),

him, Gian Gioseffb dal Sole (1654-1719),^-

of Correggio contributed to form his fluid and

N. Pevsner^" indicated

471

of St Romuald, 1709. Fresco.

(now Circolo

flabby form, continued to be a power which

for

led

by Donato Creti

Pasinelli's pupil,

who

at

One

(1671-1749),"

one time tended to-

vvardsRococo (frescoes, Palazzo Pepoli, Bologna,

1708), sought salvation in a sophisticated archa-

ism.

The Bolognese

manner

in

Rome,

counterpart to Benefial's

this

proto-Neo-classicism

with distinct Mannerist overtones

illustrated

by the small picture of

BIBLOSARTE

is

perfectly

illustration

47-2

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

332^*

which

Primaticcio.
artists,

recalls

works by such masters as

To

lesser

extent

some minor

Aurelio Milani (1675- 1 749),^^ Francesco

Monti

(1685 -1 768)/*'

(1688-1765)/'

fell in

and

Ercole

332 (above). Donato Creti: Sigismonda(?),

Bologna,

Graziani

with Creti's radicalism.

c.

1740.

Com line

333 (right). Giuseppe Maria Crespi:

The Queen

of Bohemia

confessing to St John

Nepomuc,

1743.

Turin, Pinacoteca

334 (opposite). Giuseppe Maria Crespi:

The Hamlet,
c.

1705. Bologna, Pinacoteca

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING

The
Maria

other

reaction

came from Giuseppe

Spagnuolo (1665- 1747),

genius of the late Bolognese school.

Crespi, called lo

the only real

Rejecting the teachings of his masters Canuti

and

Cignani,**^

in the

and, above
it

he found instruction to his taste

study of Lodovico Carracci, Mastelletta,

all,

the early Guercino. Moreover,

has been shown^" that he must have had

direct contacts with Sebastiano

348), echoes of

(p.

whose intense chiaroscuro and

freedom of touch appear

But Crespi went

models.

Mazzoni

in Crespi's early

decisive step

He swept away

work.

beyond

his

the last vestiges of

without parallel

at this

moment. Linked

popular trend, which had had a

new

[333], to

vision

to the

home in Bologna

since the days of the Carracci (p. 71), he

his

473

appHed

equally to religious imagery

contemporary scenes, portraiture, and

genre [334]. Everything he touched

is

permeated

with a depth of sincere feeling, a sensibility

and tenderness which

of the 'quietists' as

and

is
it

as far
is

from the ecstasy

from the preciosity

affectation of the academicians. Like his

younger contemporary Magnasco, he

outsider; like Magnasco, he never
his chiaroscuro

is

an

abandoned

and remained essentially a Sei-

academic formalism and opened up an im-

cento master; but diametrically opposed to him,

mediacy of approach

he chose as his theme the purely

to

his

subject-matter

BIBLOSARTE

human

rather

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

474

And

than the grotesque and demoniacal.

both attitudes seem

characteristic of the

to

yet

of the eighteenth century. Scenographic paint-

have the same root,

ing and allied practices continued to be Bolo-

Baroque age: the

will to

much to
humanism as to Ma-

freedom, which opens the way as

Crespi's unconditional

Canuti had died

in 1684,

Baroque,

1702)'^

the

Truly

Enrico

brothers

(1640-

and Anton Maria (1654 1732) Haffner,

both pupils of Canuti, amplified and diversified

gnasco's chaotic abandonment.^"

to Forli in

gna's most important artistic export.

Late

Cignani had gone

1686, and Pasinelli died in 1700.

There remained Crespi and, next

to

him, Gio-

Colonna's and
ratura style

IVIitelli's

more architectural qtiad-

they form the link with the imagi-

native scenographers of the eighteenth century.

van Antonio Burrini (1656-1727),^' who had

Anton Maria worked mainly

studied with both Canuti and Pasinelli and

laboration with G. A. Carlone,

became Bologna's representative of an extrovert

Gregorio de Ferrari, and others. Enrico assisted

Late Baroque style Zanotti called him

;

nostro Giordano'. Although Crespi

Cortona

opened

a school

il

nostro

'il

in

names of

1700, few

his

Bolognese succession are worth recording, apart

his rather trivial son, Luigi Crespi

from

famed

79),

of the lives of con-

as the writer

temporary Bolognese

(1709-

artists,^-

and the Paduan

his teacher

till

above

whom

all,

with Marcantonio Franceschini, for

he painted,

(1673- 1 741),

drew

to a close

Vittorio

Baroque era

to

at

him.

Bologna

with such able decorators as

Maria Bigari (1692-1776),*^ whose de-

lightful scenographic cabinet pictures in the

Pinacoteca, Bologna,

show him

at his best,

and

with the brothers Ubaldo (1728-81) and Gaetano

( 1

734- 1802) Gandolfi and the lesser Domewho brought

pupil

Pietro

for Pittoni;
his

others, the
tradition

Paltronieri,

nephew Tommaso (1653-1736), Cignani's

and his son Pompeo (1677-1739?), whose

pupil Stefano Orlandi

( 1

68 1

together with Gioseftb Orsoni

laurels as a stage designer at

arranged compositions with a

skilfully

strong Rococo flavour. But

work against

if one

measures their

that of the great Venetians,

it

appears no more than the flotsam of a once

proud native

tradition. After

two hundred years

leave Bologna, however, a

must be added about quadrat ura

had

its

home

in

word

painting, which

Bologna from the

late

sixteenth

century on, and remained vigorous to the end

Men-

i688-r. 1772),

many

This long

list

goes to show that the greatest

dynasty oi'quadraturisti, the Galli, called Bibiena

after their place of origin, arose in a congenial
artistic climate.

Equally distinguished as de-

signers and organizers of festivals, 'the most

as stage designers

we

{c.

others."'

sumptuous

Before

69 1 - 1 755), won

Gianfrancesco Costa (171 1-72) and

run

course.

( 1

Lucca and Turin

Francesco Chiaruttini (1748-96), and

of changing fortunes Bolognese painting had

its

760) collaborated

by Tiepolo's faithful associate, Girolamo

his pupils

and

with Bigari, Francesco Monti and others and,

about the blending of the academic Bolognese

manner. The Gandolfi were capable of large

Mirandolesi

pupil,

gozzi-Colonna from Ferrara

and freedom of Tiepolo's

il

who worked in Venice and also

by Mauro Aldrovandini (1649-80),

nico Pedrini (1728- 1800), artists

tradition with the light

Corpus

was kept

by Marcantonio Chiarini (1652- 1730) and

alive

was his influence on Venetian painters; PiazBencovich owed much

among

Domini quadratura. The

his

Official painting of the

Giovan Antonio

with

Burrini (Chiesa dei Celestini, Bologna) and,

Antonio Gionima (1697-1732).^^ All the greater

zetta as well as

the latter's death in 1684; there-

he collaborated

after

Genoa in colDomenico Piola,

in

men

that

Europe ever witnessed' (Lanzi),

and inventors,

as draughts-

of extraordinary scenographic fantasies

I335I' 3S painters

members

and theatre architects, four

of the family should be singled out,

the brothers Ferdinando

BIBLOSARTE

1657- 1 743) and Fran-

335-

Giuseppe Bibiena: Engraving from Architetture

c Pn/spettive.

Augsburg, 1740

BIBLOSARTE

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

476

cesco { 1 659- 1 739), and Ferdinando's sons, Giu-

seppe

Antonio (1700-74).

and

(1696-1757)

Ferdinando spent twenty-eight years

service of Ranuccio Farnese at

Parma

mario pittore e architetto' and

capacity- transferred

in

in

the

as 'pri-

same

the

Apart from the Bcrgamasque Fra Galgario and

will

be

these provincial schools need

discussed later

not detain us.

Nor do

the big centres .Milan,

Genoa, and Turin require much attention.

Piedmont had

the imperial court at

to

who

the 'Bresciano' Ceruti - artists

from abroad

almost entirely on artists

to rely

Vienna in 1 708. While Ferdinando was probably

the most profuse genius of the family, Francesco

able undertakings which, owing to the accumula-

gave Europe

tion of

tradition

its

finest theatres, establishing a

which has not yet seen

its

end. All the

order to carry out the consider-

in

power and wealth under the House of

Savoy, were waiting for painters.

.\t

the end of

was mainly Daniel

courts of Europe sought the services of the

the seventeenth centurj'

Bibiena, and Ferdinando's sons held offices at

Seiter

the courts of Vienna, Dresden, Berlin, and that

in

of the Elector Palatine.^'

Bartolomeo Guidobono (1654 1709) who held

for many years positions of eminence. Although

The

free play of the imagination as seen in the

drawings of the Bibiena, and the

classical tradi-

on which the Bolognese school thrived,

tion

( 1

649-1705),^''

Venice under

born in Vienna but trained

C. Loth, and the Genoese

J.

later the Florentine

it

Sebastiano Galeotti and the

fashionable Charles

Andre Vanloo from Nice

Rome, had large

seem to be incompatible with each other. And

yet Ferdinando and Francesco Bibiena came

(1705-65), Luti's pupil in

from Cignani's school. The explanation

national Late Baroque in Turin,

lies in

commissions^" and firmly established the interit

was

really

that the Bolognese always regarded quadratura -

Neapolitan and Venetian

the basis of the art of the Bibiena - as a science

major share

concerned with the accurate rendering of the

the two most vigorous Italian schools vied here

laws of vision. As such, quadratura had

for

first

been the handmaid of the grand manner. But

later a paradoxical situation arose.

By

the

mid

artists

supremacy. The Neapolitans Conca, Gia-

quinto, and de

Mura

followed calls to Turin,

and Solimena sent many canvases.^' Yet the

seventeenth century, with Colonna and Mitelli,

palm went

in its

Marco

own

right. In the course of the eighteenth

cen-

Pittoni accepted commissions,

tury

it

the Bibiena family,

who

international

art,

truly

artists,

held

all

while

culminating in

provincial

shadow

to the Venetians; Sebastiano

Crosato

(1685-1758)

and Giambattista

and Giuseppe Nogari

(1699- 1 763) spent years of their

the Bolognese

Crosato,^- above

to a

ample frescoes

all,

lives there.

with his charming and

in the Castle at Stupinigi, the

Villa Regina, the Palazzo Reale,

existence.

and

and Giambattista

Ricci, Nicola Grassi,

the trumps of a

grand manner was increasingly reduced

the

an interesting constellation, for

quadratura had reached the status of an art

was the quadratura

who had

and

number

of Turin churches helped to transform Pied-

mont

NORTHERN ITALY OUTSIDE VENICE

Throughout
cities

the eighteenth century the smaller

of northern Italy had flourishing schools

of painters: Verona above

Middle

.\ges

artistic

centre,

where

on,

to the

which, from the

was always an important

and Bergamo and Brescia,

local traditions,

and more

all

into an artistic province of Venice.

second-rate Mattia Bortoloni

^"^

however, yielded more

overbearing Venetian influence.

rewarding occupation

in the

(p.

The

484) found a

Sanctuary

at

Vico-

skill,

Mondovi where he painted, not without

the enormous dome (1745-50), a commis-

sion

which

forte di

illness

seems

Galeotti from executing.

sentative of what

may

to

have prevented

The foremost

repre-

euphemistically be called

the local school was the court-painter Claudio

BIBLOSARTE

j
^

336. Alessandro

Magnasco The Synagogue,

:

c:

1725-30. Cleveland,

Museum of An

BIBLOSARTE

478

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

Francesco Beaumont (1694-1766), of French

extraction, trained in

Rome

Rococo manner,

his facile

under Trevisani;

a not unattractive

international court style, can best be studied in

Palazzo

the

The most

Reale.^*

successful

practitioner of the next generation was Vittorio

Amedeo CignaroH

(1730 1800),

'^^

member

of

the well-known Verona family of artists, a slight

talent,

mainly renowned

for his

landscapes in

manner of Zuccarelli.
Genoese grand decorative painting

rished

throughout the
(p.

first

flou-

still

quarter

354) thereafter
;

it

Genoese Alessandro Magnasco

Mantuan Giuseppe Bazzani (1690- 1769).

Both

in

the peculiar unreality of his figures.

impromptu way of painting,

ter of his canvases, the

stroke

all

most invigorating

the sketchy charac-

crowning the pursuits of

this,

group of Seicento
effect

artists (p. 341),

Bazzani,^" too,

artist,

he

is

not easily

new

Rubens, Van Dyck, and

Fetti, the

Milan

light-effects.

where he

finally settled in his native

tion of his style

is

until 1735,

(c.

1709

when he

Genoa. The forma-

not easily accounted

for.

In

any case, Morazzone's Early Baroque mysticism

must have attracted him

over-sensitive

as

much

as Callot's

Late Mannerist etchings and

Rosa's tempestuous romantic landscapes.

Ma-

gnasco's phantasmagorias [336], that strange

diabolical world

which seems the product of

morbid imagination

the fearsome woods, the

martyrdoms

tribunals and tortures, the cruel

and macabre scenes peopled with ghostlike

monks

open up problems of interpretation.

For Lanzi

all

these were hizarne

even

if

1740.

Museum of Art and Archaeology

worked under Filippo Abbiati (1640- 17 15).

in

c.

Columbia, Lmversily of Missouri,

both are masters of the rapid,

he remained

Guardi

his

work,

virtuoso type of

summed up by

Imbecile (fragment?),

Interrupted only by a stay in Florence

to

a formula.

His work vacillates between influences from

Giuseppe Bazzani:

early to Milan,

the Venetians

must have studied

but, characteristic of the

337.

Magnasco went

learned their lesson from him.^"

The

nervous brush-stroke and of magic

had

on the development of

new century, and

and out of touch with the

in deformities;

lies

Ma-

anguished, rapid brush-

triumphal course the Venetian school was taking

from the second decade onwards; both delight

The

gnasco's personal idiom was inimitable, but his

are solitary figures, tense, strange, mystic,

ecstatic, grotesque,

11),

his pictures.

from Sebastiano and Marco Ricci

(1667, not 77,-1749), called Lissandrino, and

the

went into the making of

painting in the

must be

religious

reason for this uncertainty of interpretation

was on

perpetuated the inter-

national Baroque. '' But two artists

singled out: the

farce

how much

quietism or criticism or

of the

the decline and handled by successors of minor

calibre.'^ Milan's painters

how much

fanaticism,

distinct

the

eighteenth century

question remains unsolved

one

cannot agree with the distinguished author, the

BIBLOSARTE

temperate

PAINTING

climate of Balestra's

art,

Dorigny's classicism,

and Watteau's and Lancret's Rococo grace; and

many

of his canvases

call to

mind

the eccentric

world of Francesco Maflei and of

contemporary Bencovich

own

his

Apart from

[337).

only

479

the beginning of the next that Venice far

at

Rome, Naples, Bologna, and

Genoa: her European triumph dates from the

outdistanced

second decade of the eighteenth century.''

few minor imitators, Bazzani's manner had no

Sebastiano Ricci and Piazzetta
sequel

in

Italy,"*'

though

it

did

appeal

to

This change of fortune

Austrian Baroque painters.'"

name

who

began as a pupil of Sebastiano Mazzoni, and

VENICE

then went to Bologna where he imbibed the

Politically

and economically Venice had long

been on the decline. After her sea and mercan-

power had dwindled, she became

tile

connected with the

is

of Sebastiano Ricci (1659 1734),

the

in

teachings of the Bolognese school under Gio-

vanni Gioseffo dal Sole; finally he studied

Parma and Rome. Thus he had

at

the varied

eighteenth century the meeting-place of Euro-

experience typical of the Late Baroque

pean pleasure-hunters, and, indeed, there was

the age of twenty-five he had run through the

Europe which equalled her

whole gamut ofpossibilities: from the free brush-

no

city in

in pictur-

esque beauty, stately grandeur, luxury, and

To

vice.

be sure, the foreigners brought wealth to

Mazzoni and

stroke of

artist; at

the polished classicism of

the Bolognese to Correggio, .\nnibale Carracci,

Venice, equal or perhaps greater wealth than

and the great decorative fresco painters in Rome.

the industry of her inhabitants had acquired by

His

first

commerce

dei

Morti

previous centuries.

in

that with the shift of patronage

It is

also true

from the Vene-

tian nobility to the rich foreigners - English,

German, and Russian became international in a new

in

in

interrupted,

Venetian

art

Vienna

goni,

and Canaletto

in

Ami-

London, with Tiepolo

in

Wiirzburg and Madrid, with Rosalba Carriera

in Paris

and Vienna, with Bernardo Bellotto

the courts of

masters

like

Dresden and Warsaw, with

Bartolomeo Nazari

at

at

lesser

the court of

He

of S. Bernardino

reflect the

study of

returned to Venice

1700 and worked there for twelve years,

French,

Sebastiano and IVlarco Ricci, Pellegrini,

Milan (1695-8),

Cortona and Correggio.

Spanish,

sense; for (to give only a few instances), with

dome

frescoes, in the

( 1

(1706-7).

however,

by

journeys

long

There

in the frescoes

Marucelli he achieved

full

of the Palazzo

maturity [338]: the

luminous

brilliant art of the eighteenth

prepared

in the

(1705),

was the

is

to

701 -3), Bergamo (1704), and Florence

work

born. Ricci's

in S.

century

Marziale, Venice

new homogeneous

style

result of an intelligent rediscovery of

Veronese and the study of Luca Giordano. The

the

Virgin enthroned with Nine Saints in S. Giorgio

J.

Maggiore, Venice (1708),

Emperor Charles VII and Fontebasso and

B. Lampi at that of St Petersburg, the Vene-

tians appeared as their

own ambassadors. But

this

is

the chefd'ceuire of

neo-Cinquecentesque manner, enriched,

that on the social quicksand

however, by a quick and nervous eighteenth-

of Venice there arose the most dynamic school

century brush-stroke. In the second decade,

of painters will for ever remain a mystery.

which saw Sebastiano

how

it

happened

We know now
as

it

seemed not

that the rise

so

many

was not so sudden

years ago. But in spite

of the revival of the great native tradition

second half of the seventeenth centurv,

in
it

the

was

in

London

(1712-16)''-'

and Paris (1716), his brush-stroke becomes

more agitated, under the influence, it has been
claimed, of Magnasco's work. .And

this,

together

with a renewed studv of Veronese after his

BIBLOSARTE

338. Sebastiano Ricci: Hercules and the Centaur, 1706 7. Fresco.

Flmeme, Palazzo

BIBLOSARTE

Mariicelli

PAINTING

return to Venice,

change

to

made him,

in the third

decade,

the scintillating, colourful works,

painted with a light nervous touch, which belong

to the

Venetian Rococo. Ricci

the typical

is

extrovert eighteenth-century virtuoso, and as

such his brilliance may appear somewhat super-

Roberto Longhi talked about

ficial.

'his

ings smacking of an able reportage of

pean motives'."' But

all

paint-

Euro-

needed precisely Ricci's

it

easy and versatile talent to steer Venetian art

back

to a

new understanding of

the great past

and forward towards the synthesis achieved

Tiepolo's heroic

in

style.

Ricci's antipode, an artist of equal or even

greater talent, was Giovanni Battista Piazzetta

(1683-1754),

whose

training,

life-story,

and

convictions as an artist were the antithesis to

everything

concerning

his

older

instead of the itinerant artist, a

colleague:

man

of steady

habits; instead of the brilliant virtuoso, a slow

and patient worker; instead of decorative superficiality, a

new depth and intensity of expression

instead of the light and vibrant palette, re-

course to chiaroscuro and plastic form; instead

of

new conquests

to the end, a

powers during the

creative

slow decline of

last years.

After beginning in Antonio Molinari's studio,

Piazzetta also
in

made

the journey to Bologna, but

order to finish his education under Giuseppe

Maria Crespi. Back

never

left his

appears formed

dum

(S. Stae,

in the

Maria

in

Venice before 17 11, he

native city again. His tenebrosu art

in the

St James led to

fits

Ahirtyr-

Venice, 17 17) and reaches a climax

Virgin appearing to St Phtltp Neri (S.

della Fava, 1725-7) [339], a

composition

of terse zigzag lines, built up of plastic bodies

intense with mystic supplication and dramatized

ing
the

by

a poignant chromatic scale of contrast-

warm and cold reddish and brown tones. At

same moment he painted his only great

decorative work, the ceiling (on canvas) with

the Glvry of St Domtnic in SS. Giovanni e

339. Giovanni Battista Piazzetta

Paolo, twirling in a great sweep from the borders

The

towards the luminous centre. In the 1730s his

Venice, S.

Virgin appearing to St Philip Neri, 1725-7.

Maria

della

BIBLOSARTE

Fava

481

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

chiaroscuro lightened under the influence of

Lys and

and

Strozzi,

the previous tension. This

a

mood

a pastoral
is

replaced

particularly true of

group of pictures around 1740, of which the

Fortune Teller (1740, Accademia, Venice)''^

is

one of the most splendid examples. At that

moment
But

he was nearest a Rococo phase.

this

was

also the period

when

great

Francesco Polazzo

as

began

number

the great

Only

assimilate
fully.

and

foundation of the Venetian

academy,

Piazzetta appeared to be the obvious

To

Director.

its first

this late period

belong works increasingly executed with the

help of pupils, in which a rhetorical shallowness
is

supported by an

From
growing

the

o/rf'

Piazzetta

interest in paintings of

figures; they were an

Piazzetta's

Giulia Lama''' should here be mentioned

and, above

Federico Bencovich,

all,

probably born

Dalmatia about

in

His

works (Palazzo Foschi,

first

show the influence of

showed

heads and half-

enormous success with the

abandoned

for that of

Thus Bencovich's

his

pedigree as Piazzetta's, to

enced by the powerful

finished drawings with

is

also

which

his

Bencovich created

whom he felt naturally

Venetian period. Also influ-

art of

Paolo Pagani,'*'

manner of his own, drama-

manner which

tic,

interest in the design of heads, plastically but

impressed the young Tiepolo as

luminously modelled

Viennese

in black chalk, reveals a

the tradition of disegno ~ and

implicitly of the classical tradition - in a world

that

Forli, 1707)

Bolognese teacher.

Piazzetta flooded the market. In any case, his

who upheld

(d.

Giuseppe Maria Crespi.

ing danger of academic petrifaction. This

master

1677

chiaroscuro has the same

drawn during

many

who was

Gorizia, 1756).''"

public but at the same time contained the loom-

true of the

artists

Carlo Cignani, whose academic manner he soon

chiaroscuro.

mid twenties on

abound.''"'

knew how to
manner more success-

few independent

a kind of private

choice as

of Piazzetta's pupils and fol-

lowers there was, characteristically, none of

His house became

in 1750, at the

large, Tiepolo's

development goes the opposite way. But among

bers of studervts began to assemble in his atelier.

Academy,

By and

allegiance to Piazzetta.

major format, whereas mediocrities

num-

who

1683-1753),''^

{c.

as a Ricci follower but later switched his

was mainly concerned with the painterly

strange, forceful, agonized, a

in

from 1733 on

whose

city

he spent

much as the
many years

[340].''''"

Sebastiano Ricci also found a following among

minor masters. But

loosening of form. Despite his rich, typically

Diziani

Settecentesque, chromatic orchestration, the

1734),

was not they, Gaspare

it

689- 1 767), Francesco Migliori

( 1

( 1

684-

Gaetano Zompini (1700-78), and the

to

more

interesting Francesco Fontebasso (170Q-

the canvas of his pinks and emerald greens,

69),'"

on

Piazzetta's attempt to persevere in an essentially

depended

Seicentesque tenehroso manner was bound to

siderable artists and, of course, to Tiepolo.

finest

nuances of white, the

dabbing on

whom

But

a salutary effect,

this

the victory of the 'light trend'

was due

to a

group of more con-

and even the young TiePellegrini,

polo profited more from him than from anyone

The

else.

With

dynamic reform of sound principles

fail.

had

his

light

the

antithesis

Sebastiano

Ricci-

first

Amtgoni, Piltoni, Balestra

three

names stand

art of considerable

for a festive

Rococo

charm. Antonio Pellegrini

Piazzetta, the Venetian stage in the first decades

(1675- 1 741),'' trained by the Milanese Paolo

of the eighteenth century was set for every

Pagani, found his bright palette through the

artist to

decide between the former's luminous

decorative

manner and

matic chiaroscuro.

the latter's rich chro-

Some

artists

wavered, such

study of Ricci and the late Luca Giordano. His

light-hearted
fluid brush,

Rococo

frescoes, painted with a

were done

BIBLOSARTE

in

England (1708-13,

PAINTING

Kimbolton

Howard,

Castle

Castle,

483

in

etc.),

Bensberg Castle near Diisseldorf (1713-14),

in

Paris (1720, frescoes destroyed), in the Castle at

Mannheim

{1736-7), and elsewhere.

No less an

was the more frivolous

international success

Jacopo Amigoni (1682-1752).'-

Bom in Naples,

he must have arrived in Venice already experi-

enced

Solimena's manner, but once again

in

Giordano and Ricci exercised the most important formative influence

was

called

to

upon him. In

17 17 he

the Bavarian court where he

painted his fresco cycles in

Nymphenburg,

He

Ottobeuren, and Schleissheim.

lived

in

England between 1730 and 1739, but only

his

frescoes in

His

last

Moor Park

near

London

survive.

years from 1747 on he spent as court

painter in Madrid. His later manner degenerated

into a languid

Rococo,
artists

and melodramatic

classicizing

trend paralleled in the works of other

not only in Italy but also in France and

England."^

Although he does not seem to have left Venice,

Giovanni Battista Pittoni (1687- 1767) has an
important share with Pellegrini and Amigoni
in

the international success of the Venetian

Rococo. Beginning under

Francesco Pittoni, he

weak

his uncle, the

first

formed

his style in

opposition to that of the Piazzetta-Bencovich

circle.

In the 1720s and 30s he produced with a

nervous brush
tures,

Ricci and Tiepolo.

shows

in his

arcadian

attachment

his

works

mood

and vibrant Rococo pic-

light

which reveal

sitions, not

Sebastiano

a fragrant elegance

and an

distinctly close in feeling to the

French Rococo.'^ Later,

his palette goes

to

sophisticated colourist, he

hand

in

a further lightening

of

hand with tamer compo-

uninfluenced by the general trend

towards Neo-classicism." In Pittoni's early

work there

are also suggestions of

Roman

Baroque influence, and these are due,

Pallucchini

del Carmine,

c.

Bergantino, Parish Church

to

his

contact

with

Antonio Balestra (1666-1740),^* from Verona.

340. Federico Bencovich

Madonna

has shown,

Late

as R.

17 10.

Balestra, first trained in Venice

under Antonio

Bellucci, spent several years in Maratti's school

BIBLOSARTE

484

341 (below). Antonio Balestra: Nativity, 1704-5. Venice, S. Zaccana

342 (opposite). Giambettino Cignaroli:

in

Rome

(c.

The Death

of"

169 1-4), and later divided his time

Rachel, 1770. Venice, Accademia

and moralizing overtones a

sentimental

about equally between Venice and Verona.

Greuze

Without ever deserting Maratti's Late Baroque

bourgeois

classicism, he found, like Ricci, decisive stimuli

Cignaroli's art

in the art

of Veronese and the late Giordano.

His new formula of an equilibrium between the

form-preserving academic

Roman tradition and

Venetian tonality prevented him from making

concessions to Rococo art [341].
large following, mainly

among

He found

provincial pain-

[342],

art-loving

to the trend
in

Rome.

la

and therefore the darling of the

is

the

public

North

of the

time.'"'

Italian counterpart

represented by Benefial and Batoni

In Venice, Pietro Longhi began under

Balestra but soon deserted him, while Giuseppe

Nogari,'" Mattia Bortoloni**" (1695- 1750),

gelo Trevisani^' (1669-1753), and, as

mentioned, the young Pittoni moved

Anhave

in his orbit.

ters; as a distinguished caposcudla Balestra deter-

mined

the further course of the Veronese school

Giatnbattista Tiepolo ( i6g6-i/jo)

''

and influenced not a few lesser Venetian artists.

His principal successors at Verona were his

All the pictorial events in Venice during the

578) and Giambettino

early years of the eighteenth century look in

pupils Pietro Rotari (p.

Cignaroh (1706-70),'' the

latter a typical

sentative of the classicizing

repre-

Rococo with

false

retrospect like a preparation for the

coming

the great genius, Giambattista Tiepolo.'-

BIBLOSARTE

ot

From

PAINTING

485

age of nineteen

the Cathedral and the Archiepiscopal Palace at

(Ospedaletto, Venice), his ascendancy over his

Ldine, the masterpiece of his early period and a

his first

work, painted

at the

older colleagues seemed a foregone conclusion.

landmark on the way

His career was meteoric; soon he had risen

cent

to

the position of peerless eminence which he

maintained for half

his output

From the start

He began under the

a century.

was prodigious.

retardataire Gregorio Lazzarini but was im-

art.

to his

new airy and

translu-

After Udine, his work often took

him

outside Venice: in 1731 and again in 1740 to

Milan where he painted

first

the ceilings in the

Palazzi Archinto (destroyed during the war)

Casati-Dugna and,

at

the later

visit,

and

that in the

mediately attracted by Piazzetta's tenebrosa and

Palazzo Clerici.*^ In 1732 and 1733 followed the

the dramatic and bizarre art of Bencovich. These

frescoes in the

attachments are discernible

in his first

monu-

mental work, the Madonna del Carmela, painted

c.

72 1 (now Brera, Milan). Piazzettesque re-

miniscences linger on
the Glory of St
Scalzi,
first

Venice

{c.

in

one of his

first

frescoes,

CoUeoni Chapel

in

Bergamo and

between 1737 and 1739 the great ceiling with

St Dominic instituting the Rosary in the Chiesa
dei Gesuati, Venice.

from triumph

to

The

next decade led

him

triumph: the great canvases of

the Chiesa degli

the Scuola dei Carmini (1740-7); one of his

1725). In 1726 he began his

grandest frescoes, the Madonna di Loreto on the

Teresa

in

important fresco cycle outside Venice,

in

vault of the Chiesa degli Scalzi (1743-4, des-

BIBLOSARTE

486

LATE BAROQUt AND ROCOCO

troyed during the

first war);'*'

and,

1744-5,

c.

the superb central saloon of the Palazzo Labia

-

with the story of Cleopatra

these are

some of

chapter in his career started

the

at

beginning of the next decade, when he was

commissioned

Valmarana, painted

at

The programme

in

the height of his career. '*'

the five frescoed

rooms

is

wholly

in the tradition

of grand history painting, illustrating scenes

the highlights of this period.

A new

cycles, that of the Villa

and

to decorate the Kaisersaal

from Homer (probably

Valerius Maximus's

in

version) and Virgil, from Ariosto and Tasso.

Illustration 343

shows the long wall of the

hall

Grand Staircase of the new Residenz at

Wurzburg, the capital of Franconia (December
1750-November ivss).**^ This immense task,

high priest, ready to thrust a butcher's knife

the greatest test yet of his inexhaustible creative

platter to receive the sacrificial blood.

the

Ven-

resources, was followed after his return to

by the Triumph of Faith on the ceiling of the

ice

Chiesa della Pieta (1754-5) and the decoration

of a

number of villas

in

the Veneto, among them

the charming series of frescoes in the Villa Val-

marana near Vicenza

frescoes in the two

(1757).

Works

like the

rooms of the Palazzo Rez-

with the Sacrifice oflphigenta: in the centre the

Iphigenia's body, and a servant with a

into

killing

does not take place; led by

But the
cupids

little

the deer dispatched by the goddess Diana -

appeased and moved by the

on

arrives post-haste

girl's

innocence -

a cloud in order to take

Iphigenia's place, and the high priest as well as

the

crowd turn astonished

in the direction

zonico, Venice (1758), the Assumption fresco in

genia's father, hiding his face in his cloak,*^*

the Chiesa della Purita at Udine, painted in the

still

course of one
Hercules

in

month

the

in

(1761), and the Apotheosis ufthe

in the great hall

2)

summer
it

In

III,

he arrived in Madrid,
last

eight years

executing the enormous Apotheosis of

life

Spain

in the

two

last Italian years.

was there that he spent the

of his

as

Pisam Family

of 1762, following an invitation

from King Charles

and

Verona

of the Villa Pisani at Stra (I76I-

occupied him during his

the

at

Throne Room of the Palace

lesser ceilings,*^"

as well

and carrying out a multi-

tude of private commissions.

It

was

the

at

threshold of death that the aged painter had to

face his

first

major defeat. At the instigation of

the powerful Padre Joaquim de Electa, the

King's Confessor,

who was

supporter of

Mengs, Tiepolo's seven canvases painted

for

scene takes place under a portico, the

painted frontal columns of which seem to carry

perspective space of the fresco

of real space.**"
is

is in

this capacity that

he should be judged. In

order to pinpoint his historical position,

chosen

to discuss

have

one of his more modest fresco

is

repeated as setting for

On

to float far inside the beholder's space.

one

side of the ceiling the goddess herself turns

with

commanding

gesture towards the sacrifice,

on the other side the wind-gods begin

again,

and they blow

Greek

fleet,

to

in the direction

blow

of the

lying at anchor behind the portico

Thus a web of relationships

room and from the ceiling
and the beholder's space is made

of the opposite wall.

form an

it

of space

room. Moreover, the cloud with the deer seems

both walls,

place a painter in the grand manner, and

a continuation

Greek warriors watching the events across the

to

first

is

illusionist extension

portico architecture

to
in the

The

carried over to the opposite wall, where the

moved and

rival.

at his dis-

posal Tiepolo produced the illusion that the

is

replaced by works of his

With every means

the actual cornice.

the church of S. Pascal at Aranjuez were re-

This survey indicates that Tiepolo was

is

unaware of the miracle.

The

1759, the Triumph of

Palazzo Canossa

of

Only Agamemnon, Iphi-

the unexpected sight.

created across the

integral part of the painted story.

With remarkable
light shining

logic,

it

is

also the imaginary

from the painted sky that deter-

mines the distribution of light and shade

frescoes.

BIBLOSARTE

in the

PAINTING

343. Giambattista Tiepolo

Sacrifice of Iphigenia, 1757. Fresco.

Similar illusionist effects are operative in the

Palazzo Labia, where Antony and Cleopatra

seem

to step

join the

down

crowds

the painted staircase as

in the hall.

if

to

Although the same

Vuenza,

cepts for breaking

real

Nobody

motif of the drawn curtains

surrender to

Baroque

tradition,

illusionism

and

familiar

It is

evident that he

monumental Renaissanceif

he revived the kind of

from Veronese and

his

grand manner

and hyperbolical

in

illusion to conjure

known

his

that

he often employed

illusionist totality at

faithful

Behind the

which he aimed

lies

the

accumulated experience of monumental Baro-

que

art - not only the theorv

and practice of the

ways

to

is

typically

sophisticated

eighteenth-

century sense. Although he uses every means of

seems himself to smile

quadraturista, Mengozzi-Colonna.'"'

for the

teenth-century illusionism, Tiepolo's emphatically rhetorical

well

just as in the

In contrast, however, to seven-

it.

support of Bolognese quadratura

is

But

and was prepared

of illusion

school, he needed for his stronger effects the

it

boundary between

Baroque spectator craved

maximum

takes his place in the

the

has ever been misled by the fictitious

polo revelled in illusionist devices such as the

the Wiirzburg Residenz.

down

reality of the painted world.

theatre, the

of

Valmarana

and imaginary' space.

degree of illusion could rarely be applied, Tie-

in the Kaisersaal

Villa

487

up

at

fictitious

world, he

the seriousness of the

attempt. In the hall of the Villa Valmarana and

in front

of many of his secular works John Gay's

epigram comes to mind

things

show

The

Villa

it

'Life

is

a jest

and

all

.'.

Valmarana frescoes

also reveal the

also that of

extent to which Tiepolo abides by the classical

Cortona and Bernini, who had found new con-

compositional patterns of monumental paint-

quadraturisti, but in various

BIBLOSARTE

1l

344 (above). Giambattista Tiepolo: Plate from the Varj Cappricj, published 1749. Etching
345 (opposite). Giambattista Tiepolo: Sketch, pen and wash.

New

York, Pierponl

BIBLOSARTE

Morgan Library

PAINTING

'>^/'

V*

489

>^

rv

'/

ing.

One

finds a distinct

emphasis on triangles

and basic diagonals and, while

this

may

not be

familiar to him, and he did not hesitate to use

from the past whatever seemed

new approach

suitable.

so obvious in multi-figured works, a close study

to the

shows

Giordano, he carried the weight of

that even in these each figure

is

clearly

defined by a network of significant compositional relationships."'

In the last analysis the

figures themselves belong to the perennial reper-

tory of the Italian grand

Veronese are

manner; the

particularly

strong,

links with

but

even

Raphael may be sensed.

I

much

because he

He

is

in

every sense the

last link

himself was well aware of the

in a

long chain.

full

extent of the tradition. Veronese and Titian,

Raphael and Michelangelo, even Diirer,

brandt, and

Rubens and, of

development of

Italian

Rem-

course, the whole

Baroque painting were

encountered
this

in

True
Luca

massive

heritage lightly and displayed his unrivalled

virtuosity with unbelievable ease.
least sign

lated experience of 250 years to his

age

Without the

of inhibition he turned the accumu-

own advant-

but since he was so sure of himself, every

one of his works

have stressed Tiepolo's traditionalism so

first

is

an unimpaired entity, strong

and immensely vigorous. The

quality-

comes
idvlls

of his art
closest to

were not

is

virile

and heroic

apparent even where he

French Rococo. Shepherds'

for

him; whatever he touched

had the epic breadth of the grand manner.

But Tiepolo was not simply the

last

great

practitioner of history painting in the classical

BIBLOSARTE

490

LATE BAROQUF. AND ROCOCO

tradition - his particular glory and one of the

portant respect Tiepolo broke away from cus-

reasons for his European success

tomary procedure. Instead of the

in his

lies

revolutionary palette. His early work was

still

relatively dark, with striking chiaroscuro eftects

was

and

lights flickering over the surface. It

this

time that Rembrandt had a strong hold on

him.

The Udine

mark the

frescoes of 1726-7

decisive change:

unifies

light

at

work and

the

penetrates into every corner. For the two other

which

finish

one associates with fresco technique, he used a

rapid and vigorous stroke, so that

ductions

almost

details

like

of his

frescoes

sketches [346].

It

inimitable brush-stroke that

coes

with

their

intensity,

is

in

repro-

often

endows

his fres-

exuberance,

freshness.

Rem-

great magicians of light, Caravaggio and

brandt, light had always a symbolic quality and

needed darkness
light,

as

by contrast,

complement. Tiepolo's

its

which

the light of day,

is

resulted

in

the transparency and rich tonal

values of

all

shadows.

He

created this light by

using a silvery tone which reflects from figures

as well as objects. It

is

must be

this light that

regarded as the crowning achievement of Tiepolo's art and, in a sense, of the inherent ten-

dencies of Venetian painting. Contrary,

ever, to the

warm

how-

palette of the older Venetian

masters, Tiepolo's palette had to be cool in

order to produce his daylight

his

As

effect.

most brilliant accomplishment

a result,

rather than his easel-paintings, so that his works

in galleries,

convey
to be

splendid as they

a full

may

"iv;

his frescoes

is

be, will never

r3<%.

impression of his genius. This has

emphasized, since we tend nowadays to

oil

study, the rapid sketch in

pen and wash, or the

spirited etched capriccio

prefer the intimate

to the rhetoric of the grand

manner

[344, 345].

All these are, of course, of the highest quality,

346 (above). Giambattista Tiepolo:

but, true to tradition, to Tiepolo these were

Head from 'Rinaldo and Armida',

trifles to

be indulged in as a pastime (unless

they were preparatory studies for monumental

works).''^

Fresco-painting
suited to the grand
for

is

the

technique

manner with

monumentality, and, except

its

in

ideally

I'icenza, Villa

347 (opposite). Gian Domenico Tiepolo:

Peasant Women (detail), 1757. Fresco.
i'lcenza. Villa Valmaratia

Venice, the

masterpieces of Italian painting were therefore

executed

in this

technique.

It is like

an act of

historical propriety that the last giant of the

grand manner was

fresco as his principal

Venetian and chose the

medium. Yet

in

1757. Fresco.

alma r ana

requirement

one im-

BIBLOSARTE

look

precisely this

and

PAINTING

In the guest-house of the Villa Valmarana a

few rooms are decorated with

subjects.

ponds

The change

to a

style

Domenico Tiepolo was

which Gian

for

responsible.

Giam-

grammar of

grand manner, while Gian Domenico's

masquerades and

only be the losers: the

great pillar of the

last

Baroque tradition and the most celebrated exponent of academic art had to yield to the pro-

who gave

phetic genius

rise to the art

new

of the

century.**^

and mythological scenes

are expressed in the language and

the

and topical

of programme corres-

change of

battista's heroic, epic,

idyllic

491

village scenes arc inconsistent

THE GENRES
In the

chapter will be found some remarks

first

about the so-called 'secularization' of painting

seventeenth century and the growth of

in the

various specialities. As the century advanced,

rhe

of landscape

specialists

painting

in

its

various facets, of battle- and animal-pieces,

popular scenes and genre, of

and other forms of

traiture

grew considerably

answered
to a

fruit, flower, fish,

and

still-life,

need, because these

of por-

finally

This

in numbers.'*^

artists

catered

rapidly growing middle-class with

ideas of domestic comfort.

Italian position

new

Nevertheless the

remained vastly different from

that of a Protestant bourgeois civilization such

as Holland's,

where the process of specialization

had begun

hundred years

seriously challenged, and

that,

is

it

for this reason

with the exception of portraiture,

of rank rarely
into

earlier. In Italy the

monumental painting was never

of

nobility

the

made

'lower'

artists

the concession of delving

genres; only outsiders like

Crespi were equally at home in religious imagery

with the compositional patterns of the classical

tradition; the idealization of figures, too,

is

re-

and the

petite maniere of

for the

same reason

server

domestic scenes.

that for the

some of the most

It is

modern ob-

exciting and refreshing

placed by an anti-conventional and realistic

paintings of the late seventeenth and eighteenth

idiom [347]. This change marks a change of

Gian Domenico, born in 1727,

centuries

generation.

died as late as 1804: he buried the grand

right

under

manner

Tiepolo settled in Madrid. Shortly before him,

to take

painter to the king.

up

When

was twenty-four years old

stellation

where Tiepolo

his

came from

Yet, although

of their work

appointment as

compared with
tioners,

vision of their

- a fascinating

while

con-

the endless

schools,
practi-

own, are few.

left

It is

mainly with

shall deal in the following pages,

many worthy

must be

Roman

number of

the real innovators, masters with a

these that

Mengs could

may

have a greater appeal than the large history-

Tiepolo died, Goya

as well as

the 'unprincipled' spe-

much

paintings of the Bolognese or

his father's vigilant eye.

Five years after the Villa Valmarana frescoes

Mengs had come

cialists.

artists

unmentioned.

BIBLOSARTE

of minor stature

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING

Venetian dignitaries, continued without

Baroque

the great Late

all

493

character that makes the man. His gallery of

Portraiture

Almost

artists

were

change of

style

after 1800,

till

excellent portrait painters - from Maratti to

Venetian Rococo culture yielded

Batoni and Mengs, from Luca Giordano to

of a

Solimena, from Crespi

Tiepolo.

to

It

is

new

much

shows how

little

temper

to the

age.

On a lesser level portraiture flourished during

an

interesting aspect that their portraits were, as

the period, particularly in Venice and the terra

without theoretical encum-

ferma. Rosalba Carriera's (1675- 1758) charm-

painted

rule,

brances and therefore often speak to us more

and more forcefully than

directly

Among

manner.

grand

their

the specialists in portraiture,

two masters of rank may be singled out, Giu-

ing

Rococo

artists in

come

pastels

made

these

to

mind;

her time

in

her one of the most celebrated

Europe. Her

(1721) and

visits to Paris

seppe Ghislandi, called Fra Vittore del Galgario

Vienna (1730) were phenomenal successes; in

Venice all the nobles of Europe flocked to her

(1655-1743), and Alessandro Longhi (1733-

studio.

Fra Galgario, born

18 1 3).
in

in

Bergamo, studied

Venice under the portrait painter Sebastiano

But her work, mellow, fragrant, and

sweet, typically female and a perfect scion of

the elegant Rococo civilization of Venice,

is

Bombelli (1635- 17 16), thus laying the foundation for his magnificent blending of Venetian

interesting (in spite of a recent tendency to

colourism with the native tradition of Moroni's

rather than for

From

portraiture.

the latter he

It

his ability of

is

as an episode in the history of taste

it)"''

its

intrinsic quality.

learned the

secret of straightforward characterization of the

sitter.

boost

The Popular and Bourgeois Genre

unvarnished repre-

sentation of character, to which he

to subordinate the pose, the often

knew how
pompous

In recent years
the masters

much

whom

stir

or elegant contemporary dress, and the chro-

tori della realta'"' - the

matic key, that makes him the most distin-

as

it

really

is'

made by

has been

Roberto Longhi called

masters

as their subject

who

take

and paint

it

'pit'life

with

guished portrait painter of the Late Baroque

unconventional freedom and directness. But

period [348].

as

Alessandro Longhi, whose activity began

decade

after

Fra Galgario's long career had

ended, represents
site

oppo-

to a certain extent the

pole in portrait painting.'^ Trained under

his father Pietro

and under Giuseppe Nogari

(1699- 1 763), a specialist

acter

studies,

in rather facile

master of Venetian state portraiture

senators,

and magistrates

infallible sense for tonal

portraits

it

is

char-

he became the acknowledged

of doges,

rendered with an

nuances; but

in his

the stately robe rather than the

Longhi himself made abundantly

happy phrase has meaning only

phorical sense.

showed

The Milan

clear, this

in

meta-

Exhibition of 1953

that an almost abstract

Lombard quality

unites the portraits of Carlo Ceresa, the

lifes

still-

of Baschenis, and the popular genre of

Ceruti, a 'magic immobility' (Longhi), a sophisticated convention far

approach

Giacomo
a history

removed from

a 'naive'

to reality.

Ceruti, called

and

'il

Pitocchetto', also

portrait painter, remains, in spite

of intense study,'"" something of an enigma.

Active mainly in the second quarter of the

left

us a depressing gal-

idiots,

of vagabonds, crip-

eighteenth century, he

Giuseppe Ghislandi:
Portrait of Isabella Camozzi de' Gherardi,
348.

lery of beggars
c.

1730.

and

dumb

and

folk painted sparingly in a

dark

Costa di Mezzate, Bergamo,

ples,

Conti Camozzl-Vertosa Colled ion

key, but with such descriptive candour that

BIBLOSARTE

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

494

349.

Giacomo

Ceruti:

Two

Wretches,

c.

1730 40.

Brescia, Pinacoteca

the spectre of Surrealism

minds
fairly

[349].

is

not far from our

The popular genre

as

such had

wide currency then, so that Ceruti's

fas-

cination with the forgotten and lost of humanity

that the
their

tracted

But the

Linked by many strands with the Flemish

and Dutch masters, imported by them
Italy, the

directly

lower genre appears

during the seventeenth century

in

many

guises:

as

animal pictures and rustic scenes in Genoa,

as

Bambocciate

in

Rome,

many

Maria Crespi

was not altogether unique.

and indirectly into

common man,

as

market scenes and

group

painters,
[334],

artists

their special
a

the

anonymous crowd,

doings, behaviour, and psychology at-

who regarded

Piazzetta.

this

genre as

and sometimes only province form

apart.

setting out

among them Giuseppe

Magnasco, and

Gaspare Traversi

in Naples,""

from Caravaggesque sources, painted

(between 1732 and 1769) episodes from the

life

of the middle classes with considerable tem-

perament, psychological insight, and

a lively

low-class gatherings in Naples, or simply as

sense for the farcical and grotesque. Concen-

semi-burlesque types

in

trating entirely

Arti

was only from the turn

di

Bologna. Yet

it

Annibale Carracci's

of the seventeenth to the eighteenth century on

on the mute communication of

figures often irrationally arranged on the canvas

[350], his

work

strikes a truer note than the

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING

350. Gaspare Traversi:

A wounded Man,

495

before 1769.

Venice, Brass Collection

more

polite genre scenes of his

Giuseppe Bonito

(p.

465),

contemporary

who

transferred

something of the respectabiUty of academic

into this sphere.
{c.

Rome

had

in

art

Antonio Amorosi

1660-after 1736) a painter

who conceived

popular genre-scenes on a rather monumental

scale.

revival of a certain

amount of Cara-

vaggism together with the reserve and intensity

of his figures are the reason
pictures went and

Spanish

artists,

still

why many

of his

go under the names of

even of that of Velasquez.

pieces are

now

but forgotten, sur\

all

i\

es as the

witty caricaturist of hundreds of contemporary

Roman

notables""

stereotyped

manner

drawn, however,

- rather

in

than as the painter

of genre scenes. Giuseppe Gambarini'"- (1680-

1725) in Bologna,

who always

reveals his Bolo-

gnese academic background, tends

his pictures

But

it

towards the

was mainly

in

idyllic

in

some of

Rococo genre.

Lombardy and

the Venetian

hinterland that the lower and bourgeois genre,

even before Ceruti, had

its

home

with such

Amorosi, along with his contemporar}- Pier

minor practitioners

Leone Ghezzi'"" (1674- 1755), was the pupil of

Giuseppe Ghezzi (1634-

meticulously observed heads of old people;

the latter's father,

1721). Pier Leone,

whose frescoes and

altar-

as Pietro Bellotto (1625, not

27,-1700), a pupil of Forabosco and painter of

Bernardo Keil'"' ('Monsu Bernardo', 1624-87),

BIBLOSARTE

LATE BAROQLE AND ROCOCO

49^

Rembrandt's

pupil, working in Italy from 1651

on; Pasquale Rossi '"^ called Pasqualino (1641-

who

1725) from Vicenza,

large in Italy this class of painting lacks spontaneity, that the derivation from,

and connexion

practised mainly in

with, the great formal tradition can often be

Rome

and may have influenced Amorosi; An-

sensed, and that Italians concentrate on the

tonio

Cifrondi

(1657- 1730),

Franceschini's

human

figure rather than on the ambience. In

pupil at Bologna, whose paintings are definitely

contrast to the painters of northern countries,

related to the Arti di Bologna etchings;

many

Giacomo Francesco Cipper

chini, probably a Tirolese

'

'"

called

working

il

and

Todes-

in the first

half of the eighteenth century in a

manner

reminiscent of Ceruti's. These painters delight

homely or gaudy and grotesque

in illustrating

scenes, and the beholder

narrative.

All this

Ceruti, where

it

is

is

entertained by the

different in the case of

is

the scrupulous 'portrayaF

deserted

shown

was

can probablv be

exchange between

Rome, and Lombardy with Bologna

Naples,

up

taking

it

a lively

In addition,

it.

that there

a key position; that, in other words,

the painters here

named and many others knew

What would seem an im-

of each others' work.

promptu reaction against

Annibale Carracci's Arti di Bologna^'^

of decorum, springing up in a

were what may be called the incunabula of

was

'pure representation' of low-class types, and

iconographical conventions

this tradition

Mitelli's

( 1

was kept

Giuseppe Maria

alive in

634- 1 7 1 8) engravings.

would seem

It

that Ceruti's art developed against this back-

ground'

and that

'

his paintings, therefore, re-

present types rather than portraits and contain

of which

connotations

literary

beholder

is

the

modern

to the

major problems

of the entire class of genre painting. Not

fife',

but traditions of old

literarv recollections -

closer

inform the incongruously

inspection

it

was endlessly repeated, such

mistress, the

idyllic genre.

appears that the

choice of subjects was limited.

set

'real

visual as well as

farcical as well as the imaginan,

Upon

in

fact

an

with

art

standardized

as the

School-

Sewing School, the Musical Party,

only

It is

when one

(1702-85) that one

is

pieces in the modern, eighteenth-centurv^ sense.

At the opposite pole

mula

for

to Ceruti's restricted for-

rendering of low-class types,

the

genre,

is

more

interested in catching the flavour

of the scene enacted than in the characters of the

actors [351].

Crespi, he
rather

While working

came

polished

(e.g.

Bologna under

paintings

Gambarini's

of well-mannered

peasants and washerwomen, an interpretation

of everyday
in \ enice,

life

that struck allied chords.

Back

he became the recorder of the

in the

polite

society,

life

always

small cabinet format. But

com-

pared with the magic of a Watteau, the charm

the Schoolmistress as personification

of a Lancret, the intimacy of a Chardin, or the

Grammar, one of the

Liberal Arts), in others

the pattern derives from religious imager\ or

history painting (e.g. the

Sewing School from

Reni's fresco of the \ irgin sewing). Moreover,

it

at

into contact with

Middle

in the allegorical representations of the

of

Italian practitioner

of the pleasant and unproblematical bourgeois

painted

back

kind of academic

turns to Pietro Longhi

so forth. In not a few cases the roots

far

- a

faced with conversation

and entertainments of

lie

number of centres,
own formal and

routine of 'low art\ far from any improvisation.

the mendicant Friar, the old Drunkard, and

Ages

its

Longhi, the most versatile

unaware.

This observation leads

formahsm of the

the

grand manner and the established conventions

of miser} that has our attention.

Now

of the Italian genre painters also practised

the grand manner, or tried and, disappointed,

has rightly been pointed

out''

that

by and

biting wit of a Hogarth, the limitations of his

talent are obvious.

Longhi's

flair

for

showing the public

their

own lives in a somewhat beautifying mirror

won him enthusiastic admirers.' " Everv where

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING

BR

BIBLOSARTE

497

498

LATE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO

not become important

the second halt of

till

of Giovanni Ghisolfi (1623-83),"' whose vedute

show

Roman

the seventeenth century, are in fact a late off-

ideate

shoot, often combining landscape elements with

arrangement of ruins. The boldness of Pannini's

the

work of the trained architectural designer

At

as well as the quadraturisia or scene painter.

the characteristically

scenic

views, the sureness with which he placed his

architecture on the canvas

clear signs of the

the time one distinguished between the vedute

trained quadraturisia - the handling and placing

renderings of topographical situa-

of his elegant figures, the atmosphere pervading

esatte, precise

tions,

and the vedute

ideate or di fantasia, imagi-

nary views, which offered the possibility of

dreamlike flights into the past and,

indulging

in

above

of rendering romantic and nostalgic

ail,

pictures of ruins.'" In

Rome

the arcadian and

pastoral classical landscape remained in vogue,

his pictures, the crystalline clarity of his colours,

the precision of his draughtsmanship

elements combine into an

had

Fleming Jan Frans van Bloemen,

called Orizzonte (1662- 1749),"-

Locatelli (1695-c. 1741),^'^

tidy

work shows

a typically

and by Andrea

whose elegant and

eighteenth-century

luminosity and transparency. NeapoHtan landscapists such as

Gennaro Greco,"^ called Masca-

cotta (1663- 17 14), Pietro Cappelli, a

(d. 1727),

even the

Roman

Leonardo Coccorante (1700-50), and

late

Carlo Bonavia (or Bonaria, active

1750-88), stem mainly from Rosa and often

emphasize the bizarre and fantastic."^

pared with these attractive but minor

Rome

had

Com-

specialists,

one great master who raised

at least

both the veduta esatta and ideata to the

level

of

these

which

influence on the majestic visions of

a Piranesi as

on the arcadian world created by

Hubert Robert.

practised mainly by the exceedingly successful

italianized

much

as

- all

art sui generis,

most of Pannini's

Earlier than

vedute, but

influenced by them at the end of his career, are

the often

somewhat dry topographical render-

Dutchman Gaspar van

who was born at
made Italy his home in

ings of the city by the

Wittel,'"* called Vanvitelli,

Amersfoort

in

1653,

Rome

1672, and worked mainly in Naples and

where he died

in

1736.

Deriving from the

northern microcosmic tradition of a Berkheyde,

in

soon developed a sense for well-

Italy he

composed panoramic views without ever abandoning the principle of factual correctness.

With

and Pannini and

with

the magnificent engraved work of the Venetian

Vanvitelli

Giambattista Piranesi

(p.

364),

later

Rome main-

a great art.

tained a position of eminence in the special field

Gian Paolo Pannini,"^ born at Piacenza in

169 1/2, first formed by impressions of the

of topographical and imaginary vedute. ^^'^ None-

Bibiena and other scenographic

landscape painting and the aUied genres. Marco

artists, in 171

theless,

Venice also asserted her ascendancy

joined the studio of the celebrated Benedetto

Ricci (1676- 1 730),'-" Sebastiano's

Luti in Rome. His frescoes in the Villa Patrizi

collaborator [353],

(1718-25, destroyed) established him firmly as

initiator of the

a master in his

nal Polignac

own

right.

and married

his relations with

Patronized by Cardito a

Frenchwoman,

France became close and his

influence on French artists increasingly important.

During the

(he died in

Rome

last thirty

in

years of his

1765) he was primarily

engaged on topographical views of Rome,

and imaginary
he received

[352],

vital

life

real

and one cannot doubt that

impulses from the precise art

in

nephew and

must be regarded

as the

new Venetian landscape

style,

which through him became an immediate

inter-

national success.

He worked

and Milan, and

visited

in

Turin, Florence,

London

twice between

1708 and 17 16, the second time (1712-16)

company of

From

his uncle.

home. With

in

the

17 17 on he

made

knowledge of

intra-

Venice

his

Italian

developments Marco combined quick

his

reactions and a spirit of real artistic adventure.

Thus,

in the first three

BIBLOSARTE

decades of the eighteenth

352.

Gian Paolo Pannini: Piazza

del Quirinale,

i.

1743. Rome, Qjiirinal Palace

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING

century his manner underwent

the

Carlevarijs, the dark,

many

views

'scenographic'

early

changes:

derive

from

tempestuous landscapes

betray the study ofSalvator and Micco Spadaro,

more arcadian ones

the

that of Claude; in the

second decade his landscapes show some of the

magic and nervous tension of Magnasco;

grows;

his interest in classical ruins

at

the

scenographic tradition

time his vision broadens, his palette lightens,

It

light of the

brilliant

501

has long
in

strong

warm and

chiaroscuro and glittering with the

Venetian lagoon, had

formative influence on the greater Francesco

Guardi.

To

later

same

retained.

is

been known that his work, usually

the extent that

also veduttsti,

all

these landscapists were

was primarily the veduta

it

di

fantasia that interested them. But parallel with

and the landscapes take on an eighteenth-

the veduta esatta by Vanvitelli and Pannini runs

century luminous and atmospheric character

[353].

At this

moment he appears as a master

late

development

at

Venice:

if

Luca Carlevarijs

from Udine (1663- 1730) was the Venetian

of the vedute ideate, fantastic visions of crumbled

Vanvitelli,

antiquity, even before Pannini had developed

(1697- 1 768), was the Venetian Pannini. Carle-

his

own style

in this genre.

he came into contact with the

Ricci before

Tuscan Francesco

who

Zuccarelli (1702-88),

renowned

also

varijs,'--'

Giuseppe Zais (1709-84) formed his rustic

style as a landscapist upon the art of Marco

Antonio Canale, called Canaletto

proached

as an

engraver, ap-

his subject with the eye

ledge of the trained quadraturista.

scenic

views of the Piazza S. Marco and

effect of his

the Canal

and know-

The

Grande with

emphasis

their studied

Venice about 1732 and soon found

on perspective, the crowds, gondolas and acces-

himself in the leading position vacated by Marco

sories filling his pictures, his interest in the

settled in

Trained

Ricci's death.

Anesi and
carelli

had

strove

to

Rome

in

Florence by Paolo

narrative or the festive event (e.g. the Reception

Zuc-

of the Fourth Earl of Manchester as Ambassador

possibly by Locatelli,

of Marco's bravura although he

little

emulate

luminosity. But
idylls

in

the

Tuscan

latter's

atmospheric

that he was, his festive

and arcadian elysiums under

blue skies -

than from

more

in line of

Marco - always retain a non-Venetian

colouristic coolness. His sweet

and amiable

secured him international success.

in Paris

tion

their large

descent from Claude

art

He worked

and London, where he became a founda-

member

of the Royal

his influence

scape painting

The most

Academy

(1768),

and

on the history of English landis

well

known.

gifted follower of

;i^^

Marco

Ricci, but

with a quick brush he painted

imaginary views of Venice, landscapes with

ruins,

and capriccios

in

- all this

which something of the

was mainly

Marco

Ricci:

Epitaph for Admiral Shovel,

Washington, National Gallery

c.

1726.

Art Gallery, Birmingham)

different his art

from that

is

counterpart. Yet like Vanvitelli he

concerned with the

a 'chronicler',

factual rather than the poetical aspect of the

was precisely

scene recorded.

It

cal quality, the

responsiveness to the

this,

the poeti-

mood

of

Venice, to her light and atmosphere, that Canaletto

cal

knew how

He began

as a theatri-

Rome (171Q), he worked first with Carle-

visit to

it

to render.

designer under his father. After an early

and

his choice of views

at a

much

even

and motifs reveals

later date.

Canaletto's characteristic style was formed as

early as 1725 (four pictures for Stefano Conti at

Lucca,

now

Montreal, private collection).'-^

Although he slowly turned from an early

hroso

353. Sebastiano and

shows how

Roman

of his

varijs,

probably Canaletto's pupil, was Michele Marieschi (171 0-43)

at Venice, 1707, Citj-

manner

to a brightly

and warmly

lit

tene-

atmo-

spheric interpretation of his vedute, in keeping

with the general eighteenth-century trend, he

remained

faithful to a fluid

BIBLOSARTE

and smooth paint;

Lmdm. Nstimml Gmtlrrj

354-

Camhno: Piazzi S.

and

k is dus that hd|K to ooavey the mipressioo

dispasskmate fcsdvc d^nhr and beatitiide

c4^a

13541.

>faroo,

f.

1760.

No ei^dxentb-centniT pointer was more

to the taste

of the

BritislL,

and owing

to the

patronage of the remarkable Consul Smith

Venke

at

there was soon a steady flow of Cana-

BIBLOSARTE

FAINTING

Fngbnd, folBamrd benreen 1746 and

lenos to

1755 by dnee ^iats ai die attin CD Loadoa.^^

A I^b-daK mktuw

of Caulcno's mtammer

was his pmpi Giuseppe Mofctd;^^ bat oalr

Benuido Bellooo (1720-80), Canokteo's
nephev, was capable of a

|mwu

ioKipRCa-

don of die older artist's waA. He left Venice A

the age of twenty and. after wiiiig in Rone;
Tnrin, Milan, and Verooa,

soo^ his foftnae

Btiami

1747 and 1756 he

north of the Alps.

vasooort painur in Dtesdea,

later

he

wok to

Menm and Mnnicfa. and the bst tliirffien years

of his life he spent as oo^ painiei in Waisav,
poeticallT eoBobfiag cides

and

baUB^nnder

505

ooqna was

die wvik of mldiiBaiiw ia the

wIkxc ncry kind of

stmfin.

<

picnacs^
panMmgjit baMlc-pMfiiy aad cvca ftcscocs
(173DS,
Kri mi> a, Tcaice). Qrir ia his haa
yean aad, abonc al. after the death of the elder
brother does he aec^ m haic cnaoeanaond oa
Jfirptcd, from

ii

itiiiai

die pmatrng of zadtfr, far wUcfc fe

that

^a mayor problem of

opened

Unti

fairly

icjcmdy

it

cziiici

was IwJktui dot Ft

cesoo was the leal aad oaly graias in the

Now, huweia.

k aoa

the scdcs have beca

<

mtciaul

nuitliem skies by the matfaemancri piecisnn of

Ins rision

and the

terse appficadan of a <>na n

lai^ of cold 'moonligjH' ooloois.^

Often
in

allied

fact

with tbe

bmk of CanaietBa. bu

op a diammitJy oppuain

taking

position. Francesco

Gnardi (1712-93) nHSt be

the ofj^m

of a medieval

Chiem deTAagcfe

artist.

Ahboi^ in

was married to Tiepolo.

research that

the

(alkr 1753) \2S5\ <kn, iadeed. the pdhi maai

go
him.
spiK of sack tc-rilaainii of far-

among the tadrtiii L ffc modest

icmaius ahaost as tmoanaaus as db

given the pahi

bfe-story

ms

snat figatc.!^ If he - as
Ekdy
F iancesuu was the awmT of the

ii i i

it is

w in iiM i of

aacriKD^s piai l ii ry hg

only after paiicat

Cks

While Caaakim suais m dK oU tiadnaa of

has bfcnmr

of|mt,atiadkiaa

knovn aboat hira. He nner attracted the

tion of feveign risxtors.

and not

serenty-rwo was he athnjunl

ti9

the

with the pre-

he

<dK

Academy. Untfl 1760 his peraoBafity was sobmerged n the nnily stndio headed by Ins
brother Giaaananio (1699, not 98^-1760).^^ In
this studio

Fiancesoo plodded along

nf oM tnd

Be

aa

d -a akin Mi d
practices. Asamanof over thirty he seems also
to have worked io MariesdiTs stofio aad whea
over forty in that of CanaietiOL Moreacer. ke
-irTJTm

iif

i i 1

limiiii bhi

did not hesitaK to rqieat !<>* aor

"

other

arttsts'

wk

1719 his sister

ose

works - next to Canaletto's^ 00m-

kaded iavk, the

^ Can*, aad the aaoesny of his an goes

back thfOMgh Mariesch ami Marco Riod m
Magaasoo, aad fiaiher m MaAEi. Fem, aad
Ly^ WUe
i

widi the

skilfai maaipafanoa of
prospecK aad taeiciiac rcmmas mside the grctf

Gaarfi

drifts

and petsoaal
world [356] dat is

positioos by Sebastiano Ricci. Fetd. Piazzcta,

rather

Strazzi. Crespi -

and oae of his most ruislmig

G^ Ctmcert of 1782 (Mmack.

Whfle Caaakim ohieciifes cvea the puuit w

leaioe, GaaraisBb|BCXmescvea fa lad iccmd-

was cribbed fiom a dn- ea-

gs. WbAc the ioimer, m a wmd, IS adi a dhOd

paintinss^ the

.\he Pinakothekl

sravine h^ .Antonio Baratd after a design by

of the RcaaissMoe traditiaa ia so

Giovanni Batrisn C^iaL FiaaBv. mach of his

BIBLOSARTE

far as the

355- Gianantonio Guardi: Story of Tobit, after 1753. Detail. Venice, S. RaJJaele, parapet of organ

BIBLOSARTE

PAINTING

performance, the

outside that tradi-

latter steps

tion in so far as the thing painted

seems

to

have

505

and Jacopo Bassano, had constantly invigorated

Baroque painting

Italian

at all levels,

and had

no more than extrinsic value.

contributed even more to the course painting

But w hether it was Gianantonio or Francesco

who crowned the pursuits of the masters of the

took in the

free brush-stroke,

form

is

it is

in their

work

that solid

dissolved and dematerialized to an extent

undreamed of by any precursor

[355].

Between

them, the two brothers opened the way

to the

'pure' painters di tocco of the next century, the

Impressionists,

form was

who

fleeting

like

them thought

that

and conditioned by the atmo-

sphere that surrounds

Thus two masters

On
were

it

essentially of the petite

maniere had broken through the vicious circle of

Spain.

book might well have ended,

not for a strange paradox. Francesco

Guardi's

art has often

been compared with the

music of Mozart. Despite his modernity, Guardi

was
a

man

man

of his century and, more specifically,

of the Rococo.

spirited capriccios

He

continued creating his

and limpid visions of Venice

long after the spectre of a

broken

it.

Low Countries and

this note the

in

on Europe.

new

When

heroic age had

he died in the

fourth year of the French Revolution, few

may

have known or cared that the reactionary back-

Renaissance ideology and vindicated the de-

water of Venice, the meeting place of the ghost-

velopment of

like society

a free painterly

had started with the

356. Francesco Guardi

expression which

late Titian,

with Tintoretto

View of the Lagoon,

of the past, had harboured a great

revolutionarv of the brush.

1790.

Milan, Aluseo Poldo Pezzoli

BIBLOSARTE

5o6

LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ABBREVIATIONS USED

IN

THE NOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Archivi

Archivi

Art Bull.

The

Baglione
Bellori

Rome, 1642
G. Baglione, Le Vite de' pittori, scultort, archttelli
G. P. Bellori, Le Vite de' pittort, scultori ed architetti modernt. Rome, 1672

Boll. d'Arte

Bollettino d'Arte

Boll. Soc. Piemontese

Bolletttno delta Societd Piemontese di architettura e delle belle arti

Bottari

G. Bottari, Raccolta di lettere. Milan, 1822

H. Brauer and R. Wittkower, Die Zetchnungen

d' Italia

.4rt Bulletin
.

Brauer-Wittkower

des Gtanlorenzo Bernini. Berlin,

1931

Mag.

G.d.B.A.

The Burlington Magazine

U. Donati, Artisti ticinesi
Gazette des Beaux-Arts

Golzio, Documentt

V. Golzio, Documentt

Haskell, Patrons

F. Haskell, Patrons

Jahrb. Preuss. Kunstslg.

Society in the Age of the Baroque. London, 1963

Jahrhuch der Preussischen Kunst sammlungen
Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes

Burl.

Donati, Art. Tic.

Jf.

W.C.I.

Roma. Bellinzona, 1942

artislici sul seicento nelF archivio Chtgi.

and Painters:

Study

Rome, 1939

Relations between Italian Art and

in the

Male

K. Lankheit, Florentinische Barockplastik. Munich, 1962

E. Male, L'art religieux de la fin du XVIe siecle
Paris, 1951

Malvasia

C. C. Malvasia, Felsina pit trice. Bologna, 1678

Passeri-Hess

G. B. Passeri, Vite de' pittori, scultori ed architetti. Ed. J. Hess. Vienna, 1934
L. von Pastor, Geschichte der Pdpste. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1901 ff.
O. Pollak, Die Kunsttdtigkeit unter Urban Vlll. Vienna, 1927, 193
Qiiaderni dell'Istituto di storia dell' architettura (Rome)

Lankheit

Pastor
Pollak, Kiinsttdtigkeit

Quaderni

Rep.f. Kunstip.

Repertorium fiir Kunstwissenschaft

Riv. del R.

Rivista del R. Istituto di archeologia e storia dell' arte

1st.

Rom. Jahrb. f. Kunstg.

Romisches Jahrbuch fiir Kunstgeschichte

Titi

F. Titi, Descrizione delle pitture, sculture e architetture

Venturi

A. Venturi, Storia dell'arte italiana. Milan, 1933 ff.

H. Voss, Die Malerei des Barock in Rom. Berlin, 1924
E. Waterhouse, Baroque Painting in Rome. London, 1937

Voss
Waterhouse
Wiener Jahrb.

Wiener Jahrbuch fiir Kunstgeschichte

Wittkower, Bernini

R. Wittkower, Gtan Lorenzo Bernini. London, 1955

Zeitschr.f.

b.

Kunst

Zeitschr.f. Kunstg.

Zeitschrift fiir bildende

Kunst

Zeitschrift fur Kunstgeschichte

BIBLOSARTE

in

Roma. Rome, 1763

NOTES
Bold numbers

indicate page references

FOREWORD

Archiium Historicum

Pirri, S.I., in

Societatis lesu, xxi

(1952)12.

See Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, v

by R. Weilek, W. Ste-

I.

7.

These connexions were

but

first

discussed in the valu-

book by W.

Weibel,

(1946), 77-128, widi articles

able

chow, R. Daniells, W. Fleming; J. H. Mueller, thtd.,

XII (1954), 421; and ihid., Xiv (1955), 143-74, with
articles by C. J. Friedrich, M. F. Bukofzer, H. Hatz-

Jesuitismus und Barockskulptur, Strasbourg, 1909.

feld, J.

R. Martin,

Paragone,

W. Stechow.

(1950), no.

and

11

Also G. Briganti,

(1951), no. 13; idem,

Pietro da Cortona, Florence, 1962, 15

in

Accademia

Bibliography

fi.

Wittkower

dei Lmcei, CCLIX (1962), 319.

See also

8.

See

almost-forgotten

p. 56.

See Galassi Paluzzi (above. Note

25. 9.

Rovella, S.I., in Civilta Cattolica, 103,

See also Baroque Art and the Jesuit Contribution,

165.

ed.

and G.

3)

(1952), 53,

iii

Jaffe

I.

26. 10.

On

and R. Wittkower (Bibliography,

Ponzio see L. Crema

in Atti del

II,

\).

IV Conand

gresso Sazionale di stona dell'arte, Milan, 1939,

(I I, A).

H. Hibbard, The Architecture of the Palazzo Borghese,

CHAPTER
22.

I.

Rome,

1962, 97, up-to-date the fullest biographical

treatment. Born at \'iggiu near the Lake of Lugano,

Giovanni Andrea Gilio, Due Dialogi, Camerino,

his career in

Rome

seems

to

have started

in

1564 (ed. P. Barocchi, Trattati d'arte del Cinquecenlo,

as architect of the Villa d'Este (D. R. Coffin,

Bari, 1961,

d'Este at Tiioli, Princeton, i960, loi). In

2.

11,

40).

This belongs, of course,

to the oldest tenets of the

Church. The proscription reaffirms promulgations of

the Nicean Council. On the origin and character of
the decree, see

H. Jedin

in

Tiibtnger

Theologische

full critical

review of the extensive literature in

C. Galassi Paluzzi, Stona segreta dello

stile dei

Rome,

Cnnlrortforma

195

See also F. Zeri, Pittura

Gesuiti,
:

L'arte senza tempo di Scipto da Gaeta, Turin, 1957,

and E.

Battisti,

II. It

'Riforma e Controriforma',

in Enciclo-

should, however, be noticed that during the

early nineties the Cavaliere's rich

cism with

its

and elegant

classi-

deliberate references to Raphael and

(to

be studied in the Loggia Orsini of

the 'house of Sixtus

V,

Via di Parione, 1589;

in

591 2; and in the Cappella Olgiati, S. Prassede,

1592-5) held promise for the future which his further

development did not realize. See I. Faldi, Boll, d' Arte,
xxxviii (1953), 45

For the history of the word and its meaning see

M. Treves in Marsyas, (1941).
23. 5. L. Ponnelle and L. Bordet, St Philip Nen and
the Roman Society of his Times, London, 1932, 576.

27. 12. F. Haskell, in his review of Zeri'sP;/^;/raf

ff.),

Cowemphasized

that the poverty of the Jesuits dictated the choice of

their artists.
13.

Male,

architects

14.

For

ing in the Gesii at Palermo. In addition, decorative

wood-carving was largely in the hands of Jesuit artists,
such as Bartolomeo Tronchi, Francesco Brunelli, the
Taurine brothers, and Daniele Ferrari. .\ rich material,
mainly from Jesuit archives, was published by Pietro

ft".

troriforma (Burl. .Mag., C (1958), 396

24. 6.

Apart from the famous case of Padre Pozzo, the

G. Tristano, G. De Rosis, Orazio Grassi,
and Giacomo Briano, the painters Michele Gisberti
and Rutilio Clementi, and the sculptor and engraver
G. B. Fiammeri may be mentioned. During the years
1634-5 no less than fourteen Jesuit artists were work-

the

vault of the Contarelli Chapel, S. Luigi de' Francesi,

pedia universale dell'arte. xi, 366-90.

4.

1585

The Villa
591-2 he

as 'misuratore' in S. .\ndrea della Valle.

Michelangelo

Quartalschrtft, CXVI (1935).

3.

worked

May

Hahn

III.

Brill's earlier

work

in the Vatican, see

in .Miscellanea Bihliothecae

H.

Hertzianae, Munich,

96 1, 308.
15. See the interesting remarks by H. Rottgen,
'Repriisentationsstii und Historienbild in der romis1

28.

chen Malerei um 1600', in Beitrdge fiir Hans Gerhard

Evers, Darmstadt, 1968, 71-82, who interprets, e.g.,
Roncalli's 'grand manner' as an autonomous Roman
development.
16.

The decoration

of the pendentives began

BIBLOSARTE

in

1598

508

NOTES TO CHAPTER

from designs by Ccsare Nebbia and Cristolbro RonFor further details, also of the large altarpieces,
see H. Siebenhiiner, in Fcstschnjl fiir Ham Scd/mayr,

calli.

Munich, 1962, 292, 295,

dome

the

300. For the

mosaics, sec H. Sedlmayr, Epochen

Werke, Vienna-Munich, i960,

11,

barda,

2 (1958),

ill,

.',

van

Alededeeltngeti

Arte Lnm-

disappointing.

is

by H. Egger

Nederlandsch

hel

Vasanzio may be responsible

10), 69,

of the

tier

The complex

31.

building history of the palace has

been disentangled by H. Hibbard (above, Note

He showed

histonsch

35.

T,2.

and

in

Hoogewerft's

who was born

this architect,

Rome

frescoes, see p. 98.

For the programme

of the paintings of the Cappella Paolina, see Male. For the payments made to the painters working in the

new

sacristy of the basilica.

chapel, see A.
21.

M. Corbo,

According

in

Palatmo,

xi (1967), 301

to "Bellori, ed. 1672, 369,

ft.

he changed

an angel into the Virgin.

22.

Wasserman

XLV (1963), 205 ft.,

documentation; also G. Briganti, // Palazzo

Palace; J.

with

full

del Qutrinale,

Rome,

in

Art

Bull.,

23. J. Hess, Agostino Tassi,

Munich, 1935, believed

was executed in two campaigns, 1 6 1 - 1

and 1616-17. His conclusions have been rejected by
recent research; see Chiarini in Boll. d'Arte, xlv
(i960), 367,

and the

full

discussion by G. Briganti

Note), 34. In addition, E. Schleier in Burl. Mag.,

Civ (1962), 255, and

W. Vitzthum,

stona

See Guglielmi

^;i.

payment of

at

Utrecht about 1550

in 1621.
in Boll. d'Arte,

xxxix (1954), 318:

February 1614.
This casino has been destroyed; on Cigoli's

34.

15

The

report about the Pallavicini

complex of decorations by
185, has

(1955),

F.

Zeri in Connoisseur

been superseded by H. Hibbard,

Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,

xxiii

(1964), 163.

who had become

worked once again together in 161
Lante at Bagnaia (near Rome). They were

Tassi and Gentileschi, friends

enemies

in 16 12,

joined there by the Cavaliere d'Arpino; see L. Salerno

in Connoisseur,

M.

CXLVI (i960), 157.

La Villa Borghese, Rome,

new documents and full bibliography.
The loggia [9] has incorrectly been attributed

See

35.

Sacripanti,

1933, with

1962, 1-29.

that the frieze

(last

in

in the Villa

Further to the complicated history of the Quirinal

di

patria, Lxvi (1943), clarify the mystery surrounding

XVIII (1967), 231-60.

Passignano also painted the frescoes in the

articles in Palladto, vi (1942),

Archtvio della R. deputazione romana

and died

large

10).

convincingly that the palace was begun by

Rume, ix (1929).
30. 19. The documents of payments made to the
sculptors working in the chapel between 1608 and
1615 were published by C. Dorati, Commenlari,
Institiiut te

33. 20.

for the

fac^ade.

Vignola, 1560-5.
.

29. 18. Fullest discussion of this building

in

titid

13.

Durini, 'Ambrogio Bonvicino

17. E.

programme of

Note

second

ibid.,

cvi (1964),

21524. W. Vitzthum, Burl. Mag., cvii (1965), 468 ft'. Spadarino (see Chapter 4, Note 17) also received
(relatively small) payments. R. Longhi, Paragone, x

36. 36.
to

Ponzio by Venturi, Stona

dell' Arte, xi,

ii,

905,

and others, but the new building period

only started after November 16 13, when the villa was
figure 837,

purchased by Scipione Borghese.

.^t

that time Ponzio

was dead.
37. 37. For the Acqua Paola and urban planning under
Paul V, see C. H. Heilmann, Burl. Mag., cxii (1970),

(1959), no. 117, 29, claims on stylistic grounds that

For the dates, see Hibbard, op. cit., loi (docuThe engineering problems of this and the
smaller 'Fontana di Ponte Sisto' were in the hands of
Domenico Fontana's brother, Giovanni (1540 1614).

the Veronese artists Bassetti, Ottino, and Turchi had

The

by Briganti.
25. A good deal of ink has been spilled over this
problem, since Longhi opened the discussion ( Vita
Artistica,
(1926), 123); see the last two Notes for

designed by Vasanzio in 161 2- 13; it stood at the end

of Via Giulia and was moved to the other side of the

further bibliographical guidance.

Artisti ticinesi, Bellinzona, 1942.

For other paintings in the palace by Tassi, Orazio

Gentileschi, and Antonio Carracci, see Briganti, op.

Lefontane

at., 41 passim.

38. 38.

minor

shares, a view accepted

26.

27.

Documents 26 September 1609-16 February

1612; see Briganti, op.

28.

See pp.

34. 29.

On

34.,

35, 83

30.

in

to

latter

Tiber

fountain consists of one triumphal arch,

in 1897.

On

Giovanni Fontana, the most

dis-

tinguished water engineer of the period, see Donati,

For these and other fountains, see

di

Roma, Rome, 1957,

For the collection, see C.

Giustiniani, Paris, 1812.

Mag.,

sul barocco,

Rome,

J.

A. F.

1920, and F.

Rep.f. Kunstw., L (1929).

According

ft".

The

also

D'Onofrio,

147, 149, and/)d.7w.

P.

Landon, Galene

collection has been re-

constructed in some articles by L. Salerno in Burl.

30.

ft".

Scipione Borghese's collection, see

Orbaan, Documentt

Noack

cit.,

656

ments).

Hibbard, Palazzo Borghese (above.

CI! (i960), 21, 93, 135.

Many of the

Marchese's

pictures formed the nucleus of the Berlin

Boll. d'Arte,

Rome,

Museum.

Toesca in
XLH (1957), 296, and Burl. Mag., Cil

For the Palazzo Giustiniani

(i960), 166.

BIBLOSARTE

in

see

I.

NOTES TO CHAPTER

For Giustiniani and other

Roman

patrons see also

Haskell, Patrons.

The

Bassano

north of

di Sutri

Rome gives an excellent

idea

During the
first decade of the seventeenth century worked here
side by side the Florentine Antonio Tempesta, the
Genoese Bernardo Castello, the Bolognese Domenichino and Albani, and, in addition, the strange Manof the catholicity of this patron's

nerist eccentric Paolo Guidotti

palace and

minating

and

its

taste.

1569- 1629).

(c.

decoration has been the subject of

articles

by

P. Portoghesi,

M.

Rodocanachi, Aveiitures

39. E.

d'lin

grand seigneur

On

1942.

viaggui di Bernardo

di

xciv(i952), 356.
40. W. Friedlaender, Caravaggio Studies, Princeton,
195539. 41. Fullest information about
circle in

London, 1947.
42. Only a fragment of

his

the treatise survives, incor-

porated into the preface of

Simon

Guillain's etchings

Annibale Carracci's drawings of Bolognese

after

artisans (1646); see

Art

43. R. Lee,
44.

Agucchi and

D. Mahon, Studies in Seicento Art and Theory,

W.

Mahon,

ctt.,

XXXV (1953), 227.

45. Agucchi, for instance, praises Caravaggio as a
colourist, although he regards his realism as vulgar.
Albani looks down with utter contempt at the whole
trend inaugurated by Caravaggio.

of

For the

full

see J.

Hess

been

by H. Hibbard

in

Art

Bull., XLiii

1961),

289 (fully documented). The Theatine Francesco

Grimaldi had a hand in the design, which - as Hibbard

shows - must be regarded as an important step beyond the Gesia towards a typically Seicento articulated
and unified conception.
48. For this and other restorations in Early Christian
taste, see G. Incisa della Rocchetta, 'Cesare Baronio

(i)

Iconographie de I'arl chretien, Paris, 1955, 1, 457.

51. Ponnelle and Bordet, op. ctt. (Note 5), 413.
42. 52.

Among

the Flemish artists in

Rome

shortly

Rubens and
Willem van Nieulandt and his nephew of

before and after 1600 were, apart from

Paul

Brill,

same name, Sebastian Vranx, Jan Bruegel, and

Josse de Momper. See L. van Puyvelde, La pemture
flamande a Rome, Brussels, 1950.
43. 53. For this and the following see M. Vaes in
the

Melanges Hulin de Loo, Brussels, 1931, 309 ff.

54. Anton Mayer, Das Lehen und die VVerke der
Briider

Alatthaeus

Rudolf Baer, Paul

und Paul
Bril.

Bril,

Leipzig,

geschichte der Landschaftsmaleret urn 1600,

ff.,

and

1910;

Studten zur Entrpicklungs-

Munich,

Paragone, xvi, no. 185 (1965),

with a catalogue of Paul Brill's easel paintings

a list

in

of dated paintings between 1587 and 1626.

See also above. Note

14.

Tassi's role as an intermediary between the

55.

northern and Italian genre has been emphasized

in

recent studies; see below Chapter 14, Note 20.

This has been pointed out by E. Gombrich

illuminating paper 'Renaissance artistic

(1954).

I.

art after the

on without considerable

Development of Landscape

complicated early history of the church has

clarified

live

xa

material for Matteo di Citta di Castello in Hess's

The

which

the

(1554-1627) took over. In 1605 (date of inscription)

Rughesi's facade was not quite finished. All available

47.

work on the

215. -

III,

After Longhi's death (1591) Giovan Battista Guerra

Appendix

in his classic

in Scntti dt storia

onore di Mario Salmi, 1963,

between

(ii) the recasting of old subjects, and (iii) the

body of entirely new themes. - See also E.
Kirschbaum in Gregonanum, xxvi, 100 ff. and L. Reau,

56.

history of construction on the basis

new documents,

delFarte

Male,

traditional subjects

21

and D. IVlahon, Art

Bull.,

40. 46.

50. E.

1930; G. T. Faggin,

op. at.

Bull., xxxiii (1951), 205.

Friedlaender, op.

interesting in this connexion that

Council of Trent, difterentiates correctly between

large

V. Brugnoli,

fl'.

is

1570 and 1693 twenty-five Jesuit martyrs alone were

beatified or canonized, twenty of them before 1630.

changes,

and A. Banti, Europa MillesenenBizom, Milan,

Roncalli see also P. Pouncy in Burl. Mag.,

diano

41. 49. It

illu-

itatien, Paris [n.d.],

tosei -

History ofArt presented to R. Wittkomer, London,

1967, 174

The

Faldi in Boll. d'Arte, XLii (1957), 222-95.

I.

SS. Nereo and Achilleo also R. Krautheimer, in Essays

in the

decoration of Vincenzo Giustiniani's palace at

509

Painting', G.d.B.A.,

57. It is only in recent years that

been made

in

in his

Theory and

some progress has

reconstructing the careers of the two

most important figures, Pietro Paolo Bonzi ('II Gobbo

dei Carracci') and Tommaso Salini. As regards the
former (1576-1636), whose earliest still life in the
manner of Pieter Aertsen dates from c. 1606 (private
coll., Madrid), see E. Battisti in Commentan, v (1954),
290 ft. and J. Hess, ihid., 303 ft. (frescoes in the Palazzo
Mattel, see below, Chapter 10, Note 52). For Salini,
see Salerno in Commentan, ill (1952) and V (1954),
254, and Testori in Paragone, v (1954), no. 51. Salini,

who

died, according to Baglione, aged fifty in 1625,

painted flower and fruit pieces before a dark back-

ground, with the objects close to the picture plane

restauratore di luoghi sacri', in Cesare Baronio. Siritti

('invenzioni molto capricciose e bizarre', Baglione).

and E. Hubala, 'Roma sotterranea

For
Das Miinster, xviii (1965), 157

started the recent discussions. In this context belong

vari, 1963,

barocca

323
.',

in

ft.,

fl".

See also R. Longhi, Paragone,

BIBLOSARTE

(1950), no.

i,

who

510

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

also the

still lifcs

AND

by Fede Galizia (1578- 1630); see S.

Moderna, VI, no. 24 (1963), 309,

Player (Leningrad), and the Medusa (Uffizi).

Roman

The

Bottari, Arte Antica e

pictures of the early

and idettiy Fede Galizia, Trent, 1965.

See also the older papers by Marangoni, Riv. d'Arte,
X ( 1 9 1 7), and Hoogewerft Dedalo, v ( 1 923-4). Charles

arrange in a precise sequence, and their chronology

La nature

Sterling's

Paris, 1952, contains

niurte de

many

nos.

to refer to Ottavio
activity in

Rome

and red chalk,

Leoni
in the

to portrait engravings, and, to

a lesser extent, portrait paintings.

His well-known

sober renderings of sitters have preserved for us a

Roman

pantheon of

veritable

persons and

clerics.

Leoni's album

artists,

of professional

1959, especially 300

8.

ft.,

From 1599 onwards

Mahon,

Burl.

331.
all

the important pictures are

datable within a fairly narrow margin. 1599- 1600: the

lateral paintings in the Contarelli

Chapel, S. Luigi de'

There were, however, not

Francesi.

paintings in

all,

since Caravaggio's

three, but four

first

altarpiece of

H.-W. Kruft, who published

St Matthew and the Angel was rejected and bought by

Marucelliana, Flor-

Marchese Vincenzo Giustiniani. (With the rest of

it went to the Kaiser Friedrich Museum, Berlin, and was destroyed in 1945.) The
second St Matthew, substituted for the rejected version, is in situ; both versions were painted between
February and September 1602 (H. Rottgen, Zeitschr.

in the Biblioteca

ence, containing 27 portrait drawings of artists (in

Storia delVarte, no. 4 (1969), 447 f[.), also suggested
a link between Leoni's interpretation of portraiture

and the aesthetic views of the Academy of St Luke, of

which Leoni was Principe in 16 14.

the

the Giustiniani collection

f.

CHAPTER

at establish-

Mag., xciv (1952), 19. Interesting revisions were proposed by E. .Arslan, Arte Antica e Moderna, 11 (1959),
191; see also B. Joffroy, Le Dossier Caravage, Paris,

devoted to portraiture, especially to portrait drawings

in black

most thorough attempt

ing a chronology was undertaken by D.

quarter of the seventeenth century was entirely

first

remain, to a certain extent, the subject of contro-

versy. Perhaps the

jours,

suggestive ideas.

58. This may be the place

(Rome, 578- 630), whose
1

Vantiqmte a

will

period are difficult to

Kunstg. (1965), 54

ft'.).

The

earlier lateral panels, the

Matthew and the Martyrdom of St

Calling of St

Matthew, particularly the 'Martyrdom', contain many

45.

I.

For

Annibale's

of both Caravaggio's and

a re-appraisal
art,

prepared

thirty years, the reader

D. Mahon, Studies

in

may

many studies of the last

now to the books by

turn

Seicento Art and Theory,

Lon-

1947; W. Friedlaender, Caravaggio Studies,

Princeton, 1955; R. Wittkower, The Drawings of the

don,

rQ\ta\m% pentimenti (L. Venturi and G. Urbani, Studi

radiografici sul Caravaggio,

restoration of

taur 0, 1966). -

On Peterzano, see C. Baroni, L'Arte, N.s. xi (1940),

2.

ft.,

with further references, and

M.

Calvesi, Boll.

3.

He

was 'about twenty', according to Giulio

Mancini, Caravaggio's
4. All

earliest biographer.

the documents are

now

available in English

translation in Professor Friedlaender's book. See also

S. Samek Ludovici, Vita di Caravaggio. Dalle
momanze del suo tempo, Milan, 1956; annotated

testi-

texts

of all the sources and documents.

5.

On

Gramatica, see R. Longhi, Proporziom,

for the recent

600- 1

Cruciji.xion

ofS t Peter and Con-

Maria del Popolo.

1602-4: Deposition of Christ, painted for St Philip

Neri's church, the Chiesa Nuova, now Vatican Gallery.

Madonna di Loreto, S. Agostino, Rome. Madonna dei Palafrenieri, painted for St Peter's,

1604-5:

1605

now Borghese

d'Arte, XXXIX (1954).

version of St Paul, Cerasi Chapel, S.

-

173

Rome, 953

the paintings of the chapel, see the

detailed reports in Boll. dell'Istiluto Centrale del Res-

London, 1952; and D. Posner, Anmhale

Carracci, London, 1971.

Carracci,

all

Gallery (for the date see P. Delia Per-

gola, Paragone, ix (1958), no. 105, 72). - 1605-6: the

Death of the Virgin, for S. Maria della Scala, now

Louvre, Paris; the Madonna of the Rosary, painted for
Modena, now Vienna Gallery (finished, according to
Friedlaender's plausible suggestion, by another hand).
-

1607: The Seven Acts of Mercy, Chiesa del

Monte

Naples; Flagellation of Christ, S.

Domenico Maggiore, Naples. - 1608: Portrait of A to

della Misericordia,
i

(1943)1 54, and A. Marino, in L'Arte, nos. 3-4 (1968),

de Vignacourt, Louvre, Paris (doubted by Longhi);

47

Beheading of St John the Baptist, Cathedral, La Valletta, Malta; Burial of St Lucy, S. Lucia, Syracuse. -

ff-

During this period he painted the Sick Bacchus

and the Boy with the Fruit Basket, both in the Bor6.

1608-9: Adoration of the Shepherds and Raising of

Museo Nazionale, Messina. - 1609: Adora-

ghese Gallery and originally in the possession of the

Lazarus,

Cavaliere d'Arpino.

tion with

7.

Among

the pictures in the Cardinal's collection

St Francis and St Lawrence, Oratorio

di S.

Lorenzo, Palermo. Apart from the Vignacourt por-

were The Musical Party (Metropohtan Museum, New

York), the Fortune Teller (Louvre version?), the Card

46. 9.

Sharpers (formerly Palazzo Sciarra, Rome), the Lute

question whether pictures

trait, this list

contains only the large altarpieces.

Though

hardly ever discussed,

BIBLOSARTE

like the

it is still

Boy with

an open

the Fruit

NOTES TO CHAPTER

Boy

Basket, the Musical Party, or the

Lizard (Longhi Coll.) were painted with

by a

bitten

moralizing

In his 'Life' of Caravaggio, Bagiione remarks

generally that the

young

painting self-portraits

artist

in a

was

in the habit

of

mirror, specifying a 'Bac-

chus' guise. Other early pictures such as the

bitten

by a Lizard and the head of Medusa

Boy

may con-

fidently be regarded as self-portraits.

1

The

relation of the

Bacchus

sensuous

to 'the

85) should not, however, be

ctt.,

overlooked.

after

1938.
49. 19.

For the iconography of the Deposition, see the

M. A. Graeve, Art Bull., XL (1958),

excellent study by
223.
50. 20.

Most of Caravaggio's

Saxl's Antike Cotter in der Spdtrenatssance, Leipzig,

have been carefully cleaned and restored,

painted

On

this occa-

whose authenticity had sometimes been

doubted.
52. 21.
(c.

The Borghese David

with the

Head of Goliath

1605), for instance, follows a representational type

in the fifteenth

century and

though burlesque, reorientation may

be observed in Nicolo Frangipani's Bacchus and

of Perseus with the head of Medusa. For the

Buffoon, which was painted in Venice at about the

reader must be referred to

same moment (Venice, Querini Stampalia Gallery;

iconographical studies.

13.

similar,

Venturi,

14. Still lifes

in

figure 55).

ix, 7,

ultimately derives from illuminations in manuscripts

22. Bellori, in his

of extraordinary perfection are the rule

Caravaggio's early work, see,

e.g.,

the Borghese

Boy

wtth the Fruit Basket, the Leningrad Lute Player, and,

W.

biography of Caravaggio, men-

tion

which recent X-ray studies have proved correct

Note 8).

(see above.

The

neck of the Virgin

of a slightly later date, the National Gallery Supper at

53. 23.

find

Repose on the Flight recurs

life,

the Penitent

the Basket of Fruit (Milan, Ambrosiana).

pointed out, however, that this picture

a larger

It

has been

may be

the

composition, a hypothesis borne

out by the repainted buft background. See H. Swarzenski, Boston

Museum

Bulletin, Lii

attribution of the Boston

to

still life

(1954),

whose

Caravaggio can

54. 24.

25.

to a stimulating

shield of

weapon
16.

Medusa

hypothesis by D.

xvii, no. 199 (1966),

62

ft.,

the

has to be regarded as a tournament

is

not radical but was fore-

Two versions are extant, one in the Doria Gallery,

the other in the Capitoline

Museum, Rome. D. .Mahon

(Burl. Mag., xcv (1953), 213) tried to

mentioned by

According

3, p. 68.

in early pictures.

of the whole problem of early

Heikamp, Paragone,

Doria

in a

break, of course,

latter picture, for

48. 15.

in the

number of pictures, e.g.

Magdalen and the Madonna di Loreto.

See Chapter

The

shadowed
26.

line of the

hardly be accepted, in spite of his pertinent discussion

still lifes.

rest, the

Friedlaender's thorough

tions that he painted this picture twice over, an asser-

Emmaus. It comes as no surprise, therefore, to

amongst the earliest works a self-contained still

fragment of

in

some
among them

sion the extremely high quality of the Lazarus was

which was already current

1927.

late pictures,

the two pictures mentioned in the text.

revealed,

For the process of revaluing the ancient gods

the Renaissance see the admirable account in F.

12.

Dead Christ in the Brera. For the whole problem of

extreme foreshortening, see Kurt Rathe, Die .ius-

great haste, are in poor condition. In recent years

idealism of certain Hadrianic representations' (W.

Friedlaender, op.

511

drucksjunktton extrem verkiirzter Figuren, London,

or allegorizing intent.
10.

show

long regarded as a copy,

that the

is

the one

Bellori as being in the collection of

Cardinal Pio. See also D.

Mahon and D.

Artists in Seventeenth-Century
tion, Wildenstein,

Sutton,

Rome, Loan Exhibi-

London, 1955,

no. 17, with a full

discussion of the intricacies of the subject matter.

rather than as a painting.

Two of the early religious pictures share the same

Repentant Magdalen (Rome, Galleria

Further, see E. Battisti in Commentan,

VI

(1955),

Doria-Pamphili) and the St Catherine (Lugano, Thys-

whose researches in the Pio archives seem to

militate against Mahon's identification. But L. Saler-

sen Coll.). Their interest

is largely focused on still life

and embroidered dresses. For the iconography of the

no, G. Mancini. Consider azioni sulla pittura,

Magdalen, see

the Pio and Capitoline versions.

the

quality:

17.

The

Dates as
gested.

Toesca, J.W'.C./., xxiv (1961), 114.

I.

date of this painting

far apart as

My

still

controversial.

1594 and 1602 have been sug-

previous assumption

early; the picture can hardly

1600. See

is

'f.

1597' seems too

have been painted before

M. Levey, National Callery

Catalogues. The

181

ft.,

1957,

II,

55. 27.
to

Rome,

note 891, gives convincing reasons for linking

The

be that

better of the

in the

two existing versions seems

Wadsworth

.'Vthenaeum, Hartford,

Connecticut, see Mostra del Caravaggio, Catalogo,

i95i,no.
56. 28.

17.

Dr

Friedlaender

in his recent

book does not

Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Italian Schools,

quite agree with this interpretation of the sources.

London, 1971,49-53.

cannot do more here than state his case, without being

18.

The

reader

may

be reminded of Mantegna's

able to argue the matter out.

BIBLOSARTE

It is true,

however, that

512

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

AND

the Madiinua dei Pulajreiiien was in St Peter's until

cuted by I.ucio Massari. There

about 1620. Only then did Cardinal Seipione Bor-

this view.

ghese incorporate the picture into his collection; see

drawings by .Annibale are extant.

Hess, Cummentan, v (1954), 271 ft.

29. For a detailed discussion of the relationship be-

J.

tween C.aravaggio's

art

and the reform movement the

W. Friedlaender's Cara-

reader must be referred to

The

picture

is

no reason

to accept

7. See, e.g., E. K. Waterhouse, Baroijue Painting in

Rome, London, 1937, 7, where the term is used in spite

of certain reservations.

The history and

8.

fallacies

of the term

been discussed by U. Mahon,

vaggui SiiiJtes, 121ft.

is

signed and dated and original

Lee

op.

cit.

'eclectic'

have

See also R.

W.

Art Bull., xxxiii (1951), 204 ft., .Mahon, ihid.,

xxxiv (1952), 226 ft., the apt remarks by B. Berenson

CHAPTER

Translation in E. G. Holt, Literary Sources of

57.

I.

An

History, Princeton, 1947, 329

ft.

D. Mahon's Studies
Art and Theory, London, 1947, 212 ft.
2.

See the survey

58. 3.

in

Their collaboration

in Seicento

particularly puzzling in

is

the cycle of frescoes ofjhe Palazzo Fava

(c.

1583-4)

with scenes from Virgil's Aeneid as well as in that of

Magnani-Salem

which illustrates
M. Brown,
Burl. Mag., Cix (1967), 710 ft., and opposing Brown,
A. W. A. Boschloo, ihid., ex (1968), 220 f.). It is easier
to difterentiate between the three masters in the
frescoes of the Palazzo Sampieri-Talon {c. 1593-4).
See Bodmer, Lodovico Carracci, Burg, 1939, 118 ft.,
the Palazzo

( 1

588

ft'.)

Rome after Livy

the early history of

(see J.

with further references.

The paper by
III,

S.

no. 9 (i960), 68,

is

Arte Antua

in

Moderiia,

concerned with the iconography

of the Palazzo Fava cycle.

4. The character and history of the Carracci Academy are discussed by H. Bodmer in the periodical
Bologna, XI 11 (1935), 61 ft. Bodmer dates the founda-

Accademiadegli Incamminati in 1582. G.C.

Cavalli, the compiler of the Regesto published in the
tion of the

Catalogue of the Alostra

in his Caravaggio, London, 1953, 78 ft., and Wittkower in Aspects of the Eighteenth Century, ed. E.
Wasserman, The Johns Hopkins Press, 1965.
62. 9. Even in Lodovico's most Baroque pictures there
is a Mannerist undercurrent. Figures often lack a firm
stance and - particularly in later works - gestures may
be as ill-defined as they are outre and eccentric. Such
figures as the donors who appear in the Cento altarpiece like intruders from outside are a well-known
Mannerist formula (see, e.g., Passarotti's Presentation
in the Temple, S. Maria della Purificazione, Bologna).
10. According to the Alostra dei Carracci (op. cit.,

128), the
c.

dei Carracci,

Bologna, 1956,

be 1585. See also J. H. Beck

and M. Fanti, 'La sede dell'Accademia dei Carracci',
Strenna stoma bolognese, xvii (1967), 53 ft. For all
76, believes the date to

Martyrdom of St Angelus should be dated

1598-9.

1 1. Examples: The Calling of St Matthew of c. 1605

(Bologna, Pinacoteca), the Assumption of the Virgin,

63.

1605-8 (Modena, Galleria Estense), St Charles

c.

Ostrow

in

adoring the Child,

c.

161 5 (Forli, Pinacoteca), and the

Paradise off. 1616 (Bologna, S. Paolo) with

its

im-

mensely elongated boneless figures.

12. The iconography of the only canvas, Hercules
at the Crossroads, now in the Naples Museum, was
exhaustively discussed by E. Panofsky, Hercules

Scheidewege, Leipzig, Berlin, 1930.

Bull., xxxviii (1956), 91,

J.

am

R. Martin, Art

who threw new

fight

on the

iconography of the whole cycle, showed that the programme was conceived by Fulvio Orsini.
R. Martin, The Farnese Gallery, Princeton,

13. J.

1965, 51

ff^.,

with further literature on the complicated

dates of the vite of the Carracci the Regesto should be

question of chronology; see also the pertinent obser-

consulted.

vations by D. Posner, in.'ir/5;///.,XLViii(i966), iii

5.

For .Agostino's development

Bodmer, Die Grapliischen

as an engraver see

Kiinste,

(1940). .^gostino's importance

is

iv

H.

(1939) and v

nowadays generally

underrated. With his systematic studies of parts of the

body, of eyes, ears, arms, and

feet

(engraved after his

14.

Martin, op.

15. Ibid.,

144

cit.,

f.

For the symbolical interpretation the reader had

to be referred until recently to Bellori, to Tietze's
basic article, and to Panofsky in Oud Holland, L (1933).
attempts have been superseded by the

These

Wittkower, The Drawings of the Carracci at Windsor

Castle, London, 1952. The Vienna pictures, published
by O. K.\irz, J. W.C.L, xiv (1951), reveal Agostinoasa

Nevertheless, today

While Martin

sophisticated and entertaining master of mythological

Dempsey,

allegory.

submits that

Tietze believed that this picture was mainly exe-

ft".

ft'.

16.

death and for 150 years frequently republished), he

became the ancestor of academic teaching; see R.

6.

52

full

earlier

discussion in

ing the

J.

R.

Martin's Farnese Gallery.

we are as far apart as ever regardultimate meaning of this festive decoration.

stresses the neo-Platonic overtones, C.

in a

remarkable paper (see Bibliography),

punning,

satirical,

informs the classical scenes of the

BIBLOSARTE

mock-heroic
ceiling.

spirit

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

64.

Preserved in drawings; see Tietze's article;

17.

Wittkower, Carracci Drawings

Mostra
65. 18.

D. Mahon,

(op. ci/.);

dei Carracci, Disegni, Bologna, 1956, 108.

See Karoline Lanckoronska's

article in

For the history and development of

Wurtemberger, 'Die ManieDeckenmalerei in IVlittelitalien', Rom.Jahrh.

ceiling decoration see F.

j.

Kunstg., IV (1940), and A. F. Blunt, 'Illusionist

Decorations

Central Italian Painting of the Renais-

in

sance', ^owrna/ 0/ the R. Society of Arts, cvii (1959),

313. For the early history of quadrat ura painting, see

the illuminating paper by

J.

cm

Schulz, Burl. Alag.,

(1960,90.
19. For the brothers Alberti

From

Rome,

M.

See D. Mahon, Studies, op. cit., 204.

This is particularly impressive in the Louvre
Virgin with St Luke of 1592.

70. 28.

29.

The

best of six lunettes, painted, according to

Bellori, for the chapel of the Palazzo .Aldobrandini,

and executed with the help of pupils. H. Hibbard

(Burl. .Mag., cvi (1964), 183) has found documentary
proof according to which Albani together with other

worked on these lunettes

collaborators

L'Ideale classico del Seicento in Italia

the top of the hierarchical scale

at

22, gives

Domenichino contributed most

(1959), 41

J.

to the

R. Martin, Boll,

Farnese Gallery, 62

while

ff.),

Domenichino

share in the lunettes.

such

artists as

Calvaert (who came from .Antwerp),

more problematical. D. Mahon has attempted

Butcher's Shop, published by

number of

among

subsidiary scenes

three hands; see 'Notes sur

et les dernieres

to dis-

Tachevement de

la

these

Galerie

annees d'Annibal Carrache",

R. Bacou, Dessins des Carraches, Louvre Exhibi-

See also below. Chapter 4, Note 20.

Martin wanted to identify this famous scene

tion, 1961, 57.

22. J. R.

and Scylla' and C. Dempsey

as 'Glaucus
f.

Kunstg., XXIX (1966), 67

ft.)

(in Zeitschr.

borne

as 'Thetis

to

her

Wedding'.
23. J. Anderson, in Art Bull., Lil (1970), 41 ft.,
demonstrated convincingly that Agostino's cycle, dependent on classical epithalamic poetry, was painted
as part of the celebrations for the arrival of the bride

of Ranuccio

I,

Margherita Aldobrandini.

gramme was probably

humanist Claudio

devised by

the

pro-

.Achillini.

Bologna was
occasion, during which Lucio Faberio,
24. Agostino's funeral in

the literary

The

Bolognese

Academy of

135

ft".,

and

Mahon

at the

far from being a

combines figures from .Michelangelo's Sacrifice of Noah on the Sistine Ceiling and
Raphael's fresco of the same subject in the Vatican
Logge.

'naive' genre painting,

Few

31.

caricatures by .Annibale have so far been

traced; see Wittkower, Carracci Drawings, 18.

not fully agree with

W. Boeck

in

some of the

attributions

can-

made by

.MUnchner Jahrbuch der hildenden Kunst,

54 ft. As for the problem of early caricatures,

see Brauer-Wittkower, Die Zeichnungen des Gian-

V (1954),

iorenzo Bernini, Berlin, 193

1;

W.

R. Juynboll, Het

komische genre in de tlaliaansche schilderkunst, Leiden,

1934; E. Kris, Psychoanalytic E.xplorations m Art,
(in, ch. 7, with E. Gombrich); also M.
in

Toscana sulla pittura

e Moderna, nos. 13-

"caricata" e giocosa'. Arte Antica

16 (1961), 400

Bildniskarikalur

ft'.,

hei

and

W.

Boeck, Inkunaheln der

Bologneser

Zeichnern

des

ij.

Jahrhunderts, Stuttgart, 1968.

in J. H'.C. I., xvi (1953), 306.

For work executed during the period of Annibale's illness, mainly by studio hands, see D. Posner
in Arte Anlica e Moderna, in, no. 12 (i960), 397; and
below. Chapter 4, Notes 20, 21.

The

others.

XLV (1963), 265) that this work,

Bull.,

Gregori, 'Nuovi accertamenti

in Studies in Seicento .Art,

and

(Carracci Drawings,

R. Martin has shown (Art

member of

25.

26.

|.

the

me

Agostino, was attributed to .\nnibale

Carracci Exhibition.

London, 1953

of the 'eclectic legend', has been thoroughly

analysed by D.

Fontana,

memorable

funeral oration. This speech, important for the creation

op. cit.) as

Prospero

the Gelati, delivered

e la pittura del

A more

Passarotti,

in

new

.Annibale,

thorough investigation of this problem

would probably reveal that their activity in this sphere
belongs to a trend current in Bologna in the circle of
71. 30.

the contributions of Lanfranco and Badalocchio are

Farnese

among

paesaggw. Catalogue, Bologna, 1962, 61, with further

literature. E. Borea in Paragone, Xiv (1963), no. 167,

completion of the gallery (see

tribute a

1605 and

in

again in 1613. For the whole problem and a

De Pittitra on it was regarded

dogma that 'history painting' (in the

widest sense) stood

d' .Arte, XLI\

(destroyed), fully

Albani, Lanfranco, and Badalocchio, see Cavalli in

see

of artistic activity.
68. 21. Later,

513

V.

in

Alberti's

as an unassailable

Danae

development.

attempt to distribute the execution

Brugnoli, Boll. d'Arti\ XLV (i960), 223-46.

66. 20.

illustrates this

AND

69. 27.

lerier

Jfahrb., IX (1935).

ristische

Pietd or the Bridgewater

comparison of pictures

like the early

Roman

Coronation of the Virgin (London, D. .Mahon Coll.)

with works dating from after 1600, like the Naples

CHAPTER
73.

Orazio Gentileschi died on 7 February 1639.

.\. .M. Crino (Burl.

I.

Documentary evidence found by

Mag.,
2.

cm

(1961), 145) settles the old dispute.

B. Nicolson (see Bibliography) has assembled the

little

we know about Manfredi.

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER 4

514

3.

v. Martinelli, 'Le date dclla nascita e dell' arrivo

Roma

di Clarlo Saraceni',

Studi Romani,

vii (1959),

It

appears that

the artist vacillated between progressive trends with-

6794.

Baglione's career has been reconstructed by Carla

9.

Guglielmi, Boll. d'Arte, XXXIX (1954).

Valentin's Christian

name

is

unknown.

It is

not

out absorbing them

fully.

After his Caravaggesque

Moise, as is usually maintained, which is simply a

misunderstood version of 'Monsii'. Caracciolo and

phase (see V. Martinelli,

Artemisia Gentileschi will be discussed with the Nea-

Rinaldo and Arniida, Rospigliosi); in the third decade

he followed Guercino's Baroque (St Sebastian, S.

For the Dutch, Flemish, and French

Caravaggisti the reader must be referred to other
volumes of the Pelican History of Art. For the literature on the artists mentioned in this chapter, see also
politan school.

Bibliography.
74. 5.

.4rte antica e

(1943), 21

f.

11,

Maria dell'Orto, 1624). From c. 1630 on the quality of

his work rapidly declines.
For Baglione's career, see also I. Faldi in Diz. Bwgrafico degli Italiam, v, 1963, 187.

See R. Longhi, Prnporzlnni,

moderna,

(1959), 82), he turned 'Bolognese' (second decade,

For the involved

story of his painting of Divine Love, see Martinelli,

Before the Caravaggesque phase, which includes such

loc. cit.,

works as the Crowning with Thorns (Varese, LizzaBassi Coll.), Longhi has reconstructed an earlier

also R.

Elsheimer-like period. In this he placed, no doubt

and L. Salerno, Burl. Mag., Cli (i960), 103;

Longhi, Paragone, xiv (1963), no. 163, 25.
75. 10. SeeS. Bottari, Commentari,\\ (1955), 108, who
published Borgianni's first picture, the St Gregory

David and St Christopher,

(Catania, Palazzo Cerami), signed and dated 1593.

correctly, the small Berlin

previously attributed to Elsheimer. Pictures such as

Consequently Borgianni was probably born

the St Cecilia and the Angel (Dr Bloch Coll.) and the

than was hitherto believed.

Virgin and Child (Florence, Contini-Bonacossi Coll.),

with their strong Florentine qualities,

pre-Elsheimer period.

may belong to a

One wonders whether

the im-

H. E. Wethey has successfully reconstructed Borgianni's early career {Burl. Mag., cvi (1964), 148
c.

pressive SS. Cecilia, V'alerianus, and Tthurtius in the

1603,

Toesca's

Marches (before 1617-21 ?),may

not be a few years earlier and nearer the time when the
impact of Caravaggio was most in evidence.
For Orazio's work in the Marches, see Mezzetti,
L'Arte, n.s.
(1930), 541 fif., and Emiliani, Para-

Toesca's rejoinder

in the

gone, IX (1958), no. 103, 38 (partly out of date); also H.

Voss in Acropoli, i (i 960-1), 99 (for the frescoes in the

Cappella del Crocefisso, Fabriano Cathedral, datable
between 16 13 and 16 17);

for his stay in Paris

(r.

1623-

see C. Sterling, Burl. Mag., c (1958), 112; for his

5),

England (document of 1626), Burl. Mag., C

M. Crino, ;W.,cii (i960), 264
(documents) Crino and B. Nicolson, ibid., cm ( 1961),

ff'.);

Rome; c. 1598-1602, first Spanish trip;

Rome; 1604-5, second Spanish trip. See I.

1595-8,

Brera, one of Orazio's masterpieces, usually dated

during his stay

earlier

letter (378),

Wethey's response (381), and

(ibid., cvii

(1965),

i,t,

f.).

For Saraceni see the unprinted New York University thesis by Eve Borsook, 1953, with an excellent
1 1

catalogue of the artist's aeuvre. See also Martinelli's

paper (Note

3,

above), and F. Arcangeli, Paragone,

xvii, no.

199 (1966), 46 ff. Finally, the satisfactory

monograph by Cavina, 1968 (see Bibliography), which
contains most critical material.

below

Some

of

my

dating

from that given by Cavina.

For Elsheimer's relations with Saraceni and other
differs slightly

arrival in

Italian painters, see the excellent catalogue of the

(1958), 253. See also A.

Elsheimer Exhibition

144; E. Schleier, ihid., civ (1962), 432; Crino, ihid.,

cix (1967), 533.
6. The pictures are mentioned here in the sequence
in

which they were painted according

to

H. Voss ( The

For Gentileschi's Lot and his Daughters, also dating

from the early 1620s and existing in several autograph

W.

Bissell, in Bulletin.

The National

Gallery of Canada, Ottawa, xiv (1969), 16 ft'.

7. See J. Hess in English Miscellany (1952), no.

3.

e.g.

But Van Dyck's influence makes its appearance

in the Prado Finding ofAloses, painted in London

and

listed in

8.

636

in the

inventory of Philip I V's paint-

ings; see J. Costello, J.W.C.I., xiii (1950), 252. As

shown by E. Harris, Burl. Mag., cix (1967), 86, the

picture was taken to

Madrid

in the

summer of

1633.

in

the

Stadelsches

etc. testify to

13.

Kunst-

Frankfurt, 1966-7 (written by Jutta Held).

76. 12. Replicas in Bologna, Vienna,

The

Hanover,

Lille,

the popularity of the picture.

picture was carefully cleaned in 1968, see

Attivita della Soprintendenza alle Gallerie del Lazio,

Rome

Connoisseur, CXLIV (1959), 163).

versions, see R.

institut,

14.

(1969), 27.

See the famous nine mythological scenes

scape settings (on copper) in the

museum

at

in land-

Naples.

Very close to Saraceni is the small group of impressive

pictures by an anonymous artist, possibly of French
origin and now assembled under the pseudonym
'Pensionante del Saraceni' (Longhi, Proporzioni,
( 1

French contacts are well known.

year of his life he was assisted by Jean

943), 23). Saraceni's

During the

last

Le Clerc from Nancy

(c.

1590-c. 1633). After his re-

turn to Venice Saraceni was commissioned with the

large

Doge Enrico Dandulo preaching

BIBLOSARTE

the

Crusade

in

St

NOTES TO CHAPTER

Mark's

for the Sala di

Gran Consiglio

in the

Palazzo

would seem that Le Clerc was wholly

responsible for the work and that he carried it out between 1620 and 1622.
According to R. Pallucchini ( Arte Veneta, xvii (1963),
178) Le Clerc also executed the Annunctalwn in the
Parish Church at Santa Giustina (Feltre), with Saraceni's signature and the date '1621' (anachronistically
- for the artist had died in 1620).
For Le Clerc in Italy, see N. I vanoft in Criiica d 'Arte,
IX (1962), 62, and for his post-Italian career, F. G.
Pariset in La Revue des Arts, viii (1958), 67.
15. For Valentin, see R. Longhi, ibid., 59 (with auvre
catalogue) and M. Hoog, ibid., x {i960), 267.
77. 16. An ethereally painted halo seems to surround
Ducale, but

it

the head, but the inscription proves that Serodine's

father

For

is

represented.

work, see B. Nicolson, Terhrugghen, London, 1958, 1

W. Schoenenberger's Giovanni Serodme, pit-

(note).

was written in 1954 as a

dissertation without a knowledge of Longhi's work or
of Serodine's correct birth-date (1600). Although not
tore di Ascona, Basel, 1957,

published until 1957, the author left his text (including

patent errors) unchanged, but added some new facts
in a

preamble,

among them documentary evidence of

December 1630. - P. Askew,

the artist's death on 21

'A Melancholy Astronomer by G.

S.',

Art

Bull., XLVii

(1965), 121, enlarged Serodine's small auvre by a pic-

Dresden and added important iconographical

ture in

considerations.
17.

515

H. Voss, Die Maleret des

Barnck in Rom, Berlin, 1924, and Longhi, Proporzioni,
1(1943)-

Other 'part-time' Caravaggistt

will

be discussed in

their proper place.

18. Pieter van Laer's appearance and character
earned him the name of Bamboccw, which can be

translated as childish, simple.

as Bambocciata,

meaning

The term remains

On Van

By

work
pun is evident.
designate the whole genre.
referring to his

a trifle, the

today to

Laer see Hoogewerft",

Oud

Holland, l (1932)

and LI (1933) and G. Briganti, Proporzioni, ill (1950)

and idem, I Bamboccianti, Catalogo, 1950. The Wiirzburg dissertation by A. Janeck on Pieter van Laer
(1968, see Bibliography) supersedes the earlier litera-

Janeck does not accept the painting of

ture.

is

illus-

here reproduced as

characteristic piece of the genre rather than as a

characteristic

Van

Laer.

m France
1500- 1700 (Pelican History of Art), Harmondsworth,
1953 (paperback edition, based on 2nd hardback ediSee

78. 19.

.\.

Blunt, Art and Architecture

tion, Harmondsworth, 1973 references in the present

volume are to the first, hardback, edition); W. R.
Crelly, The Painting of Simon Vouet, New Haven and
London, 1962 (see also the review by D. Posner, Art
Bull., XLV (1963), 286). For Vouet's Italian period, see
now J. Thuilliers, 'Simon Vouet en Italic, Essai de
;

catalogue critique', Saggi e memorie di sloria

IV (1965),

27

dell' arte,

ff.

See J. Pope-Hennessy, Drawings of Domemchino

Windsor Castle, London, 1948, 14, and M. V.
Brugnoli in Boll. d'Arte, XLii (1957), 274; in addition
to the literature given in Chapter 3, Note 21.
20.

Among other

gio's influence

the Catalogo, in addition to

tration 28 as autograph. It

of Longhi's chronology of Serodine's

a revision

who came under Caravagmainly during the second decade may

painters

be mentioned the Veronese Pasquale Ottino (15701630), Marcantonio Bassetti (1586- 1630), and Alessandro Turchi, called L'Orbetto ( 1 578-1648), all three

at

79. 21.

D. Posner

in

Arte Anttcae Moderna,

no. 12

ill,

Felice Brusasorci's pupils before going to

(i960), 397, has dealt fully with this work and the distribution of hands. Execution did not start until 1604.

Longhi

The

in

Proporzwni,

(1943), 52); the

Rome (R.
Roman An-

frescoes,

now

in rather

bad condition, are in the

Prado, Madrid.

gelo Caroselli (1585- 1652) and Bartolomeo Cavarozzi

Museum

from Viterbo (r 590 1625) who were both influenced

by Orazio Gentileschi Giovan Antonio Galli ('Spada-

22. Little is known about Tacconi apart from his

having been a pupil of .Annibale and active in Rome

rino'), a painter

of real distinction

Nicolo Musso,

who

Monferrato,

1620 after

c.

(d. after

1650);

a stay

of several years

in

Rome; Alonso Rodriguez (1578 1648) from Messina,

in Rome in 1606, who followed Caravaggio in the
second decade (A. Moir, Art Bull.,
finally

between

died in his home-town, Casale

Mau-

beuge (f. 1590- 1667), who appeared in Rome c. 161

and settled in Venice about ten years later, where he
stayed to the end of his days. About his early Caravaggesque phase see Voss, Zeitschr. f. b. Kunst, LViii
(1924). Characteristic works of all these painters were
to be seen during the 1951 Caravaggio Exhibition see
;

c.

in

in the

1607 and 1625.

23. In .\pril 1612

Paragone,

Reni was

in

Naples; see F. Bologna

xi (i960), no. 129, 54.

24. Bottari-Ticozzi, Raccolta di lettere

1822,

.XLix (1962), 205);

Nicolas Regnier (Niccolo Renieri) from

Barcelona and

at

25.

I,

.,

Milan,

287.

The

old puzzle of the attribution and dating of

was finally resolved by the publication of

documents by G.Panofsky-Soergel, in /?rtw.Jfa/(r/>.

these scenes
the

Kunstg., XI (1967-8), 132

the

new

ft".

The

first

frescoes of

palace were executed by pupils of Cristoforo

Roncalli (1600-1). Later, in 1607-8, other late

nerists,

Man-

Gaspare Celio and Francesco Nappi, painted

ceilings in the palace.

BIBLOSARTE

5l6

NOTES TO CHAPTER

26. For the chronology of this entry and the following

Reni entries, see H. Hibbard, in Burl. Mag., cvii

(1965), 502,

and

The

correct dating

M.

published by

gnoli, in Bull. d'Artc, xiii (1957),

28.

is

owed

266

Bru-

ft".

to E. Borea, Boll.

d'Arle, xlvi (1961), 237.

80. 29. Contract of 4

December 1614 published by

Golzio, .irchivi, ix (1942), 46 ft.

30. J. Hess, .4gosiino Tassi, Munich, 1935, 21 f.,
believed that Domenichino's Chariot of Apollo was

painted

1610 as an isolated qiiadro nportato and that

c.

some time

Paragone,

in

\\

issue has been settled

cviii (h)66), yo.

The documents were

27.

Borea

.Annibale's

death,

37.

See above,

See H. Hibbard

basis of original drawings, refuted this

on the
view, which
f.),

seems contradicted by the iconographic evidence

(Saxl in Philosophy and History, Essays dedicated to
Ernst Cassirer, Oxford, 1936, 213 ff.). Hess realso

affirmed his old view in Commentari, v (1954), 314,

but dated The Chariot of Apullo in 16 15.
31. L. Salerno,

Commentari,

zianae,

C^.

The

1.

D'Onofrio,

classical trend that,

Raphael's

influence

grew

p. 39.

Munich, 196

in .Wiscellanea Bihliothecae
1

Hert-

357 (documents) also E. Borea,

;

Domenichino, Milan, 1965, 126, 184.

39. In the Calling of St Andrew and St Peter the
figure of Christ is adapted from the Christ in Lodovico's Calling of St .Matthew (Bologna, Pinacoteca)
and the oarsman from a similar figure in the Preaching

of St John
39a.

ix (1958), 45.

by

rapidly.

38.

Pope-Hennessy (Domenichino Drawings., 92

for all

whole

81. 36. It characterizes the

after

1621) the ceiling was converted by

(c.

once and

La I ilia .4ldohrandini di Frascali, Rome, 1963, 126,

w ho published the payments to Domenichino between
November 1616 and June 1618. The whole question
has been fully reviewed by M. Levey, I\'ational Gallery
Catalogues, The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century
Italian Schools, London, 1971, 96 106.

Tassi into an open sky with a qiiadratura surround.

later

(i960), no. 123, 12, and xiv

(1963), no. 167, 28, favoured a date after 161

He

(ibid.).
left

behind the unfinished Cappella della

for the

Strada Cupa, a chapel in S. Maria in Trastevere, to

reconstruction of Badalocchio's ceuvre. See also yWaf-

which R. E. Spear has dedicated a fully documented

article in Burl. Mag., cxi (1969), 12 ft"., 220
82. 40. For a different view, see Pope-Hennessv, op.

32. I hid., 45 for the attribution,

and passim

stn delta pittura del Senentoemiliano(ig^gE\hih\non),

232, with further literature for Badalocchio.

artist

in

returned to Parma after Annibale's death. Back

Rome

later

The

after 1613,

he settled in Parma

work, after his Annibalesque

in 1617.

Roman

His

period, has

Parma flavour. See also D. Mahon, in Bull.

Wadsworth Atheneutn (1958), no. i, 1-4; E. Schleier,

a strong

in Burl. .Mag., CiV (1962),

246

ft".

L'ideale classico del

Seicento in Italia, Catal., Bologna, 1962, 63, 68.

ff".

25,

cit.,

who should

also be consulted for the

41.

The

traditional title of the picture

Kunst,

however, be recalled that Domeni-

chino's arch-enemy, Lanfranco, had the picture en-

graved

chino's 'plagiarism' as widely

34.

The

dating of these frescoes varies widely. Bos-

chetto'sdate i6oi-S{Proporzioni,n{iq.^S), i43)seems

as unacceptable as that

1625. Tietze dates after

of Posse (Thieme-Becker),
1609;

Bodmer

{Pantheon,

incorrect. It

XIII (1962), 216.

42. It should,

these frescoes.

I.

is

485-5 18, as K. Badt has shown in

an illuminating paper in .Minichner fahrbuch d. bild.

illustrates Aeneid, v,

Toesca, Boll. d'Arte, XLiv (1959), 337, and

Burl. Mag., civ (1962), 392, for the correct date of
33.

sequence

of the execution of these frescoes.

43.

at his

own expense

in

order to

known

make Domenias possible.

For Domenichino's landscapes, see M. Imdahl in

Martin Wackernagel, Miinster, 1958, 153;

Festschrift

E. Borea, Paragone, xi (i960), no. 123, 8; L'ideale

classico del Seicento

(Bologna Exhib. Cat., 1962);

M.

1609-14. According to Albani himself

Fagiolo dell'Arco, Domenichino ovvero Classicismo del

work was executed after Bassano

For reasons of style a date
nearer to the middle of the second decade seems likely
(see also Brugnoli (Note 20), 274). This dating has now
been confirmed by L. Salerno, in Via del Corso, Rome
(Cassa del Risparmio), 1961, 177. But his discovery of

Pnmo-Seicento, Rome, 1963, 104 (list of Domenichino's landscapes in chronological sequence).

XVIII (1936)),

(Malvasia,
di Sutri,

a small

c.

11, 1

i.e.

25) the

after 1609.

scene representing an event of 16 17 opens a

new problem, because Albani

35.
in

left

Rome

in 161 6.

These frescoes were usually dated much

accordance with the

stylistic

(but as

earlier,

we now know,

Denis Calvaert (1540- 16 19), a northern .Manwho had made his home at Bologna. For Albani,
see the hitherto unpublished dissertation by E. Van
Schaack (Columbia University, 1969) with many new
documents and ceuvre catalogue.
45. In the 7'""/'''' Dream the influence of Lodovico is
very strong. Albani must have known the picture of
44.

nerist

the

same subject, now

in the

misleading) evidence; see the admirable paper by L.

connexion with Lodovico

Mag., cv (1963), 194, who (like others

before him) advocated the years 1605-6. Only E.

fact that after his arrival in

Salerno

in Burl.

is

Pinacoteca, Bologna. This

interesting in view of the

Rome

bale's collaborator in the Herrera

BIBLOSARTE

.\lbani was .AnniChapel and the .Aldo-

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

brandini landscapes (see pp. 78-t) and Chapter

Note

3,

29).

For Albani's

also

M. Mahoney, Burl. Mag., civ (1962), 386.

The first example of this manner is the

relation to Annibale Carracci, see

83. 46.

four

AND

517

Sec Hibbard, op. ctt., 358.

worth summarizing Lanfranco's career as a
fresco painter in the second and third decade. 1616-

88. 56.
It

is

and the Qiiirinal Palace.

17: frescoes in S. .Agostino

Venus and Diana roundels in the Galleria Borghese

1619 20: decoration of the Benediction Loggia over

which were commissioned by Cardinal Scipione Bor-

the portico of St Peter's, a commission of the greatest

ghese

importance which

in 1622.

Payments found by H. Hibbard allow the Crucifi.xion to be dated later than had hitherto been assumed.
The Louvre David is another example of Reni's Caravaggismo. The most impressive fusion of influences
from Caravaggio and Lodovico may perhaps be found
in the Colloquy between the Apostles Peter and Paul in
47.

the Brera of
48.

D.

is

49.

See

from as

The

difficult.

D.

Gregory

Mahon

51.

The

The

old

Villa Borghese.

625 7 S. Andrea della Valle.

Paragone, xv (1964), no.

171-59-

For the dating of Lanfranco's easel paintings, parof the first and second decade, see E. Schleier,

ihid.,

no. 177,

3.

pope

sitter is

peculiarly

that of

Clement VIII.

Frenchman Francois

Valle the

Lanfranco. This artist was a success

his first stay there in

in

worked

for

Rome and after

1625-9 returned for a longer

period (1635-45), during which he executed the fres-

almost certainly the Bolognese

coes of the gallery of the Palazzo Gaetani-Ruspoli

Aurora

is

c.

(now Almagia) on the Corso;

1621.

not quite correct.

The

gone, XIX (1968), no. 217, 42

57. It has

been shown by D.

him through

to

Venice

ix (1958), 44, 216.

See

also Maestri della pittura del Seicento emiltano (Exhib.

and

Cat., Bologna, 1959), 214,

for Lanfranco's

draw-

ings J. Bean W. Vitzthum, Boll. d'Arte, XLVi (1961),

106, R. Enggass, flr/. .Wa^.,cvi (1964), 286. For Lanfranco's ascendancy over

Domenichino, above

all

Posner, in Essays in Honor of Walter Friedlaender,

D.

New

Mahon (5;/^/.

.Mag., Lxx

about 1616. Venetian influences, transmitted

Scarsellino, were reinforced by a visit

been
to

and Commentari,

see E. Schleier, Para-

ff.

(1937)) that the young Guercino was influenced by

Scarsellino in Ferrara, where Guercino must have

Lanfranco's problematical early career has

been investigated by L. Salerno, Burl. Mag., xciv
52.

in

in 1618.

See also D.

Mahon

in the

Catalogue

of the Guercino Exhibition of 1 968, especially pp. 20

89. 58. This slow change in Guercino's manner has
ff".

been

by D. Mahon
and Theory.

fully discussed

cento Art

59. It has

in Studies in Set-

been rightly pointed out that Guercino's

chiaroscuro. North Italian in character, was developed

without any appreciable influence from Caravaggio's

York, 1965, 135-46.

53. First implied by Voss, then discussed by N.

form-preserving tenehroso.

Pevsner, the relationship to Schedoni was further in-

reached him

Mahon

S. .Andrea della

Perrier

1602, which seems hard

c.

the date therefore

title

is

Earth below.

vestigated by

ticularly

16.

shows Apollo in his chariot surrounded by the

dancing figures of the Horae and Aurora hovering on
clouds before him and strewing flowers on the dark

(1952), 188,

Mura (ruined); fully discussed

Boll. d'.4rte, XLViii (1963), 54.

at Frascati; see E. Schleier,

fresco

86.

le

and

(Burl. .Mag., xciii (1951), 81) re-

name Paul V by

XV and

Paolo fuori

by B. L. La Penta,

At the time of the dome frescoes of

This would date the portrait

to accept.

S.

Revue de l' Art, no. 7 (1970), figure

of the Cappella del Sacra-

m Rome

late as 161 5

identification of the

placed the old

mento,

in

3: decoration

1627 the newly found frescoes of the Villa Muti

dated about 1620.

84. 50.

1621

Note; the Samson should probably be

last

by E. Schleier,
49).

1624

1969, 219) argued persuasively

tion (unpublished),

not executed. (Reconstruction of Lanfranco's project

.'\fter

Bologna, i^g^-ihi4 (Columbia University Disserta-

that the picture dates

Lanfranco's reputation at

but

usually dated about 161

Pepper, Guido Reni's Activity

J. S.

attests to

time but which, though extensively prepared, was

1,

1605.

^^

This painting

this

It is

also likely that the ple-

beian types which appear in Guercino's early work

at

one remove from Caravaggio.

(Burl. Mag., xciii (1951), 81)

and Salerno, in the papers mentioned in Note 52.

54. This dating was suggested by Mahon in the catalogue of the 1955 Wildenstein Exhibition in
(Artists in Seventeenth Century Rome, 60).
55. Extensively repainted

London

see Waterhouse, 75.

CHAPTER

a judgement postjestutn, lookBaroque position, .\round 1600

Florentine painters were vigorously active and their
all-European influence on the formation of the 'inter-

91.

I.

This

is,

of course,

ing back from the

These

were painted between

August 1624 and .March 1625; see H. Hibbard, in
frescoes, always dated too early,

national'

Mannerism can hardly be over-estimated;

'Zum Problem

Miscellanea Bibliothecae Hertzianae, Munich, 1961,

see F. .Antal,

355-

Manierismus', Kritische Berichte,

BIBLOSARTE

des Niederliindischen
i-ii

(1927-9).

5l8

NOTES TO CHAPTER

2. For Barocci's dates, see H. Olsen, Fedencu Barocci,

Copenhagen, ig62, 20.
3. A. Emiliani, 'Andrea Lilli', Arte Antica e Aioderna^
(1958), 65 G. Sea vizzi, 'Note sull'attivita romana del
;

Lilio e del Salimbeni', Boll. d'Arte, XLiv (iQSg), 33.

4: P.

A. Riedl, 'Zu Francesco Vanni

Salimbeni', Mitt.

d.

und Ventura

Kimsthist. Inst, in Florenz, IX

(1959-60), 60 and 221 (Salimbeni's work,

full

biblio-

graphy).

Mannerism and Anti-Manner-

ism in Italian Paintings

New

When

this

book

first

York, 1957.
appeared (1958) our know-

ledge of these artists had hardly increased since N.

Pevsner's Die Barockmalerei

in

den rumanischen Ldn-

dern, published in 1928. But in connexion with the

Bologna Exhibition of 1959 Bolognese Seicento painting has been intensely studied. The Catalogue {Maestri
delta pittura del Seicento emiltano)

is

therefore indis-

masterpiece, the Virgin

Glory with

in

Giacomo Maggiore), he

Saints of 1595 (Bologna, S.

stylistic position not far from Lodovico. His

work shows progressive petrifaction. His career
has been fully reconstructed by Graziani in the article
quoted in Note 7.
12. M. A. Novelli, Lo Scarsellino, Bologna, 1955,

reached a
later

with

bibliography.

full

For Schedoni's correct place and date of birth,

96. 13.

92. 5. \V. Friedlaender,

6.

circle, yet in his

see Alaestri della pittura del seicento emiliano, Bologna,

1959, 204. For Schedoni's procedure, see R. Kultzen,

'Variationen iiber das

Thema der

heiligen Familie bei

B.S.', Miinchner Jb. d. hild. Kunst, xxi (1970), 167

14.

Giulio Cesare Amidano,

who began under

ff.

the

influence of Correggio and Parmigianino, in his later

work

fell

under the

spell of

Schedoni.

97. 15. In this context should be

Boschi

{c.

who

1570 1642),

working

mentioned Fabrizio

hardly ever betrays that

pensable for this section. See also Bibliography under

most of

Artists.

century.

7. A. Graziani, Cntica d'Arte, iv (1939), 93, pointed

out that Tiarini was influenced by Bartolomeo Cesi,

pittura fiorentina', Proporzioni, iv (1963), 46-84. Full

Bologna (see Note 11).

For documented dates of all the works in the Cappella di S. Domenico, see V. Alee, Arte Antica e
Moderna, (1958), 394.
his first teacher in
8.

A. Ghidiglia Quintavalle, Paragone, xvii (1966), no.

197, 37

ff.,

discusses Tiarini's

documented work

at

Parma, where he worked from 1626 onwards.

94. 9. J. Hess's hypothesis that Spada was in Rome
between 1596 and 1601/2 is unconvincing {Commentfln,V (1954), 281).
95. 10. Mastelletta's Triumph, published by R. Kultzen, Burl. Alag., C (1958), 352,

is

an early picture,

16.

M.

his

belonged to the seventeenth

life

Bacci, 'Jacopo Ligozzi e

la

sua posizione nella

monographic treatment.
17. S. Bottari, in

18.

Arte Antica

Moderna,

(i960), 75.

III

See E. Panofsky's fascinating paper Galilei as a

Critic

For

of the Arts, The Hague, 1954.

annotated edition of Cigoli's

a fully

letters to

Galilei, see 'xMacchie di sole e pittura; carteggio L.

Cigoli-G. Galilei, 1609- 16 13', ed. A. Matteoli,

Accademia

della

degli Euteleti della cittd di

ato, XXII, N.S., no.

The

fullest

in Boll,

San Mini-

32 (San Miniato, 1959).

information on Cigoli in the Catalogue

M.

of the 1959 Exhibition (see Bibliography); see also

Pittaluga, Burl.

Mag.,

Ci (1959), 444.

painted under the influence of Polidoro da Caravaggio.

For interesting material on Sigismondo Coccapani,

Francesco Brizio ( 1 574- 1623) and Lorenzo Garbieri ( 1 5801654), the former mainly Agostino Carracci's pupil,
the latter a close follower of Lodovico Lucio Massari

Cigoli's collaborator, see F. Sricchia, in Proporzioni,

Four minor

II.

artists

belong

in this context:

(1569- 1633), Albani's friend,

who

oscillates

between

painterly tendencies pointing back to Parmigianino and

a stiffly

wooden

classicism (C. Volpe, Paragone, vi

IV (1963), 249.

98. 19.

G. Ewald, in Pantheon, .xxiii (1965), 302

cussed,

among

Biliverti,

ff.,

dis-

other Florentines, mainly Allori and

and published

a Life of Biliverti written

by

the latter's pupil, Francesco Bianchi.

20.

For the development of Florentine painting

in

and Francesco Gessi (1588-1649),

who began as a Lodovico follower and later capitulated to Reni. For Massari, Garbieri, and Brizio see
also F. Arcangeli, Arte Antica e Moderna, (1958), 236,

(Note 18); see also the frescoes in seven rooms of the

Casino Mediceo, Via Cavour 63 (1621 3), illustrating
Medici exploits, to which a great number of artists

The fresco decoration of the Oratorio di S. Colom-

contributed; A. R. Masetti, Cntica d'Arte, ix (1962),

(1955), no. 71, 3);

354.

bano

in

Bologna, where also Albani, Reni, Domeni-

chino, and Galanino painted,

is

the main topic of this

paper, which contains a major contribution to the

the

first

half of the seventeenth century, see F. Sricchia

1-27,77-109.
2 1 For a new attempt at defining Manetti's stylistic
development, see C. dal Bravo, in Pantheon, xxiv

Bolognese position around 1600. See also above, p. 63.

Although not connected with this group of artists, the

(1966), 43-51.

name of Bartolomeo

great reputation in his time,

he mentioned.

Cesi (1556- 1629) shoiild at least

Mannerist, outside the Carracci

Francesco Rustici

(d.

1626) from Pisa,

sonality. .According to C.

BIBLOSARTE

is still

who had

an undefined per-

Brandi {R. .Manet ti) he

fol-

NOTES TO CHAPTER

lowed the Bolognese and

An

in particular Reni's

equally problematical figure

naldi

is

manner.

the Fisan Rimi-

1586- 1 631); as the Exhibition Caravaggw

caravaggeschi nelle gallerie

di

Firenze,

970, showed, he

was an artist of considerable dramatic power. The

much younger Pietro Paolini (Lucca 1603 81), Caro-

Rome, much of whose work is reminisof R. Manetti, has recently received some atten-

selli's

cent

pupil in

tion; see A. Marabottini Marabotti, in Scntli di sloria

onore di Ala no Salmi, Rome, 1963, ill, 307;

A. Ottani in Arte Aiitica e Modenia, no. 21 (1963). ig.

dell' arte in

from an unpubdocument discovered by H. Bodmer.

99. 23. For details regarding the two cycles, see E.
.\rslan, Le Pitture nel dunmn di Milatio, Milan, i960,
47, 63. - Cerano painted no less than ten canvases and
22. Procaccini's birth date is taken

lished

Procaccini

six.

M.

Rosci, Mostra del Cerano, Cata-

Cerano was

logue, Novara, 1964, 66, 71, claims that

the inventive genius of the entire
bozzetti by

him

first

series (nineteen

Borromeo d'Adda

at SenMorazzone's contribution is also problematical;

although his name does not appear in the documents,
two paintings of the first series have always been attriin

the Villa

ago).

buted

to

him; further

M.

to this question

Gregori,

//

30.

For documents about the

early

519

works see

S.

Vigezzi in Riv. d'Arte, xv (1933), 483 ft". This and F.

Wittgens' article, ibid., 35 ff^., correct some of the
results of N. Pevsner's basic paper

on G. C. Procaccini

(ihid.,\ (1929)).

See F. Bologna, Paragone, iv (1953), no. 45.

See W. .Arslan in Phoebus, 11 (1948). .After these
articles and the Caravaggio Exhibition of 1951 and the
Turin Exhibition of Piedmontese and Lombard .Man103. 31.
}2.

Tanzio began to emerge as an artist of

The Tanzio Exhibition of 1959
(Bibliography) brought most of his known work together see G. Testori's Catalogue and .\1. Rosci, Burl.
Mag., cii (i960), 31.
nerists of 1955,

considerable calibre.

In a 1967 paper
likely that

it

returned

M.

Calvesi (sec Bibliography)

Tanzio was

home

via

made

Naples about 1610 and

.Apulia and possibly Venice.
in

For Tanzio's collaboration with his brother, the

sculptor Giovanni d'Enrico, see .\. W. Brizio, in Pina33.

coleca di larallo Sesia, \ arallo, i960, 19.

Moncalvo, who worked mainly in Milan, Pavia,

in small towns of Piedmont, is a
typical Neo-Cinquecentista who, in spite of his exten34.

Turin, Novara, and

sive aeuvre,

may

safely

be omitted from this survey.

Alorazzone, Catalogue, Milan, 1962, 7, 31.

24. The strong Gaudenzio note in the early Cerano

Fullest discussion: V. Moccagatta in Arte Lombarda,

has been emphasized by G. Testori in Paragone,

VI

(1964), no. 173, 17.

1955;

de Rome, IV (1925).

(1955), no. 67.

25.

Mostra del Cerano, 46 (no. 24).

26. The results of N. Pevsner's pioneering article on
Cerano, published in 1925, have been revised by G. A.
in L'Arte, N.S. xiii (1942)

(full

{c.

1615

17), see

M.

in

M.

Gregori's

in addition to the Biblio-

graphy, Wittkower, in L'ffi// (1959).

29. After G. Nicodemi's uncritical monograph of
1927,

work on Morazzone was carried

a step further

by C. Baroni (1941, 1944), E. Zuppinger (1951), and

M. Rosci (1959). The comprehensive Morazzone Exhibition of 1962 has clarified many problems. M. Gregori's

excellent Catalogue supersedes

research. See also

VII (1962),

153,

M.

all

previous

C. Gatti Perer in Arte Lombarda,

and M. Valsecchi,

(1970), no. 243, 12

ft".

in Proporzioni,

(1943), 53.

in

(1926-7), see Delogu in Pinacotheca,

Paragone, xxi

ihid.;

(1923),

ft".

Rosci, Boll. d'Arte, xliv (1959), 451;

Morazzone Catalogue, 60.

28. For the Sacri Monti see,

Longhi

37. R.

Longhi,

Cappella di S. Rocco

Bartolomeo, Borgomanero

of 1616-17 was com-

[},t,]

(1929), and
Marcenaro, Emporium, CV (1947);
Grassi, Paragone, III (1952), no. 31 G. V. Castelnovi,
Emporium, C\x (1954), 17.
39. .After the studies by G rosso in Emporium, LVii

Pesenti, in Pantheon, xxvi (1968), 284

S.

105. 36. Reni's Assumption

missioned by Cardinal Durazzo.

sum-

bibliography).

For Cerano's pupil JVIelchiorre Gherardini (1607who is often mixed up with his master, see S.
Modena, Arte Lomharda, iv (1959), 109, and F. R.
his frescoes in the

Bulletin de Finstitut histonque beige

106. 38. In addition to Longhi's article in Dedalo, vii

75),

For

M. Vaes in

and xiv (1943).

Rosci's Catalogue of the Cerano Exhibition

marizes the entire research

loi. 27.

(1963), 185-243. See also A. Griseri, Paragone, xv

104. 35.

See Mostra del mamensmo piemontese

Deir.\cqua

VIII

and by Lazareft,

denden Kiinst,

in

Miinchner Jahrbuch der

N.s. vi (1929), little

bil-

work has been done

on the early Strozzi; but see H. .Mac.Andrew, Burl.

Mag., cxiii (1971), 4
40. For these and other artists active in Venice in the
ft".

first

quarter of the seventeenth century

Scarsellino,

Leandro Bassano, Santc Peranda, .Matteo Ponzone,

and Pietro Damiani - see the Catalogue of the Seicento
Exhibition in Venice, 1959. - For Palma Giovane see
also V. Moschini, .4rte I'eneta, xii (1958), 97, and G.
Gamulin, Arte .4ntica e Moderna, iv (1961), 259, who
For
suggests a revaluation of Raima's late period.
Palma as draughtsman, see H. Schwarz, .Master Drawings, III (1965), 158, and D. Rosand, ibid., viii (1970).
- For Padovanino, see R. Pallucchini, Arte k'eneta, xvi
(1962), 121.

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

520

AND

Pallucchini (ihid., 126) counts Saraceni, N. Regnicr,

J

Heintz, and \ ouct among the renovators of Venetian

art

next to or even before Fetti, Lys, and Strozzi. This

view ofthe great connoisseur of Venetian painting cannot be accepted

four artists

is

that of Fetti

for, first,

and

the Venetian period of those

contemporary with or

either

I-vs; and, secondly,

later

than

none of them

i\

4. The emphasis on the columns derives from the

North, while the conception of the enclosed bays is

typically

Roman.

112. 5.

lisk a

Peter's,
basilica

5ff-

107. 42. See P.

See

43.

Askew,

in

Art

Bull., l (1968), i-io.

Sammlungen,

IVien, n.f. X (1936).

'Domenico Fetti a Venezia', Arte

(1955), 123. Here also the correct date of

Veneta, ix

(document).

The unprinted

45.

London Ph.D.

University of

by Pamela .Askew (1954) contains a full and

reliable catalogue raisonne of Fetti's works. Partly pubthesis

new form

lished in a

D.F.\ Art

as

One

'The Parable Paintings of

Bull., XLiii (1961).

108. 46. V. Bloch, Burl.

47.

Mag.,

Van Dyck was Tiberio

who

Tinelli

compared with

model. See A.

his

Moschetti, Burl. Mag., Lxxii (1938), 64, and R. Pallucchini, Arte Veneta, xvi (1962), 126.

Of the three Veronese painters, Bassetti, Turchi, and

Ottino, referred to above (Chapter 4, Note 17), the

most Venetian
time

in

is

He

certainly Bassetti.

Venice before going to Rome.

spent some

On occasions he

was capable of impressive creations (portrait, Museo

Civico, Verona), which attest to his links with Fetti.

CHAPTER

The basic monograph on Maderno by N. Caf(Munich, 934) is not always reliable. U. Donati's
monograph (1957) has many good illustrations.
2. W. Lotz {Rom. Jahrh. f. Kunstg., vii (1955), 65)
gives Maderno a larger share in the facade of S. Giacomo degli Incurabili than was hitherto believed on
the strength of Baglione(ed. 1733, 196). But Francesco
III.

lisch

da Volterra, the architect of the church, designed the

fa9ade after 1592 and

Maderno seems to have

finished

H. Hibbard,

in

worked

at

Cardinal Pietro .Mdobrandini's Villa di Belvedere

at

it

after Volterra's death in 1594/5 (see

Mag. (December 1967), 713).

At the same moment Maderno

Burl.
3.

Cigoli.

also

The

latter's

designs (Uffizi) are particularly

interesting.
6.
1

Work on

the towers stopped at Paul V's death in

62 1.
E. Paribeni, // Palazzo Alattei

in

Roma, Rome,

1932, has been superseded by G. Panofsky-Soergel, in

(1950), 278.

(1586- 1 638), but his portraits - his main claim to fame

are archaizing

which the following other architects also

Domenico and Giovanni
Fontana, Girolamo Rainaldi, Niccolo Braconio, Ottavio Torrigiani, Giovan Antonio Dosio, and Lodovico
took part: Flaminio Ponzio,

7.
.xcii

of the few Venetians of this period

learned his lesson from

.Maderno's project was selected in 1607 after a competition in

44. P. Michelini,

Fetti's death: 1623

considerable problem con-

Domenico Fontana had

Kunstg., XXVI (1963), 128.

Wilde, Jahrhuch der kunsthistonschen

J.

of S. Susanna, see

which was not noticeable as long as the old

was standing. .My own conclusion had been
that Maderno corrected this mistake by slightly shifting the axis of his nave. A new and probably correct
interpretation is given by C. Thoenes in Zettschr. f.

best statement regarding the Venetian situ-

is D. Rosand's paper 'The Crisis of the VeneRenaissance Tradition', L'Arle, nos. 11-12 (1970),

fa(;:ade

placed the obefew degrees out of the axis of .Michelangelo's St

ation at the turn of the sixteenth to the seventeenth

tian

For the

A minor though

colouristic tradition.

century

also below, pp. 120, 373.

sisted in that

The

Jahrh. J. Kunstg.,

\ (196 1 -2), 291.

took up and developed further the specific Venetian

41.

Rom.

Frascati; see K. Schwagcr,

Rom. Jahrh. f. Kunstg.,

xi

(1967-8), iii

palace replacing an older one

stages:

ft".

The new

was carried out

in three

598-1601, south-east sector; 1604-13, south-

west part with the loggia of the cortile and the stair1 61 3- 16, northern extension.

case;
8.

See, above

1928, 251

all,

ft.;

O. PoUak, Kunsttdtigkeit, i, Vienna,

Hempel, Borromim, Vienna,

further

1924; Cartisch, Carlo Maderno; Brauer-Wittkower,

Zeichnungen des G. L. Bernini, Berlin, 1931. Fullest
discussion of

all

available evidence in a paper

by A.

Blunt, J. W.C./., .XXI (1958), 256, to which the reader

must be referred. I have left my original text un-

changed since my results largely coincide with Blunt's.

9. H. Thelen informed Blunt (note to p. 260) that the
Uffizi drawing was originally made for a different
patron and a different site. Blunt reasonably suggests
that it was submitted as an example of the type of
palace which Maderno proposed to build.
114. 10. For the prehistory of the Palazzo Barberini,
see Cardinal Ehrle, Roma al tempo di Lrhano VIII. La
plant a di Roma Maggi-Maupin-Lost del i62j, Rome,
1915-

Some

of the rooms still have the Sforza coat of arms.

For the complicated history of the Villa Mondragone see C. Franck, Die Barockvillen in Frascati,
11.

Munich-Berlin, 1956, 51.

12. See the arched opening at the foot of the staircase
of the Palazzo Mattei. The Albertina drawing men-

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

tioned in the text also shows the same type of window.

framework of the tomb of the Countess Matilda

In the
in

St Peter's Bernini returned to this type of

The same motif in Maderno's

nesque design.

the Palazzo Borghese facing the Tiber

is

Mader-

been sufticienth
paper

22. Premoli, '.\ppunti su L. Binago', Archivio storico

lomhardo, xi.m

( 1

1962, 66

L'Arte, LX (1961), 231

f.

used the motif in the courtyard of the Palazzo

Mattei. Borromini's influence on the external details
ascertained by his

is

14.

window design

[1

14I; see p. ic>8.

Blunt attributes to Bernini the enlargement of the

and this, according to the author, led to com-

17.

Lorenzo Binago

The

2T,.

G Mezzanotte, 'Gli archiGiovanni .\mbrogio Mazenta',

9 1 6), 842

tetti

He

G. Zander's industrious

studied.

in Qiiaderni, no.

century addition, see H. Hibbard, Palazzo Borghese,

13.

70, with

tween Alcssi's

.Xmong the other practitioners in Rome at this

period the amateur architect Rosato Rosati (c. 15601622) should be mentioned. Born near Macerata (Marches), he was appointed Rector to a small Barnabite

Borromini's S. .Agnese

Carlo

ai

Rome

before 1590. In 161 2 he designed S.

Catinari with a

Roman

within the

finished 1646;

dome

setting

most of the

of unorthodox design

(dome

finished 1620; apse

interior decoration

between

1627 and 1649; fa(;ade by Soria, 1636-8). Further for

important church, see p. 117; Vincenzo Fasolo,

this

La cupola di S. Carlo
Romani, 1947.

Among

16.

ai

Catinan, Istituto di Studi

the characteristics of this important

reminiscent of Gothic shapes, the almost complete

abandonment of decoration, the emphasis on the

empty wall of the wide middle bay, and the incongruous Serlio motif topping the centre.

monograph, 1952.
R. Pallucchini, 'Vincenzo Scamozzi e Farchitet-

For Scamozzi see

17.

F".

Barbieri's

tura veneta', L'Arie, xxxix (1936), 3

18.

For Curtoni, see

tra Inlernaz. di
19.

Studi

on

P.

Gazzola

Cen-

di Architettura, iv (1962), 156.

.Anthony Blunt, Artistic Theory

in Italy,

Oxford,

1940, 127.

On Milanese architecture of this period see,

above

all,

H. Hoffmann

91

C. Baroni, Documenti per

in H'lener Jfahrh., ix (1934),

an important link be-

Carignano

S. .-Klessandro in C. Baroni,

Documenti per
i,

la storia

3-34 (docu-

ments); see also Mezzanotte (above, Note 22), 253.

24. C. Bricarelli in Ctviltd Cattolica, Lxxxiii, iii
(1932), 251

F. Zeri in Paragone, VI (1955), no. 61, 35;

idem, Pittura

Controrijorma, Turin, 1957, 60; M.

Giuseppe Valeriano (1542-

Enrichetti, 'L'architetto

1596)

.'

Archivio

star,

per

le

prov. napoletane, xxxix

(i960), 325.

Examples:

Maria di Canepanova, Pavia (begun

at Legnano, 1504-18.
26. See, e.g., Fra Giocondo's drawing in the Lffizi
(3932), illustrated in G. T. Rivoira, Roman Architecture, Oxford, 1925, figure 209. Also plans and sections
in G. B. Montano's Scielta di varj tempietti anticht,
25.

Rome,

S.

Magno

1624.

See, e.g., Francesco Gallo's

1 1

8. 27.

at

Mondovi (1743-63) and C.

in

Venice (1753-60).

28. E. Cattaneo, //

ff.

in Bolleliino del

in

is

at Genoa and
Rome. Further imformation

S. .Maria di

dell'architettura a Milano, Milan, 1940,

1492?) or S.

palace are the elongated proportions of the windows,

material.

finished until the eighteenth century (together with

plications in the design of the palace.

in

much new

by Bramante, of two towers which form the effective

group with a dome between them. Binago's fac^ade, not
the encasing of the dome),

College

facade too takes up the theme, introduced

saldiie

115. 15.

52I

30 (1958), i, is mainly concerned with the problem of Montano's reliability.

loggia of

an eighteenth-

1957, 36.

Duomo S. Donato

Corbellini's S.

San Giuseppe

Geremia

del Richint, Milan,

The church was opened

in 16 16.

Cardinal

Mass. When
he entered the building, he exclaimed: 'Ha del RoFederico Borromeo celebrated the

first

mano.'
120. 29. Original ground-plans in the Bianconi Collec-

21. The Milanese Giovan Battista Montano (15341621) undertook the task of charting an enormous

from
was designed with the
church; but an (undated) elevation of the facade by
Ricchino shows a 'pre-aedicule' stage see E. Cattaneo,
op. cit., 86 and figures 27, 28, 37.
30. It must be pointed out, however, that the fa(;:ade
of S. Giuseppe contains a residue of Mannerist ambiguity only the verticals of the columns flanking the
door in the lower and the window in the upper tier are
carried through with consistency. The outer columns
of the upper tier find no proper response in the lower
tier: they rise not over columns but over pilasters;

number of

here the vertical

ff.

la storia dell'architet-

tura a Milano, Florence, 1940; idem, L'archilettura da

Bramante alRicchino, Milan, 1941 P. Mezzanotte and

G. C. Bascape, Milano nell'arte e storia, Milan, 1948;
P. Mezzanotte in Storia di Milano, X, Milan, 1957,
;

part IV

M.

L. Gatti Perer, in // mito del classicismo

nel Seicento, Florence, 1964, loi.

116. 20.

The second

Mangone, was

court, also usually ascribed to

built later in the century

by Girolamo

Quadrio.

ancient buildings in several publications

which appeared posthumously between 1624 and 1636.

The influence exercised bv these books has not vet

tion (Biblioteca Trivulziana), probably dating

1607, prove that the fac^ade

movement is also interrupted by the

unbroken horizontal of the entablature over the outer

bavs of the lower

tier.

BIBLOSARTE

522

NOTES TO CHAPTER

In addition, a chronological problem arises since

Girolamo Rainaldi used the type in S. Lucia at Bologna in 1623. But, as we have mentioned, Ricchino's

design

is

probably older and,

in

any case, he also

planned the 'aedicule facade' of the Ospcdale Mag-

mid

giore in the
31.

The

following no longer exist: S. Ulderico, S.

Eusebio, S. Lazaro

in Pietra

Santa,

all

built before

1619; S. Pictro in Campo Lodigiano and S. Vito al

S. Vittore al Teatro, S. Giorgio
Carrobbio, both 162
1

Palazzo, S. Bartolomeo, 1624; S. Pietro con

al

la

Rete

and S. Salvatore, 1625; S. Maria del Lentasio, 1640;

S. Giovanni alle Case Rotte, 1645; ^^^ Chiesa del
Seminario di S. Maria della Canonica (f 165 ) and S.
Marta, S. Agostino, S. Giovanni alle Quattro Faccie.
Best survey of Ricchino's work in L. Grassi, Pnninie
.

del

Baroao

e del

S.

Roano, Milan, iq66, 289

della Vittoria, S. Maria Maddalena,
ft".

Maria

32. E.g. S.

Giacomoalle\'erginiSpagnoli. See also

garo, 'Dal Pellegrini

al

M.

L.

Gen-

Ricchino", Boll. d'Arte, xxx

Mezzanotte, 'Apparati architettonici del Ri-

chino per nozze auguste', Rassegiia d'Arte, x\ (191 5),

224.
34.

which

was destroyed during the last war.

42. .According to D. de Bernardi Ferrero, /

disegni

Turin, 1966, 63,

el ecclesiaslica di

drawing

for the

G. Gtiarim

church

Parma carries only .Magnani's name and

.Archive at

.,

in the State

not

that of .Aleotti.

Theatre of the .Accademia dcgli Intrepidi

123. 43.

(1606), destroyed by fire in 1679. For .Aleotti's I"errarese activity, see the well

documented paper by D. R.

Co^n, Journal

of Architectural Historians,

oj the Soc.

\\l (1962), 116.

Magagnato, Teatri

44. L.

italiani del Cinquecento,

A'enice, 1954, 80.

45.

The

history of the Strada

Nuova has now been

published in an exemplary cooperative work directed

bv L. \

Genova. Strada \uova, Genoa, 1967:

agnetti,

next to exhaustive sections on social, urban, and other

aspects, a complete documentation ot each palace

(1936), 202.
33. P.

architect of the Palazzo del .Municipio (1627),

d'architetlura civile

twenties, see below, p. 120.

between 1622 and 1624 BerHe was also the

41. -Magnani rebuilt

nardino Zaccagni's S. .Alessandro.

See Hoffmann,

op. cit., 83.

For the date of the

Palazzo Durini, see P. Mezzanotte, Raccolta Btatnoiit,

Milan, 1942, 93 (extremely rare).

121. 35. C. Baronihasmadeit probable, however, that
Martino Bassi's designs of 1 59 1 for the courtyard were
still used in 165 1 Most of the Brera was executed after
Ricchino's death by his son Gian Domenico, Giuseppe
.

along the
46.

The

street.

history of Genoese

Baroque architecture

re-

mains to be written. In spite of valuable work, mainly

by Mario Labo and Orlando Grosso, a large number of
Genoese palaces are still anonymous, nor does a solid
historical basis exist for the major structures of the
Sei- and Settecento. But a start has been made with
L. Profumo Miiller's monograph of B. Bianco (see
Bibliography) and with the fine study by G. Colmuto
on

a specific

type of Genoese longitudinal churches

ascribed to Ricchino, belongs to the second half of

with paired columns along the nave (1970, see Bibliography). - Bianco's date of birth is often given as 1604

the century.

(O. Grosso), which

See the richly illustrated work by C. Del Frate,

S. Maria del .Monte sopra Varese, Varese, 1933. For
the chapel architecture by G. Bernasconi, see S.

activity

Quadrio, and Rossone.

The famous

staircase, usually

36.

Colombo,

Profilo della arcbitettura religiosa del Sei-

cenlu. Varese ....

122. 37.

Milan, 1970.

Antonio Morassi, Catalogo

delle cose

d
'arte

Ambr.

not possible in view of his

M. Labo,

Genova', Atti

.Magenta',

125. 48. Similar to the courtyard of the Palazzo Bor-

Rome

Airy arcades resting on single

this author's research.

see SS. .Annunziata, S. Siro,

39. G. Cantagalli in Comuue di Bologna (1934), 48,

and Mezzanotte, op. cit. (last Note).
40. For earlv repercussions of the columned North
Italian nave in Rome, see Ottavio Mascherino's S.
Salvatore in Lauro (i 591 -1600). The columns in

Rocco Luragor).

Paolo .Maggi's SS. Trinita de Pellegrini ( 1614) belong

to G. B. Contini's eighteenth-century restoration (see
11

Genova,

(n.d.).

ghese

in .4rii Figurative,

palazzo dell' Lniveri niversitd di

Bianco planned the palace in 1 630 and made

his final project in 1 634, w hen construction w as begun.
., 1968; see
See also L. Profumo Miiller, B. Bianco

XXV

Bologna, 1915. G.
Mezzanotte, L'Arte, LX (1961), 244. The dates of
Magenta's buildings given in the text are based on

in Studi dedicati a P. C. Pallet ti,

G. .Matthiae

'II

della R.

Bibliography.

Brescia, 1939, 144, with full bibliography.

38. A. Foratti, 'L'architetto Giov.

47. .According to
sita di

is

during the second decade.

(1946), 57, note

7).

in

(p. 34).

or even double

columns

are familiar from late six-

teenth-century ecclesiastical architecture

at

Genoa,

and S. .Maria della \igna.

49. The embossed columns of the entrance have a
Mannerist pedigree, and the ground-floor window
surrounds are crow ned by lions' heads biting the voussoirs, follow ing the example of the Palazzo Rosso (by
50. See, e.g., Palazzo Pallavicini

.Marose

( 1

on Piazza Fontane

565 and the Palazzi Lomellini and Serra on

)

Piazza de' Bianchi.

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

Daddi

Vera

51.

Giovannozzi,

des kunsl/iistorisi/u'u

Iiistiti/ls in

in

AUileiliingt'ii

(iq^y^o),

Flareiiz, v

V. Fasolo,

52.

'Un

pittore architetto:

11

Cigoli',

Qtiaderni (1953), nos. i, 2; L. Berti in the Catalogue

of the Muslra del Cij^uli, 1959, 165.
53. L. Berti in Palladia, i (1951), 161; R. Linnen-

kamp, 'Giuiio

Parigi

(1958), 51, with

list

Rir. d'Arte, viii

architetto',

of Giulio's works and

new docu-

ments.

and III (1952), 35, list the considerable

post-Thieme-Becker literature and also contain an

Munich,

55. L. Berti, in Riv. d'Arte, xxvi (1950), 157;

and

mentary material.
57. See Giovannozzi, op. cit., 60.
126. 58. For the history of the chapel see

See the

Lewy,

Kunstg. Jahrh. der k.k. Zentral-

in

(19 17), 95.

documented

fully

Above

Ferdinand
\V.

and E.

etc., and Berti, he. cit. (Note 55).

Wachler in Rom. Jahrh. J. KiiiiUj;,.,

11,

469, 541,

For Neapolitan Baroque architecture see ChierPalladia, (1937), and R. Pane's book

60.

ici's articles in

Philip III of Spain (1606

1, Paris',

13,

destroyed), and

Madrid).

Giovanni Bandini's statue was erected

(H. Keutner, Mi4nchner Jahrhuch

in

1595-9

Kunst,

d. htld.

Vii

help of .\ndrea Bolgi, Cosimo Cappelli, Cosimo Cenni,

Bartolomeo Cennini, Micheic Euccherini, and of Lo-

(Naples, 1939), which contains the only coherent his-

dovico Salvetti. Soon

nini, too,

For Francesco Grimaldi, see H. Hibbard, Art

XLiii

(1961), 301,

whom

.1

Bull.,

follow for the dates of

Grimaldi's buildings.

For

127. 61.

Stati's

(1556-1619)

V. Martinelli in Riv. d'Arte,

stylistic position, see

see S. Pressouvre,
antique statuary;
"

(1968), 147
128. 63.

N.

in

G.d.B.A., lxxi

Hoist in

Zeitsclir. Jiir

Kunslg., iv (1935),

Pope-Hennessy, Italian
High Renaissance and Baroque Sculpture, London,
1963, Catalogue, 137, does not accept Hoist's con35, has deflated this legend. J.

and

reliefs in the

Cappella .Aldobrandini,

Maria sopra .Minerva (1598- 1605);

in S.

Giovanni

Laterano (1600); in the Cappella Paolina, S. Maria

Maggiore (1608 12); in S. Maria della Pace (1614);

in

Maria

S.

di

Loreto (1628

Wittkower, in Zeitschr.f. h. Kunst, LXII (1928),

Robertson in Burl. Mag., LXIX (1936), 176; A.

v (1935-6), 189, 345, and V.

Commentari,

iv

(1953),

Mar-

133, with further

76.

The

statue of Ferdinand

See G. Fiocco's basic

was not finished

until

1642 by Pietro Tacca's son, Ferdinando.

77. Finished shortly before Pietro's death

by Ferdinando
is

Pitti after

and erected

in 1642.

not certain whether the copy in the Palazzo

the Velasquez painting in the Prado or the

Spanish copy

in the L'ffizi after

Rubens's

lost picture

of 1628 was dispatched from Madrid for this purpose.

134. 79.

For instance, his Virgin and Child on the tomb

oli)

derives from Danti's Virgin and Child in the

Cappella Baroncelli, S. Croce, Florence and the group

;

Adam and

Eve, which he presented to the

Duke Cosimo
80. L.

293.

On

II

Bruhns

(1616,
in

now

Grand

Boboli Gardens), from

the Bargello.

in Riim.

Naccherino, see

Jahrh.
.\.

J.

Kunstg., iv (1940),

.Maresca di Serracapriola,

.Michelangelo Naccherino, Naples, 1924.

references.
129. 67.

show

K. .\. Neugebauer, Die Gnechischen Bronzen

Museen), Berlin, 1951, plate 36.

Bandinelli's group

in

slaves

see, e.g.,

recently P. Rotondi in Capitolium, xi (1933), 10, 392,

tinelli

Negro

attitudes extremely close to those of Tacca's slaves;

of

1st.,

Rome. Cenname as a

his

however, been correctly pointed out that

Donati, Stefanu Maderno scullore, Beilinzona, 1945.

66. The literature about him is fairly large. .More

and Riv. del R.

after, Bolgi left for

Rome, where he made

of Porzia Coniglia (Naples, S. Giacomo degli Spagnu-

9), etc.

65. R.
I.

75. It has,

78. It

clusions.
64. Statues

to

bronze founder in Bernini's studio. The other pupils

were men of little distinction.
74. W. Weisbach, Trionfi, Berlin, 19 19.

(Staatl.

ff.

V.

went

Hellenistic bronze statuettes of

.xxxii (1959), 233.

62. Cordier also enjoyed a reputation as restorer of

26;

Vullo

(Florence, in the Piazza .Annunziata),

tory of the subject.

and

Lo

213. .Also E.

(1956), 158). Tacca's Slaves were executed with the

194-

S.

by S.

the bronze equestrian statues of

Henry IV of France (160473.

iv (1940),

all

article

Xiii (1931), 131

Cologne [1928].

Pietro Tacca,

133. 72.

Paatz, Die Kintien von Florenz, Frankfurt, 1955,

59. L.

71.

11

Bianchi in Riv. d'Arte,

follow Berti's careful assessment of the docu-

fl".

Konumssion,

1935.

x.wii {1951-3), 93.

56.

of works.

list

For a difterent interpretation of Mochi's development the reader has to be referred to a recent
paper by I. Lavin, in Art Bull., Lii (1970), 132
70. In some of his bronzes, however, Francesco
Susini broke away from the tradition of the Giovanni
Bologna studio (e.g. Rape of Helen, 1626); see E.
132. 69.

Tietze-Conrat

54. J. Hess, Agostirio Tasm,

523

(1951), 224

additional

58-

article in

Le Arti,

ill

His figures

in the

Chapel of the Crucifixion, Sacro

.Monte, Varese, show, however, a true sense of Baro-

(1940-1), 74.
130. 68. V. Martinelli's articles in Commentari,

11

que drama and break w ith the conventions of the older

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

524

AND

6, 7,

who executed most of

Francesco Silva {15X0 1641),

the groups in the chapels of the Sacro Monte.

82.

Among

who worked

the sculptors

Domcnico

\. Pevsner

all,

in

Rep.

J.

Knnstw., xlvi (1925), 243 and XLix (1928), 225, and

Genoa may

at

be mentioned Filippo Planzoni from Sicily

controversy; see, above

{d. 1636),

Bissoni from \ enice (d. 1639) and his son

Giovan Battista(d. 1659), and Stefano Costa (d. 1657)

and Pietro Andrea Torre (d. 1668). Most of these
worked mainly in wood. .Artists like the Bissoni have

become more clearly defined personalities through

1939 Exhibition at Genoa (see p. 450).

the

Weisbach, ;//^.,
141. 15. Further
chapters

16.

for papal patronage, see the relevant

History oj the Popes.

in Pastor's

For further details see the documents in O. Pollak,

Die Kunsttdtigkeit iinter Urban VIII, Vienna, 1931, li,
and the catalogues in E. Waterhouse, Baroque Painting
in Rome, London, 1937.
16.

Hess

142. 17. J.

in Illustrazwne Vaticana, vi (1935),

241.

CH.APTER

For

18.

kower,
137.

First published Perugia, 1606,

and many times

For papal and other forms of patronage in Rome,

part
of the excellent work by F. Haskell,
Patrons and Painters, London, 1963.
19.

now

see

thereafter.

R. Harvey, Ignatius Loyola, London, 1936, 257.

138. 3. See, e.g., the many works of Guido Reni's
2.

CH.APTER

school.

For the follow ing see, above all, Hastings's Encyclopedia of ReJtgion and Ethics, s.v., and I. von Dollinger

'programme' see Witt-

details of the entire

op. cit., 19.

4.

and F. H. Reusch,
ill

Geschic/ite der Aloralstreitigkeiten

der romisch-kathnlischen Kirche

Jalirhiindert,

On

5.

sett

dem

sechzehnteti

Nordlingen, 1889.

laxism see

sismo nel secolo

M.

XVII, Rome, 1953

M.

book on

will

therefore be kept to a

minimum.

(Storia e letteratura,

2. I

can neither agree to the attribution of the Santoni

bust to Pietro Bernini, as suggested by C. D'Onofrio

Petrocchi, // qnietismo italiano del Seicento,

Rome, 1948
Pastor, XIV,

(Storia e letteratura, no. 20); also L.

ii,

von

{Roma

da Roma, 1967, 1 14 ft.), nor to the dating

I. Lavin (Art Bull., L (1968),

vista

of the bust to 1610 as

223

985.

For the following see the documents published

by F. Haskell in Burl. Mag., xcvii (1955), 287.
8. Wittkower, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, London, 1955,
139. 7.

1,

assumes. H. Kauffmann, G. L. Bernini, 1970,

such an early date.

ft.)

also refutes

145.

The

3.

stone-coloured caryatids of the Farnese

Gallery had a formative influence on Bernini's conception of antiquity while he was engaged on the Pluto.

12.
9.

this chapter see the author's

References

catalogue.

Petrocchi, // problema del las-

no. 45).
6.

For

I.

144.

Bernini (Gtan Lorenzo Bernini the Sculptor of the

Roman Baroque, London, 1966), with critical aeuvre

M. de C.\\znXc\ou,yoiirnaldu

en France, Paris, 1885, under

140. 10.

For the

voyage

it,

text illustrated

Car. Bernin

dii

derived from Annibale Carracci's ceiling. Further-

.-Xugust 1665.

by Pozzo,

see E. Male,

'La "rettorica" e

I'arte

barocca' in Retorica

Barocco. Atti del III Congresso internazionale di

Rome,

umanistici,

1955,

See Sacchi's

L. Pascoli, Vite

talk to

The

precetti'.

stiidi

ideas of this concise

Francesco Lauri, related by

pittori

Rome,

1736,

indebted to the figure of Poly-

is

in the fresco

of Polyphemus killing Acis. For

further details, see Wittkower, 5

li,

82

'lo

dagli oratori deggian

See also H. Posse, Andrea Sacchi,

f.

Recently C. Grassi, Burl. Mag., cvi (1964), 170, emphasized Polidoro da Caravaggio's influence on the

\eptune and Triton and

argumentation.

de' pittori etc.,

stimo, e credo, che

pigliare

9.

my

paper have influenced

12.

more, the David

phemus

442.
11.

The somewhat cold beauty of Proserpina's body is also

to a lesser extent

on the Pluto

and David.
146. 4.

Two

almost identical busts exist in the Bor-

ghese Gallery. Bernini copied his

because the marble showed

first

bust himself

a crack across the fore-

completion. But the second

Leipzig, 1925, 118.

head shortly before

work has been done on these problems.

Not very helpful in this context is G. Weise and G.

version lacks the intense animation of the

13. Little

Otto, Die religiose Ausdriicksgebdrde des Barnck (Schriften

und Vortrage der wurttembergischen Ges.

Wissensch.; Geisteswissenschaften,

d.

.Abt. 3, 1938).

151. 5. It

is

its

not generally

known

that the

first.

Angel with

the Superscription standing on Ponte S. .-Vngelo

is

also

Bernini's work. For the complicated history of these

.\ngels, see

W ittkower,

248

ft.

See the stimulating book by W. Weisbach, Der

Barock als Kunst der Gegenreformation, Berlin, 1921,

Grundbegrijfe,

which had

Woelftlin was very well aware that Baroque sculpture

14.

a lasting influence

but also aroused a heated

152.

6.

However,
first

passage in Kunstgeschtchtliche

published

BIBLOSARTE

in

19 18,

shows

that

NOTES TO CHAPTER

has a 'picture-like' character and

is

therefore

com-

posed for one viewpoint.

may be drawn

153. 7. Attention

to the Angel's right leg

and Habakkuk's right arm, clearly designed

to counter-

balance each other or to the cross of spatial diagonals

;

created by the Angel's arms and his right wing, whose

direction

is

continued in the prophet's right arm.

57. 8.

when

the sun

in the west.

is

160. 10. In the Teresa group, as in the allegories of the

tomb of Pope Urban, marble seems

to turn into flesh.

But the psychological effect is different for while here

the group has its own mysterious setting, there the alle;

gories stand before the niche, in the spectator's space.

161.

A good

1.

Battaglia,

La

On

scheme

analysis of the colour

caltedra heniiniana,

Rome,

in R.

1943, 75, 80

f.

and other grounds Bernini's art found

a severe critic in Sir Herbert Read The Listener, 24
November 1955). Sir Herbert voiced here opinions
held by many.
13. For a further analysis, see Wittkower, 21.
164. 12.

this

tomb of Lady

Roubiliac's

14. See, e.g.,

Nightingale in Westminster Abbey ( 76 1

1

dependence on the tomb of Alexander

).

Elizabeth

Roubiliac's

\'II

cannot be

doubted.

The former

in S. Lorenzo in Damaso,
Giacomo alia Lungarna. Further to
of these monuments, Wittkower, 210 f.

167. 15.

latter in S.

history

the
the

The bust was lost in the Whitehall Palace fire of

The best idea of the bust is conveyed by the
eighteenth-century copy made from a cast, now at
Windsor Castle (W ittkower, figure 48).
16.

1698.

i-j.

Journal

voyage

dii

Car. Bernin, ed. Lalanne,

Wittkower, Bernini's Bust of Louis

Paris, 1885; see

XI l\ London,

dii

Roma, Rome, 1957,

191,

judging from an illustration only, the terracotta

bozzetto of the C-onstantine published by K. Rossa-

and Neue Kiinst, Xli, 90 (1967), 2 ff.,

seems to be suspect.
23. For a full exposition of the concetto, see Wittkower in De Artihus Opuscula XL. Essays in Honor of
Ermin Panofsky, New "^'ork, 1961, 497.
170. 24. Further for the iconography of the Four
Rivers Fountain, H. Kauffmann mjahresherichte der
Max Planck Gesellschaft (1953-4), 55 R-i ^nd more
cher, in Alte

Huse, in Revue de I'Art, no. 7 (1970), 7 ft'.,

where conclusions are drawn from a text by Michelangelo Lualdi who may have been Bernini's adviser.
For the concetto of the Barcaccia in Piazza di Spagna,
recently, N.

H. Hibbard I. Jaft'e, Burl. .Vlag., cvi (1964), 159.

See W. S. Heckscher in Art Bull., xxix (1947),

see

25.

55

ff-

K. Rossacher ('Das fehlende Zielbild des Petersdomes, Berninis Gesamtprojekt fiir die Cathedra
Petri', Alte iind Moderne Kunst (Nov. -Dec. 1967))
argued eloquently that Bernini had planned a repre26.

sentation of the Transfiguration in the

168. 18. Particular reference

seem
27.

to

be supported by historical evidence.

for the ideas underlying the Cathedra

to

Further

Petri, see

H. von Einem

may be made

to Stoldo

VI (1955), 222.

171. 28. Cod. Ital. 2084,

1933-

controversy.

Pope-Hennessy (Catal.

Ovid, Met.,

I,

1964,

330

XXXI (1968), 438

See Brauer Wittkower, plates 42 7.

See also Wittkower, 'The Role of classical Models

I first

submitted (Burl.

Mag., xciv (1952), 75) that Bernini here intended to

illustrate the Virgilian 'Quos Ego' (Aeneid, i, 145 f );

Mm.,

Brauer-Wittkower, plate

in

not again be

11,

ff'.,

ff".)

Ital. Sculpt, in the Victoria

600) believed that his text was

while

W.

Collier (in J.fF.C./.,

thought Ovid,

.Wet.,

i,

283-4 was

195, referred to in Witt-

30.

men-

will

fol.

29.

here that the problem of its concetto

Since the Neptune and Triton

(5 Albert

Nachrichten der Akademie

1955, 93. For the concetto of the Baldacchino see H.

in Miinchnerjahrhuch der hildenden Kunst,

kower, 254.

J.

in

der IVissenschaften in Gttttingen. Philolog.-Hist. Klasse,

Wiles, The Fountains of Florentine Sculptors and their

Folbwersfrom Donatella to Beniini, Cambridge, Mass.,

may add
has aroused much

window of the

have found Bernini's bozzetto

for this project, but the author's assumptions do not

Cathedra and claims

Kauffmann

195 1.

and H. Hibbard, Burl.

Miscellanea Bibliothecae Hertzianae, 1961, 366.

2.Z.

Lorenzi's Neptune in the Boboli gardens. See B. H.

tioned,

525

Mag., cvi (1964), 168 note.

20. Surviving drawings prove that the rock was designed with great care (Braucr- Wittkower, 47 ft".).
169. 21. Further for the Longinus, seeH. Kauffmann,
in

Polychrome settings became common after Sixtus V's chapel in S. Maria Maggiore, see pp. 29 30.
I). This device is fully effective only in the afternoon,

the correct date, see D'Onofrio, Le Fontane

19. I"or

di

7i.\.

Bernini's and Poussin's preparatory Work', in

Studies in H'estern Art (.^cts of the 20th Internat.

Congr. of the Hist, of

.'\rt),

Princeton, 1963, in, 41.

172. 32. Wittkower, figure 107.

}7i.

E.g.

all

the early works and the busts of Scipione

Borghcse, Costanza Buonarelli, Francis

Louis XI\

further, the Longinus, Daniel,

of Este,

and Habak-

kuk, S. Bibiana and S. Teresa, and the .Angels for the

shown. H. Kauffmann, G. L. Bernini, Berlin, 1970, 39,

returned w ith new arguments to my original interpre-

Ponte

S. .\ngelo.

tempt

at

tation.

ing notes.

These

completeness

BIBLOSARTE

is

are

some examples. No

made

in this

at-

and the follow-

526

NOTES TO CHAPTER

The Haldacchino, tomb of Urban V'lU.

of Countess Matilda; Cappella Raimondi; statues ot Urban VIII, Capitol, and of Alexander VII, Siena Cathedral; Angels above the main
34.
35.

Monument

altar ol" S.

Agostino; balconies

in the pillars

of St

Maria del Popolo; chapel of

the De Silva family, S. Isidoro Valtrini and Merenda
monuments; tomb of Alexander VII. This group, to
which many more works belong, is by no means

Peter's; decoration of S.

coherent.
36. St Barbara, Rieti Cathedral; Visitation, Cappella
Siri,

bibliography up

Rome,

1945, with
to that date. Further, Martinelli in

37. L. Grassi, Bernini pittore,

{1950), with brief critical but not en-

Commentari,

tirely reliable

auvre catalogue, and Wittkower

38.

xciii (1951), 51

in Burl.

The portrait now in the Ashmolean Museum, Ox-

and the self-portrait

formerly in the collection of Mrs Richard Ford (D.
Mahon and D. Sutton, Artists in Seventeenth Century
Rome, Exhib. Wildenstein, 1955, no. 5).
173. 39. Early self-portrait, Borghese Gallery, and the
half-figures of St Andrem and St Thomas, formerly
Palazzo Barberini, now National Gallery, London,
cit.),

documented 1627; see Martinelli, op. cit., 99, 104.

40. The most important document of this phase is the
David with the Head of Goliath, Coll. Marchesa Eleonora Incisa della Rocchetta, Rome. See the pertinent
remarks in Mahon's and Sutton's Catalogue, no. 7.
41. Between the first self-portrait in the Borghese
Gallery of about 1620 and the second in the same
lie at least

is

unacceptable.

For

a full discussion

also for the engravings

of these compositions and

made

see Brauer- Wittkower, 151

after Bernini's designs,

ft".

44. Waterhouse, 86; Grassi, op. cit., 37 ff. H. Posse,

Der romische Maler Andrea Sacchi, Leipzig, 1925,53 f.
45. The same device is used, e.g., in the group of
Pluto and Proserpina.
;

46.

234

Further for Abbatini's works, Passeri-Hess,

ff.,

tinelli,

Waterhouse, 45, Grassi, op. cit., 44 ff., MarCommentari, ix (1958), 99, B. Toscano, Para-

175. 51.

The work was finished in 1626; seeO. Pollak,

1, 22 ff. Bernini was also responsible for

Kunsttdtigkeit,

the restoration of the interior. Particularly impressive

is

the classicizing aedicule above the high altar (Witt-

kower, Bernini, figure 27).

52. For historical data, see Brauer Wittkower, 19 22,
and Wittkower, Bernini, 189 f. for the iconography,
H. Kauffmann, 'Das Tabernakel in St Peter', Kunst;

geschichtliche Gesellschaft zu Berlin, Silzungsherichte

53. Bernini

The

1628.

designed the decoration of the

174. 47. Passeri-Hess, 234

ff.

The pun

'.

parere vero effettivo quel falso, che e finto',

is

ha

fatto

difficult

relics

on certain

Guglielmo Cortese (Guillaume Courtois) painted

in the 1660s in Bernini's churches (see Note 69) but
cannot be regarded as one of his studio hands.
49. For Bernini's influence on GauUi see Pascoli, Vtte,
Rome, 1730-6, 1, 195, and R. Soprani and C. G. Ratti,

festive occasions.

Further to this question, Wittkower, Bernini, 197

176. 54.

On

f.,

loc. cit.

Borromini's probable contribution to the

design, see p. 197.

55. Prototypes for the

cophagi with vines,

motif were Early Christian sarblood of Christ.

a reference to the

By substituting laurels (a Barberini emblem)

for vines,

Bernini turned the traditional into personal symbolism.

56. Shortly before Bernini,

Ferrabosco planned such

of the present Baldacchino; see

a structure in lieu

Costaguti-Ferrabosco, Architettura della basilica di S.

Pietro in Vaticano,
57.

See A.

Pulignani in

Rome,

Munoz
Illustr.

1684, plate 27.

in Vita d'Arte, viii (191

Vaticana,

li,

1), iT^;

12 (1931), 23

ff.

For the master of the Val-de-Grace baldacchino,

usually wrongly attributed to Bernini, see
Beaulieu,
'G. Le Due, M. Anguier et le maitre-autel du Val-de58.

l' hist

one de

I'art fran-

annee ig^^-^b (1948), 150 and A. Blunt, Art and

Architecture m France, 250, note 22. For French high

(ais,

altars

dependent on Bernini's Baldacchino, see M.

Reymond in G.d.B.A., ix (1913),

177. 59. The fullest account of

207

ff.

the history of this

church and Bernini's other architectural works in

Brauer-Wittkower. The book by R. Pane, Bernini
architetto, Venice, 1953, is uncritical and contains no
serious contribution.

For Castelgandolfo see

Golzio, Documenti artist ici,

Rome,

also V.

1939, 402.

The

church was first dedicated to St Nicholas and, after a

change of plan in 1659, to the newly canonized St
178. 60.

of Villanova.

The whole height

is

i^ times the length of the

axis of the church.

61.

to translate.

pillars in

balconies serve for the exhibition of the

most venerable

Thomas

gone, XV (1964), no. 177, 36.

48.

Grace', Bulletin de la societe de

twenty years.

42. Grassi's reversal of this relationship (p. 28)

43.

de' pitton
genovesi, Genoa, 1768 9, 76.
See C^hantelou's Diary on 10 October 1665.

and Kauffmann,

ff.

ford (see Wittkower, op.

museum

50.

(1954-5), 5 S; also Note 27 above.

Savona.

Mag.,

ite

The

medallions reproduce the pictures hung in

St Peter's on the day of the saint's canonization, see

Brauer-Wittkower, 125.
62. See, e.g., the niche of the tomb of Urban VI 1 1 [83]
or the apse of the Raimondi Chapel in S. Pietro in
Montorio.

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

63.
is

The

niche of Alexander VII's

tomb

1671 8) [89]

84;

also decorated in this way.

64.

dell'

Qjiaderni (1953), no. 2, 10, with plans and a

not very helpful historical note.
.\riccia',

G. Incisa

della Rocchetta, 'Notizie sulla fabbrica

della chiesa collegiata di Ariccia', Riv. del R. hi.,

(1929), 281-5. Prauer-Wittkower, 115

180. 67. Ihid., 120

ft.

See also

ff.

S. Bordini, in

Qjmderni,

79-84 (1967), 53-84; extracts from a Roman

doctoral thesis on Bernini and the Pantheon (1965-6).
,\iv,

Fontana,

68. C.

451

//

illustrations

ft".,

181. 69.

The

1694,

on pages 457, 467.

is by Guillaume Courtois, who

painting

also supplied the altarpieces in S.

gandolfo and S. Andrea

182. 70.

Rome,

lempio valtcano,

Tomaso

at Castel-

Quirinale.

al

Rn\

in

del

/i7., VIII (1941), 144,445,501. For the history of the

church see Brauer-Wittkower, no ft.; also F. Borsi,
La chiesa di S. Andrea al Qjarinale, Rome, 1967.

R.

71.

W.

cento',

Lotz, 'Dieovalen Kirchenhiumedes Cinque-

Rom. Jahrh.f. Kunstg.,

vii (1955),

55

ff.

72. Wittkower, Architectural Principles in the Age of

Humanism, 3rd ed., London, 1962, 97 f
183. 73. See Note 69.
74. About this important church see now W. Lotz,
op. cit., 58, and above Chapter 6, Note 2.
184. 75. It is important to realize that the ground was
originally considerably higher. Only three steps led up
to the portico; see G. B. Falda's engraving in // terzo
lihro del novo teatro delle chiese di Roma, Rome [n.d.],

76.

See above. Note 74.

See

p. 114.

For the palace

at

237-40.
Modena Bernini mainly funci,

tioned as consulting architect in 1651

see L.

Zanugg,

Tl Palazzo ducale di Modena', Riv. del R.

1st.,

ix

His contribution

to the

Quirinal Palace, part of the

so-called manica lunga (1656-9) along the Via del

Art

now been

clarified

by

J.

Wasserman,

Such

as the projects for the Piazza del Quiri-

nale (Brauer Wittkower, 134), for the

monument

of

IV of Spain to be erected under the old portico

of S. Maria Maggiore (thid., 1 57), and for the apse of S.
Maria Maggiore (1669), later executed by C. Rainaldi
Philip

(tbid.,

documents).

1665, plate 30.

Brauer-Wittkower, 126; A. Busiri Vici

in Palla-

dio,\\ (1956), 127.

83.

Built

Niccolo

for

Ludovisi, the

nephew of

Gregory XV, who had married a niece of the Pamphili

Pope Innocent X. For the palace, see now the monumental, fully documented work by F. Borsi (and
others), II Palazzo di Montecitorio, Rome, 1967.
Coudenhove-Erthal, Carlo Fontana, 71 ff.,
shows what was standing when Fontana
began working. It is mainly the central area that must
84. E.

figure 25,

be assigned to him. Vol. 168 of the Fontana papers in

the Royal Library at

and drawings referring

186. 85.

Windsor contains documents

to the palace.

At the time large parts of the palace were

standing. For

its

history, see

Thomas Ashby, 'The

Palazzo Odescalchi in Rome', Papers of the British

School at Rome, viii (1916), 87 ft".; Brauer Wittkower,

La Fontana di Trevi, Rome, 956, 239.

Rome, mainly Antonio da Sangallo's

27; A. Schiavo,

187.

In

86.

Palazzo del Banco di S. Spirito (1523 34) and Girolamo Rainaldi's Palazzo Senatorio on the Capitol.
87.

Examples of indirect derivation: Fuga's Palazzo

Cenci-Bolognetti, Piazza del Gesu,

Rome

(c.

1745);

G. A. Veneroni's Palazzo Mezzabarba at Pavia (172830); and Juvarra's Palazzo Ferrero d'Ormea at Turin.
Outside Italy, among numerousexamples, Martinelli's
Liechtenstein Palace and Fischer von Erlach's palace
of Prince Eugen, both in Vienna, and the Marble
Palais in Leningrad.
88.

For the history of the Louvre, see L. Hautecoeur,

Le Louvre

et les Tuileries

de Louis

XIV,

Paris, 1927;

idem, Histoire du Louvre, Paris, 1928.

For Bernini's

contribution,Josephson,G.(/.fi.y'i.,X\

(1928), 75-91,

la

Storia

dcW .4rchiteltitra,

II

no. 10 (1956), 23.

For the Louvre projects by Candiani, Rainaldi, and

Cortona, see P. Portoghesi, in Qjiadernt (1961), 243.
89. Plan:

Brauer Wittkower, plate 175; east front:

},t,. Another drawing in

i63;S. Fraschetti,

Blunt, plate 155B.

188. 90. R.
torians,

W.

Berger,

II Bernini,

Milan, 1900, 379

m Journal Soc.

XXV (1966), 170

Louvre project

Bull., .\LV (1963), 240.

185. 80.

xxii (1944), 18,

Hautecoeur, Le Louvre, plate

(1942), 212-52.

Quirinale, has

Roma,

78. Pollak, Kunsltdtigkeit,

79.

in

527

and Brauer-Wittkower, 1 29-33. The whole story summarized in Blunt, Art and Architecture in France, 230 ff.
See also .A Schiavo in Bollettino del Centra di Studi per

13-

77.

82.

Documents published by Donati

Rome,

1,

Orazione e Morte in
Via Giulia, Rome; Luigi Vanvitelli's Chiesa dei PP.
delle Missioni at Naples; and Juvarra's Supcrga near
Turin.
65. B. M. Apolloni-Ghetti, Tl Palazzo Chigi all'

()6.

Mercati

"

81. Illustrated in P'alda, llniiovo teatro delle fabhriche,

A few eighteenth-century examples may be given

Fuga's Chiesa di S. Maria

.\.

ff.,

Architect. His-

regards Bernini's

as a direct offspring of .\ntoine

first

Le

Pautre's design for an ideal chateau, published in the

latter's Desseins

who

de plusieurs palais (1652). But no one

has eyes to see will be able to accept this hypo-

thesis.

91.

See Brauer-Wittkower and Josephson,

81 (illustration).

BIBLOSARTE

op.

cit.,

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

528

Munoz,

Q2. Illustrated in

d'arte
()3.

Rome,

ill.),

The

AND

Pietrn da Cortima (Bibl.

See below,

IQ21, 15.

and the plan

east front

p.

246.

illustrated in Blunt,

and figure 24.

This was an insufficient answer

who

of Colbert,

to the criticism

held that the entrance of the earlier

The

conversations reported by the Sieur de

Chantelou show that Bernini regarded this feature as

immensely important (i July 1665).
9(1. Bernini regarded the old rooms of the south front
as too small

and

artistically too insignificant to serve

as a royal apartment.
97.

It is

98. See \. Blunt, ap.

French architecture.

cit.,

82-9.

pavilion system disappear after his

In addition,

visit.

found a sequel in other countries. Examples: the Czernin Palace in Prague (1669), Sacchetti's Royal Palace in Madrid (1739), and Tessin's
Royal Palace in Stockholm (see H. Rose in Festschrift
his project

01.

Holfflin,

Munich, 1924,

is

in

tion

in S. .Maria

Brauer-Wittkower, 88

III.

Previous discussion of

ff^.

Jahrh. Preuss. Kunstslg., XL (1919) and Voss,

ibid.,

XLiii (1922).

D. Frey,

12.

The whole

113.

op. cit., 217.

material for this question in Witt-

kower, Boll. d'Arte,

loc. cit.

Also H. Hager, in

Com-

ff".

For Carlo Fon tana's projects see Coudenhovecit., 91 ff. and plate 39. For later and similar

14.

Erthal, op.

projects see T. A. Polazzo,

basilica di S. Pietro,
1

Rome,

Da

Casiel S. Angela alia

1948.

This statement is true in spite of the fact that

colonnade was first devised by Pietro da

15.

this type of

Cortona, see below,

p. 246.

There are two passages for pedestrians and

between them a wider one for coaches.
196.

16.

CHAPTER

Brauer-Wittkower, 64-102. See also V.

Mariani, Siguificatu del porttca bermniano

Rome,

used by Pietro da Cortona

First

245).

The only detailed discussion of the history of the

Piazza

i07\, see Brauer

the Scala Regia with partly different results, Panofsky,

But the influence of Bernini's project on general

principles of design in France should not be underestimated. The traditional high-pitched roof and the
100.

(fol.

70).

mentari, xix (1968), 299

cit.

189. 99. Josephson, op.

ft.

della Pace.

195.

evident that Bernini also wanted to hide the

old court facades, the pride of

Heinnch

Bernini's report of 1659 60

in

Wittkower,

no.

projects was too insignificant.

95.

d'Arle, xxxiv (1949), 129

109. Bernini himself talked about this in Paris

193.

(Chantelou, ed. Lalanne, 42). Similar arguments also

plate 155c

94.

Brauer Wittkower, plate 164B, and Wittkower

108.

in Boll.

1935, and the

by C. Thoenes,

more recent
Zeitschr.

di S. Pietro,

interesting contribuKiinstg., xxvi (1963),

f.

197.

I.

The name Borromini

not appear in

(without Castelli) does

documents before 1628. For

portraits

of Borromini, see P. Portoghesi, Burl. .Mag., CIX

97-145. Bernini's principal assistants were his brother

Luigi, Mattia de' Rossi, Lazzaro Morelli, and the

(1967), 709

young Carlo Fontana.

102. Opposition was centred

between 1624 and 1633; see Pollak, Kuiisttdtigkeit, li,

Mufioz in Rassegna d'Arte, xix (1919), 107 ft., and
ibid., 'Francesco Borromini nei lavori della Fabbrica di
S. Pietro", Scrilti in onore di B. \ogara, Rome, 1937,

astical circles.

in reactionary ecclesi-

They supported an

elaborate counter-

which twenty-five drawings survive which

time and again are attributed to Bernini himself. For
the whole problem see Wittkower in J.W.C.I., III
project of

(1939-40). -Also Brauer-Wittkower, 96

103.

This made

it

necessan,' to pull

ff.

down

Ferra-

bosco's tower, see above, p. 29.

190. 104. See above, p. 112.

Mainly by Ferrabosco; see D. Frey, 'Berninis

fiir die Glockentiirme von St Peter in Rom',
Jalirhuch der kunsthislonscluni Sammlungen, M'leii, xii
105.

Entwiirfe

(1938), 220
106.

f.,

histor)-

of these towers

is

discussed

Brauer-Wittkower, 37-43; see also Frey, op. cit.,

and Underwood in Art Bull., x\i (1939), 283; H.
in

Millon

in

Art Quarterly,

X.XV (1962), 229,

summarized

the whole question.

107.

Brauer-Wittkower, 41

op. ctt.,

224

f.

His

f.

activity can

be followed

in

documents dating

3193. Between 1621 and 1623, see N. Caflisch, Carlo

Maderno, Munich, 1934, 141.
198. 4. Brauer-Wittkower, 27 f
5. Exact date of the execution of the cloisters; 6
February 1635 to 28 October 1644: see .\. Contri in
L'Architettura, (1955), 229, with valuable measured
i

drawings.
199.

6.

See E. Hempel, Borromini, \'ienna, 1924,

figures 6-9.

figures 243-5.

The complex

2.

ft.,

plates 156-7;

D. Frey,

201.

has

7.

P. Portoghesi, in

come

to

somewhat

Quaderni (1954), no.

6, 16,

similar conclusions. See also

below. Note 27.

For the wider issues involved see W ittkower, 'Systems of Proportion', m.irchitects' > ear Book, \(i()s,2,).
203. 8. The pattern is derived from S. Costanza, via
the illustration in Serlio's Fourth Book.

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

206.

9.

The name

derived from the motto 'Initium

Domini' engraved over the main

sapientiae timor

entrance.

H. Thelen,

thorough reconstruction

in his

of

the

history of the building (Mncfllanea Bihl. Hertzianae,

shows

1961, 285 307), convincingly

della Porta

had

that

Giacomo
hemi-

built the closed arcades of the

cycle long before Borromini took over.

An

10.

volo,

exhaustive geometrical analysis by L. Bene-

tema geometrico

'II

Qttaderni {1953), no.

See,

11.

di

Ivo alia Sapienza',

S.

the illustration in Serlio, Tulle I'dpcrc

e.g.,

ft".

21.

For

of all the monuments,

monumenti borrominiani della

a detailed discussion

see P. Portoghesi,

'I

lateranense', Quaderni (1955), no.

basilica

R. L. .\lontini

in Palladio, v (1955),

chapter

who makes

.\,

210. 13.

The

Carlo Rainaldi, Rome, i960,

probable that the planning of

IX

given the church under Pius

its

in

1859 was removed

and the church was given back

in a recent restoration

original white appearance.

For the emblematic character of the architecture, see

the papers by H. Ost and P. de la Ruffiniere du Prey
(Bibliography).

For

Turin, 1967, 94

liira,

find a rather

que of

my

on S. .\gnese (Bibliography under Rome), 114; hence

I saw no reason for any changes.
24. This is due to the fact that the frames of the
painted pendentives are carried
area of the attic.

It

is

in

ing of this type; the vestibule. Piazza d'Oro, Hadrian's

of S. Agnese.

the

Tempio

tions in

125-35); and, of the same period,

di Siepe,

Campo Marzo, Rome.

Illustra-

G. T. Rivoira, Roman Architecture, Oxford,

The

ruins of Baalbek were already

sixteenth century.

The 'Grand Marot'

known

in the

of about 1660-

70 has a reconstruction of the great temple.

W. Born,

16.

'Spiral

Towers

in

217. 25. For a further analysis, see Wittkower,

//., 'xix( 1937),

26.

256

An

ft".

Even Bernini had a hand in some of the decorawas responsible for the details of the entabla-

shown

that,

their
ft.,

through the tradition of the Tower

of Babel, spiral towers were more

common

teenth- to eighteenth-century Europe than

is

in

six-

generally

1948, 197.

Roma dal Seicentn al Novecento, Bologna,

The lantern appears in a ground plan in the

-Mbertina (Hempel, figure 61)

the 'drum'. This drawing

documents

for

drawn

into the plan of

one of the most interesting

is

Borromini's medievalizing approach to

planning. His procedure can be fully reconstructed,

since the design contains the complete geometrical

realized.

212. 17.

ture.

218. 27. For a difterent opinion, see A. de Rinaldis,

L'arte in

Europe and

oriental Prototypes', G.d.B.A., xxiv (1943), 2}}

has

the unifying verticalism nor the slender proportions

tion; he

1925.
15.

the

to

and where the arch of the vault rests on the

thus producing neither

entablature without an attic

Villa, Tivoli (r. A.D.

down through

compare BorroSt Peter's, where the en-

worthwhile

tablature over the pilasters of the pillars does not

project

fl.

xxv

high-handed though unspecific critiG. Elmer's book

Other examples are the 'nymphaeum' in the

garden of Sallust (Flavian), perhaps the earliest build14.

Kitnslg.,

analxsis of S. .^gnese in

mini's solution with that

S. Ivo, see also C. Brandi, Strultura e architet-

J.

(1962), 173.
I

feigned coloured marble effect that was

and

it

215. 23. See K. Noehles in Zeilschr.

other bays C.

11,

ft.

Roma'.
string-courses run on across the two

88

22. New documents for the histor\' of the church

were published by L. Montalto in Studi Romam, V
(1957), and Palladia, viii (1958). See also F. Fasolo,

the church began as early as 1(145 7.

The

529

H. Thelen, Kunsuhronik, vii (1954), 264

On the meaning of the capriccio in seventeenth-century art, see Argan, Borromini, 40.
19.

d'archilellura, Venice, 1566, 62, of a temple 'fuori di

208. 12.

213. 20.

L'opera di Hwroninio

3.

The

twelve .\postles

in the tabernacles

of the

436) and the oval paintings above them

belong to the Pontificate of Clement XI. Borromini's

nave (see

p.

plans for portico and

fac^-ade

remained on paper. They

were

pattern carefully drawn.

It

appears,

first,

essential points of the construction are

that the

determined by

incommensurable magnitudes and, secondly, that the

is geometrically derived from the

shape of the lantern

drum, and

the geometrical unification of dif-

later executed by .\lessandro Galilei (p. 382).

For the development of Borromini's project see,
above all, K.. Cassirer, 'Zu Borromini's Lmbau der

closest contact with late

Lateransbasilika',7rt/^;7^ Preiiss. Kiinslslg., XLii (1921),

219. 28. For other chcrub-herms in Borromini's late

18.

55

ft".

In addition, H. Egger in Beitrdge

ziir

Kutisl-

Franz IVickhiiJJ'geiridmet, Vienna, 1903, and

M. Dvorak, 'Francesco Borromini als Restaurator',

geschichte

Kunstgeschtchtlnhes

Jahrbuch

Komnnsswn, Vienna, 1907

der

k.k.

(Beiblatt), 89

ft.

Zentral-

it is

ferent storeys

this

drawn

into

one plan

that reveals the

medieval principles.

work, see the monument of Pope Sergius IV in S.

Giovanni in Laterano and the facade of S. Carlo alle
Quattro Fontane
19I.
29. The coherence of the tiers of the tower is stressed,
1

however, by the placing of all the supporting elements

BIBLOSARTE

530

NOTES TO CHAPTER

the diagonals, corresponding to the buttresses ot

in

the whole exterior only the two upper tiers and

Of

the crowning feature of the tower were stone-faced

and finished.
30. Until recently the

been dated

due

is

design of the church had always

The

the early 1630s.

in

revision of the date

uh'tti

in Stiidi

siil

cone-shaped

ith a classicizing frieze)

Borrommi. Atli del

S. Girolamo della Carita, laid out with colourful

marble decorations. Here the 'bizarre' idea of replacing the balustrade of the chapel by kneeling angels

who hold

of (marble) cloth between them (allu-

a piece

sion to Christ's

Full discussion by P. Porto-

pall.').

(1958), 39.

This

is

derives from Hellenistic sources (familiar to (Quattro-

d'arte, iv-v (1939-40), 141,

used by Borromini.

In 1 646 he incorporated it in his project for the Palazzo

Pamphili in Piazza Navona and executed it in the gallery of the same palace (see below. Note 45). It is not
impossible that more than ten years later this stimu-

and Portoghesi in PallaFor other minor work, see Portoghesi, Qiiaderni, nos. 25-6 (1958).
36. .\. Pernier, 'La Torre dell' Orologio dei Filippini', Capitolium, x (1934), and idem, 'Documenti
opera del Borromini La fabbrica dei

inediti sopra un'

della Rocchetta,

lapping rhythms which, starting with the entrance

di storia patria, XC.

bay,

may be

expressed as:

or:

b'Ab'|b|b'Ab'|b|.

33. It

corresponds

to

Archive

II

(1935), 204. See also

'Un dialogo

sulla fabbrica dei Filippini', Arch, della Soc.

Borromini

(1967), 165-21

laid the

main

axis

romana

1.

through the centre

the side adjoining S. Maria in Vallicella. Consequently

the fa9ade

left

(west) of the central axis consists of five

Borromini's design. In any case, the

bays, while the right-hand side (near the church) has

diamond-shaped

only three bays. But the eye does not notice the asym-

interior decoration, including the

simple coffers of the vault (painted), belongs to the

restorations of 1845 and 1928-9. See Marconi (above,

metry, since the two farthest bays on the

Note 30) and M. Bosi, 5. Maria

224. 38.

Rome,

G. Incisa
Spada

del P. Virgilio

of the courtyards [135], but the long western wing

along the Via de' Filippini has no correspondence on

not certain that anything above the cornice

is

Filippini',

37.

A|b'bb'|A|b'bb'|A|.

25-6

dio, IV (1954), 122. -

Cortona to his use of the same motif in

the facade of S. Maria in Via Lata (148].
32. Here too Borromini worked with similar overlated Pietro da

nos.

some minor

for the Spada family, who patronized Borromini

from the 1630s onwards; seealso .\. Corbara in Cniua

works

first

als<j //'/</.,

the most important of

Couvegno, Rome, 1967, 1, 98.

31. The motif of the straight entablature ciwi arch
cento architects) and was here

and

.About 1660, Cappella Spada in

roof.

ghesi in Qiiaderni (1953), no. 4;

to Paolo .Marconi, in Palaliiio, x (1966), 194

200; see also

drical feature (decorated

a

the 'drum'.

de' Sette Dolori,

left lie

outside

the quoined edge of the facade proper.

We

must abstain from a further analysis,

complex treatment of the walls.

particularly of the

1953.

34. Interior decoration after Borromini's death,

mainly by Carlo Fontana's son, Francesco. Complete

Reference may be made to Argan's pertinent remarks

about the transformation of functional into decorative

restoration of the interior in 181 5.

elements and vice versa {Borromini,

222. 35. For the sake of completeness, the following

list of minor ecclesiastical works may supplement the

lation

buildings discussed in the text: 1638-43, decoration,

vaulting

S.

Lucia

in Selci,

Rome (discussion and documents in

39. In the clerestory

is

53).

above the cornice the wall articu-

taken up and continued in the bands ot the

- a first

flat

step towards the late solution of the

church of the Collegio

di

Propaganda Fide.

1640-2,

225. 40. For the small cloister of S. Carlo, Borromini

of the Annunciation, SS. Apostoli, Naples, closely

resembling the system used for the fai^ade ot the Oratory of St Philip Neri. - 1 656 (not 1 664), design of high

had chosen a different design he carried an extremely

simple form of the 'Palladio motif without any interruption across the bevelled corners. See p. 199.

P. Portoghesi,j^fl(/f/-//(, nos.

25-6 (1958),

2). -

altar

altar chapel, S.

conieri

Giovanni de' Fiorentini, with the Fal-

tombs (document published by M. V. Bru-

xlv (i960), 341. The high altar of

Giovanni de' Fiorentini, begun much earlier by
Pietro da Cortona (1634), shows the latter's style).

gnoli. Bull. d'Arle,

S.

Borromini's Falconieri crypt

in

the same church, only

recently discovered, should also be mentioned; see E.

Rufini, S. Giovanni de Fiorentini (Le chiese di
illustrate,

39),

Rome,

1658, rebuilding of the

Roma

1957, 67, 103 (document).

little

near Porta Latina, with a

chapel S. Giovanni in Oleo

dome hidden behind

a cylin-

41.

For the clock-tower see A. Pernier

in Capilotiiim,

X (1934), 41342.

G. B. Montano, Scelta di
1624, plate 3, which was
Borromini and which he must

See also the design

varj lempictti antic hi,

certainly

known

to

in

Rome,

have regarded as authentically antique.

42a. See P. Portoghesi, Borromini,
43.

See O. PoUak's classic

Rome, 1967, 174.

Decken des

article 'Die

Palazzo Falconieri in Rom', Kunstffeschichlliches Jahrhuch der h.k. Zentral-Kommission (191

1).

The whole

problem of Borromini's decoration has been discussed

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

by

P.

44.

Portoghcsi

d'ArU\ XL (1^55), 12-38.

in Ball.

garden of the

Mondragone

ilia

at

by D. Frey, 'Beitrage',

li'ienir Juhrh., in (ig24), 43 ff.

Here, too, publication of Borromini's alternative pro-

ject for the

227. 46.

whole palace.

behind

it,

at its

end and the simple

dating from before

No

corporated into the later building.

if>43,

less

spiral

were

in-

than thirty-

eight drawings by Borromini for the palace survive

(Vienna, Albertina). Full discussion by G. Giovannoni,

Palazzo Carpegna",

S. Luc a,

Rome,

in

Insii^nc

Aaademia di

Tafuri

(in Qiiaderni,

La Rcalc

1934, 35^66.

IVl.

79-84 (1967), 85 ff.) examined Borromini's contribution again on the basis of documents in the
Falconieri Carpegna archive; Borromini's alterations
were executed between 1643 and 1647.
XIV,

similar idea

is

Uffizi, attributed to

to

be found

in a

drawing

in the

Borromini, published by Porto-

da Corlona,

I'"lorence, 1962.

Briganti in Farag(ini\\i (i960), no. 123,

Toesca (next Note).

3. His biography in Passeri Hess, 75; see
Toesca in Boll. d'Arte, xlvi (1961), 177.

.Among other domestic buildings by Borromini mention may be made of the Palazzo di Spagna (1640s)
where, according to Hempel (133), the vestibule and

The

later

Palazzo

Now

.\ccademia

in the

di S.

Haskell, Patrons, 38.

.Marino had been

5.

He died

in 1625.

eight years until 1623.

in Paris for

The

Rinaldo and Armtda painted for

Marino (Passeri-Hcss, 375) has not

For Marino, sec G. .-Ackerman,

yet been traced.

An

Bull.,

For Cassiano

6.

Pozzo and

del

his collection, see

C. C. Vermeule, Art Bull., xxxviii (1956), 31; idem.

Proceedings 0/ the American Philos. Snc., Cii (1958),
193,

and Transactions

oj the

American

Philos.

attribution of the Palazzo Bar-

Soc,

F. Haskell and S. Rinchart, Burl. Mag., cii

(i960),

318,

Patrons, 98

ff.

and the able summary in Haskell's

For Cassiano in Spain, see E. Harris,

7.

The

be discussed

to

ff.

frescoes at Frascati and in the Palazzo Mattci,

later, arc

memorable excep-

the only

tion.

He may have had some training at Cortona

who was an architect.

8.

9.

Voss, 543.

- Briganti,

11

1,

on the contrary,
a

painter

to the very last.

Payments

Cortona begin

1626 and run until

1630.

mini's precise contribution to the Villa Falconieri at

Cortona

Frascati has not yet been determined. .\n interesting

century drawings by Pier Leone Ghezzi (1674

project for the villa of Cardinal Pamphili near Porta

which gives

Pancrazio has been published by Portoghcsi

in

Qiiaderiti (1954), no. 6.

48.

The inspiration

10.

probably came

once again from Michelangelo's Capitoline Palaces,

which influenced Borromini throughout his lifetime;

but the closely-set pilasters and narrow bays are reminiscent of Palladio's late style of the Palazzo Valmarana

It is

to

fatto

maintained

is

hitherto overlooked, but use

is

later (1704), a fact

must have been made

ot

in

series

of eighteenth1755)

and plans of the

a valuable general view

Ghezzi

calls the

house 'casino

ad uso di fortezza'.

See also G. Tomassetti, 'Delia Campagna Romana:

Castelfusano', Archivio della R. Societc)

Romana

di

XX (1897); Francesco Chigi, 'La pineta

di Castel Fusano', Vie d' Italia, xxxviii (1932).
storia patria,

true that the attic

in

attribution of the building to Pietro da

three storeys (London, Coll. Sir .Anthony Blunt). In

and the Loggia del Capitano.

228. 49.

The

his brief description,

for the giant order

with

his uncle Francesco,

alii Giubbonari has to be abandoned; see B.

Maria Apollonj in Capi/olium, Viil (1932),' 451. Borro-

berini

N.S.

L, pt 5;

emphasizes Cortona's unbroken powers as

HempeFs

XLiii

(1961), 326.

232.

alterations.

I.

Luca, Rome.

nineteenth century, but the courtyard

extant with

also

For Marcello Sacchetti's patronage of Cortona, see

Spada in Piazza di Monte Giordano (about 1(160) lost

its Borrominesque character in a modernization of the
is

]iT,.,

also

Burl. Mag., CXii (1970), 364

ghcsi, Qjiadenit (1954), no. 6, 28.

staircase of three flights survive.

Pii'lro

I.

SeeG.

4.

loggia of the courtyard with the richly

decorated doorway
staircase

231.
2.

45. Full discussion of the various plans for the palace

S.

531

CH.AFTER 10

Frascati (pp. 36-7).

47.

lO

Borromini, of course, had knowledge of Vasan-

zio's loggia in the

'II

AND

1.

Only the grotto is preserved (sec Luigi Callari, Le

Roma, Rome, 1943, 266). Views of the villa

ville di

exist in

Roma
Roma

A. Specchi's Qjiarto

G.

libra del

nuovo teatro

the time of Borromini's

di

death there was an iron railing over the cornice; see

di

L. Cruyl's draw ing of 1665 in the Albertina (H. Egger,

and Fontaine's Choix des plus celehres maisons de plaisance de Rome, Paris, 1809, plates 39-41. Our knowledge of the villa is considerably furthered by some

design by Borromini.

\\.

Romischc Veduteii, Vienna, 1931, II, plate 75); G. B.

Falda's engraving in // niiovu teatro delle fahbnche
.,
I, [Rome],
1665, plate 9; Falda's plan of Rome of
.

1676; and the drawing in the Library of Windsor

Castle, Albani

volume

185, no. 10328.

(1699), plate 44;

antica e moderna, v,

\'asi's Delle

Rome,

magnificenze

1754, and Percicr

Ghezzi drawings in the Blunt collection (see last

Note): (i) the ground-plan [140], only published once
in [Blunt-Wittkowcrj, Exhibition of Architectural and

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

532

The Courtauld

Deiiiratne Drawings,

ruary, 104'). ^'O. 15, plate

of the grotto;
at

(iii)

10

one

ot the

(ii)

Institute (Feb-

the section and plan

windows on

the

first

floor

the sides ot the central niche. See also Incisa della

Rocchctta
12.

in

L'l rhe (1949)' "O- 3^ 9 16.

to \'asi. Cardinal Giulio commissioned

According

the building; according to Specchi's caption

was the

it

Marchesc Marcello.

Miscellanea Rihl. Hertzianae(nfh\), 375.

F,.

Hubala,

Kunstg., xxv (1962), 125, enriched the

some drawings in

discussion by publishing

the Castello

Sforzesco, .Milan. Keller's and Hubala's results have

been corrected by K. Noehles, La chiesa dei SS. Luca

Martina, Rome, 1969, 58 ff., who convincingly dates

the 'mausoleum' project as early as 1623

4.

K. Noehles, up. cil., has, however, shown that

the completion of the church dragged on until 1669.
22.

(Mmlra

A. Marabottini

13.

in

in Zeilschr. j.

di Pielro

da Carlona,

The

bays adjoining the crossing

the longitu-

1956, 34) believes that the pictorial decoration points

to a date not earlier than 1630. A. Blunt in Burl. Mag.,

dinal axis are wide

XCViil {1956), even suggested 1634-5. Briganti, 191,

which have balconies above them. The corresponding

does not commit himself.

bays

Wittkower, 'Pietro da Cortonas Ergiinzungs-

14.

projekt des

Tempels

in Palestrina\ Festschrift Adulpli

Goldschniidt, Berlin, 1935, 137.

For Praeneste, see C.

Severati (and others), in L'Architettura, xvi (1970),

no. 6, 398,

and no.

8,

23.

Hubala,

nephew,

is

standing.

contain only niches.

cit.

Michelangelo's projects for the

e.g.,

plan [142] illustrates that the whole front

be likened to one of the apses flattened out and

reversed.

of characteristically Cortonesque design

The

26.

it

Berrettini, to Giro Ferri, 24

in

accommodate doors

facade of S. Lorenzo, Florence.

March 1679, in G.
Campori, Lettere artistulie ineditc, Modena, 866, 510.
16. Onlv the front with the portal and two windows
Luca

op.

241. 25. See,

may

234. 15. See the letter written by Cortona's

in the transverse axis

to

237. 24. Michelangelo's influence was stressed by

many

540; valuable for the

illustrations.

enough

The

position and motif of the

responds, but while the wall

seems

columns cor-

recessed inside, outside

outward.

to bulge

begun

27. S. Carlino,

is

in the

same

year,

remained

\. Blunt, 7.rr.C./., XXI (1958), 281, suggests that the

28.

theatre was executed between 1638 and 1642.

29. In the interior

in Kunstchronik, XXiil (1912), 565.

O. Pollak

Cortona was above

reason to believe that this was not finished

after 1665).

Wittkower,

235. 17. .\long the

pencil the

main

front Cortona indicated in

rooms of the piana

The

nohilc.

occu-

'sala'

pies 4 octagons, the 'salone' 4 octagons plus the vestibule,

and the 'anticamera'

2 octagons.

The

length of

Cortona's Salone would have been 125 feet compared

with the 85 feet of the executed one.

The

note

in ink

on the left mentions that a corridor should run above

from which one could reach all the rooms.
18. A scale in Roman palmi is at the bottom of the
sheet. Cortona's ground floor would have been c. 3 teet
higher than the present one, judging from the diameter of the columns in his plan.
19. O. Pollak in Kinistchronik, xxiii (19 12) and idem,
Kiinsltiiligkeit,

20.

185
e

il

i,

ff.

published by O. Pollak,

di S.

Luca

Accadenua

di S.

See also G. Giovannoni, 'La Chiesa

suo restauro',

in

La Reale

Iiisigne

op. cii.,

Luca, Rome, 1934, 19 25, with measured ground plan.

All earlier work on the church has now been super-

12,

note

chral church

in

.Munich
sepul-

was planned, was published by H. Keller,

The dome shows once

again

work was left in the hands of the young Carlo

Fontana who, at precisely this period, also began to

that the

assist

Bernini.

therefore possible that Cortona's

It is

design was classicized under Bernini's influence.

30. Illustration 146, redrawn from a preparatory
drawing by Cortona in the \ atican Library, shows one
street flanking the church on the right and another at

an angle to the church on the

indicate

what had

to be

left.

demolished

The
in

dotted lines

order to create

the small piazza.

The quadrant wing on

the right-hand side

is

a ''ham structure.
^,2.

The

portico

is

also an impressive

approached from the Via

33.

35.
is

di

landmark when

Parione Pace.

Brauer-W'ittkower, 74.

34. In actual fact,

nor

at first a

3).

shape and un-Cortonesque. Since Cortona

was absent from Rome in 1658, it is not at all unlikely

Note).

drawing by Cortona

good

classical in

siderable freedom.

21. .\n important

is

1657, the

the combination of ribs and coffers, but the coffers are

seded by K. Noehles' excellent monograph (see next

(Graphische Sammlung), revealing that

in

date of the inscription of the consecration (see Brauer-

242. 31.

163.

The documents

for the

responsible

all

modernization of the old dome. There

one of the 'Quattro Fontane', on the side of

the Palazzo Barberini, is by Cortona, but it was not
finished until the reign of Alexander VII (probably
-Also,

for

long time without facade; see p. 203.

is

Cortona permitted himself con-

The column

is

not 'correct' Doric,

the entablature 'correct' Ionic.

The

break

essentially a

at right

angles of a coherent moulding

Borrominesque motif.

It first

the garden front of the Palazzo Barberini.

BIBLOSARTE

occurs

at

NOTES TO CHAPTER

For a somewhat different interpretation ot the facade

of S. Maria deila Pace, see H. Sedlmayr, Epocheii ittid
Werke, i960,

66.

11,

244. 36. N. Fabbrini, I'lla del Cav. Piclni da Cortnna,

Cortona, i8g6, 118; Luigi Cavazzi, La Diatona

Maria
37.

Rome,

Via Lata,

in

igoS, 130

S.

have mentioned before that Borromini used

the motif

more than once (Chapter

Note 31) and

t).

Cortona may have been stimulated by him.

that

di

f1.

have

Near East was known during the seventeenth

century (Chapter q. Note 13).
245. 38. Cortona's dome was begun in 1668 but
finished after his death, as testified by Luca Berrettini
(see above. Note 15). This probably accounts for certain rather dry Cortonesque details which induced
some scholars to deny Cortona's authorship of the
design altogether. There is no reason to doubt that
Cortona

made

also

designs for the interior decoration

of the church. For further data relating to S. Carlo

Corso, see Chapter

39.

12,

Note

al

The Cappella Gavotti, with powerful

motifs

com-

pressed into a small area and richly decorated with

sculpture by Raggi, Ferrata, and

Cortona's
it

latest

Cosimo

Fancelli,

is

masterpiece. But he did not live to see

finished Ciro Ferri completed

:

it

after his death.

classicizing altar of St Francis Xavier

The

was completed

Novum

For Ciro Ferri

as designer of sculptural

and architec-

tural decorations, see

K. Noehles

Herizianai- (ig6i), 429.

AlsoH. W. Kruft,

CXI I (1970), 692

ft".

246. 40. Bottari,

i,

41.

in Miscell.

Bibl.

Burl. Mag.,

in L'CEil, no.

tions in

.\.

presented by these drawings are

rather complex. Cortona's principal design seems to be

Uffizi 2231.

K. Janet Hoffman

(New York

University, 1941) tried to establish the

in

an unprinted thesis

authentic drawings and their chronological sequence.

and pulled down

in the

nine-

La I la della Pedacchta e la
da Cortona, Rome, 1885, contains some

teenth century. V. Lugari,

casa di Pielrn

367 ^.
48. Brauer VVittkower, 148.
49. Bottari,

419.

i,

among

247. 50. This was,

opinion stated

others, Luca Berrettini's

mentioned above. Note 5.

in the letter

Dated, probably correctly,

51.
1

.Wag., cxii (1970), 752

52. J. Hess, 'Tassi,

ft".

Bonzi e Cortona a Palazzo Mattei',

Coinmenlari, v (1954), 303. For the correct dates (docuin Kunstchronik, x\i (1963),

ments), see K. Noehles

99,

and G. Panofsky-Soergel,
(1967-8), 142

in Riim. 7ahrh.

Hess attributes the decorative organization ot the

Noehles believes that Cortona

rather than Bonzi was responsible for

Luca

53.

of Traian's

reliefs

One

Column no

of these drawings

Stampe,

Rome,

(1961), 40; see also P. Portoghesi in Qjiaderni (1961),

nos. 31-48, 249.
(ed.

Lalanne), 257, and Bottari,

11,

(Ciro Ferri's letter to Lorenzo .Vlagalotti, 17

February 1666.)
45. G. Giovannoni,
Palazzo

Pitti nei

segtia d'.4rle,

drew

Rome

is

all

the

than three times.

less

preserved

Gab. Naz.

in the

(.Mostra di Pietro da Cortona,

1956, plate 51); others are in a sketchbook by

Cortona

in the

Museum, Toronto,

see G.
(December 1957),
the sources, Cortona was par-

R. Ontario

Brett in Bulletin R. Ontario Mus.

5.

.-According to

Caravaggio, and echoes of his work are evident

in the

Cortona.

later

249. 54. For the Sacchetti and Barberini patronage of

Cortona, see the documents published by

M.

(with

446

.Aronberg Lavin), Burl.

I.

Lavin

.Mai^., c;xii (1970),

ff.

55.

His

life in

Passeri-Hess, 168.

.\ list

ings in VVaterhouse, 51, superseded by

Rocchetta

Chantelou

it.

Berrettini reports that Cortona

43. K. Noehles, 'Die Louvre-Projekte von Pietro da

Cortona und Carlo Rainaldi', Zeitschr.f. Kioistg., xxiv

f.

Kunstg.,

ceiling to Bonzi, while

Harris's study (see Bibliography).

44.

/.

fr.

illustrations.

51

1616 by Briganti,

c.

53, who discovered these frescoes. For an early work,

perhaps of the same period, see E. Schleier, Burl.

no. 26,

42. Erected in 1660

97 (1963), 70. Excellent illustraPedrini, Ville

in Picmonte, Turin, 1965,

ticularly interested in the engravings of Polidoro da

418, 419.

The problems

1931; sec also L.

Pedemontii, Diisseldorf,

Hoctin

delle

as late as 1678.

533

XI

23.

46. See Note 4. Cortona's original draw ing is in a

volume once belonging to John Talman, purchased
before the war by the Victoria and .-Mbcrt .Museum.
47. Illustrated in .\. E. Brinckmann, Tlwalrum

also pointed out that the Hellenistic architecture of

the

10

Of his paint-

.\.

Sutherland

For Sacchi's contribution see G. Incisa della

in L'Arte, xxvii (1924), 60, and H. Posse,

56.

Der romisihe .Maler .indrea Sacelii, Leipzig, 1925, 27.

See also .A. Sutherland Harris and E. Schaar, Die
Handzeichnungen von Andrea Sacchi und Carlo Mar-

Kunstmuseum

atta,

Diisseldorf, 1967, 26.

Further to the Castel Fusano frescoes. Note 56

and Posse m Jalirh. Preuss. Kunstslg., XL (1919), 153;
57.

'II

restauro architettonico di

disegni di Pietro da Cortona', Ras-

XX (1920), 290; E. Vodoz

in Mittetlungen

Briganti, 177.
58.

Before 1625; see Jane Costello

in

J.W .C./., xiii

Rome, 1956,

des kunsthistorischen Inst Huts in Florenz, \I (1941),

(1950), 244; Mostra di Pietro da Cortona,

no. 3-4, 50.

3, 25.

For the date, see Briganti, 164.

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

534

AND

10

II

250. 59. Cortona copied after Titian for his patron,

Sandrart (ed. Peltzcr,

.Marcello Sacchctti.

reports that he himself and Cortona,

p.

270)

Duquesnoy,

Poussin, and Claude studied Titian's Bucdiaiials,

then

the Casino Ludovisi. See also above, p. 276.

in

60. Fosse's masterly discussion of the ceiling has not

yet been

superseded

Kiiiislli;.,

XL,

we cannot fully agree with him

must be referred to it for

1919), and, although

on

Pretiss.

(Jalirh.

points, the reader

all

further study.

The only known preparatory drawing for the

system of the ceiling (Munich Posse, figure 26) shows
;

Cortona

first

it

with clearly defined

still

close to the Farnese

envisaged

frames for quadn riportali

Rome

responsible for the Sala di

decoration of which

Saturno,

1663

5,

the

only a faint echo of that of the

other rooms.
67.

The

fresco of the Sala di Marte, here illustrated,

the most developed of the series. In the centre, the

Medici coat of arms floating through the air like a sumptuous trophy along the borders the prince's victorious
exploits which are rewarded by Justice and Peace.
;

68. .According to Baldinucci {Notizie de' projesson,

iv,

428), Raffaello Curradi's pupil,

Santi Castellaccio (or Cartellaccio), and Gio. Maria

(E. I.avagnino, Bull. d'Artc, xxix (1935), 82),

to the

execution that

it

Archivio di Stato to the stuccatori Battista Frisone,

a copy rather than a preliminary study.

The latter was one of the stuccatori who worked

Ceiling. Characteristic later examples: Pierino del

Sorrisi.

Vaga's Sala del Consiglio, Cast el S. Angelo, and Sal-

in the Villa

viati's frescoes in

the great hall of the Palazzo Farnese.

H. Tetius, Aedes BarFor an illuminating revision of

previous interpretations, see W. Vitzthum, Burl. Mag.,
63. Detailed description in

cm

is

already true for Michelangelo's Sistine

Rome

corresponds so closely

herinae,

of the

documents, see Briganti, 236, who believes that (Cortona began the Sala di .Apollo in 1642 3). It was finished by Ciro Ferri in 1659 60. The latter was entirely

must be

large bozzetto in oil in the Galleria Nazionale,

is

1647 shortly before re-

Cosimo Salvestrini, executed the stuccoes of the first

room and some of the following ones. On the other
hand, James Holderbaum found payments in the

The

This

in

(for a different interpretation

Florence, ed. 1846,

ceiling.

62.

which he began only

turning to

is

252. 61.

that

.\pollo,

Rome,

(1961), 427,

1642.

whom

follow.

Note 24)

in

Rome

(Chapter

11,

the specialists he needed.

256. 69. See A. Blunt, Art and Architecture in France,
161, 173, 206, 253.
70.

For the various levels of allegorical meaning read

into such works in the seventeenth century, see J.
Montagu, in J. W.C.I. xxxi (1968), 334 f.

Doria-Pamphili

proof that Cortona did not find in Florence

M.

Lenzi

in

Roma,

\ (1927), 495; L. Grassi in

Boll. d'Arte, XLii (1957), 28.

253. 64. In addition to the frescoes of the

Gran Salone,

Cortona in the Palazzo Barberini decorated the Chapel

and two rooms on the first floor (1632-3). To the same
period also belongs the beginning of his work for the
Chiesa Nuova (S. Maria in Vallicella, fresco on ceiling
of sacristy, 1633-4). Further, in 1633 he began the
large cartoons of Constantine's

life

for the Barberini

tapestry works, which he directed from 1630 on (Lr-

bano Barberini, in Boll. d'Arte, xxxv (1950), 43, 145).

For these tapestries, see now D. Dubon, Tapestries
from the Samuel H. Kress Collection at the Philadelphia
Museum oj Art, London, 1964, and the critical review
by W. Vitzthum, Burl. Mag., CVii (1965), 262 f
65. For this and the following see H. Geisenheimer,
Pietro da Cortona e gli ajfrescht di Palazzo Pitti, Florence, 1909. .Also D. R. Coffin in Record of the Art

Museum

Princeton

University,

xiii

(1954),

t,3,

M.

Campbell and M. Laskin, Jr, in Burl. Mag., Ciu (1961),

423, W. Vitzthum, Burl. Mag., cvii (1965), 522, and
Campbell, ihid., 526 f
66. The first room
Sala di Venere was executed in
1641-2. He carried on with the fourth room, the Sala
di Giove (1643-5), then with the third, the Sala di
Marte (1646), and finally with the second, the Sala di

CHAPTER

II

I. Art and Architecture in France, 182.

H. Posse's biography of Sacchi (Leipzig, 1925) and
his article in Thieme-Becker are first-rate contributions and have not been superseded, but an extensive
monograph by A. Sutherland Harris is in the press.
For Sacchi's work in the CoUegio Romano, see idem.

261.
2.

Burl. .Mag., CX (1968), 249

ff".

262. 3. A. Sutherland Harris (Burl. Aiag., CX (1968),

489

ft.)

has

made

it

St Romuald was

likely that the

painted in the early 1630s rather than during the

last

vears of the decade, as was generally assumed.

263.

4.

O. Pollak, Kunsttdtigkeil,

plates 10,

11; D.

i,

141.

Mahon, G.d.B.A.,

Waterhouse,

(1962), 65;
Harris Schaar (see above. Chapter 10, Note 56), 45 ft'.
5. The most important altarpiece of the 1640s, the
l.v

Death of St Anne (S. Carlo ai Catinari, 1649; see

\\ aterhouse, 91) shows that he preserved his rich and

warm

palette, in contrast to Poussin.

G. Incisa della Rocchetta in L'.-irte, xxvii (1924),

65. For the problems connected with the dating and
with the small replicas, see Jane Costello mj.]] .C.I.,
6.

XIII

(1950), 242.

For the subject, see Passeri- Hess, 29;

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

H. Tetius, Aedes Barhennac, Rome, 1642, 83;

Posse, op.

luc. cil.\

(it.,

Incisa,

38; Haskell, Patrons, 50. For

this type of allegorical Fresco, see

F",.

Gombrich

in

J.W.C.I.^W (1948), 186. For drawing related to Divine

Wisdom, see Harris-Schaar, op. cil., 2().
7. M. Missirini, Memnrie per servire alia sloria delta
rnmana Accademia di S. Ltica, Rome, 1823, 111.
Mahon (see Note 4), g7, reasonably suggests the year
1636 for these discussions.

Lee

R.

8.

265. Q.

in

The

An

early as 1626. In any case, it dates from before

the Cardinal's
and probably some years before
death on 7 .August 1637. P'or this bust, see H. Posse,
Jafirh. Preuss. Kunslslg., xxv (1905), and J. PopeHennessy, Italian High Renaissance and Baroque
Sculpture, London, 1963, Catalogue, 142, with further
-

references.

268. 22. In the

and

Bull., xxii (11)40), 11)7.

is

to

lini, in

bust to

Accademia

II,

See E.

77.

Battisti

dei Lincei, viii (1933), 139.

11.

Malvasia (ed. 1678),

12.

On

13.

Albani had planned to write an

267.

11,

January

ifto6),

with

about

little is

in (1957), no. 84, 67, attributed this

and reasserted her attribution

P'inelli

seemed

(1960), no. 131, 19.

It

now appears that

is contemporary evidence
Pope-Henncssy, Catal. of

she

is

ihid., \\

right, for

there

tor this attribution (see

J.

Ital.

Sculpture

in

the

for

Michelangelo Buonarroti the \'ounger, the Bracciolini

(b.

known. Notes

w ork, w hich can be dated betw ecn the

early

(1408

and -Albani's death in 1660, were incorporated by

Malvasia in his Felsina pittrice (11, 244-38).
14. Trallato della pittura,

it

.Nava Cel-

and .ilhert .Museum, London, 1(^64, 11,609 ff>

no. 643). The bust shows to what extent Finclli was
dependent on Algardi. Together with the bust of

art theoretical

Dr Orazio Zamboni

whom

Paragone,

.A.

Victoria

this point see p. 140.

treatise together

this

Rendnonti

in

showed on

as

correctly attributed to Algardi.

the higher form of art goes, of course, back to Aris-

Pascoli,

.Museum), traditionally and

.Albert

me

(hardback) edition

first

the bust of I'Vancesco Bracciolini (Victoria

i)t)A

totle's Poetics, XXVI.

10.

535

made as

Plate

question whether tragic or epic poetry

II

must be regarded

as his highest

23. After A.

Munoz's generic discussion of

portrait busts (Dedalo,

Florence, 1652.

achievement as a

portrait sculptor.

Algardi's

(1920), 289), the problem was

e Barocco', Atti

not treated for forty years. In 1956 O. Raggio {The

del III Cotigresso Internazionale di Stiidi Lmanistici,

Connoisseur, cxxxviii (1956), 203) published Algardi's

bust of Cardinal Scipione Borghese in the Metro-

15.

G. M. Tagliabue, '.Aristotelismo

Rome,

1955, 119.

266. 16.

be noticed that Cortona as a decorator

and as a painter had his following on

It will

(see p. 253)

The traditional

to 1598; see the

birth-date 1595 has to be changed

document published by

.\.

.Arfelli,

e Moderna, il, no. 8 (igsgX 462.

There were, however, many in his own generawho held him in high esteem I mean not only the

Arte Atilica
18.

tion

small circle of close friends, such as Poussin and Sac-

but foreigners like Blanchard and Van Dyck, who

who wrote him a

chi,

marks.

Museum, New York, with some pertinent reFew of the busts are dated and the following

sequence, taking into account only part of .Algardi's

different sides of the fence.

17.

politan

painted his portrait, and Rubens,

production,
Santarelli

Roman

is

an attempt

seems

to

at a

chronological order.

The

be quite early, perhaps the earliest

A group of busts is close to the Millini

portrait.

and should be dated about 1630; mainly the Cardinal

Laudivio Zacchia [163] and the so-called Cardinal
Paolo Emilio Zacchia Rondanini (Lgo Ojetti, Florence). In contrast to these, the later busts are not only

more

classical

in

handling but also show

more

Cambridge, Mass., 1955, 413, 509,

balanced relation between the head and the lower part.

A date for the later series is supplied by the magni-

rightly refutes J. Hess's opinion that this letter was a

seventeenth-century forgery (see Revue de I'art ancien

Pamphili prince [164], after 1644, the year of Innocent

most
P.

et

flattering letter. R. S.

P. Rubens,

Magurn, The

Letters

of

moderne, LXIX (1936), 21).

The

entire inventory of 1633 of the Ludovisi

collection

was published by K. Garas, Burl. Mag.,

19.

cix (1967), 287

267. 20.

On

ff.,

339

.Algardi as restorer of antiques see

M.

the articles by Posse in Jalirh. Preuss. Kunstslg., xx\

and

Reale .4ccademia
21. If the

.A.

di

Munoz
S. Luca,

apocryphal date

in Attt e
11

is

Memorie

della

(19 12), 37.

correct, the bust

was

Donna Olimpia Pamphili and

of the

X's accession to the papal throne. (Bellori called the

latter bust 'Benedetto Pamphili', who was the Pope's
brother;

may

ff.

Neusser in Belvedere, xiii (1928). .Apart from the unprinted Harvard thesis by E. Barton (1952), no recent
study of .\lgardi exists and reference must be made to
(1905), 169

ficent busts of

it is

now

usually called Panfilo Pamphili but

represent Camillo, the son of Panfilo and Olim-

The

posthumous Frangipani busts in S.

(first mentioned in P. Totti, Ritratto
di Roma moderna, Rome, 1638) seem to mediate between the early and late group of busts: they clearly
pia.)

three

.\Iarcello al

Corso

display strong classicizing tendencies. Finally, the bust

of Mario Millini in S. .Maria del Popolo obviously
echoes Bernini's I'rancis I of Este and must date from
after 1650; but

it

was probably executed by

BIBLOSARTE

a studio

536

NOTES TO CHAPTER

My

hand.

II

chronology of Algardi's busts

with that suggested by

is

at variance

31. In an illuminating paper, J.

.Montagu convinc-

Seicentu

ingly demonstrated the novelty of .Algardi's last work,

Rome, 1957, Catalogue, 246 fF. Another

chronology has been attempted by A. Nava Cellini in

the high altar in S. Nicolo da Tolentino, where he

Dizionano Bmgr.

ing degrees of relief {Burl. .Mag., cxil (1970). 282

\'.

Martinelli in

//

europeiu

degli lialiam.

(1960), 350, and

11

idem. Paragone, \\ (1964), no. 177, 15. For Algardi's

busts of Innocent

Palazzo Doria, formerly

in the

attributed to Bernini, see Wittkower, Bernini. 211.

The

269. 24.

of Algardi's principal commissions

list

during these years

1 644-8
building and
Doria-Pamphili (Belrespiro)

impressive

is

decoration of the

\'illa

show ed

'a

deep niche containing figures car\ ed

in

varvff^.).

uU\o Testi, in a letter of 1633 to the Duke of

Modena, called him the best sculptor in Rome after
Bernini (P'raschetti, Bernini. 75). On Duquesnoy see
M. Fransolet's monograph (Brussels, 1942), which is
}2.

tar

from being conclusive.

How difficult

it

sometimes

still is

to

keep .\lgardi and

Note 37; the stuccoes of the villa have

now been studied in an exemplary paper by O. Raggio.

Duquesnoy

apart has been demonstrated in a model

paper by

Montagu

Paragons, no. 251 (1971), 3

d'art

(Chapter

12,

Damaso, \

Cortile S.
relief

1645-9: fountain,

ft.);

atican ; hozzello for the fountain's

with Pupe Liheniis haptizmg Seuphyles in the

Minneapolis Institute of Ans, see Wittkower

Minneapolis

in

The

Arts Bulletin (i960), 29; i648(

Inst, oj

?)-

50: stucco reliefs above Borromini's aedicules in the

nave of S. Giovanni
relief,

S.

Laterano; 1646-53: Attila

in

St Peter's; 1649-50: entire stucco decoration of

Ignazio; statue of Innocent X, Capitol; 165 1-4:

sculptural decoration of the

Tolentino (finished

and Francesco

Ferrata,
25.

aficr

Documents

in

main

da

by Guidi,

liarana).

monument was

were finished

II.

in 1644,

unveiled until

not

Con1652.

Peroni and Ferrata, on the strength of Passeri traditionally

quoted

tion of the

allegories, did not ioin Algardi's studio

tomb was

until the

26.

two

as the artists responsible for the execu-

practically completed.

pow ers. Leo's reign had

(1605) and offered

The

lasted only tw en ty -seven days

little

scene chosen shows

the peace with Spain.

scop>e for a suitable subject.

Henry

I\ of France signing

W ith one hand

on the Gospels,

the king affirms the sanctitv of the treaty in the pres-

ence of Leo XI, then papal legate

at the French court.

was derived from ancient or Early
Christian sarcophagi, but the trapezoid shape was a

27.

The

idea

novelty.

The great model was finished for the Holy

Year 1650 and placed in position. It is one of the few
such models that have survived (now Biblioteca \'alli-

270. 28.

celliana).

seems
is

to

Domenico Guidi's
be noticeable

less certain

collaboration (Passeri)

in the right half of the relief. It

whether Ferrata had a share

in

the

The beginning
completion

of the work

is

not quite cer-

1647 is attested by P. Masini,

Bologna perluslrata. Bologna, 1666, i, 144.
tain; its

in

272. 30. See also Correggio's

Martyrdom ofS.

and S. Flaiia (Parma, Gallery

).

33.

Duquesnoy and others

He died at Leghorn, on his way to

was travelling

in

response to the

Placidiis

off'er

court sculptor and director of the

to .\lgardi.

where he

Paris,

of a position as

Academy

of Sculp-

ture.

34. .According to Passeri

he w as responsible for some

of the putti in the foliage of the columns. Payments

which,

models of the angels above the columns, in

others, Finelli also had a share (see O.

among

Pollak, Kunsttiitigkeit.
35.

11).

Finished in 1633. Documents published by E.

Dony, 'Francois Duquesnoy', Bulletin de I'lnstitut

historique beige de Rome. 11 (1922), 114. See also
Fransolet, op.

cit.

The figure is now standing in

the

wrong niche,

on the left-hand and not on the right-hand side of the

Consequently the gesture of the hand, pointing

away from the altar, has lost its meaning.
37. Compare, for instance, the left hands on the two
statues; the one with dimples, agile and supple, the
other neutral, a hand of stone.
275. 38. See Sobotka in Thieme-Becker also A.
Mufioz in L'Arte. xix (1916), 137. For the famous,
often discussed bust in wax in the Musee \\ icar in
Lille, see Sobotka in Berliner Kiinstgeschuhtliche
altar.

Gesellschaft

Sitzungsherichte (1910), no.

this context the

marble bust

in the

vii,

Museo

40. In

Estense,

.Modena. should also be mentioned; see R. Salvini

in

Burl. .Mag., xc (1948), 93.

39. B. Lossky, 'La Ste

statues du

8e

s.'.

40.

.M.

Suzanne de Duquesnoy

};^t^.

Fransolet,

'Le Saint .Andre de Francois

Duquesnoy', Bulletin de
(1933).

et les

Re-cue helge archeologique el historique

de Fart, ix (1939),

execution, as Baldinucci maintains.

271. 29.

attributable to

274. 36.

The relief celebrates a papal triumph over w orldly

royaux

which she investigates the well-known

in

ff.)

(in Bulletin des .Musees

Brussels, \.\x\iii-.vxxix (1966-7),

bronze group of the Flagellation of Christ, known in

many similar versions, some of which (she claims) are

refer to the

O. Pollak, Kiinstlatigkeit,

tract 2! July 1634; the figures

but the

altar, S. N'icolo

Algardi's death

153

J.

el d'histoire.

I'lnstitut helge de

Duquesnoy made

Rome.

l\

a small bozzetto for the St

-Andrew between June 1627 and March 1628.

The

November

1629,

large

model was in position

BIBLOSARTE

as early as

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

II

AND

12

while work on the Susanna did not begin until a

divino e profano after

month

model Palazzo Spada, Rome;

original

Doria Pamphili, Rome, see

Faldi, Arte

later.

276. 41.

Hess

J.

in

Revue de

moderne,

I'art ancten et

Moderna,

LXIX(iq;,6). 34.

11

(original

Philostratus's text

I.

537

marble

\'illa

Antua

(1959), 52; replicas Victoria and Albert

For other busts by Duquesno\ see A. Nava Cellini,

VII (1Q56), no. 65, 27 f., K. Noehles, Arte
Antua e Moderna, no. 25 (1964), S. and H. Rottgen,

.Museum, Detroit, Prado, etc.).

46. .\mong Duquesnoy 's few pupils there was Orfeo

The Connoisseur (Feb. 1968), 94 ff.

42. A reflection of this can be found

'angelic sculptor'

Paragone,

in the

many

pic-

Dutch school, in which works

shown see, for instance, Frans van

tures, particularly of the

by Duquesnoy are

Mieris, Detroit; .Adriaen van der Werff, Heylshof

Coll.,

Worms;

above

all

The Hague

Netscher,

G. Dou"s pictures, .Altman

Duke of Rutland,

Belvoir Castle

(No. 127); and

Coll.,

L ffizi, \

den, Louvre; Nat. Gall., London,

New

etc. Still in

eighteenth century Nollekens valued his

York;

ienna, Dresthe late

Duquesnoy

models very highly; see. J. T. Smith, Nollekens and

his Times, London, 1949, 234.
43. However, the design of the \'ryburch monument
with the spread-out skin, on which the inscription is
placed,

is

comparatively Baroque, while that of the

monument

van den Eynde

later

is

comparatively

D. Mahon, G.d.B.A.,
I

regard the

L.\

Wyburch

(1962), 73, read into

my text

putti as less 'painterly' than

Eynde monument, while I was, in

concerned with Duquesnoy 's turn trom an Italian

those of the van den

fact,

(Titianesque) to a native (Rubenesque) taste. For

quesnoy 's

stylistic

Du-

development, see also K. Noehles,

'Francesco Duquesnoy; un busto ignoto e

logia delle sue opere'. Arte Antica e

crono-

la

Moderna,

\ii,

no. 25 (1964), 86.

278. 44. .\s an example

we may mention the Cupid

as

Archer (described by Bellori; ivory, Musees Royaux

dWrt et d'Histoire, Brussels) which corresponds al-

most exactly

in reverse to the

archer in Titian's Bac-

chanal of Children; the same figure was used by Poussin in the Dresden Venus and Cupid oi zhout 1630.

Date: 1640-2.

45.

charming bozzetto

We

show

in Berlin.

putti to those of Rubens

in illustration

The

174 the

similarity of these

was first pointed out by A.

E.

Brinckmann.
It need hardly be emphasized that Duquesnoy 's
small representations of children are not genre. Just
like

Rubens, he drew constantly on ancient

texts

and

ancient prototypes, see, for example, the Cupid chip-

Bow (marble, Berlin) in which he corrected

Parmigianino's painting of the same subject in \ ienna
by reference to the Lysippian Eros; or the reliet of

ping the

Putti

and \ymph mocking Silenus (illustrating Xirgil's

which was in the collection of Cassiano

sixth Eclogue),

del

Pozzo (versions Berlin, Brussels (private

Dresden, \

who

1600-67),

(c.

venerated his master as the

and the 'phoenix of our

of particular interest because he

is

ictoria

coll.),

and Albert Museum); or the Amor

age'. Boselli

left a (still

un-

published) manuscript of absorbing interest for the

history of sculpture entitled 'Osservazioni della Scul-

tura Antica' (Bibl. Corsiniana,

Rome, MS.

1391); see

-M. Piacentini. in Boll, del R. Istituto di Archeologia e

Storia dell'Arte,

IX, i-vi

(1939),

and

P.

Studies in Conservation, XI! (1967), 81

translation of Boselli's Fifth

Dent Weil,

ff.,

Book on

in

with a partial

the restoration

of antique sculpture.

CHAPTER
279.

12

In Bologna he executed the vaulting of S.

I.

Petronio, S. Lucia with unfinished facade (1623), and

SS. Girolamo ed Eustachio, of which

classical [171].

that

Boselli

His

little

survives.

also a project for the facade of S. Petronio, a

is

between Mannerism and Gothic

Parma the vaulting of Fomovo's SS. An-

fantastic cross-breed

(1626). In

nunziata was due to him, and in

important share
( 1

63 1 -4), see

di, see

now

p.

in the

Modena he had an

design of the Palazzo Ducale

For Girolamo and Carlo Rainalsomewhat unwieldy monograph by

29 1

the

F. Fasolo 196 1 ), which contains, however, a great deal

of material and should be consulted for this section.
(

2.

See the synopsis

in Fasolo, op. cit., 420.

most important work

is

Silvestro at Caprarola near

3.

See D. Frey

4.

Wittkower

in

Girolamo's

the Carmelite church of S.

Rome

lener Jahrb.,

(1621, Fasolo, 65).

Ill

(1924), 43

in .Art Bull., Xix (1937), 256.

ff.

Some

scholars disagree with me and attribute the project to

Girolamo; see C. Montalto in Palladio, viii (1958),
144, and K. Noehles, Zeitschr. f. Kiinstg., xxv (1962).
168.

We can follow
.Matthiae in

Carlo's career from 1633 onwards (G.

.-itti

Figurative,

II

(1946), 49). His project

and the modernization of

the fa<;:ade, dating from 1645, shows him dependent
on his father's Mannerism. Between 1650 and 1653 he
for the towers of St Peter's

made

number of

plans for the Square of St Peter's

which are rather pedestrian and traditional (BrauerWittkower, 67).

5. Further on the history of S. Maria in Campitelli.
Wittkower in Art Bull., xix 1937). See also Bassi in
Riv. d'Arte, XX (1938), 193, and Argan, Commentan,
(

XI (i960), 74.

BIBLOSARTE

538

NOTES TO CHAPTER

12

columns

but he obscured the whole problem by insisting on the

he was indebted to Cortona's S. Maria della Pace.

282. 7. See, e.g., Gallo da Mondovi's S. Maria dell'

exclusion ot Fontana's participation in 1662 because

at that

Assunta

Golzio overlooked, however, that the

280. 6. In addition, for the motif otthe double

at Carrii

(1703

18).

283. 8. Carlo had a special interest in the Capitol. His

father

was

in

on the

left

(1646),

Maria

jfahrh. J. Kun.<;tg., xii (1967-8), 191

Campitelli are integrated with the rest of the

in

facade Rainaldi used the small order also tor the main
:

entrance and repeated the shape of the pediment of the

windows over the central window of the upper tier. \t

same time, he gave the pilasters at both ends of the

the

front a typically Mannerist double function

long as
Q.

In

much

to the

Rome

itself, see, e.g.,

church

Rainaldi's

they be-

as to the adjoining palaces.

the facades of S. Apol-

Ruota, and SS. Trinita

linare, S. Caterina della

Condotti.

own

in

Via

unfinished fac^ade of S.

Angelo Custodeat Ascoli Piceno (1684-5) w^s planned

on the same scheme but with a colossal order; the
Chiesa del Carmine also

at .Ascoli

Piceno has a simple

aedicule facade in two tiers (1687); for these churches,

see Fasolo, 372.

An

Campitelli

Maria

in

that of the cathedral at Syracuse (1728),

is

probably designed by

Don Andrea Palma from

ermo and not by Pompeo

The

Pal-

main-

Picherali as usually

tained (see F. Meli, Archivto Storico per

(1938-9), 341).

iv-v

la Sicilia,

grandest example in Venice

is

S.

Maria degli Scalzi by Giuseppe Sardi (1672-80), who

gave the type

documented

a characteristically

history of the

name appears in the documents for the first

December 1674. But there can be little
doubt that it was he who provided the disegno nuoio
for S. Maria di Monte Santo which was used after the
fall

of 1673.

286. 15. Rainaldi used the

columns from Bernini's

dismantled tower of St Peter's (Golzio, Archivi, x

(1943X58).
16. I mention the tomb of Clement IX

in S. Maria
Maggiore (1671), the Ceva (1672) and Bonelli (1673)
tombs in S. Venanzio and S. Maria sopra Minerva

respectively the richly decorated fountains in the gar;

den of the Palazzo Borghese (1672-3, see Chapter 13,

Note 40) and the loggia facing the Tiber in the same
palace ( 675) the high altars in S. Lorenzo in Lucina
;

(1675) and SS. Angeli Custodi (1681, destroyed); the

completion of the facade of S. Maria

the

little

undistinguished Palazzo Mancini-Salviati

del Corso,

Rome,

ff.

facade was executed between 1661 and 1665.

5a//., XIX (1937), figures 17,20-3,

11.

Wittkower,

Fontana,

objects

to

andF. Fasolo

in

(1951), 34-8.
in fact, received

1662; see Fasolo,

loc. cit.

Fontana's

payments

Fasolo, Rainaldi,
participation

in
1

January

961, 379

without

f.,

valid

reasons. K. Noehles, Zeitschr. f. Kiinstg., xxv (1962),

175, returns to my interpretation of the evidence.

284.

12.

The

greatest width of the oval

dome

lies

further back in the wedge-shaped area than that of the

circular

dome, namely

at a

point where the diameter

of the oval equals that of the

circle.

285. 13. Carlo Fontana was responsible for parts of the

drum, the dome, and the

14.

have tried

(in

Art

the

Corso,
(in

Via

The Borrominesque

after Rainaldi's death in 1690.

domed

The

addition of the

portion to Soria's cathedral of

usually attributed to C.

Monte Com-

Rainaldi (Hempel,

Mandl, Matthiae, Wittkower), was executed in the

nineteenth century, as Howard Hibbard has convincingly pointed out to me.
K. Noehles, loc. cit., 176 (see above. Note 11), has
correctly observed that Rainaldi's late work is flat
rather than spatial and sculptural. In this respect
Rainaldi leads on to the classicizing tendencies of the
end of the century.
288. 17. Archivio di Stato,

Rome,

Cart. 80, R. 537.

See also Roma, xvi (1938), 477. The church itself is

not by Longhi, as has wrongly been maintained. An
interesting project by Longhi for the facade of S.
Giovanni Calibita over a concave columnar plan in the
Albertina, Vienna, dating from 1644, and thus pre-

ceding SS. Vincenzo ed Anastasio, was published by

choir.

Bull., xix (1937), 245) to dis-

entangle the complex history of these churches. V.

Golzio published new documents (Archivi,

al

1961, 244), by Sebastiano Cipriani

patri,

Palladia,

finally,

executed, according to L. Salerno's suggestion

XXVII (1968), 108

The

Via (1681), and

entrance doors to the Palazzo Grillo have always been

Venetian note.

illustrations of the various designs, see

in

church of S. Sudario (about 1685);

attributed to Carlo Rainaldi.

10.

in Riim.

fT.

Bernini's

For the history of the aedicule fa9ade, see now^ also

N. T. Whitman, m Journal Soc. Architect. Historians,

For
^rr

two churches,

time on 18

interesting adaptation of the facade of S.

fa(;ade of S.

evidence of a collaboration of

S.

fully

worth observing how the outside bays of

is

\'alle is

Rainaldi and Fontana at this period. These and other

problems have now been resolved by H. Hager in his

the reign of .Alexander VII.

It

.\ndrea della

in

charge of the construction of the palace

which was completed by the son

name does not appear in the documents.

time his

viii

( 1

941

),

122) which allow the establishment of correct dates.

J.

Varriano, in

An

Bull., Lil (1970), 71.

18. It is precisely the relatively little projection

one column

to the next that forces the

triad as a unit.

BIBLOSARTE

from

eye to see the

NOTES TO CHAPTER

iQ. If,

235),

according to the well-informed Passcri (Hess,

some

sculptural decoration was planned on the

now

large scale wall surfaces,

bare,

it

would

certainly

not have been reliefs of excessive dimensions, for the

appearance of plain wall

tant to set off the
20.

The

these points

at

is

very impor-

columnar motif.
of the whole front,

but also knits together the columns framing the outside bays (rising steps) as well as the

whole central area

21.

It is

poli)

shrewd observer as

interesting that such a

Gurlitt (Geschnhle

ties

Bannkstiles, Stuttgart, 1887,

are the staircase

on the Corso and, above

all,

more

the even

interesting staircase hall in the Palazzo Ginctti at Velletri (after

1644, largely destroyed during the

will

was published by V Golzio

.

war).

last

in .irchrvi,

V (1938), 140.
24.

who was

Vincenzo,

architect son, Felice

(i.

papal architect, had an

1626

77). It

was Felice (and

not Vincenzo, as usually maintained, also in the

ed. of this

(landing).

539

1640) in Ammanati's Palazzo Caetani (now Rus-

(c.

Longhi's

staircase has, of course, an articulating func-

tion. It not only stresses the unity

Of importance among Longhi's work

12

who worked

book)

in

the Piazza Colonna (courtyard and staircase) and

concerned with

first

the Palazzo Chigi on

was

Colon-

a systematiz^tion of the Piazz.a

If the
400) describes the facade as if this were so.
arch of the larger pediment is prolonged downwards,

na for Alexander VII; see Incisa della Rocchetta

Via del Corso, 1961. 185.

He

it meets exactly the edge of the capital of the third

column. See also H. Sedlmayr's interpretation of this

Chigi for their palace

Piazza SS. ."Xpostoli (Brauer-

facade (Epmheit iind H'erke, i960,

Recently

22.

destroyed.

Wittkower, Art

11,

For an

57).

illustration

see

23. For the history of S. Carlo, see mainly B. Nogara,

SS. Amhrugw e Carlo al Corso (Chiese di Roma
illustr.), Rome, 1923. Foundation stone: 29 January
1612. Onorio Longhi died in 1619. In 1635 the nave is
vaulted {Roma, xvi (1938), 119). 1651 the high altar
unveiled (ihid., 528). c. 1656: cessation of Martino
:

Longhi's

1662:

activity.

Tommaso

Zanoli and Fra

Mario da Canepina appointed as architects (see documents published by L. Salerno in I'la del Corso, 1961,
146

ff.,

also for the following. Salerno denies any par-

ticipation of Carlo

Fontana who, according

PoUak's unusually reliable Cortona

Becker,

1665

ff.

payments from

received
:

article in

to

O.

Thieme-

1660 onwards).

Cortona directs construction of transept and

drum and dome executed from Cor-

choir. 1668-72:

tona's design,

who

also designed the stucco decora-

and choir. Payments for C.

between 1674 and 1677 (see also
1674, 403). 1672: church mainly completed,

tions of nave, transept,

Fancelli's stuccoes
Titi, ed.

but

finally in

1679 (Pastor, xiv,

ii,

Wittkower, 127 fT. Golzio, Documenti, 4

above. Chapter 8, Note 85).

691). 1682-4: facade

by Giovan Battista Menicucci from

Cardinal Omodei's design.

(insignificant)

Longhi's fa9ade of S. .'\ntonio de' Portoghesi, beafter 15 December 1629 (Hibbard, Boll. d'Arte,
Lii (1967), 113, no. 167), but left unfinished when he

ff.

289. 25. See Bianca Rosa Ontini,

menuo

Bull., \i\ (1937), figure 64.

in

in

Roma, Rome

[n.d.,

in

was also employed by the

c.

La Chiesa

di S.

also

Do-

1952]. Nicola Turriani

was probably the brother of the better-known Orazio

(Donati, Art Tie, 355). Vincenzo della Greca only

added the

portal, without

any regard for the architec-

ture of Turriani's facade.

O. Pollak

26.

Kommtssion,
27.

The

ill

in

Kiinstg. Jahrh. der k.k. Zentral-

(1909), 133

fT.

decoration of the gallery by Carlo Fontana's

nephew, Girolamo, was not finished

until 1703.

The

gallery makes, therefore, a later impression than

warranted by

its

architecture.

is

For the frescoes of the

vaulting, see p. 334.

28.

I.

Rome

Pamphily

Faldi, // Palazzo

Romano,

al Collegio

(Associazione Aziende Ordinarie di Credito),

1957, with good illustrations.

29.

Grande was engaged on

Genazzano
1666 and 1667 he was paid for work in

About 1665 Antonio

del

the rebuilding of the Colonna palaces at

and Pahano. In
S. Agnese in Piazza Navona. On his part in the Palazzo
di Spagna, see E. Hempel, Borromint, Vienna, 1924,
.29

f.

For Carcani's stucco decoration, see below,

It must be pointed out that the traditional date

30.

435.

p.

'after

1650' for Rossi's architecture

probably too

is

mentions

gun

early. Titi, in his edition of 1674, 244,

moved during

Maderno's chapel and only in the edition of 1686, 195,

remarks that it has been replaced by that of G. .A. de'
Rossi. For all works by G. .\. de' Rossi, the mono-

the

last

years of his

life

to Milan,

shows

a considerable increase in sculptural decoration as

compared with SS. Vincenzo ed

.Anastasio but

is

archi-

tecturally less remarkable, in part because he retrained

entirely

from the use of columns (finished 1695 by

Cristoforo Schor, son of Giovan Paolo see Descrizione

;

still

graph by G. Spagnesi (see Bibliography) has now

to

be consulted.
Rossi's earliest
S.

Maria

work was probably the

little

church

in Publicolis.

Worthy of note

the

little

lium, IX (1933), 61

forecourt, skilfully squeezed in on the restricted

site.

(1967), 339-54)-

M.

di

Roma

moderna, 1697, 486; also .Ansaldi in Capito1 ff., and U. Vichi, in // Santo, vii

^i. Titi, ed.

1686, 332.

Bosi, S. .Maria in

BIBLOSARTE

Campo

is

.Marzio (Le chiese di

540

NOTES TO CHAPTER

Roma

illustrate, 61),

as

far

Rome,

12

ii)6i, is

Rossi's architecture

is

not very useful so

concerned. But new

material (drawings and documents) has been published

329
32.

by H. Hager,

in

Cummentari,

xviii

(1Q67),

ff.

On

the site was an older chapel built by

Rossi's authorship of the present chapel

is

Maderno.

attested

by

(1, 317) and Titi (ed. 1686, 98), who saw it in

course of construction and mentions the splendid in-

Pascoli

crustation with coloured marbles. Carlo Francesco

Bizzacheri finished the chapel, especially the decora-

dome, between 1695 and 1707.

tion of the oval

290. 33. A. Mezzetti, Palazzo Altieri,

195

1;

The

older

Lieven Cruyl's drawing

in the

Schiavo, The Allien Palace,

is

shown

in

Rome,

1965.

Albertina (H. Egger, Riimische Vediilen,

11,

plate 89);

Nunvi disegm deU'architellura (before

1677), plate 38. The important staircase was finished
in 1673 (Pastor, xiv, i, 626). Carlo Fontana also made
projects for the extension of this building (Coudensee also Falda,

hove-Erthal, Carlo Fonlana, 30).

Bigazzini on Piazza S.

Marco

Domemco

of the papal architects,

Fontana's Palazzo

(before 1677, pulled

/Aitgi

Art-

documents,

Caslelli, often recur in

but they were officials rather than creative masters.

.'\rigucci's most notable building is the dry double
tower facade of S. Anastasia, often wrongly ascribed to

Bernini (Battaglia

1623 to 1657,

Girolamo

in

Palladto, vii (1942),

is

della

174-83).

works from

1658), in the papal office of

Castelli (d.

responsible for the rebuilding of S.

Carita

(1652-8,

docs,

Fasolo,

in

Ramaldi, 1961).
V. Domenichino had pretensions as an architect and

him

architectural drawings by

Rome,

V. Martinelli, Commentari, x (1959), 206. Also A.

palace alone

The names

iii, iv.

gucci and

for

Ignazio and

S.

other schemes (J. Pope-Hennessy, The Drawings of

Domenichino, London, 1948, 121) are not without
proficiency.
vi.

Andrea

^acr/?; also regarded architecture as a side-

1637 he

line. In

N. Wibiral

called 'architect'.

is first

made

(Palladio, V (1955), 56-65) has

probable that

it

he designed the Acqua Acetosa, often attributed to

Bernini.
vii.

on

The Jesuit Ora(o Craw;

Maderno-Borromini

( 1

583- 1654), depending

project, designed

and exe-

cuted the church of S. Ignazio, one of the largest

in

down 1900) was dependent on the Palazzo Altieri.

34. The palace, overlooking the Piazza Venezia, was

Rome

built for

Francesco D'Aste: contract 7 June 1658 (see

L. Salerno, in Via del Corso, 1961, 256). Finished

plan; 1639 for the sacristy; 1642 for the facade, which

probably before 1665 (see Cruyl's drawing, Egger,

Riimnche Vediiten, 11, plate 90).

for the

dome, which remained unexecuted. See C. Bri-

carelli,

'O. G. architetto', Civilla Caltolica, LXXiii

Worthy of note

also

De' Rossi's Palazzo Carpegna

M.

Carpegna, published by
(1967), 133

See below,
See

Roma

i.

p. 376.

cit.,

Rome,

1765,

II,

254;

220.

the lesser figures active in

Rome

at this

may be mentioned

Paolo Maruscelli

( 1

in

1627 for the

has often been wrongly attributed to Algardi and

;

(1922), 13
II

ff.

ff.;

D. Frey

Wiener Jahrh.,

in

Ill

677

(1924),

C. Montalto in Boll, del Centro di studi per

la

t,t,.

Although O. Pollak (Zeilschrift f. Geschichte d.

v, 1910-11) seemed to have deflated the
view, going back to Passeri, that Alessandro .4lgardt
was a practising architect, more recent research has
viii.

anttca e moderna,

also Salerno, op.

Among

commissions of specialists were called

storia deirarchitettura, no. 11 (1957),

36.

period

Tafuri, in Palatino, xi

ff-

35.

37.

at

(1626-50). At different stages of the erection,

Architektur,

vindicated the contemporary tradition. In any case,

594-1649), architect of the Con-

the Villa Doria-Pamphih outside Porta S. Pancrazio

owed

gregation of St Philip Neri until 1637 (Pollak, Kunst-

(executed mainly in 1646-8)

whom we have mentioned as Borromini's competitor. He has to his credit the Palazzo
Madama (according to Ferrerio, Palazzi di Roma,
Rome [n.d.], plate 11, to be dated 1642) with top-

Bolognese painter Giovan Francesco Grimaldi served

tdtigkeit,

I,

423),

heavy window frames and

arrangement of
the mezzanine under the cornice; remarkable because
the top floor
ii.

is

Mattia

younger,

more important than

de'

may

a decorative

Rossi

(1637-95),

the piano nobile.

although

much

here be mentioned because he worked

for Bernini for almost a

whole generation, serving

many times as his clerk of works. As an architect in his

own right he built mainly chapels and altars without
special distinction.

Francesco
affair.

His largest work, the facade of

Ripa (1692

f.),

is

S.

a frigid, classicizing

as his clerk.

Apart from

its

is

to

him, while the

size - the villa

is

the largest

in

Rome

- the building has

it.

It is a

rather dry, unimaginative structure, distin-

guished, however, by

its

not

much

to

recommend

high-class stucco decoration.

The question of the Villa Pamphili and its stuccoes

has now been fully investigated in a brilliant paper by
O. Raggio,

in

Paragone, no. 251 (1971), 3-38. Recently

ft.) suggested

F. Fasolo {Fede ed Arte, xi (1963), 66

that Algardi

made

the plans for S. Nicolo da Tolen-

G. M. Baratta.
Giovan Baltista Mola (1585- 1665), born at Coldrerio near Como; from 1612 to 1616 in Rome; in 1616
appointed 'architetto della camera apostolica'. His few
tino, previously attributed to
ix.

buildings in a retardataire style are discussed by K.

BIBLOSARTE

j
I

NOTES TO CHAPTER

Noehles

in the

important

Introduction to his edition of Mola's

Roman guide-book

published from the

signed Viterbo manuscript of 1663 (Roma

di

'anno i66j

Gtov. Batt. Mola, Berhn, 1966).

46.

The window below

contained

is

12

541

an arched

in

one above by an

'Palladio motif, the rectangular

aedicule frame.

See Palladio's S. Giorgio Maggiore, where

47.

most important work is the rather

charming modernization of the Ducal Palace at

system of small orders is seen through the screen of

columns framing the altar.

Sassuolo.

298. 48. P. Bjurstrom in his informative and thought-

291. 38. Avanzini's

The problems concerning

Modena have been discussed
tion
39.

by L. Zanugg

the Palazzo Ducale at

with great circumspec-

R. ht.,

in Riv. del

By Giuseppe Tubertini,

iX (1942), 212.

1787. Luigi Acquisti's

sculptural decoration also dates from this period.

The

ful book Giacomo Torelli and Baroque Stage Design,

Stockholm, 1961, 104, 106, has discussed the close
affinity of Torelli's stage sets to Longhena's architec-

from 1640

bom

Fano

worked

in

Venice

to 1645; for the next fifteen years

he was

ture. Torelli,

at

in 1608,

facade was built in 1905.

stage designer at the Paris court. In 1661 he returned

292. 40. Bergonzoni goes a step beyond Borromini by

opening up the pillars under the pendentives into
chapels and corettt. Also the decorative detail of the
coretti has a Late Baroque quality.

to

41.

The biography

of Longhena by C. Semenzato

(L'archttettura di B. Longhena, Padua, 1954)

very satisfactory. E. Bassi's chapter on

is

not

Longhena

in

Architettura del Set e Settecento a Venezia, 1962, 83-

185 (the backbone of her book), is infinitely better.

42. See among others the old but still basic work by

G. A. Moschini, La

chtesa e

il

seminario di S.

della Salute, Venice, 1842; further

delta Salute, Venice,

Maria

V. Piva,

//

Fano, where he died

49.

Humanism, 3rd
50.

one

the other (as

Fiorentini,

Bzroque ,yournal.of the Society of ArchiHistorians, XVI (1957), and idem in Saggi e

of both churches

Age of

is

basically dif-

Renaissance 'wall structure',

a typical

shown

in the

97.

in the text) a 'skeleton structure'.

constructed like a

is

Gothic building. W. Lotz (Rbm.Jahrb.f Kunstg., vii

(1955), 22) has demonstrated that Labacco published
Antonio da Sangallo's project for S. Giovanni de'
299. 51.

and

is

In a very direct sense the Salute

tempio

della Salute: scenographic Architecture

London, 1962,

ed.,

The conception

ferent the

Maria

1930, and R. Wittkower, 'S.

in 1678.

Wittkower, Architectural Principles

Rome.
that

It is likely

angelo's design for the

Longhena followed Michel-

dome

which

false inner lantern

of St Peter's also for the

lies

may be

between the two

shells

was

the Venetian

of the dome. But

tectural

long North Italian tradition for treating the inner and

Alemorie di storia

dell' arte,

See Bramante's S. Maria

recalled that there

outer lantern independently of each other.

in (1963).

Canepanova at Pavia
(begun 1492 ?) or Battaglio's S. Maria della Croce near
Crema (1490- 1500). - Even the high drum with two
round-headed windows to each wall section stems
from this tradition.
R. Pallucchini, in a review of my book in Arte Veneta,
xiii-xiv (1959-60), 250, seems to infer that I overlooked the importance of Sanmicheli's S. Maria di
43.

it

di

52.

have

left

unmentioned

that the rich sculptural

decoration contributes considerably to the picturesque

impression of the building. For a

of the structure, the

full

understanding

programme of the decoration must

be considered.
53.

See

54. J.

p. 375.

Tiozzo, La Cattedrale

dt Chioggia,

Chioggia,

1929.

Campagna near Verona as prototype of the Salute.

But S. Maria di Campagna is not closer to the Salute

chiesa dei Padri Carmelitani Scalzi di B. Longhena',

than churches of the Bramantesque tradition and,

Arte Veneta,

like

them, moreover, lacks the ambulatory. E. Bassi, too

(op. cit., 174), rejects the influence

of the

Campagna on Longhena.
The reader may also be referred to G.
remarks

in

Barocco europeo

Madonna

di

Fiocco's critical

Barocco veneziano, Flor-

ence, 1963, 89.

297. 44.
pillars

The oddly shaped

55. C. Montibeller, 'La Pianta originale inedita della

lie

behind the large

of the octagon and are, therefore, visually of no

(1953), 172. For the facade

Note

by G.

9.

56. E. Bassi, 'Gli architetti dell'Ospedaletto', Arte

Veneta, vi (1952), 175.

57. An example of his early

Scamozzesque

style

is

the Palazzo Giustinian-Lolin (after 1625).

58.

units

VII

Sardi, see above.

The

Palazzo Rezzonico, the more restrained of

the two, was going

up

in 1667.

by Giorgio Massari, 1 752-6

The

(see

top floor was built

G. Mariacher,

in Boll.

The

consequence whatsoever.

Alusei Ciiici Veneziani, IX (1964), no.

For instance, the arch of the octagon is repeated

in the arch of each chapel and again in that of the segmental window. Moreover, all the orders tally and
supplement each other; see illustration 186.

Palazzo Pesaro was begun between 1652 and 1659.

Progress was slow. In 1676 the fa(;ade was begun. In

45.

3,

ff^.).

1679 the piano nohile was finished, but the palace was
completed by Antonio Gaspari only in 1710. See G.

BIBLOSARTE

542

NOTES TO CHAPTER

12

Fiocco, 'Palazzo Pesaro', Riv. mensile di Venezia (1925),

Badia: Giambologna's Cappella di S. Antonio in S.

377 alsoG. Mariacher in Ateneu Veneto, cxxxv (1951);

G. Badile in Arte Venela^ vi {1952), 166 and, above all,

S.

E. Bassi in Saggi e

Memorie di slona dell'arte,

111

(1963),

88 (with new documents). For other works by Longhena, see E. Bassi, in Cntica d'Arte, xi (1964), 31 xii
;

(1965), no. 70, 43 and no. 73, 42.

For Gaspari (c 660- 1 749), see Bassi's basic study,

1

in

301. 59 D. Giovannozzi in L'Arte, xxxix (1936), 33,

and W. and E. Paatz, Die Kirchen von Florenz, Frank-

furt-on-Main, 1940-54, in, 335,471, where the whole

is lucidly summarized. See also Panofsky's

question

(Meaning

tion'

on Silvani's 'compromise solu-

in the

Visual Arts,

New

York, 1955,

Linnenkamp,
Riv. d'Arte, viii (1958), 55, 59. Giuseppe Ruggieri
added the northern and southern wings in 1764 and
1783 respectively; the. latter was not finished until the

Documents

for Parigi's share in R.

beginning of the nineteenth century. See also F.

Morandini, 'Palazzo

On

sua costruzione e

Pitti, la

cessivi ingrandimenti',

Commentan,

suc-

xvi (1965), 35

ff.

the strength of a Callot drawing of 1630, Sir

Anthony Blunt (The French Drawings at Windsor

Castle, London, 1945, 19) has made it probable that
the extensions were derived from a Buontalenti

all

project

made

for

Ferdinand

I.

There is no satisfactory modern work on Silvani.

Apart from the brief chapter in Venturi (xi, 2, 624), the
reader must be referred to R. Linnenkamp's publica61

tion of a
VIII

contemporary Life of Silvani (Rtv. d'Arte,

which Baldinucci used for his

(1958), 73-1 11)

Vtta.
62.

his school. S.

66. The technique had been developed in Rome. It

was introduced into Naples by Dosio, who probably
began the marble incrustation of the Certosa of S.
Martino (Wachler in Rom.Jahrb.f. Kiinstg., i\ (1940),

Foundation stone: 1604. The general

lines of the

was Fanzago and others such

194). It

zari (d. 1690), the architect

Neri,

193)60.

and figures are later, mainly by Foggini

Gaetano is the best place to study
Florentine sculpture of the late Seicento. For the
names of the sculptors and the problem of dating, see
Lankheit, 71 f
64. Reliefs

and

65. Baldinucci, ed. 1846, iv, 427.

Saggi e Memnrie (above), 55-108.

interesting remarks

Marco (1578-89) and Giovanni Caccini's chancel of

Domenico at Fiesole (1603-6).

as Dionisio

dome

of the

Laz-

of St Philip

who gave this decorative technique the NeapoliThus transformed, it was assimilated

tan imprint.

through Fanzago

other

in

Italian

(Venice,

cities

Bergamo).
67. Documents prove that Fanzago, and not Dosio,
made the design; see P. Fogaccia, Cosimo Fanzago,

Bergamo, 1945.
68. For Fanzago see the

unsatisfactory^

work by

Fogaccia, with further references.

303. 69. Chiesa dell'Ascensione a Chiaia (1622-45),
S.

Maria dei Monti

(early), S. Trinita delle

(after 1630, destroyed), S.

Teresa

Monache

Chiaia (1650-62),

S. Maria Maggiore ('La Pietrasanta', 1653-67), an improved version of the Ascensione plan with oval satellite

chapels instead of square ones, S. Maria Egiziaca

(1651-1717).
is supported by his Latin-cross plans, such
Maria degli Angeli alle Croci (1639) and the even
more interesting S. Giorgio Maggiore (1640-78), the

This

70.

as S.

much

design of which owes

to Venice.

plan seem to have been worked out by the Theatine

304. 71 U. Prota-Giurleo, 'Lazare veni Foras', //

Don Anselmo Cangiani. Some time between

doro, IV (1957), 90

Fm-

and pur-

dated 1653 from

the Naples notarial archive enumerating works of the
Lazzari shop (above Note 66), and this list includes

poses Gherardo Silvani's work; see Baldinucci, ed.

the facades of both the Sapienza and the Palazzo

353; Paatz, Kirchen von Florenz, iv, 181;

Berti in Riv. d'Arte, xxvi (1950), 157. Inscription on

Firrao.

the facade; 1645. Consecration of the church: 1649.

architetto', // Fuidoro,

The ornamental

Palazzo

1604 and

1628 Nigetti worked on the structure, without

effect.

1846,

The

present church

is

to all intents

much

IV,

by Alessandro
Neri Malavisti. The statues of the i68os are by Balthasar Permoser, Anton Francesco Andreozzi, and
detail

of the facade

is

Carlo Marcellini. Lankheit, 172, dates them 1687-8.

302. 63. A particularly good example of this style is the
Badia, rebuilt between 1627 and 163
I,

267) by Matteo Segaloni, about

(Paatz, op.

whom

cit.,

little

is

known. Here also the characteristic screening-off of

the monks' choir by the so-called Palladio-motif,
which had a home in Florence from the mid sixteenth
centun,' onwards. Prominent examples before the

72.

ff.,

published a

list

U. Prota-Giurleo, 'Alcuni dubbi su Fanzago

Note).

Donn'Anna

iii

(1956),

17

ff.,

attributes the

Bartolomeo Picchiati (see next

death Onofrio Gisolfi continued

to

On the latter's

the palace; see F. Strazzullo, Architetti e ingegnen

napoletani dal '^00 al '700, Naples, 1969, 181

f.

owe

the last two notes to the kindness of Fred Braueen.

73.

the

Among other Neapohtan architects of this period

names of Bartolomeo Picchiati (d. 1643) and his

son, Francesco Antonio (1619-94), should at least be

mentioned.

The former began as Domenico Fontana's

and designed later S. Giorgio dei Genoand S. Agostino alia Zecca (1641), which

clerk of works
vesi (1626)

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

was given

extravagant apse a hundred years later

12

AND

13

543

(1756-61 ) by Giuseppe Astarita and Giuseppe de Vita.

The son designed the Guglia di S. Domenico (1658,

dates, according to inscription, from 1648, and the

weaker female portrait from 1650.
For Finelli's portrait busts, see the informative article

finished 1737 by D. A. Vaccaro), the church and palace

by A. Nava Cellini

its

Monte

of the

churches of S. Giovanni
Miracoh (1661-75).

CHAPTER

and the
Maria dei

della Misericordia (1658-70),

Battista

and

S.

it

7.

306.

No

I.

than thirty-nine masons and sculptors

were employed, among them

the well-known

names
of the Bernini studio - Giacomo Balsimello, Matteo
Bonarelli, Francesco Baratta, and Niccolo Sale;
further the more distinguished Bolgi, Ferrata, Raggi,
Cosimo and Giacomo Antonio Fancelli, Girolamo Lucenti, Lazzaro Morelli, Giuseppe Peroni, and others.
2.

8.

Paragone,

lini in

13

less

in

Paragone, xi (i960), 9-30.

O. Pollak, Kunstidtigkeit, 11.

For Bolgi's work under and with Bernini, see
in

Wittkower, Bernini, Catalogue, nos 21, 25, 29, 33, 36,

40, 46, 47. For Bolgi's portrait busts, see A. Nava Cel9.

305.

Documents

all

Among other works, he carried out the four winged

XIII (1962), no. 147, 24.

See the bust of Francesco de Caro and the praying

figure of Giuseppe de

Caro (signed and dated 1653)

in

the Cappella Cacace in S. Lorenzo.

V. Martinelli in Commentan, x (1959), 137, judges

Bolgi's Neapolitan career rather

more positively. Mar-

paper (with auvre catalogue) contains

tinelli's

num-

ber of attributions and suggestions (mainly regarding

the collaboration with Bernini) to which

cannot

agree. Cellini's criticism in Paragone (last Note)

me

fully

seems

victories for Bernini's tower of St Peter's (1640-2),

to

which were

Quiri-

Taking up an eighteenth-century tradition, John

Pope-Hennessy (in Slil iind Vherlieferung in der Kunsi
des Ahendlandes, Akten des 21. Internal. Kongresses
fiir Kunstgeschichte, Bonn, 1964, 11, 105) attributed
the Palestrina Pieta (as by Michelangelo in the
Accademia, Florence) to Menghini. I doubt the correctness of this attribution and also that suggested
by Ettore Sestieri (in Commentari, xx (1969), 75 ff.),
who varied Pope-Hennessy's hypothesis; he does not

Cecilia (1629-33, S.

exclude Menghini's participation, but introduces as

used for Innocent X's coats of arms

later

in the aisles

of the basilica.

catalogue of his auvre

was published by V. Martinelli

in

Commenlari,

iv

(i953)> 1543.

He

joined, in fact, Pietro Bernini's studio, but

was

straightaway employed by Gianlorenzo on the Apollo

and Daphne group.

4. Finelli in

these years executed mainly the bust of

Cardinal Ottavio Bandini (1628,

and the Cortonesque St

nale)

Maria

S. Silvestro al

di Loreto), the counterpart to

Duquesnoy's

Passeri (ed. Hess, 248), in his well-informed Life of

Finelli, writes in detail

about the cabals

in

Rome, and

Naples.

the entrance to the Cappella del Tesoro, Cathedral

and eleven bronze statues inside the

same chapel (finished 1646; see A. Bellucci, Memorie
star,

c.

1640),

ed artisltche del Tesoro

Naples, 19 15); the

etc.,

and Antonino Firrao, princes of S.

transept of S. Paolo Maggiore (1640),

figures of Cesare

Agata,

in the left

which foUowthe type of Naccherino's Pignatelh tomb

in S.

Maria Mater Domini and the sculptural decora;

tion of the Cappella Filomarini

is

SS. Apostoli, with

the exception of Duquesnoy's putto relief (c. 1642-7).

In addition, he

made

the kneeling figures of the vice-

Count of Monterey, and his wife for the church

of the Agustinas Recoletas at Salamanca (1636), which

roy, the

also follow Naccherino's Pignatelli.

tombs of Giuseppe and Virginia Bonanni

da Siena a Monte Magnanapoli (A.
Muiioz in Vita d'Arie, xi (1913), 33, and Dedalo, ill
(1922), 688). The male portrait is the better of the two;
6.

See

machma Bernini, who would have invented

his

in S. Caterina

307.

1 1

There is no reason

tion in his Life of CaflFa

in 1635.

His most important works in Naples are the two

marble statues of St Peter and St Paul, left and right of
5.

(1634

deus ex

piece in imitation of Michelangelo and started

Susanna.

later in

entirely justified.

10.

The

to

this

it.

doubt Pascoli's informaartist was bom

256) that the

(i,

date of his death (before 10 September

1667) has been established by E.

Sammut

in Scientia,

XXIII (1957), 136.

12.

bozzetto for this figure in the Palazzo Venezia,

R. Vramtshtr^tr,- Wiener

Rome, was published by

Jahrb., xxii (1969), 178

ff.

13. The St Catherine was probably finished in 1667.

(A drawing for the St Catherine at Darmstadt was published by G. Bergstrasser, in Revue de I'Art, no. 6
(1969), 88 f.). The St Thomas of Villanova Chapel in

S.

Agostino was begun

in

661, and Caffa's group was

Note 5). The relief

was also finished by Ferrata with the assistance of the weak Giovan Francesco
Rossi. The date 1669 which appears with Caffa's signature on the St Rosa at Lima (see J. Fleming, Burl.
Mag., Lxxxix (1947), 89) must have been added by
another hand since Caffa was dead at the time, and
finished by Ferrata after 1668 (see

in S.

Agnese, begun

in 1660,

consequently the figure was probably not finished by

the artist himself In addition, the impressive
orial statue

of Alexander VII in the cathedral

BIBLOSARTE

at

memSiena

NOTES TO CHAPTER

544

13

stucco decoration in the Sala Ducale, Vatican (1656);

was once again finished by Ferrata (W. Hager, Die

Ehrenstatuen tier Papste, Leipzig, 1925, 25), while G.
Mazzuoh, Caffa's only pupil, executed the commis-

collaboration on the Cathedra (1658-64); the sculp-

sion given to Carta for the Baptism of Christ for the

(1660

high altar of the cathedral

kower, Zeitschr.f.

h.

at Valletta,

bronze bust of Alexander

signed

acquired by the Metropolitan

see

Wittkower

in

Malta (Witt-

Kunst, LXii {1928-9), 227). Caffa's

\'II

has

been

Museum, New York;

tural decoration of the

I

church

Gandolfo

at Castel

statue of .-Mexander VII, Cathedral, Siena

);

(166 1 -3); St Bernard, Chigi Chapel, Cathedral, Siena

(1662-3); rnost of the stuccoes in S. Andrea

Ponte S. .^ngelo (1667-70);

The Metrop. Mus. of Art Bulletin

al

Quiri-

Column on

nale (1662-5); the Angel with the

the

etc.

23. Since the publication of the article

by A. Nava

L'Arte, n.s.

see V. Martinelli, / ntratti di pontefici di G. L. Bermni,

underestimate Raggi's achievement, and also to find

Rome,

his

1956, 45.

308. 14.

The

present reliefs by PietroBracci( 1755) are

and cannot accord with Caffa's

features

isolated

The

female figure in the execution

more

ably

classical

than

is

consider-

the bozzetto, and this

in

change was certainly due

death.

to

Ferrata after Caffa's

cannot agree with A. N. Cellini (Paragone,

who

Good
ist

had been merely

it

16.

A.

al

periodo napole-

xii {1961), no. 137,

37-

The two

lesser allegories in flat relief are also by

Mari worked for Bernini mainly in the
1650s. His principal work is the Mora in the Piazza
Navona (1653-5) from Bernini's design.
18. Participation in the decoration of S. Maria del
Popolo (1655-9); collaboration on the Cathedra ( 1658-

Ferrata. -

60); statue of St Catherine for the Cappella Chigi in

the cathedral at Siena as counterpart to Bernini's.

Magdalen and Jerome and Raggi's St Bernard (16623); execution

represent different countries paying

Name

to the

of Jesus (Philippians,

whom

can best be studied

(p. 310),

2, 10).

have mentioned
in the curiously

luminous relief with over-long, boneless

figures on the tomb of Clement X (c. 1686, St Peter's).

For Michele Maglia, see p. 316. - Naldini (1619, not

5, -91) first belonged to the circle of Sacchi and
Maratti and was in opposition to Bernini. His main
work at this period is the many stuccoes in S. Martino
-

Nava CeUini, 'Contributo

tano di Ercole Ferrata', Paragone,

17.

Manner-

interpreted as a

26. Retti (active 1670- 1709),

before

1669, because

They

312. 25.

brittle,

May

may be

revival.

attributes the execution of the

only in

in

'neo-Cinquecentesque' revivalism, which

illustrations in Donati, Art. Tic.

homage

vii

roughed out by Caff a.

it

should, however, be considered with due caution.

'Charity' to Caff a. In fact, Ferrata finished the 'Char-

(1956), no. 83, 23)

ity'

(1937),

311. 24. Itisthis that

original project.
15.

work

viii

in

has become customary to

(April 1959). Another fine version in Siena Cathedral;

of the Elephant carrying the Obehsk,

16 1

ai

Monti (payments between 1649 and 1652

see A. B.

Sutherland, Burl. Mag., cvi (1964), 1 16). Later he became closely associated with Bernini. He was responsible for the sculptural decoration of Bernini's
at Ariccia

church

(1664) and on the upper landing of the Scala

Regia (1665). He also had a share in the Cathedra

(1665). In theGesii the colossal figures of Temperance

and Justice under the dome are his work.

27. Works by him are at Bologna, Faenza, Forli,
Genoa, Modena, Naples, Perugia, Pisa, and Torano.

Piazza S. Maria sopra Minerva (1666-7); Angel with

313. 28. L.

the Cross for Ponte S. Angelo (1667-9).

of tombs with the dead in 'eternal adoration' see Rom.

310. 19.

The mother and

are also types

20. V.
talto in

21.

borrowed from Domenichino.

Commentari,

Payments

to

(1933-4), 304i L.

for

come to light

see A.

30. Ihtd., 170.

314. 31.

Doria-Pamphili have

Algardi,

Nava

Cellini in Paragone,

villa,

see

Chapter

Important work

for Bernini includes the Noli

Paris

{c.

);

and classicizing.
The figure was sent from Naples; the

me

Notre-Dame,
tomb of Cardinal

Pimentel, S. Maria sopra Minerva (1653); a large part

of the decoration in S. Maria del Popolo (1655-9); the

315. 33.
ing.

34.

Rome,

in

is

setting,

extraordinarily retrogressive.
in

The

1938 but has

The architectural detail, however,

is

classiciz-

Execution before 1675.

The

sculptural decoration was not finished until

after 1686.

The

first

tomb on

the

left,

representing

by Michele Maglia; the

on the right of Pietro and Francesco is by Fran-

Ercole and Luigi Bolognetti,

first

by

additive,

church of S. Lucia was demolished

recently been rebuilt.

the Virgin and Child,

1652); Charity on the

architectural setting, also designed

made

Tangere in SS. Domenico e Sisto (1649); the figure of

Danube for the Four Rivers Fountain in Piazza Na-

vona (1650- 1

32.

The

is flat,

12,

37.)

22.

Rbmische Pnrtrdtbusten der Gegen-

reformatwn, Leipzig, 1936, 162.

work on Algardi's sculp-

XIV (1963), no. 161, 31. (For the

Note

Jahrh.f. Kunstg., IV (1940).

29. A. Grisebach,

Mon-

viii (1957), 47.

Raggi

tural decoration of the Villa

recently

child in the left-hand corner

Golzio in Archivi,

Bruhns has studied exhaustively the history

BIBLOSARTE

is

NOTES TO CHAPTER

cesco Aprile (the lively bozzetto for

tration 205).

The second tombs

gio and Francesco

Cavallini.

shown as illus-

it is

left

and

right of Gior-

Maria Bolognetti are by Francesco

The stucco statues of saints above the tombs

and Ottoni; the sculptural

are by Cavallini, Maglia,

42.

Felici, his son-in-law

who

inherited his studio. Other

sculptors like Michele Maglia and Filippo Carcani

occasionally

worked

for Guidi.

36. Pascoli (1, 251) says of him that 'he had no luck
with pupils, few coming out of his school and none of

particular talent'.

abounded

St Sebastian (J.

in

study material.

The

is

have worked

11

(1935), 64.

He

small but distinguished.

for

no more than

a decade.

The

43. Lucenti
all

The

menon

in

L'Urbe,

below, Chapter 18, Note

See also

iv (1939), 13.

i.

where FerBernard and Fancelli's St Catherine

frame the latter's Cortonesque bronze relief Equally
close in style are Ferrata's Charity and Fancelli's
Faith on the tomb of Clement IX in S. Maria MagMaria

della Pace, for instance,

rata's kneeling St

giore (1671). -

Giacomo Antonio's masterpiece

is

the

decoration of the Cappella Nobili in S. Bernardo

alle

Terme with

busts of the family in Cortonesque frame-

works and the over

life-size statue

on the

altar of St

Most of the minor masters here mentioned

collabor-

ated in 1672-3 on the fountains in the garden of the

Palazzo Borghese, namely Cosimo and Francesco Fan-

and Carcani (see p. 435).

Giovan Paolo Schor (see Chapter 14, Note 33), who
worked under Carlo Rainaldi, was probably responsible for the design. H. Hibbard has published the
documents for this enterprise {Burl. Mag., c (1958),
Cavallini, Maglia,

205) and also for the Galleria of the palace (ihid., civ
(1962), 9), where Cosimo Fancelli executed the stucco

between 1674 and 1676 in the Cortonesque

by Giovan Francesco Grimaldi.

set-

ting designed

among
may be

317. 41. Since the distribution of these angels

the different hands

helpful

is

often confused, a

Bernini, Angels with the

list

Crown

of Thorns

and the Superscription (now in S. Andrea delle

now on the bridge, of the first by

He

in St Peter's

(1673-4) ^nd 'he figure

tomb of .Alexander VII (1675-6).

Francesco Grassia
in Bernini's

is a

Rome.

completely isolated phenoLittle

is

known about him.

His few known works have

been published by L. Lopresti in L' Arte, xxx (1927),
89, and I. Faldi in Paragone, ix (1958), no. 99, 36.
probably died

in 1683.

44. G. Walton, 'Pierre Puget in Rome: 1662', Burl.

Mag., CXI (1969), 582 ff.
318. 45. Between 1659 and 1660 he executed a large
wooden model of the porticoes and between 1661 and
1672 at least twenty statues above the porticoes.
46. His best pupil was his cousin Giuseppe Giosafatti
(1643 -1 731) who handed on the tradition to his son,

Lazzaro

(i

694-1 781).

manner can be

Francis receiving the stigmata.

reliefs

He

highly qualified bronze caster.

strange, archaic, and picturesque Sicilian sculp-

1642 onwards

M. Nicaud

was

Sacramento

tor

incorrect.

argues) from

the bronzes of Bernini's altar of the Cappella

of Death of the

information in Thieme-Becker that he was active from

is

Montagu convincingly

design by Ciro Ferri.

del

38. Aprile's ceuvre

celli, Retti,

Bull.,

His more mediocre

younger brother Gioseppe, who made a living mainly
from the restoration of antique sculpture, worked his

was published by V. Golzio, Archivi,

40. In S.

Montagu (Art

bridge was entirely finished.

cast

See

Jennifer

tonio died young, in 1669, before his angel for the

37. Ferrata's studio

39.

far as possible,

278 ff.) has disentangled the lives, works,

and styles of .Antonio and Gioseppe Giorgetti. .An-

elaborate, highly interesting inventory of the studio

to

So

Lii (1970),

316. 35. His only pupil of any standing was Vincenzo

seems

545

Dice; Fancelli, .Angel with the Sudarium; Morelli,

Angel with the Scourge; .\. Giorgetti, Angel with the
Sponge; Lucenti, .Angel with the Nails. See H. G.
Evers, Die Engelshriicke in Rom, Berlin, 1948; Wittkower, Bernini, 232.

decoration of the high altar by Cavallini, Naldini, and

Mazzuoli.

13

The

continuity of Bernini's

traced here in a direct line over a period

of almost 150 years. Lazzaro Giosafatti renewed contact with Rome by studying under Camillo Rusconi.

G. Rosenthal (Journal of the Walters Art Gallery, V,

1942) published a rehef by Lazzaro. For the Giosafatti,
see G. Fabiani, Artisti del Set- Settecento in Ascoli,

.Ascoli-Piceno, 1961, 35-54.

47.

Among them was Paolo

Naldini; see Narducci in

Buonarotti, v (1870), 122. Failing proper statistics,

we

do not know how many of them were painters, sculptors, or artisans, nor how poor they were.
48.

G. Campori,

Artisti estenst,

Modena,

The Roman scudo was probably worth

1855, 66. at least

(present value).
49. Archivio della Fabbr. di S. Pietro, Giustific.

369

December

1671) and Uscita 417 (7 June 1725).

Cornacchini drew additional payment for work con(14

monument.

Fratte); replacement,

nected with the

Naldini, of the second by Bernini himself (this angel

319. 50. Venturi, x,

was prepared by Cartari); Ferrata, Angel with the

Cross; Raggi, Angel with the Column; Guidi, .Angel
with the Lance; Naldini, Angel with Garment and

Without a knowledge of the correct attribution, I had stated in the first ed. that 'the
rehef can hardly date from before 1670'.

iii,

51. Lankheit, 36. -

BIBLOSARTE

873.

546

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

See

52.

the Palazzo Cavallerini a via dei Barbieri; L. Salerno,

in Palatino.

9.

See above, Chapter

53.

14

Cosimo fanzago,

illustrations in F. Fogaccia,

1945, figures 8 and

AND

13

12,

Note

321.

I.

For G. Gimignani,

186-206.

see the full treatment

by G.

Cortese, in Commentari, x\iii (1967),

The number

of Cortona's pupils, and of

those directly and indirectly influenced by him,

The most

legion.

important

Roman

is

Cortonescht of the

next generation are Lazzaro Baldi (1623- 1 703), Guglielmo Cortese (Guillaume Courtois, 1627-79), Ciro
Ferri (1628/34-89), and the pair Giovanni Coli (1636-

80) and

f.

vi

(1955),

no. 71, 40, E. Brunetti, ibid., \ii (1956), no. 79, 61

14

Domenico

di

(1964), 13

For Codazzi, R. Longhi, Paragone,

tions.

CHAPTER

vm

323. 6. F"or the Bamboccianti, see Briganti's contribu-

66.

Filippo Gherardi (1643- 1704).

Even

the

Sienese Raffaello Vanni (1587- 1673), pupil and son of

Francesco, came later under Cortona's influence.

Among

his minor pupils, responsible for spreading

manner, may be mentioned Adriano Zabarelli,
called Palladino, from Cortona (1610-81), Carlo Cesi
from Rieti (1626-86), Pietro Paolo Baldini (active
c. 1660), Pietro Locatelli {c. 1634- 1710), Francesco
Bonifazio (b. 1637), who painted mainly at \ iterbo,
Giovanni Marracci (1637- 1704), whose work is to be

his

and idem. Burl. .Mag., C (1958), 311; also H. Voss, ibtd.,

CI (1959), 443, and U. Prota-Giurleo, Pitt, nap.,
Naples, 1953, 76.
7. G. J. Hoogewerflf,

De Bentveugheh, The Hague,

1952-

.According to Haskell, Patrons,

8.

139 (note), the

collaboration between Cerquozzi and Codazzi began

after 1647.

See

9.

.A.

Sutherland Harris,

Paragone, xviii

in

(1967), no. 213,42.

ID. L.

Montalto, Commentari,

vi (1955), 224.

For dif-

ferent interpretations of Mola's early itinerary see E.

Schaar, Zeitschr.f. Kunsig., xxiv ( 196 1

),

84,

and

.A.

B.

Sutherland, Burl. Alag., CVI (1964), 363 (new documents), and 378, in reply to S. Heideman, 377 f.
1

1.

His most famous painting of

many

5/

this class is the

work not uninfluenced by Sacchi's St Romuald. For Mola, see

Bruno, existing

in

versions, a

.\rslan. Boll. d'Arte, viii (1928), 55; Wibiral, ibid.,

XL

Lucca, and Camillo Gabbrielli, Ciro Ferri's

pupil, who painted at Pisa. Of the above-mentioned

(i960), 143; Martinelli, Commentari, IX (1958), 102;

hundred draw-

important problem of various versions of the same

found

at

Pietro Locatelli (or Lucatelli) several

ings have been identified in the Berlin Print

Room;

these have been discussed in a splendid paper by P.

Dreyer (Jahrb.

who

also

d. Berliner

Museeiu

i.^

(1967), 232-73),

concerns himself with the close cooperation

between Ciro Ferri and Lucatelli.

Settimana dei Musei, Rome, 2-9 aprile 1967, no.

11,

figure 15.
3.

See

R.-.'\.

Art de France^

in

11

(1962), 165.

Dido and Aeneas carwoven by Michel Wauters be-

series of

toons for the tapestries

long to the Paris period. Six Romanelli cartoons were

sold at Sotheby's in

Norton Simon,

March 1969 and purchased by

Inc.

Museum

of

.A.rt,

California; see

the scholarly paper by R. Rubinstein, in Art at

:

The Year

at Sotheby's ($

London, 1969, 116 ff.

322. 4. Only fragments

the

Auc-

Parke Bernet, ig68-6g,

Note).

The

work has been discussed by A.

work in Revue de I'Art, no. 6 (1969), 82-7.

Wittkower, Born under Saturn, 1963, 142.

for this

Ignorance,

man reaching
Wisdom which disperses
Envy, and other vices. The contrast be-

tween the

classicality

325. 14.

The

etching shows a young

Parnassus by the torch of

of individual figures and the

non-classical horror vacui should be observed.

On

Testa's etchings, A. Petrucci, Boll. d'Arte, x\ (1935409. For the problem of interpretation, see, e.g.,

(1939-40), in. The most

some of Testa's etchings in
Sutherland Harris and C. Lord, Burl. Alag., CXII

T.S.R. Boase,/ Jr.C./.,

iii

penetrating discussion of
.\.

(1970), 15

ft'.,

400. For Testa's chronology, see \.

Sutherland Harris, Paragone, XVI 11 (1967), no. 213,

35

ft".,

15.

and E. Schleier, Burl. Aiag.,

Rosa's early education

above

all

is

his relation to Falcone.

665 ff.
problem, and

CXii (1970),

still

teacher-pupil rela-

tionship probably existed, although Falcone's rather

are preserved of Lanfranco's

Immaculate Conception, once over the high

altar

and

finished as early as 1630.

5.

(last

Czobor, Burl. Alag., ex (1968), 565 ff'., 633.

324. 12. A. S. Harris published a number of studies

6),

Weigert

Perhaps Romanelli's

tion

subject in Mola's

13.

For other Tuscan Cortoneschi, see below. Note 65.

2. For the early Cozza, see his St Joseph and Angels in
S. Andrea delle Fratte with signature and date 1632
which appeared when the painting was cleaned; see
Attivita della Sopnntendenza alle Gallerie del Lazio,
X,

and Sutherland's revised chronology

restrained battle-pieces are very different from Rosa's

fiery

also

E. Waterhouse, Baroque Painting, 25, 27,

first

dis-

16.

melees; see F. Saxl, y.Jl.C./., in (1939-40), 70;

.\.

Blunt, Burl. .Mag., CXi (1969), 215.

Rosa's anticlericalism was emphasized by L. Sal-

cussed the archaizing tendencies of the 1640s. For

erno, Salvator Rosa, 1963, 23.

Giacinto Gimignani's

be maintained that Rosa, despite

later style, see his frescoes in

BIBLOSARTE

- It
all

can, however, not

his extravagance.

NOTES TO CHAPTER

created 'almost single-handed the image of the artist

being apart' (Haskell, Patrons, 22). For the history

of this concept, see Wittkower, Born under Saturn. For
as

14

Com-

III (1954), 228. See also E. Battisti,

mentari, IV (1953), 41.

Istituto,

Some of Rosa's most

547

interesting works arc concerned

Rosa's conception of his genius, see R. \\ Wallace, in

Art Bull., XLVii (1965), 471 ff. For his stoicism, ihiJ.,

with stoic, macabre, and proto-romantic subjects; for

and Haskell, 143.

R.

326. 17. R. Wallace, Burl. Mag., cix (1967), 395 ff.,

has shown that Rosa selected the unusual theme of the

7.IV.C.I., XXXIII (1970),

'Death of Atilius Regulus' for

Panofsky, Idea, Florence, 1952; K. Donahue,

his claim that

18. Institute

na,

Rome;

he was above

a painting in

all

support of

a history painter.

of Art, Detroit, from the Palazzo Colon-

Rosa's classicism was emphasized

in a

remarkable

note by B. Nicolson, Burl. .Mag., C (1958), 402.

327. 19. H. W. Schmidt, Die Landschaftsmalerei Salvador Rosas, Halle, 1930, gives an account of Salvator's
relation to the landscape tradition

and

his develop-

French Art

eti.,

201

Wibiral, Boll. d'Arte,

134; the important paper

(1962), 268-312;

M.

R.

xi.

(i960),

by D. Sutton, G.d.B.A., Lx

Waddingham, Paragone,

Xiv

(1963), no. 161, 37; Sutherland, Burl. Mag.,C\\ (1964),

63.

Here the correct date

frescoes

for the S.

Martino

given; 1649-51. See also

is

Harris, Burl. Mag., CX (1968), 142

Burl. .Mag., cxi (1969), 750

ff.,

.\.

ai

.Monti

Sutherland

and M. Chiarini,

Toesca, Paragone,

I.

After

J.

xi (i960), no. 125, 51.

Kunstliteratur; E.

Mar-

(1943-5), '07; F- Ulivi, Galleria di scrittori

d'arie, Florence, 1953, 165.
III

328. 25.

The

believe this has never been

oil

commented

paintings planned for the

a last

dome

of the

For

latter

afterthought; see, however,

E. Bassi, Critica d'Arle, XI (1964), fasc. 62,

27.

on.

churches or S. Maria della Salute.

church were clearly

his intense desire to return to

as 1640, see E. Schleier, in

4.

Rome

as early

Master Drawings, v (1967),

Hess's pioneering book, the literature on

lungen des Florent. Inst., ix (1959-60), 136; E.

Jahrh.

d. kuiisthist.

ibid., XIII

21. See,

Knab

in

M.

R.

SIg. Wien, XX (i960), 84;

Waddingham, Paragone,

xil (1961), no.

139, 9,

and

others, his frescoes in the Palazzo

Santacroce (Waterhouse, 74), in the Villa DoriaPamphih (1644-8), where he also worked as architect

(Chapter

12,

Note

37),

and

in S.

Martino

ai

Monti

(1648; Sutherland, loc. cit.). For Grimaldi as decorator in the Palazzo Borghese, see Chapter 13, Note

For the connexion between Grimaldi and Dughet,

cit.,

P. Pecchiai, // Gesii di

at Diisseldorf,

was

skil-

by A. Marabottini, Commentari, v
For Testa's art theory, see also .M. \ilm-

fully discussed

(1954), 217.

ner, yahrh. Preuss. Kunslslg.,

23. It

may be noted

i\

(1962), 174.

that the Blind Belisarius in the

Palazzo Pamphili, until recently always attributed to

Salvator, has been shown to be a work by Francesco

Rosa (1681), whose

activity

1679 the frescoes

Roma, Rome, 1952,

26

ff.

also

For .Antonio Gherardi, Mola's pupil, who had spent

architect (p. 376), see

To

.\.

.Mezzetti, Boll.d' .4rte, xxxill

157"

the

same period belong Giovanni

Filippo Gherardi's frescoes in the

dome

Coli's

in

and

of S. N'icolo

da Tolentino (1669-70, dependent on Cortona's

of S.

dome

and their paintings inserted

Crocedei Lucchesi (c. 1674). Lodo-

.Vlaria in Vallicella)

the ceiling of S.

gini date

dome frescoes in S. Maria dellc Verfrom 1682; G. D. Cerrini's frescoes in the

dome

of S. Maria della Vittoria (undated)

between 1638 and 1687

has been reconstructed bv L. Montalto, Riv.

dell'

may

belong

in the 1670s.

30. The frescoes in the apse are by Gaulli's pupil,

Giovanni Odazzi; see H. Voss, 328.
330. 31. Waterhouse, 71.

Giacinto Brandi (1623-91), Lanfranco's pupil,

prolific

but

facile painter

who remained

master's style, contributed

137.

This manuscript, now

in

R. Enggass, Baciccio, 1964, 31.

32.

40.

see Wibiral, op.

1672-4: frescoes of the dome;

29.

ofthe nave were unveiled; those ofthc apse after 1679;

see .\. M. Brugnoli, Boll, d'.-trte, xxxiv (1949), 236;

vico Gimignani's

(1962), no. 147, 13.

among

See B. Canestro Chiovenda, Commentari, X

28.

(i959)> 16.

(1948),

Tassi has steadily grown; see E. Schaar in Mlttei-

22.

30.

years in Venice and distinguished himself also as an

ff.

For Gaspar's pupil, Crescenzio Onofri (1632-98),

see

328

see Schlosser,

Bellori,

as a landscapist.

Further to G. Dughet's development, A. Blunt,

20.

On

24.

(Bibliography) and N. R. Fabbri, in

26. E.g. Guarini's

Art, xxvii {1948), 63.

ment

W. Wallace

syas.

see Paul L. Grigaut, Bull. Detroit Inst, of

of his activity, see the stimulating papers by

this side

little

faithful to his

that deserves special

attention.

Francesco .Allegrini (1624-63) was one ofthe minor

Cortona followers.
Egidio and Giovan Paolo
T,},. Of German descent,
(1615-74); the latter, the more important ofthe two,

whose paintings as well as designs

Cortonesque flavour; on a number of occasions he worked for Bernini (.see Chapter 18,
Note ). G. P. Schor has recently been given the atten-

was

a versatile artist

for applied art

have

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

548

tion he deserves, see

14

G. Aurcnhammcr, Die Hand-

zetchnungen des ij.JahrhiiiiJerts.

in

Osterreuh, Vienna,

1958, 13, 103; H. Hibbard, Burl. Alag.^C (1958), 205;

A.

The Roman Drawings

Blunt-H. L. Cooke,

H'indsor Castle,

London, iq6o,

10. Interesting

at

addi-

tions in \\ ibiral. Bull, d' Arte, XL (1960), 144.

Their names are Angelo Canini, Carlo Cesi,

Fabrizio Chiari, Bartolomeo Colombo, Filippo Lauri,
Francesco Murgia, and, in addition, the more con34.

siderable Jan Miel

{c.

belonged to the

first

1599- 1663), a Fleming, who

of the Bamboccianti in

circle

Rome, but turned in Turin to the grand manner in

fresco and came under Cortona's influence in the last
years of his

The complicated

of the Quirinal Gallery has

history'
in

an excellent paper by N. Wibiral,

123-65, which also contains valuable

formation on

Vitzthum

all

ibid.,

cx (1968), 37 f

Of the older literature may

be mentioned Brugnoli's article

in Boll.

d'Arte, xxxiv

(1949), 236 (with ceuvre catalogue).

Documents published by

334. 41.

Note 36).
For Canuti,
.\.

see Malvasia, Vite di pit ton holognesi, ed.

Bologna, 1961, 13-35.

Arfelli,

E. Feinblatt (see

Canuti had been

in

Rome in

1651 (or earlier) and stayed on until 1655 (see

unpublished thesis by L. Zurzolo, University of

Bologna, 1958-9, 31) before he returned

42. Despite chronological difficulties I
that Canuti learned the

new mode of

in 1672.

believe

still

organizing a

by Bernini's genius) in Rome

Meanwhile E. Feinblatt {Art
Quarterly, 1961) has shown that Canuti operated with
large fresco (stimulated

rather than vice versa.

life.

been disentangled
op. fit.,

Spear,

new

and

light areas in his fresco of the hall of the

Palazzo Pepoli, Bologna, as early as 1669; after his

W.
who warns

Roman interlude, he practised similar principles in the

frescoes of the library (1677-80) and dome of S.

the participating artists. See also

in Boll, d' Arte, XLViii (1963), 96,

large dark

in-

against over-estimating Grimaldi's role. - For Lauri

Michele

(1623-94), Caroselli's pupil, see B. Riccio, Commeii-

other hand, did not begin the Gesii frescoes until 1672.

fan, x(i959),

43. For Pozzo's work on perspective, see G. Fiocco,

Emporium, XLix (1943), no. 1,3. For his work in Tus-

3.

documented

by L. Montalto,
Commentan, vi (1955), 267. For Mola's destroyed
Stanza dell' ana frescoes of the Pamphili villa at Valmontone, see R. Cocke, Burl. Mag., cx (1968), 558 ff.
35.

36.

See the

fully

article

By him the Jupiter ceiling of the large room on the

first floor

(1675), attributed by Waterhouse, 48, to

Berrettoni, and correctly

blatt,

37.

Art Quarterly,

.XV

named Canuti by

N.

E. Fein-

may be mentioned Ro-

manelli's frescoes in the Palazzi Lante {1653) and Barberini (1660),

of Esther

Antonio Gherardi's impressive Stori^

in the

Palazzo Naro (1665-70.'), and the

frescoes in the Villa Falconieri, Frascati,

Ferri,

by Ciro

N. Berrettoni, and C. Maratti (before 1680).

See N. Pevsner, 'Die Wandlung um 1650 in der

italienischen Malerei', Wiener Jahrh., viii (1932), 69.
38.

C. Refice Taschetta, Mattia Preti, Brindisi, 1961, 83,

dates these frescoes incorrectly in 1653. She over-

looked that the date 1661

is

assured by Preti's

own

statement (see Ruffo, Boll. d'Arte, x (1916), 255). He

painted the frescoes in the Palazzo Doria Pamphili at

Valmontone on the occasion of his brief visit

to

Rome,

Bosco (1682-4)

On Pozzo as painter, see Marini's monograph (1959)

and his paper in Arte Veneta, Xii-xiv (1959-60), 106,
and on Pozzo as architect, Carboneri's monograph
(196 1 ). See also A. de Angelis, 'La Scenografia sacra di
Roma

e a Frascati', Sttidi romani, vi, 2 (1958),

tbid., VI,

M.

6; A.

P. nella chiesa di Sant'Ignazio',

Cerrato in Commentan, x (1959), 24

(with ceuvre catalogue).

B. Kerber's

monograph

( 1

97 1

see Bibliography) has

now to be consulted for all questions concerning Pozzo.

For the problem of the viewpoint of the S. Ignazio
and other Baroque ceilings, see W. Schone in
Festschrift Kurt Badt, Berlin, 1961, 344, and Kerber's
frescoes

objections (102

ff.)

to

Schone.

In 1703 Pozzo settled in Vienna and his work there

(Jesuit church; Liechtenstein

strong influence on

Garden Palace) had

Austrian and

German

fresco

painting.
in S. Ignazio found immediate folGiuseppe Barbieri's frescoes in the
dome, nave, and transept of S. Bartolomeo at Modena,

Pozzo's frescoes

39. L. Montalto, Commentan, vii (1956), 41, with

documents. See also L. Mortari, Paragone, Vii (1956),
no. 73, 17, and J. Off^erhaus in Bull, van het Rijks-

Scrittt di

museum, x (1962),

Milan, 1966, 737

5.

W.

160; L. Montalto,

lowing; see,

GauUi has been thoroughly studied after the

Second World War, mainly by A. M. Brugnoli, R.
Enggass, and F. Zeri. All the older research in Enggass's recent monograph (1964). In addition, see R.
Enggass, Burl. Mag., cviii (1966), 365 f, and R. E.

Bologna. Gaulli, on the

203.

before going to Malta.

332. 40.

i"

cany, P. della Pergola, Riv. del R. Istituio, v (1935/6),

A. P. a

(1952), 51.

In addition to these

in

e.g.,

executed 1694-8 (N. Carboneri,

44.

the

On
life

Stona

dell' Arte in

in

Arte

in

Europa.

onore di Edoardo .irslan,

ft'.).

the ceiling three scenes illustratir;g events in

The victory of Lewon under him.

M. Cerrato in Com-

of Marcantonio Colonna.

panto shown

in

our illustration was

For Coli and Gherardi, see A.

mentan, X (1959), 159 (with ceuvre catalogue).

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

337. 45. See the otherwise irrelevant article by E. FeinQitarterly, x (1947), 237.

An

blatt,

46.

This may be the place

to

mention Giovanni Maria

Morandi (1622-1717), who has

recently attracted

attention (Waterhouse, see Bibliography).

Florence, he settled early in

him

are

known from

a portrait painter he

Rome and

Born

For

all

549

the painters mentioned in this paragraph, see

Bologna, 1959, and Bibliography under individual

painters.
54. F. .Arcangeli,

Paragone, (1950), no. 7, 38.

Cantarini's pupil, the strong Flaminio Torri (1621-

paintings by

may

the late 1650s onwards. While as

61),

competed with

Studt

pieces are often close to Maratti's.

the Exhibition Catalogue of the Seuento Emtliano,

in

Gaulli, his altar-

14

here also be mentioned; sec G. Raimondi

in

onore di Matteo .Marangoni, Florence, 1957,

260. - The weak Reni follower Francesco Torriani
in

is

The high cove of the ceiling is now white and one

reminded of the contrast between the painted field
and the surrounding whiteness at the period of Reni's

given the undeserved honour of a one-man Exhibition; see

Aurora, but surviving drawings (and Bellori's text)

della mostra,

47.

(1612-81),

prove that Maratti planned frescoes also for the vaulted

M.

.Mendrisio, was

in

G. Martinola, Francesco Tornani. Calalogo

Mendrisio, Palazzo Nobili Torriani, 1958.
in .4rte Antica e Moderna, vi, no. 24

Zufta

Dowley, Burl. Mag., Ci

;W. Vitzthum,;//^.,cv(i963), 367;J.Bean,

(1963), 358, has reconstructed the artist's itinerary

511; Harris-Schaar, Diisseldorf Catalogue, 1967,

Cagnacci (not Canlassi, Thieme-Becker) and that he

part of the ceiling; see F. H.

(1959), 71
ibid.,

55.

who worked mainly

nos. 256-76.

that his

name

is

died in 1663 (not 1681).

See the excellent

48.

from documents and has established

by O. Kutschera-

article

For Cagnacci's Viennese career, see G. Heinz

in

Woborsky, 'Ein kunsttheoretisches Thesenblatt des

Jahrh.

Carlo Maratti', Graphische Kiinste. Milleilungen (19 19),

343. 56. For Pasinelli, whose art is attracting increasing attention, see C. Volpe, Paragone, viii (1957),
no. 91, 30, 36; C. Baroncini, Arte Anttca e Moderna,

9-

49.

On

Agucchi and

his theory, see above, p. 39,

with further references.

d. kunsthist. Slg. in

ten,

Liv (1958), 173, 183.

available; see

D. C. Miller in Burl. Mag., CI (1959), 106.

For Canuti's pupil Giuseppe Rolli (1643- 1727), the
painter of the important ceiling of S. Paolo in Bologna

A. Mezzetti, Riv. Jell'htituto, iv (1955). For the paint-

(1695), see F. de' Maffei, in Scrttti di storia dell'arte in

shown as illustration 220 see F. H. Dowley, 'Some

Maratti Drawings at Diisseldorf, Art Qjiarterly, xx

Feinblatt, in Burl. Mag., cvi (1964), 569

339. 50.

fully

no. 2 (1958);

documented modern treatment of

Maratti (with truvre catalogue)

is

now

ing

(1957X 17451. I. Matalon, Riv. d'Arle,

Del Cairo, court

now

artist in

(1930), 497; G.

xii

Turin from 1633 onwards,

well-defined artistic personality of con-

Morazzone Catalogue of 1962,

Mario Salmi, Rome, 1963,

Master Drawings,

57.

According

to

vil (1969),

164

48, 108, with

un

sol punto'.

Burl. Mag.,

ff.

to this

Also idem,

ff.

Baldinucci (ed. 1846,

Further

cm

325, and E.

iii,

called this type of perspective 'vedute

siderable importance. New ground was broken at the

Mostra del maniensmo pietnuntcse
1955, where the
often reproduced Si Francis, in the Castello Sforzesco,
previously attributed to Morazzone, was given to Del
Cairo. The whole question is reviewed in M. Gregori's

onore di

in

Testori, Paragone, in (1952), no. 27, 24.

is

iv,

682), he

non regolate da

problem,

J.

(1961), 101, according to

Schulz

whom

in

the

quadratura painters Cristoforo and Stefano Rosa from

Brescia used multiple vanishing points as early as the
- Colonna worked in the Palazzo
between November i637andjune i639and again
in 1641; see M. Campbell, .-irt Bull., xi.viii (1966),
135 f. Further for Colonna see S. de \ ito Battaglia,

sixteenth centurv.

Pitti

Art Qitarterly,

other valuable material for Del Cairo; see also the St

L'Arte, xxxi (1928),

Francis paintings by Cerano (Mostra del Cerano, 1964,

XXI (1958), 265, discusses the ceilings in the Villa

Albergati-Theodoli at Zola Predosa (near Bologna);

100).

340. 52. E. S. Natali's paper on the artist in

mentari, xiv (1963), 171,
342. 53.

is

Com-

of Reni's

late

Colonna's most extensive work during the period of

Giacomo .\lboresi (1632 77), .Vli-

collaboration with

disappointing.

The new assessment

manner,

telli's

pupil,

whom

foreshadowed as early as 1937 in O. Kurz's pioneering

article (see Bibliography), was one of the important

Mitelli's death.

Reni Exhibition of 1954.

'Sbozzata solo' (i.e. left unfinished) according to .MaU
vasia, the Girl with a Wreath shows the characteristic
condition of a number of pictures of this period, for
which see comment in C. Gnudi-G. C. Cavalli, Guide

Mitelli Exhibition in

results of the

Reni, Florence, 1955, 100.

13. E. Feinblatt,

For

Mitelli, see

he took on as collaborator after

now E.

Feinblatt's Introduction to the

Los Angeles

(see Bibliography).

344. 58. For the following F. Sricchia, 'Lorenzo Lippi

nello svolgimento della pittura fiorentina della prima

meta

del '600',

Proporzwm,

iv (1963),

243-70;

M.

Paragone, xv (1964) no. 169, 16; and idem,

JO pitture e sculture del 'boo e 'joofiorentmo, Florence,

Gregori

in

BIBLOSARTE

550

NOTKS TO CHAPTKR

14

1965; also Hibbard-Nissman, Florentine Baroque Art,

196CJ (sec Bibliography).

Bravo

59. C. del

in

Paravane

xii (19O1), no. 135, 28.

See G. Briganti, Paragone, (1950), no. 7, 52.

61. Cecco Bravo is emerging as one of the most un-

60.

conventional Florentine artists of his generation. G.

Ewald was the

to give

first

back

to

him a number of
Mazzoni {Burl.

pictures previously attributed to S.

Mag., CM (i960), 343,

cm (196

),

347). A. R. Masetti's

monograph (1962) with (ruvre catalogue and bibliography contains a document for Bravo's hitherto unknown birth-date. The painting of illustration 232 has
previously been attributed to S. Mazzoni, but Ewald
and others are

in

agreement that

it

has to be given back

Cecco Bravo.
For Pietro Ricchi ( 606-75) and Mario Balassi ( 1 60467), the first from Lucca, the second from Florence,
who both owed Venice a formative influence, see H.
to

Voss

in

Kunstihronik, Xiv (1961), 211. Further for

Ricchi, see R. Pallucchini, Arte Veneta, xvi (1962),

and A.

132,

Gregori (Note 58) offers a more positive

assessment of Giovanni da San Giovanni's art; see
also

M. Campbell, Art
63. M. Winner,

cit., 24; G. F"iocco, Arte Veneta, iv

Frohlich-Bum and R. Longhi, Para(1952), no. 31, 34; N. Ivanoft, 'Giorgione nel

347. 69. Arslan, op.

(1950), 150; L.

gone.

Ill

Seicento', in Venezia e I'Europa, Venice, 1956, 323.

70. Arslan, 29, 42.

For Carpioni's dates, see Zorzi,

Arte Veneta, xv (1961), 219. G. M. Pilo's monograph

(1962) contains all previous research. See also idem,

Odeo Olimpico, v (Vi-

'Giulio Carpioni e Vicenza',

cenza, 1964-5), 55
71.

ff.

See also G. M.

Pilo, in // mito del classicisnui nel

seicento, Florence, 1964, 227.

72. G. Fiocco, Dedalo, iii (1922), 275; J. Zamowski

and F. Baumgart, Boll. d'Arte, xxv (1931-2), 97; R.

Pallucchini, ihid., xxviii (1934), 251.

N. Ivanoff, Boll. d'Arte, xxxviii (1953), 321.

G. Ewald in Critica d'Arte, vi (1959), 43, and
Boll. Musei Civici Veneziani, 1959, i.
73.

74.

75. A. Rizzi's

monograph (i960) with

logue (completely illustrated) supersedes

Rizzi, ihid., 171.

M.

62.

Milan, 1946; and La Pittura del Seicento a Venezia,

Catalogue, Venice, 1959, with full bibliography.

Bull., xlviii (1966), 133

previous

all

research.

348. 76. See Ivanoff 's Catalogue of the MafTei Exhibi-

with further bibliography. In addition, R.

tion, 1956,

ff.

cetivre cata-

Instit.

Marini, Tl dare e I'avere tra Pietro Vecchia e Maffei',

Florenz, x (1963), 219, discusses the interesting icono-

Arte Veneta, x (1956), 133; L. Magagnato's excellent

review of the Exhibition, ihid., 245 F. Valcanover,

345.

Mitteilg.

d.

kunsthist.

graphy of this cycle (documents).

His aetivre has first been reconstructed by G.

Ewald, Burl. Mag., cvi (1964), 218.
64.

Among

65.

the Cortona followers in Florence worth

mentioning are the Fleming Lieven

Vincenzo Dandini (1607-75) an^^

Mehus

630-9 1 )
his nephew, Pier
Dandini (1646-1712), who in his later work, however,
broke away from his early Cortonesque manner; in
addition Salvi Castellucci from Arezzo (1608-72) and
Lorenzo Berrettini, Cortona's nephew and pupil, who
worked mainly at Aquila. See also Berti, Mostra di

Rome,

Pietro da Cortona,

Demonstrated
mjahrh. d. kunsth.
66.

in a

( 1

1956.

and Stefano

Slg. in Wien, LVl (i960), 197.

della Bella at

Bella's prints, reprinted with corrections

by

P.

Dearborn Massar,

New

and annota-

York, 1970; also

the same author's 'Stefano d. B.'s Illustrations for a

Fireworks Treatise', Master Drawings,

vii

(1969),

294 ff., dating from 1649; and F. Viatte and W. Vitzthum. Arte Illustrata, ill, nos. 34-6 (1970), 66 S., who
offer

new

material to the question of Stefano della

Bella's journey to the Levant.

68.

Ivanoff, Arte Veneta,

Memorie

ing work, published in 1929; also the challenging re// concetto di

rumimsmu

349. 78. A.

.,

(1947), 42, and idem in Saggi e

11

M. Mucchi and

.-indrea Celesti,

(1958-9), 211-79 (basic

C. della Croce,

// pittore

Milan, 1954, with ceuvre catalogue and

contribution by N. Ivanoff.

80.

G. M. Pilo, Arte Veneta, xvii (1963),

See Arslan, op. cit., 32.

Scienze

M.

Two
should

.,

Pappalardo, Atti

128.

Veneto di

dell' 1st it u to

cxii (1953-4), 439.

artists

who came under Bolognese

at least

influence

be mentioned: Giannantonio Fumiani

(1650 (not i643)-i7io, see Arslan, 44) and Gregorio

Lazzarini (c. 1660/2- 1720), Tiepolo's first teacher.

ForLazzarini,seeG. M. Pilo in Arte Veneta, w (1957),

and Critica d'Arte, V (1958), 233.
350. 82. The equally mediocre .\ntonio Busca (162586), director of the .\ccademia

may

.Ambrosiana

in 1669,

be mentioned; see C. Rossi o.p., in Arte

Lomharda, iv (1959), 314. For C. F. Nuvolone, seeU.
at least

in

Nuvolone

Arte Lomharda,

family, see N.

CXI (1969), 219

xii (1967),

Ward

67

fT.

For the

Neilson, Burl. Mag.,

f.

83. Longhi-Cipriani-Testori, / pittori della realtd in

BIBLOSARTE
.

dt storia dell'arte,

study).

Ruggeri,

For the following see mainly G. Fiocco's pioneer-

marks by E. Arslan,

144 (attempt to clarify chronology).

77. C. Gnudi, Critica d'Arte, I (1935-6), 181; N.

81. A.

ofG. B. CastiWindsor Castle, Lon-

don, 1954, 89, with further references. See also Alexandre de Vesme's standard catalogue of Stefano della
tions

xcviii (1956), 340; R. Marini, Arte Veneta, xv (1961),

79.

thoughtful article by G. Heinz

346. 67. See A. Blunt, The Drawings

glione

Emporium, cxxiii (1956), 150; Haskell, Burl. Mag.,

NOTES TO CHAPTER

14

551

Lomhardia, Milan, 1953, with bibliography; G. TesParagone, iv (1Q53), no. 39, 19.

326, makes the tentative suggestion that de Ferrari

met Gaulli at Parma in 1669. - Sec also Disegni di G.

352. 84. See Arslan's (Note 68, 24) relatively negative

assessment of Strozzi; also A. M. Matteucci, Arte

de F., E.xhibition, Palazzo Rosso, Genoa, 1963, and .\.

Griseri, Gregorw de Ferrari (I maestri del colore, 1 35),

Veneta, ix {1955), 138.

Milan, 1966.

tori,

Cotnmentan,

85. E. Falletti,
86. A.

M.

Goffredo,

ihid.,

vii (1956), 158.

Among

147.

355. 94. Bolognese quadratura had been introduced in

Strozzi's

Genoa by Colonna's

fresco decoration

the ex-

in

Genoa may be mentioned .\ntonio Travi

(1608-65), who later made his name by concentrating

356. 95. In addition to the basic articles by R. Longhi

on the popular genre and on landscapes with ruins.

(1915) and H. Voss (1927), see R. Causa, Paragone,

pupils in

Commentan,

87. B. Riccio,

353. 88.

viii (1957), 39.

M. Bonzi, Pe/legro Ptola e Barlolomeo Biscamo,

(

an

practised

pellino,

Of other

cinquecentesque

antiquated,

Must r a

also

dei pit tori genovesi

.,

nos. 41, 42.

painters

who

died of the plague,

mention

(
606-57), who stems from Ansaldo
and Assereto (M. Labo, Emporium, c\ (1945), 3), and
Silvestro Chiesa (1623-57), whose only known picture

Orazio de Ferrari

Maria dei Servi, Genoa) reveals him as a master of

(A. Morassi, Mostra della pittura

(S.

uncommon power
.

89.

am

Anthony Blunt's reconcareer; see J. H. C.I. viii

following mainly

struction of Castiglione's

(1945), 161 and The Drawings of G. B.C. at Windsor,

London, 1954. For interesting new results, see A.

Percy, Burl. Mag., cix (1967), 672 ff. See also E.

Waterhouse, 'An Immaculate Conception by G.B.C.\

The Minneapolis
5

ff.,

new

with

Institute of Arts Bulletin, lvi (1967),

ideas on Castiglione's chronology.

354. 90. O. Grosso, Dedalo, iii (1922-3), 502.

91. M. Marangoni, / Carloni, Florence, 1925. Gio-

vanni Battista, the more important of the two brothers,

was a prolific fresco painter. His work is to be found in

1938, and R. Causa's excellent survey (1957).

96. See E. du Gue Trapier's monograph (1952) and
D. F. Darby's review, Art Bull., x.xxv (1953), 68. Also
U. Prota-Giurleo, P/V/. nap., 1953,91. Ribera'sdateof
birth is usually wrongly given as 1588. J. Chenault,
Burl. Mag., cxi (1969), 561 ff., has published documentary proof of Ribera's stay in Rome in 1615 and

16 16 (the year he probably returned to Naples) and of

about 1630.

357. 97. Giovanni

work

Rome, brought back to

Cortonesque manner. For his

in Maratti's studio in

in the

a fluid

Palazzo Altieri,

Rome

(1674-7), see E.

Gavazza, Arte Lombarda, viii (1963), 246.

Giulio Benso (1601-68) may also be mentioned; his
frescoes in the Annunziata (partly destroyed during
the war) reveal

him

as an able painter with a special

interest in quadratura

and determined

sotto in su

com-

For Piola see G. V. Castelnoxi, I dipinti di S. Giaalia Marina (Quaderni della Soprintendenza alle
Gallerie. .dellaLiguria), Genoa, 1953; also E.Mala92.

como

like

Ribera

bom

at

1623 and married the

.Among the minor Ribera pupils

Bartolomeo Passante (1618-48) from Brindisi may be
mentioned. On Passante, see J. H. Perera, .irchivo
Espaiiol de Arte, xxviil (1955), 266, and the criticism
entirely Riberesque.

by F. Bologna, F. Solimena, 1958, 30. On these artists

R. Longhi wrote one of his last papers (Paragone,

(1969), no. 227, 42), in which he also revived the al'naturalista'

98. Reni's abortive stay at

a

month. His magnificent

in the

Giovan

Naples

in

Battista" Spinelli

Certosa di S. Martino, painted shortly before his

works of an
di S.

99.

earlier period

(c.

moment

in the

important

less

1622) were in the Chiesa

Filippo Neri.

list

of frescoes painted by minor

Lanfranco's manner
100.

artists in

in Ortolani, op. cit., 79.

According to VV. R. Crelly, The Painting of

I'ouet. New Haven and London, 1962, this

'first full

(p. 36) is

But

622 lasted about

Shepherds

.-idoration oj the

death (1641 .'), came after the critical

history of Neapolitan painting. But

Simon

positions.

c.

of Pacecco de Rosa (1626). His impressive

sister

(d. c. 1647).

Genoa (1678)

(1604 56),

Adoration of the Shepherds (Chiesa della Pieta dei Turchini, Naples) - the only picture known by him - is

most forgotten

worked

Do

Jatiba in Spain, settled in Italy

he collaborated with Giovanni .\ndrea, etc. Trained

under Passignano in Florence, he was later strongly

who

(1951), no. 19, 50,

Introduction to La nostra della pittura napoL, Naples,

the Gesii, S. Siro, the Chiesa dellWnnunziata where

influenced by Rubens. His son Andrea (1639-97),

11

and F. Bologna, ihid., xi (i960), no. 129, 45.

For the following, see, apart from .\. de Rinaldis's
book (1929), S. Ortolani's remarkably perceptive

his trip north

Liguria, 1947, 57).

1650.

in

(1950), no. 9, 42, R. C^rita, ihid.,

Genoa, 1963. Fcllegro or Fellegrino Fiola 1616 40),

who had been apprenticed with Gio. Domenico Cap-

manner; see
Genoa, 1969,

Palazzo Reale (formerly Baibi)

if

it

announcement of his post-Italian

altarpieces'

signed and dated 1623 (184, no. 79).

were correct that in 1620 \'ouet had painted

goli, Burl. .Mag., cviii (1966),

503

the Virgin appearing to St Bruno for the Certosa of S.

ff.

93. A. Griseri, Paragone, vi (1955), no. 67, 22. E.

Gavazza

in Arte Antica e

Martino, as Crelly and others (.\. Blunt, Art and Architecture in France, 167; Briganti, P. da Cortona, 1962,

BIBLOSARTE

Moderna,

VI, no.

24 (1963),

NOltS TO ClIAPTKR

14

would already then have drifted away

from Caravaggio. Critical opinion, however, now dates
this painting later; D. Posner, Art Bull., XLV (1963),
291, f. 1623; B. Nicolson, Burl. .Mag., cv (1963), 310,
c. 1627; G. Darquct and J. Thuillier, Saggi e Memurie

49) believed, he

di sloria ili-U'urle, IV (lyO.s), 47, no.

loi. All the

A31,

i.

major Neapolitan artists

from them.

fluence, but she also took

1624-6.

her in-

felt

Among

the

109. For the Fracanzano problem see F. Bologna

(Note 103), 55, and idem, F. Solimena, 1958, 28.
10. The phrase is F. Si\Vs,J.W.C.L, iii (1939-40),
1

Toll

M.

I.

S. Soria, .4rt Quarterly, xxill (i960), 23.

seems appropriate to mention here the German

painter Johann Heinrich Schonfeld (1609 82/3), who
was in Italy from 1633 to 165 1 and spent twelve years
It

590- 1 656), w ho
had started his career under Battistello in the Certosa
of S. Martino, was much indebted to her; see M.

in

d'Orsi, Paolo Finoglia. pillore iiapolilatio, Bari, 1938.

Bernardo Cavallino's (mid 1640s). Like Elsheimer,

Schonfeld excelled by virtue of the intensity of poetical
narration and there can be little doubt that he left his
mark on Neapolitan painting. This great artist was rediscovered in the 1920s, primarily through H. Voss

second-rate

artists,

Paolo Finoglia

(c.

Another 'belated' Caravaggista should here be mentioned, Matthias Stomer from Amersvoort, Holland
(c. i6oo-f. 1650), who appeared in the early 1630s in
Rome and soon transferred his activity to Naples and
Sicily.

Reputedly closely connected with Honthorst,

shows affinities with Terbrugghen, Baburen,

his style

and even Vouet; see R. Longhi, Proporziont,

(1943),

60.

Royaux

358. 102. F. Bologna (in Bulletin, Musees

des

Beaux-Arts, Bru.xelles {1952), no. 2, 47) stressed the

influence of van Dyck's palette on Ribera and other

Neapolitan painters from about 1635 on. Ribera's

Communion of the Apostles (Certosa of S. Martino)
with the disproportionately large putti in the sky and
the large

empty

areas

is

an example of his weak

late

manner (dated 165 1).

Bousquet

in

Lucina, Rome. But Stanzioni was working in

Rome

Borsook (Burl. .Mag., xcvi

(1954), 272) published payments to him between
October 161 7 and April 1618 for a (lost) picture for S.
five years earlier. E.

Maria

della Scala. Stanzioni's large dated cycles begin

13. F. Sluys,

Les Beaux Arts, Brussels, 4 June 1954;

idem, Didier Barra et Franfois de

360.

14.

nella pitt. del '600 a

359. 107. In addition to the older literature, see C.

108.
1

CXIII (1951), 259.

M. Commodo

Izzo,

Paris and

New

Codazzi,

e.g.,

went

to

Rome and

Ribera

fled.

115.

early Preti.

Her monograph, however,

Andrea Vaccaro, Naples,

95 1, with ceuvre catalogue and bibliography.

is

far

from

being definitive; see above. Note 38.

116. M. Fantuzzo, Boll. d'Arte, XL (1955), 275.
117. See above, p. 322. The St Charles Borromeo giving Alms of 1642 in S. Carlo ai Catinari, Rome, already
shows his dependence on Sacchi and Domenichino.
118. R. Causa, Emporium, cxvi (1952), 201. C. Refice
54, favours the older dating: not

served frescoes in the

Emporium,

Nome,

96 1.

and Giacinto de Popoli (see Ortolani, op. cit., 72).

106. His 'classicism' is fully developed in the Rest on
the Flight into Egypt and the .Annunciation of the Birth
of the Virgin, both in S. Paolo Maggiore, dated 1643-

Refice,

Fal-

approaches

next Note.

Taschetta, op.

4 by R. Causa, La Madonna
Napolt, Naples, 1954, t,},.

.-Xnicllo

style

(monograph Biberach, 1964) and has now acquired

fuller contours through a splendid exhibition; see H.
Pee, J. H. Schonfeld, Ulm, 1967.
112. R. Causa, Paragone, vii (1956), no. 75, 30. This
article makes the older literature on Monsii Desiderio
obsolete (see A. Scharf 's Catalogue of the Sarasota Exhibition, 1950; G. Urbano's monograph, Rome, 1950;
F. G. Pariset, Commentari, ill (1952), 261). See also

63 1 with the decoration of the Bruno Chapel in the

Certosa of S. Martino, finished 1637. Stanzioni had a
large school; among his pupils were Agostino Beltrami

in

and

monograph on

Stanzioni (1937), H. Schwanenberg established the

date 1623 for the St Anthony in Glory in S. Lorenzo in

even

darkens and his

such an early Caravaggesque phase; she is certainly

correct in claiming a strong impact of Guercino on the

V (1955X55105. In his otherwise unsatisfactory

close to that of Gargiulo

Revue des Arts,

Francesco Guarini da Solofra, Avellino, 1963.

J.

is

later his palette

Longhi, Proporzioni, i (1943), 60: reconstruction of this phase with auvre catalogue. C. Refice Taschetta, Mattta Preti, Brindisi, 1 96 1 45, does not accept

For Mellin, see

work

cone

York,

103. His career has been reconstructed by F. Bologna,

Opere d 'arte nel Salernitaiio, Naples, 1955 M. Grieco,

104.

Naples. In his early Neapolitan years (about 1640)

his

cit.,

later

than 1650.

361.

19. In

1664 (not 1653) he painted the badly predome of S. Domenico Soriano,

Naples, which abound with Correggiesque reminiscences; see C. Refice, Boll. d'Arte, x.xxix (1954), 141.

For Porpora, see R. Causa, Paragone,

120.

11

(1951),

Luca Forte, idem, ibid., xiii (1962), no.

145, 41 for Giacomo Recco, idem, .4rte .Antica e Moderna, v ( 1 96 1 ), 344 for Giacomo and Giuseppe Recco,

no. 15, 30; for

;

354; further attributions to Forte and

Recco in Bottari, ihid., vi, no. 23 (1963), 242.

S. Bottari, thid.,

Giacomo
121.

See

last

Note, and also Zeri,

BIBLOSARTE

ihid., ill

(1952), no.

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

33' 37;

N.

Carpegna

di

Carpegna,

122.

in

B()ll.d'Arie,\L\i{ig6i\ 123.

loc. cii.
ill,

558) records that

Ruoppolo painted many pictures for Gaspar Roomer,

which the latter sent to Flanders. Roomer, an immensely rich Flemish merchant, had made Naples his
home; he had a large gallery and patronized contemporary artists (M. Vaes, Bull. nut. hist, beige, v (igas),
gallery that

Ill

(ig.^y 40), 80). It

was

Ruoppolo and the other Neapolitan

in his
still-

painters had excellent opportunities of studying

life

Flemish

still lifes.

CHAPTER
364.

15

For the following see the relevant passages

seine Zeitgenossen, Leipzig, i8g8, vols 2

and

A. Bertolotti in Arcbivio stunco uriisluo

in

3.
.

cd. F.

M. Praz in Magazine of Art, xxxii (1939), 684.

The best recent study of Piranesi is by A. H.
Mayor (1952); see Bibliography.
3.

4.

J.

Harris ('Le Geay, Piranesi and International Neo-

classicism in

Rome

1740-1750', Essays

of Architecture presented
1967, 189

ft'.)

to

in the

History

R. H'lttL'ower, London,

ingeniously reconstructed the

career of Jean Laurent

Roman

Le Geay, who probably had

formative influence on the young Piranesi.

5.

R. Wittkower, 'Piranesi's "Parere su I'architet-

tura"",/W.C./.,
366. 6. See, above

553

"

and

Bigari,

G. M. Crescimbcni, L'lstona delta basilica

Maria in Cosmedin di Roma, Rome, 1715,

10.

S.

For Naldini see above,

11.

p.

di

159. -

312.

Monnot

did not accept .Maratti's design, nor does

seem that the sculptors of the statues in S. Giovanni

it

in

Laterano were delighted (see also

Note

ter 18,

9).

.Although

436 and Chap-

p.

was not

it

till

slightly later

welcomed the collaboration of painters,

almost certain that Padre Andrea Pozzo made oil

that sculptors
it is

11

(1938-9), 147.

all,

i2.Titi,ed. 1686, 155. - .At the same time C:. Fancelli

worked from designs of Gio. Francesco Grimaldi in
the Palazzo Borghese see above, (Chapter 3, Note 40.
13. C. G. Ratti and R. Soprani, Delle vite de' pitton
genovesi, Genoa, 1769, 11, 303.
;

(1875) and P. G. Hiibner, Le statue di Roma,

Leipzig, 191 2, 73.
Gori,

Vittorio

16

sketches for reliefs on the altar of St Ignatius in the

Gesii; see B. Kerber, in Art Bull., xi.vii (1965). 499.

Pastor, vols 14-16, and in Carl Justi, Winckelmann und

2.

Carlevarijs,

AND

15,

others.

362. 123. Dominici (ed. 1844,

184; F. Saxl,7Jr.C./..

Luca

Fontanesi,

I4,

H. Tintelnot's remarkable but

The

almost forgotten Pietro Bianchi, Luti's student

Rome, produced .Arcadian Rococo pictures of great

charm; see .A. M. Clark in Paragone, \\ (1964), no.
in

169, 42.

B. de Dominici, Vile de' pittori

14.

K. Lankheit (70 and Mitteilungen

napoletani,

d. Flor. Inst., viii

shown that Foggini used the help of

painter Anton Domenico Gabbiani in the Corsini

the

Chapel

in S.

Maria del Carmine, Florence, before

1680.
367. 15. Baumgarten's Aesthetica appeared in 1750.
16.

The Connoisseur ; an Essay on

Criticism

368. 17.

.,

.A.

London,

the whole Art

of

17 19.

Gabrielli, 'L'.AIgarotti e

la

Italia nel Settecento', Criiica d'.4rte.

Kunst, Berlin, 1939.

7. R. Bernheimer in Art Bull., xxxviii (1956), 239,
finds that as early as 1600 in the performance directed

IV (1939), 24.

in Florence on the occasion of Maria

wedding with Henry IV of France the
barriers which separate the stage from the audience
had been abolished. Spectators were placed on the
stage and 'continued the court into the world of makebelieve and thus provided that element ot illusion, at
which many artists of the Baroque were to try their

(1957-9), 48) has

not always reliable study Barocktheater und barocke

by Buontalenti

Naples, 1742-3, 458.

critica d'arte in
ill

(11)38),

155,

For Algarotti, see also Haskell, Patrons,

347 (and index).

CHAPTER

16

de' Medici's

369.

Juvarra, Fuga, Vanvitelli, Salvi, Raguzzini,

I.

Galilei,

and

370.

For the concept of

2.

changes of

Preti.
stylistic liberty

and

fast

style at this period, see the pertinent re-

marks by R. Berliner

in

Miinchner Jarhb.

d.

bild.

Kunst, ix-x (1958-9), 282.

hand'.

K. Schwager has made some acute observations on

Baroque notion of the theatre, in Riim. Jabrb. f.

371.

3.

The

Palazzo .Mezzabarba

is

the earliest of four

To the

the

interconnected palaces of supreme importance.

Kunstgesch., ix-x (1961-2), 379.

group belong, apart from the Doria-Pamphili, the

exactly contemporary fa(;ades of the Palazzi Litta at
Milan (Note 5) and Montanari at Bologna (p. 390). -

8.

A. Ademollo, /

timo,

Rome,

leatri di

Roma

nel secolo decimoset-

1888, 36.

Tintelnot, /). cit., 151, 215 refuses to acknowledge

major influence from the stage on Tiepolo and finds it
mainly among such eighteenth-century painters and
9.

engravers of vedute and ruins as Pannini, Francesco

Veneroni

{c.

1680 after 1745), almost unknown a few

emerging as a major figure of North Italian

Baroque architecture. A pupil of Giuseppe Quadrio in
Milan, he was appointed 'engineer' of the province of
years ago,

is

BIBLOSARTE

CHAPTKR

NOTi:S TO

554

Pavia in 1707.

()

The BorromincsquG facade of S. Marco

(1735 8) remains, next to tiie remarkably sophisticated Palazzo Mezzabarba, as a witness to the high

quaUty of V'eneroni's architecture at Pavia; see C.

Thoenes in Attt dellu VIII convegnn nazionale dt Gloria
dell'architettura, Rome, 1956, 179, and S. Colombo in
Commenlart, xiv (1963), 186; also M. G. Albertini,
Considerazwni suir architettura lodigiana del prima Seltecento, dissertation, Pavia University,

1963-4 (un-

He

9.

never wrote himself. His ideas were later pub-

by his admirer .Andrea

lished

Memmo,

d' architettura lodoliana, Venice, 1786,

FJemenii

and second ed.

1834. Count Francesco Algarotti (17 12 64), the wellknown Venetian courtier, writer, and patron of the
arts,

was one of the first to write about Lodoli's theories

(Saggio sopra

l' architettura,

Pisa, 1753). Piranesi, too,

the steadfast upholder of the supremacy of

came under Lodoli's

architecture,

Roman

influence, as the

published). For other works by him, see L. Grassi,

text of his Delia magnificenza ed architettura de'

Province del Barocco

mani,

Rococo, Milan, 1966, 443 ff.

Veneroni's Pavia contemporary, Lorenzo Cassani
e del

(1687-f. 1765), has been studied by A. Casali, Boll.

d'Arte, LI (1966), 58 ff. ; less progressive than Vene-

attachment

roni, Cassani reveals a belated

to Ric-

"Pareresu rarchitettura"',J. H'.C./.,

10.

The architect of the fa9ade, one of the most original

Ro-

1761, reveals. See Wittkower, 'Piranesi's

This judgement seems

to

me

li

(1938-9), 147.

correct, although

Lodoli attacked, of course, the tenets of classical architecture. H-isktW, Patrons, 321, underestimates perhaps

Kaufman

Lodoli's influence on architects. See also E.

chino's architecture.
4.

Rome,

Art

Jr, in

Bull., XLVi (1964), 172.

creations of the eighteenth century, seems to be un-

373. II. A. Rava, 'Appartamenti e arredi Veneziani

known. The

del Settecento', Dedalo,

was

staircase hall, too,

(by Faustino Rodi, 1780s).

It

later

has an oval

remodelled

dome

through which appears a second

gallery,

with

ceiling, a

probably indebted to Guarini. See G.

Mezzanotte, Architettura neoclassica in Lombardia,

design which

is

Naples, 1966, 219.

5.

Other examples are Bologna Torreggiani's build:

ings, see

Cesena:

below; Carpi: Santuario del SS. Crocifisso;

Madonna

del

Monte

SS. Trinita by Andrea

(staircase hall);

Crema:

Nono

(1737); Forli; Palazzo

Reggiani (staircase hall); .Milan Palazzo Litta, facade
:

by Bartolomeo Bolli, 1743-60, also interior ('Sala degli

Specchi'); Ravenna S. Maria in Porto; Santa Maria
di Sala (Veneto): Villa Farsetti, the richest French
:

Rococo

villa in

North Italy, but for the classicizing

columns from the Temple of Con-

exterior forty-two

Rome were used; Stra: Villa 'La Barbariga'.

See also Ferdinando Bibiena's diaphanous vaulting
in the choir of S. Antonio at Parma (1714 ff.), in the

cord in

parish church at Villa Pasquali (1734), and in a chapel

The two latter con-

caille stuccoes,

(1920), 452

among others,

in

ff.,

730

Ro-

ff.

the Palazzi Barbarigo,

Ventwo pub-

Foscarini, Rezzonico (particularly good quality),

dramin, and the Casino Venier, the

latter

lished in Dedalo.
12.

Correct birth-date

13.

The

never

in

Donati, Art. Tic, 263.

frame, probably intended for a

relief,

was

filled.

375. 14.

On

this

problem, see above,

p. 297.

Fontana's

plan dates from 1681. Foundation stone of the church

1689; in 1 7 10 the convent into which the church is incorporated was partly finished. 1738: consecration of
the church without the decorations.

The

latter

execu-

ted by Spaniards, after that date. O. Schubert, Gesch.

des

Barock

in

Spanien, Esslingen, 1908, 263; Couden-

hove-Erthal, C. Fontana, Vienna, 1930, 133.

15.

Fontana himself was partly responsible

for

it;

see

above pp. 284-5.

16. E.g., the high pedestals on which the pilasters of
the interior stand further, the gallery above the pil;

blue sky appears. For the church at Villa Pasquali, see

and the (admittedly later) statues crowning the

pilasters of the drum. Also the open balustrade, on
which the pediment of the fa9ade is superimposed, is

D. de Bernardi, Arte Lomharda,

to

of S. Maria Assunta
sist

at

Sabbioneta.

of curvilinear gratings through

whi.li the

xi (1966), 51

painted

ff.

For Venice, see pp. 372-3.

372. 6. A. Neppi, 'Aspetti dell'architettura del Settecento a Roma', Dedalo, xv (1934), 18-34; M. Loret,
'L'Architetto Raguzzini e il rococo in Roma', Boll.
d'Arte, xxvii (1933-4), 3i3~2i Associazione fra cultori di architettura, 'Architettura minore in Italia',
1

Rome
7.

ciples,
8.

[n.d.];

M.

Rotili, Raguzzini,

Rome,

1951, 103.

For the following, Wittkower, Architectural Prin3rd ed., 1962, 144.

Schlosser, Kunstliteratur, 578.

Massimo Petrocchi,

Razionalismo architettonico e razionalismo storiograjico,

Rome,

1947.

asters

be found

17.

in the Salute.

The most

concise assessment of the develop-

ment of polychromy between the

sixteenth and the

eighteenth centuries in L. Bruhns, Die Kiinst der Stadt

Rom, Vienna, 1951, 575.

18. Not everybody agreed with

his designs.

The

diarist Valesio calls

Fontana's design of the tomb of

Queen

Sweden

Christina of

in St Peter's, finished in

1702, 'in extremely poor taste'. He, moreover, talks

about the architect as 'the liar Carlo Fontana'. See

Scatassa in Rassegna bthltografica, xvii (1914), 179 f.

For the history of this tomb, see now A. Braham and

H. Hager (Bibliography).

BIBLOSARTE

NOTFS

376. 19. Further to this problem, Coudenhove-Erthal

Nibby

H. Egger, Graz, 1933, 95), who makes

the point that in contrast to Bernini and his generation
Fontana dealt with comprehensive urban projects.
20. Twenty-seven volumes from Fontana's estate
were purchased for King George III from Cardinal
Albani and are now in the Royal Library at Windsor.
When writing his biography of Fontana, CoudenhoveErthal was unaware of their existence.

S.

(in Festschrifl

21.

The painting of the altar

Cecilia

22.

is

also

tana family, see U. Donati, Art. Tic, with further

bibliography. See also H. Hager, 'G. B. Contini e

(j

contribution to the design of the Teatro .Argentina

is

problematical; see F. Milizia, .Memone degli architetti,

Bassano, 1785, 257.

II,

29.

.Agosteo and

.\.

Rome,

Consulta,
30.

.\.

Pasquini,

//

Palazzo

della

1959.

H. Hager, 5. .Maria delFOrazione e Morte (Chiese

Roma

illustrate, 79), Rome,

1964 contains a
thoughtful discussion of the church, with new docu-

di

On Contini as well as all the members of the Fon-

ascribes to him the campanile and monastery of

Maria di Monte Santo (pp. 283 flf.), dated 1765,
which is, however, by Cav. F. Navona (see H. Hager,
Rom. Jahrh. f. Kunstg., \\ (1967-8), 282). Teodoli's

with the Inspiration ofS.

by his hand.

CHAPTKR

T(.)

ments.

De

For

31.

la

Dominicis, a minor architect in the orbit

L'Urhe (1938), no.

loggia del Paradiso dell'Abbazia di Montecassino',

of Raguzzini, see V. Golzio

Commentary x.xi (1970).

There seems now to be a measure of agreement to
attribute the delightful Borrominesque facade of the
little church of S. Maria della Neve (S. Andrea in

Portogallo) to Francesco Fontana and date

astonishingly tame for the architect of S. Giovanni in

see N.

Mallorv, in J. Soc. Arch. Hist.,

J.

it

1707-8;

.\xvi (1967),

ff.

Segni

C. Thoenes

Roma

(Chiese di
32.

He is,

for instance, responsible tor the rebuilding

L. .\lortari, 55. Celso e Giuliano

illustrate, 88),

Rome,

1966.

Documents
Roma, ill

Laterano.

in

}}. Sardi

(c.

for the facade published

by V.

(1925), no. 6.

1680- 1753, not to be mixed up with the

of the interesting Palazzo di S. Luigi de' Francesi

Venetian architect of the same name,

(1709-12), which foreshadows the Rococo palace in

acted as clerk of the works to other architects.

Rome. See

Chapter

also above.

For Bizzacheri, see M. Tafuri,

12,

Note

in Diz. Biograf. degli

For Specchi, Thomas Ashby and Stephen Welsh

The Town Planning Review, XI (1927), 237-48.
Specchi illustrated many of Fontana's works and col24.

laborated in works on

Roman

topography and archi-

tecture.
25.

Alessandro Bocca,

Rome, 1950
377. 26.

(last ed.

made

influence on

De

it

Palazzo del Banco

di

Roma,

1967).

But W. Lotz,

(1969), has

//

Rom. Jahrh. f. Kunstg., Xil

that Specchi had a formative

in

likely

Sanctis' final project.

It may also be mentioned that between 17 18 and 1720

Specchi skilfully completed the fafade of S. Anna de'

Palafrenieri,

which had been

after Vignola's death; see

left

unfinished in 1575,

M. Lewine,

in

Art

Bull.,

XLVii (1965), 217.

27. This facade shows an interesting development
away from Fontana's S. Marcello in the direction of
but probably without
Juvarra's S. Cristina at Turin
a knowledge of the latter.

677-1766), philosopher,
poet, and architect, three times principe of the .Aca28. Teodoli, also

Theodoli

( 1

demy of St Luke (1734-5, 1742, 1750) and therefore a

figure of considerable standing, has to our present
this one church to his credit. The
without special merit, but the exterior with

knowledge only
interior

is

the stepped

dome

c.

162

99) often

The

complicated history of S. Maria .Maddalena, to which

32.

Italiani, x, 1968.

in

7,

G.

.Also

i.

Neo-Cinquescentesque, not without dignity, but

Moschini
23.

in

F. Fasolo in Qiiaderni (1953), no. 4,

reveals an interesting personality.

G. A. Rossi and Carlo Quadrio contributed, has been

cleared up by V. Golzio in Dedalo, xil (1932), 58, but
the facade

still

presents a puzzle.

It is

usually attributed

w as, however, built by Carlo Giulio Quadrio

between 1697 and 1699 and only the facing and the
to Sardi

it

extravagant stucco decoration date from 1735. N.

.\.

Mallory (see Bibliography under Sardi) argued rather

convincingly that there are no indications in Sardi's

documented work that would favour an attribution of

Rococo frames and rich floral decoration to him. By
contrast, P. Portoghesi (Roma harocca, Rome, 1966,
348) eloquently advocates Sardi's authorship. Even
the richly and elegantly decorated church of the SS.

Marino near Rome, the attribution of which

supported by contemporary tradition (see
S. Benedetti, in Qjiaderni, Xli, 67-70 (1965), 7 ff.), has
nothing in common w ith the Rococo decoration of S.

Rosario

to Sardi

at

is

Maria Maddalena.
born at Lyons, came to
French .Academy (1723) and
death. See A. .Martini-.Vl. L.

34. Derizet (1697- 1768),

Rome

as a student of the

stayed there until his

Casanova, SS.
trate, 70),

Nome

Rome,

on Derizet by

di

Maria (Chiese

di

Roma

1962, 23 (with documents).

W.

Oechslin

is

.A

illus-

paper

about to appear

in

Qiiaderm.
^5. The architect was a
Rome his home as early as
di

Portuguese

who had made

1728 (Lidia Bianchi, Disegni

Ferdinando Fuga, Rome, 1955, no) and was

BIBLOSARTE

still

556

NOTES TO CHAPTER

16

there in 1772. Sardi acted as his clerk of works at SS.

M.

Trinita.

XI, 61

Tafuri, in Qjiaderni,

(1964),

ft'.,

F. Cerroti, Leitcre e memorie aiitografe,

A. Prandi, 'Antonio Derizet e

Giovanni

gives the history of the church and monastery from

di S.

documents and the drawings preserved in the Archivio

Rotili,

di Stato.

Ameh's design

36.

is

graceful, but infinitely less

powerful and original than Valvassori's.

37. V. Golzio in

L'Urbe (1938), no.

7, 7

ff.

On

P.

The

38.

material assembled by R. Berliner in Miin-

Kunst, ix-x (1958-9), 302 ff.,

shows that both beginning and end of the building are
chner Jahrh. f.
difficult to

hild.

determine.

The

dates given in the text are

approximations. According to

Gaus

J.

'II
il

{Marchtonrii,

la

i860;

facciata

Laterano', Roma, xxii (1944), 23;

in

Concorso per

la

facciata di S.

Giovanni

Laterano

in

parere della Congregazione', Botletlino deU'Unione

Storia ed Arte,

Rome, May-June 1959, 3. V. Golzio

own memorandum about his

has published Galilei's

design

vio storun messinese, l-li {1949-50).

Rome,

concorso per

Raguzzini (Note 39); L. Bianchi's Catalogue

(Note 35); A. Schiavo, op. cit. (Note 45), 37, and idem,
e

M. Accascina in Anht-

Passalacqua from Messina, see

il

in

Miscellanea Bihl. Hertzianae, 1961, 450. See

New York

also the

University

Schendler (summary

M.A.

thesis

by Virginia

Marsyas, xiv (1968-9), 78).

Only seventeen of the twenty-three competitors are
mentioned in the literature, amongst them the Boloin

gnese Ferdinando Galli Bibiena and C. F. Dotti, the

1967, 23, 25, see Bibliography) the planning began in

Venetian Domenico Rossi, the Sienese Lelio Cosatti,

was completed in 1762.

Filippo Raguzzini e il rococo romatui.

and the Neapolitan L. Vanvitelli. Two other competitors, overlooked by all those who have written about
this matter, were Pietro Carattoli (1703-60) from

1748 and the

39.

Mario

Rome,

195

villa

Rotili,
1,

with further literature.

in Illustrazione Vattcana, iv (1933), 303,

Perugia, the architect of the Palazzo Antinori (Gal-

and A. Rava in Capitolitim, x (1934), 385-98. See also

F. Fasolo, Lc chiese dt Roma nel 'joo, Rome, 1949, 70.
41. Ilaria Toesca in English Miscellany, ill (1952),

lenga Stuart, 1748-58), the most impressive Baroque

40.

M.

Loret

189-220.
42.

Guglielmo Matthiae, Ferdinando Fuga

opera romana,

Rome, 1951;

e la sua

L. Bianchi's Catalogue

Note 35); R. Pane, F. Fuga, Naples, 1956.

379. 43. For its history, see mainly E. Hempel in Festschrift H. Woelfflin, Munich, 1924, 283 ff. C. Bandini
in Capitolium, 11(1931), 327 P. Pecchiai, La scalinata
di piazza dt Spagna, Rome, 1941 and the exhaustive
paper by W. Lotz (quoted above. Note 26).
380. 44. Raguzzini's undulating facade of S. Maria

(see

palace of his native city; and Bernardo Vittone from

Turin (see his Istruzioni element an, Lugano, 1760,
443 and plate 74). Another competitor, rediscovered
by H. Hager, was Ludovico Rusconi Sassi (16781736), about

whom

was obviously unaware. See

Just before leaving

della

Quercia reveals the same spirit; see A. Martini,

Maria della Quercia (Chiese di Roma illustrate, 67),
Rome, 1 96 1.
45. Clement XII arranged a competition in 1732.

Knight of Glyn,
1969), 722

Sixteen designs were exhibited in the Quirinal and

Salvi's was chosen. After the latter's death, Giuseppe

ments

basins under Neptune.

The literature on the Fontana Trevi is vast. The most

Armando Schiavo (La Fontana di
Trevi e le allre opere di Nicola Salvi, Rome, 1956) and

recent studies by

H. Lester Cooke, Jr (Art Bull., xxxviii (1956)) are

fuller than any previous treatment without, however,
presenting the entire material on the history of the
fountain. In addition, Cooke's article should be used
with caution. See also C. d'Onofrio, Le Fonlane di

Roma, 1957, 225-62, with some new material, but also

unacceptable assertions and attributions.
382. 46. The history of this most important event has
not yet been fully reconstructed. For information see

London

Toesca, op.

I.

cit.,

in 17 19, Galilei

220.

may have

designed Castletown, Co. Kildare, near Dublin in a

vaguely Palladian manner; see M. Craig and the

S.

Pannini was appointed architect of the fountain (1752).

The major change he introduced is the three formal

see Donati, Art. Tic, 393.

was not until January 1726 that Galilei, then in

Florence, was advised from London that 'the reigning
taste is Palladio's style of building', a fact of which he
47. It

in

Country

Life,

383. 48. Marchionni's second great

known

CXLV (27 March

ff.

work

Sacristy of St Peter's (1776-87).

is

the well-

New

docu-

important paper by Berliner (Note 38,

368, 395), who published the extensive (ruiTf of drawings for a great variety of purposes by Carlo (1702-86)
in the

and his son Filippo (1732-1805). For the Sacristy of

St Peter's also H. H2geT,Jfuvarra, 1970, 49 (see Bibliography), and the extensive chapter in Gaus's book on
Marchionni (Bibliography), 67
49.

W.

Korte, 'Piranesi

Zeitschr.

Piranesi,

Smith College

Kiinstg.,

11

ff.

als praktischer Architekt',

(1933), 16-33. Wittkovver in

Museum

of Art, Northamp-

96 1, 99, has reconstructed the history of

Piranesi's S. Maria del Priorato on the Aventine
(1764-6) from documents and original drawings.
ton, Mass.,

The mediocre

Alessandro Dori, architect of the

{c. 1760; see L. Salerno, in Via del

Palazzo Rondanini

Cor so, 96 1,
1

of

Roman

24), indicates the relatively

architecture at this

BIBLOSARTE

moment.

low standard

NOTES TO CHAPTER

386. 50. For the history of Venetian Baroque architecture see E. Bassi's basic

work

(1962).

For the survival

Architettura

236

ft".,

l6

557

a I'enezia, 1962 (see Bibliography),

and that of the

priest

Carlo Corbellini from

and transformation of the Pailadian tradition, see

Wittkower in Barocco europeo e Barocco veneziano,

Brescia,

Florence, 1962, 77, and Bolktttno del Centra Internaz.

di Studt di Architettura^ v (1964).

additional satellite chapels at the west. His use of a

Moise is early, 1668. The undifferentiated

Late Baroque quality ensues from the profusion of

the tradition

Meyring's ('Arrigo Merengo's')

similar late sixteenth-century churches (p.

51. S.

later sculptural

dec-

oration rather than from the structural pattern, which

basically Pailadian.

is

who

in

the large church of S.

giant order of half-columns

as

all round the interior is in

coming down from Palladio, but the type

such belongs to the eighteenth-century revival of

Martire at Brescia

( 1

Padova, l (1961),

di Sliidi di .inhitettiira, V (1964), 61

59.

entire interior of the Chiesa dei Gesuiti

is

spun over with inlaid marble imitating tapestry. The

high altar is by .\ndrea Pozzo's brother, Jacopo Antonio (1645-1725), a specialist in altar designs, whose
importance has only recently been discovered; see F.
Pilo Casagrande in Palladia, viii (1958), 78. The
facade, closely set with free-standing columns, is
Rossi's largest work. His earlier fa9ade of S. Stae
(1709) is more interesting, for its structure is based on
an unorthodox handling of Palladio'sinterpenetration
of a large and a small order.
Yet

53.

comparison of

ghena's Pesaro

Tirali's Valier with

monument of

1669

that the classical element of the

new

in the Frari

Lonshows

column has been given

weight, while the statues, the principal feature of

The

principal source for Tirali's

life is

Temanza's

Ztbaldon, ed. N. Ivanoff, Venice-Rome, 1963, 17.

W.

The

Lorenzo

For the continuity of the Pailadian tradition

in

Venice, see R. Wittkower, in Boll, del Centra Internaz.

ft'.

For the carefully calculated system of proportion

(p. 372), see Cicognara-Diedo-Selva, Le fahhnche e
monumenti cnspicui di Venezia, Venice, 1858, II, 95.
59.

D. Lewis (above. Note 55), 40, emphasized the reliance of SS. Simeonc e Giuda on Palladio's Tempietto
at Maser.
60.

D. Lewis,

op. cit.,

has skilfully reconstructed the

small but important ceuvre of

Temanza's life,

see Ivanoft

anza, Zibaldon (Note 53).

's

.\1.

Lucchesi.

Introduction to T.

Temanza or, more

For

Tem-

likely, his

uncle Scalfarotto was the teacher of Giovanni Battista

Novello, the architect of the mid-eighteenth-century

Palazzo Papafava
originality ;.\.

at

Padua, which displays surprising

Rowan,

Burl. .Ma?..

c:\iii

(1966), 184

ft".

389. 61. Fausto Franco, 'La scuola architettonica di

Vicenza', / .Wonumenti Italiani,

the Pesaro, are disproportionately small.

17).

75 1 -63) also contains neo-cinque-

centesque elements.

The

strong Baroque facade of Corbellini's S.

For Tremignon, see C. Semenzato in Alti della

Accademta Patavina di scienze, lettere ed arti, N.S. LXI\
(1952), and G. B. Alvarez in Boll, del Museo Civico dt
52.

Geremia (1753-

60) returned to a classicizing Greek-cross type with

'La scuola Scamozziana "di

Palladia.

(1937), 59

stile

ill

(1934), and idem,

severo" a \ icenza".

ft'.

accepted dating of 1700.

For the continuity of Scamozzi's classical formulas at

Vicenza, see, e.g., Pizzocaro's Istituto dei Proti and
Palazzo Piovini-Beltrame, both 1658, and his masterpiece, the Villa Ghellini Dall'Olmo at Villaverla
(1664-79; for Pizzocaro, see L. Puppi in Prospettne,
no. 23 (1960-1), 42, and R. Cevese in Boll, del Centra
Internaz. di Studi di Architettura, i\ (1962), 135), and

56. E. Bassi's chapter (Note 50) on .\Iassari supersedes the studies by V. Moschini in Dedalo, xii (1932),

also attributed to

198-229, and C. Semenzato

Carlo Borella, the architect of the Sanctuary on .Monte

387. 54. For Palladio's project, see

in

Arte Veneta,

Timofiewitsch

xiii-.xiv (1959-60), 79.

D. Lewis, 'Notes on XVIII Century Venetian

Architecture', Boll, dei Musei Civici Veneziani, xn
in
( 1 967), no. 3, has given rather convincing arguments
55.

favour of this

56a.

late

G. Fiocco,

VI (1968),

18

ft'.,

date in preference to the previously

in

in

Arte Veneta,

xi (1957),

Saggt e Alemorie di storm

i-

dell' arte,

attributes the painted architecture to

Francesco Zanchi, the chiaroscuri

Morlaiter, and the figures to

to

Michelangelo

Giacomo .\ntonio Ceruti.

57. Massari's chief assistant,

Bernardo .Maccaruzzi

1728-1800), the architect of S. Giovanni Evangelista in Venice (r. 1755-9) and of the Cathedral at

{c.

Cividale (1767

ff.),

(above. Note 55),

deserves mention; see D. Lewis

ff^.

may add the name of Andrea Cominelli, who

58.
enlarged the Palazzo Labia before 1703 (E. Bassi,

We

Carlo Borella's Palazzo Barbieri-Piovene (1676-80),

Tremignon and Giacomo

Borella.

Berico (1688- 1703), was not averse to using a certain

the Chiesa dell'

amount of Baroque paraphernalia. But

Araceli (began in 1675), always attributed to him,

was

based on a design by Guarini; see P. Portoghesi in

Critica d'Arte, no. 20 (1957), 108

Borella, see Cevese, op.

62. Francesco
tireless builder

Muttoni
of

cit.,

and no.

21, 214.

For

140.

(see F. Franco, thid., 147), the

villas (Villa

Fracanzan,

Comune

di

Orgiano, 1710; 'La Favorita' at .Monticello di Fara,

4- 1 5 Villa Valmarana at .Altavilla N'icentina, 1 724;
1 7 1
etc.), is famed for his creations in a mildly Baroque
;

BIBLOSARTE

558

NOTES TO CHAPTER

16

taste: principal

example, his well known Palazzo Re-

1821) staircase of the Palazzo Hercolani (Via Mazzini

peta at Vicenza

(now Banca

11) with a

45) of 1792 the

large scenic staircase. Yet he never denied his Falla-

without a break.

d'ltalia, 1701

dian derivation (see F. Barbieri

M.

(1961), 287; also

Tafuri,

'II

in Qtiadcrni, vi

vill

parco della Villa Tris-

sino a Trissino e I'opera di Francesco Muttoni', in

L'Architellura, cronache e sloria, x, no. 114

832

It is

ff.).

(igfi.s),

interesting for the rise ofPalladianism in

England that he maintained close contact with Lord

Burlington.

The

Montecchio Maggiore, preis by Massari (1735),

Villa Cordellina at

viously attributed to Muttoni,

seeC. Semenzato in Arte Veneta,

Connoisseur, CXL (1957), 151.

xi (1957), 6; see also

Cevese, 'Palladianita di Ottone Calderari',

For

Tommaso

69. See, e.g.,

tradition

in

Odeo

ff.

at

Verona,

Padua, Treviso, and Bassano, see the papers by P.

M. Pio, M. T. Pavan, and C. Semenzato

Mattei's mid-eighteenth-

Fer-

at

G. F. Buonamici's grand staircase of the

Palazzo Baronio (now Rasponi Bonanzi) at Ravenna
by Domenico Barbiani, 1744).
at Crema has a superb
eighteenth-century staircase on the pattern of Longhena's staircase in S. Giorgio Maggiore.
(the palace

The

was

built

Albergoni

Palazzo

]0. C.Ricci, I teatri di Bologna, Bologna, 1888, i76ff.

71.

For

a fuller survey, see P.

Mezzanotte's chapters

Mtlano, 1958, xi, 441 and 1959, xii, 659.

72. For Merli or Merlo, see now the excellent monograph by M. L. Gatti Perer (Bibliography).
;

The contemporary

tradition

as

to

Ruggeri's

ambiguous, but he was born in Rome

rather than Milan see G. Mezzanotte, 'G. R. e le ville
place of birth

is

lombarde'. Boll. Centro Internaz. Studt di

Gazzola, G.

di delizia

in Boll, del Centro Internaz. di Studi di Architettura,

Archit., XI (1969), 243.

The

IV (1962).

also continued

rara or

73.

survey of Baroque architecture

is

century staircase of the Palazzo Arcivcscovilc

in Storia di

63. F. Barbieri in Arte Veneta, vii (1953), 63. Also R.

Olimpico, V (1964-5), 45

Baroque

fa9ade of the Palazzo Litta

is

often wrongly

who is the architect of the splen-

For the Veronese Neo-classicist Alessandro Pompei,

see Semenzato, Arte Veneta, xv (1961), 192.
64. See Le ville venete. Catalogo a cura di Giuseppe

did Villa Alari-Visconti at Cernusco. His pupil Gia-

Mazzotti (many collaborators), Treviso, 1954, with

Belgioioso (now Trivulzio) at Merate.

full

bibliography.

unknown
Manin (1738). The
La Villa Manin di Passari-

Giovanni Ziborghi who

65.

is

otherwise

signed as architect of the Villa

monograph by C.

Grassi,

ano, Udine, 1961,

is

disappointing. See also A. Rizzi,

in Boll. Ufficiale della

.

di

The

Camera

di

Commercio, Industria

Udine (March 1964), 3-10.

Villa Pisani

is

that this

work

is

It

como Muttone

( 1

662- 1 742) built the well-known

must, however, be pointed out

of infinitely higher quality than the

unusually dry Palladian buildings of the architect from

who worked

the

minor Milanese practitioners may be mentioned Federico Pietrasanta (1656-f. 1708, see M. L. Gengaro in
Riv.d'Arte, xx (1938), 89), Francesco Croce (Gengaro
in Boll. d'Arte, xxx (1936), 383), Giovan Battista
Quadrio and his pupil, Bernardo Maria Quarantini
(1679-1755); seeM. L. Gatti Perer in Arte Lomharda,
and XI (1966), 43 ff.
Lodi had Late Baroque architects in Michele and
Pier Giacomo Sartorio, and Bergamo in Achille and

Marco

Alessandri. For other names, see L. Angelini,

'Architettura settecentesca a Bergamo', Atti dello VIII

convegno nazionale di storia

dell' architettura,

in his native

Rome,

1956, 159-

Giuseppe Antonio Torri's (1655 1713)

Castelfranco (1701-74).
Frigimelica (1653-1732),

Villa

Among

VIII (1963), 161,

usually incorrectly attributed to

Girolamo Frigimelica. M. Favaro-Fabris, L'architetto

F. M. Preti, Treviso, 1954, has proved that Preti's
design was executed.

attributed to Ruggeri,

S.

Domenico

Modena (1708-31) is a remarkable centralized

building. The facade is an interesting version of the

at

Padua (S. Maria del Pianto, 1718-26), at Rovigo,

Modena, Vicenza, Stra, etc., would deserve more

aedicule facade, consisting of a closely set colossal

attention. See Bibliography.

order of pilasters applied to a red-brick wall.

66. Fogolari in L'Arte, xvi (1913), 401-18.

now

the book by A.

M.

See also

Matteucci, 1969 (Biblio-

graphy under Bologna).

390. 67. See

Commune

di Bologna, xi (1933), 69.

391. 68. See the Palazzo of the Credito Italiano (Via

1770; the Casa del Linificio Nazionale (formerly Palazzo Ghisilieri); and the Palazzo

Monte Grappa

5),

77), 1796, where the enand the staircase form a picturesque ensemble. In Angelo Venturoli's (1749-

Scagliarini (Via Riva di

trance, the courtyards,

Reno

Brescia had native Baroque architects in Antonio

Turbini and his son Gaspare and in Giovan Battista
Marchetti and his son Antonio (1724-91). The latter
built the Palazzo Gambara (now Seminario Vescovile)

and the Palazzo Soncini (1760s), both with impressive

staircase halls, and the Villa Negroboni, now Feltrinelli, at Gerolanuova (1772-92) in an international
Baroque style; see G. Cappelletto in Arte Lomharda,
III

(1958), 51.

74.

For Piermarini and other neo-classical Lombard

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

architects

and

their

reveahng connexions with the

manner, see G.Mezzanotte,

Naples of the new King, Charles

11, in

l6

559

738 those for

earlier eighteenth-centurj'

the King's wedding, etc.

Architettura neoclassica in Lomhardia, Naples, 1966.

84. Other churches by him Chiesa delle Crocelle; S.

Maria succurre miseris; facade of S. Lorenzo, 1743;

392. 75.

M. Labo,

'Studi di architettura Genovese',

L'Arte, xxiv (1921), 139-51, repeats the traditional

chiostro, monastery of

attribution of the palace to Pier Antonio Corradi. C.

restoration

Marcenaro

tery, etc.

in

Paragone,

xii (1961), no.

139, 24, has

corrected the attribution on the basis of documents.

The splendid pictorial decoration of the palace by Gre-

Donnaregina together with the

and enlargement of the church and monas-

394. 85. Further on his staircases. Pane, op.

Illustration

270 after Pane, 187,

182

cit.,

illustrates the

fl".

double

gorio de Ferrari, Giovan .Andrea Carlone, Bartolomeo

Guidobono, and others began in 1679.
76. See, among others, rooms in the Palazzo Durazzo
(formerly Reale), which - according to tradition - was

staircase in the palace in \'ia Foria 234. (This address

its final shape towards the garden from designs

by Carlo Fontana (1705); further rooms in the Palazzi
Granello (Piazza Giustiniani) and Saluzzo (Via Albaro) and, above all, in the Palazzo Balbi Cattaneo

395. 86.

(Via Balbi).

thus an .Austrian conception makes

given

According

77.

to Soprani, Vite,

11,

271,

De

work, executed shortly before his death

last

Ferrari's

in

1744

at

given by Pane

no longer

is

Nauclerio, follows the type

By

Courtauld
della

correct.)

The charming

of the Palazzo Fernandez, attributed

staircase

Sir

shown

Anthony Blunt

to

in illustration 269.

given

in lectures

at

the

Fuga's staircase of the Palazzo

Institute.

(p. 382), unique in Rome, derives from

by Sanfelice (see Pane, Fuga (Note 42), 41) -

Consulta

staircases

its

entry into

Rome

via Naples.

87.

See mainly L. Vanvitelli

Jr, Vila dell'archtleltn

There is now a satisfactory monograph

by E. Gavazza on L. de Ferrari (see Bibliography).
78. Hugh Honour, 'The Palazzo Corsini, Florence',

L. Vanvitelli, Naples, 1823; F. Fichera, Luigi Vanvi-

Connoisseur, CXXXVlii (1956), 160.

The

eighth Congress of the History of Architecture

For the early history of S. Firenze, above p. 246.

The church itself was built by Pier Francesco Silvani
after 1668, and not by Ferri, as is usually said. See

was

to a large extent

dello

VIII convegno nazionale di

the age of 64.

79.

Paatz, Ktrchen von Flnrenz,

II,

Florence between 1753 and

Rtv.d'Arte, XXXI (1958), 157;

in

1776; see R. Chiarelli in

Rome,

telli's

work

Rome,
88.

115.

393. 80. Buontalenti influence is also to be found in the

work of Ignazio Pellegrini (171 5-90), who was born in

Verona but practised

telli,

1937, with further literature.

at

Vanvi-

devoted to Vanvitelli; see

many

1956, with

same author's

//

.-///;

sloria dell' architettura,

valuable contributions.

Rome, 1937; F.
Naples, 1954 (also
Palazzo Reale di Caserta e i Bor-

G. Chierici, La Regia

de Filippis, Caserta
the

On

.Ancona, L. Serra in Dedalo, x (1929).

di Caserta,

e la sua reggia.

honi di Napoli, Naples, 1968); Marcello Fagiolo-Dell'

Arco, Funzwni simholi valori della Reggia

The

di

Caserta,

also idem, Architetturefiorentineetoscanedi

Rome,

ijgo), 1966, and Architetture pisane di

deH'archivio Pellegrini di Verona, Universita di Pisa,

stone of Caserta was laid on 20 January 1752 between

1966.

the

81. Begun in 1738 by Giovanni Antonio Medrano

with the assistance of .Antonio Canevari (i68i-f.

was finished

1750), and not yet finished in 1759. Medrano also built

the theatre of S. Carlo (1737) to which later Fuga and

ario inedito di L. Vanvitelli', in Studi in

LP. (1715IP. nei disegni

1963, with

full

bibliography.

foundation
;

1759 and 1764 interruption; after Luigi's death

work was continued by

his son, (^rlo.

in

1773

The exterior

in 1774, not entirely in accordance with

Luigi's plans. E. Rufini, 'L'importan/.a di un epistol-

Chierici,

Rome,

1965, 281

ff.,

memoria

di

of S. Giovanni de' Fiorcntini,

Rome)

G. M. Bibiena contributed. It was destroyed by fire

See A. Venditti, Archil etiura neoclassica a
1 816.

(in the .\rchive

in

of letters which \'anvitelli addressed to his brother

Napoli, Naples, 1961, 237.

Lrbano between

For the following see mainly R. Pane, Architettura

Naples, 1939, and idem,

and

G.

reports an extensive find

Don

1751 and 1768, written from Caserta

to a large extent

concerned with the building of

dell 'eta harocca in Napoli,

the castle.

Napoli imprevista, Turin, 1949; also Bibliography.

82. R. Mormone, 'D. A. Vaccaro architetto', Napoli

398. 89. But the differences are not negligible; see

Nohilissima,
83.

King Charles

702 for the

festival

1701 for the funeral decora-

II in

the Cappella del Tesoro;

decorations on the occasion of

Philip V's visit to Naples; in 1731 for the funeral dec-

orations of the

designed the

Fichera, op.

cit.,

42.

90. Fagiolo-Dell'.^rco, op.

(1961-2), 135.

He was responsible in

tions for
in

Duke Gaetano

.\rgento; in 1734 he

festival decorations for the entry into

cit.,

46, wants to derive the

Caserta octagons from Early Christian or Byzantine

sources (precisely what I have claimed for S. .Maria
della Salute) and. without supporting his

argument,

refuses to accept the obvious: the direct impact of the

Salute, a building well

399. 91.

It

is

known

to \ anvitelli.

noteworthy not only that \

BIBLOSARTE

anvitelli in

560

NOTES TO CHAPTER

16

church made use of Borrominesque detail but that

this

dome

he fashioned the design of the

after Cortona's

Giuseppe Mariani from

ably

Giacomo

SS. Martina e Luca. In keeping with his rationahsm,

minesque

however, he did not superimpose the ribs of the vault

in

upon the

and gave the

coffers

latter a severely

geo-

For Neapolitan architecture of the second half of

the eighteenth century, see A. Venditti, Architcltura

neoclas.su a a Napoli,

93.

Naples, 1961, 51 and passim.

Work on Apulian

architecture of the seventeenth

and eighteenth centuries is in its beginnings. The

older book by M. S. Briggs, /;; ihe Heel oj Italy, London, 1910,

M.

Comment an., V
historical methods to

M.

time.

Calvesi and
.

.,

M.
197

Manieri-Elia, Architet1,

replaces the previous

G. Bresciani Alvarez,
and M. Manieri-Elia appeared in the Atti

Interesting contributions by
Calvesi,

del

IX

Rome,

1938, 134, reports nineteenth-century

ment of G.

Amico

B.

Nazwnale di storia dell'architettura,

155, 177, 189. These authors turn against

The only monographic treatby V. Scuderi, Palladio,

is

work

(1961), 56 (with chronological

t,},

100.

For these

villas, see

the fine study by

Palermo, 1950. For the correct dating of the Villa

nation and, therefore,

more has been

1959,

most recent book on the subject

Palagonisches Barock, Frankfurt,

importance of Naples and Sicily

in

The

by K. Lohmeyer,

is

see also Brassai

1 943
G.d.B.A., lxi (i960), 351, and G. Levitine, ihid.,
LXiii (1964), 13, with further references.
;

Maria Carolina, Maria Theresa's daughthe Queen of Bourbon Naples, and her
daughter, Maria Theresa, Princess of Naples and
102. Later,

SICILY.

The Quattro Canti are traditionally attributed to

Roman (.') Giulio Lasso, 1608; Mariano Smiriglio

95.

directed the

work

in 16 17

in 1621; see F. Meli,

and Giovanni de Avanzato

Arch. Star, per

(1938-9), 318. For Smiriglio,

mande

\'al-

written about this

than about any other Sicilian monument.

the legend of the Spanish influence and emphasize the

the

Ziino,

guarnera, see V. Ziino in Atti (see Note 95), 329.

loi. Monstrosities always exercise a particular fasci-

villa

400. 94. For the literature see Bibliography, section

\'.

Contributi alio studio dell 'architettura del 'joo in Sicilia,

Congresso

for Apulia.

xi

G. B.
ff.) pub-

catalogue).

Comande (in Qitaderni, Xii, 67-70 (1965),

summary of Amico's rare book L'Architetto

pratico of 1726.

on the subject.

M.

Sicilia, Bari,

alterations to this facade.

Calvesi applies

tura barocca a Lecce

literature

401. 99. E. Calandra, Breve storia deU'architettura in

lished a

the investigation of the architecture of Lecce for the

first

became court architect in Palermo

in Commentan, xi (i960), 260.

98. A. Chastel in Reiiie des sciences humaines, fasc.

useful. In his article in

is still

(1954), 316,

flavour,

1722; see V. Scuderi

55 6 (1949), 202.

metrical octagonal star-form.

92.

1731), prob-

Pistoia (1681

.Amato's pupil, whose work has a Borro-

in Atti del

ibid.,

la Sicilia,

354; G. B.

VII Congresso Naz.

iv-v

Com-

di storia dell'

became

ter,

married the Hapsburg Emperor Francis II.

Chapter 12, Note 9. For Picherali,

Sicily,

103. See above.

see

G. Agnelli

7), VI

(1939),

in

Arch.

and

stor.

series

per

la Sicilia, ii-iii

vol.

III,

11

(1936-

(1947), 281. For

Palermo, 1956, 307.

features of this palace derive from the stock

Luciano Ali, the architect of the remarkable Palazzo

Beneventano at Syracuse (1779), see S. L. Agnello in

of Mannerist motifs, but the balcony surrounding the

Atti dello I III convegno nazionale di storia dell'archi-

arch.,

96.

Many

entire structure

and the large supporting brackets

superimposed on the triglyphs of the entablature

underneath are typically Sicilian.

For Vermexio, see E. Mauceri, Giovanni Verme.xio,

Syracuse, 1928; G. Agnello, 'I! tempio vermexiano di
S. Lucia a Siracusa', Arch. Stor. per la Sicilia orient ale,
153; and idem, I Verme.xio, Florence, 1959
(also A. Blunt's review in Burl. Mag., Cii (i960), 124).
VII {1954),

97.

have been unable to find out whether the book

by V. Grazia Pezzini, Giacomo Amato

e I'architettiira

tettura,

104.

Rome,

1956, 213.

O. Sitwell, 'Noto, a Baroque City', Architec-

tural Review, Lxxvi (1934), 129;

N. Pisani, Noto.

R.I.B.A., Lxvi (1958),

1 1

F. Popelier in G.d.B.A., Lix

(1962), 81. S. Bottari in Palladio, viii (1958), 69,

Gagliardi's and other

Sicilian

architects'

church

fafades with high central tower are un-Italian and

point once again to Austrian prototypes.

To

this class

belong Gagliardi's Cathedral and S. Giuseppe

peared. L. Biagi's 'Giacomo Amati e

Ragusa and

sua posizione

nell'architettura palermitana', L'Arte, xlii (1939), 29,

S. Giorgio at

105. F. Fichera, G. B.

Documentary
material for Paolo and Giacomo Amato in Meli, op.
cit., 359, 367. Paolo Amato's La nttova pratica della

Settecento in Sicilia,

posthumously
by his friend Giuseppe de Miteli, is prefaced by a life
of the architect (presumably written by De Miteli)
which includes a list of works with dates.

cit.,

gives

less

than

the

title

promises.

prospettiva (Palermo, 1736), published

is

mainly concerned with Gagliardi's work.

barocca a Palermo, announced in 1961, has ever apla

la

Citta d'Oro, ed. Ciranna, 1953; J. -J. Ide \n Journal

106.

The

at

Modica.

Vaccarim

Rome,

e I'architettiira del

1934.

Benedictine monastery has a long and com-

plicated building history for

80, 143, etc.

Amato and

which

see Fichera, op.

The main contributors were Antonino

his sons

Lorenzo and Andrea

(until 1735),

Francesco Battaglia (1747-56), Giuseppe Palazzotto

(until 1763), and Stefano Ittar (1768).

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

CHAPTER
403.

I.

17

For

17

561

Bihl. Hertzianae, 1961, 418; M. Passanti, Nel mondo

magico di Guarino Guarini, Turin, 1963 (an architect's

Vittozzi, see Bibliography.

On the Castel-

study

who

follows

up the genesis of Guarini's

motifs).

lamonte see C. Boggio, Gli architeiti Carlo ed Amedeo

di Castellamonle, Turin, 1896, and G. Brino (and

The

Amedeo di Castellamorile,
Turin, 1966. Buildings by Amedeo: S. Salvario in via
Nizza (1646-53), Chiesa di Lucento (1654), S. Mar-

information of interest. For the enormous increase of

Guarini studies in recent years the reader is referred

others), L'opera di Carlo e

tiniano (1678, destroyed), Palazzo della Curia

Maxima

(now containing also

collections of the University, begun 1680), and, above
all, the Palazzo Reale, begun in 1646. The architect
and engraver Giovenale Boetto (1640c 1678) reveals
close links with Vittozzi and Carlo di Castellamonte in
his buildings in Piedmont; see monograph by i\.
(1672), Hospital of S. Giovanni

Carboneri A. Griseri (Bibliography).

His most important buildings: the extensive Palazzo di Citta (1659-63, enlarged by Alfieri; see E.
2.

Olivero

in Torino, \ (1927),

373

tazione (166 1, facade 1765), S.

ft'.),

Chiesa della Visi-

Rocco (1667-91 facade

,

1890), SS. Maurizio e Lazzaro (1679

dome and

facade

LanEmanuele. All these churches are

centralized buildings, S. Rocco and SS. Maurizio e
Lazzaro with impressive use of free-standing columns.
For Lanfranchi, see A. Cavallari-Murat in Boll. Sac.
1835), the latter church according to Olivero by

franchi's son. Carlo

Piemontese di archeologia
i),

e di belle arti,

xiv-xv (1960-

M.

For the whole question of Turin's urban development, see P. Gribaudi, 'Lo sviluppo edilizio di Torino
dall'epoca romana ai giorni nostri', Torino, xi (1933),
3.

M.

Passanti, 'Le trasformazioni barocche

entro I'area della Torino antica', Atti del

di storia delTarchitettura,

Rome,

X Congresso

1959, 69-100.

Further for seventeenth-century Piedmontese

architecture: A. E. Brinckmann, Theatrum Novum
4.

Pedemontii, Diisseldorf, 193

1;

A. Ressa, 'L'architet-

tura religiosa in Piemonte nei secoli .XVII e X\'III)\

Torino, XIX (1941);

M.

monte, Turin, 1945.

Passanti, Architettura in Pie-

On

the richly decorated Castello

del Valentino, the planning of

which

essentially

is

.Anderegg-Tille,

Die Schule Guarinis, Winterthur, 1962, contains

little

to the Bibliography.

T. Sandonnini,

6.
7.

op. cit., 489, and Portoghesi, op. cit.

Guarini's writings, E. Olivero in // Duomo di

On

Torino,

M.

no. 6 (1928).

11,

Accascina

in Boll. d'Arle, XLI (1956), 48, pubphotograph of the facade of the .^nnunziata; see also W. Hager, 'Guarinis Theatinerfassade
in Messina' in Das Werk des Kiinstlers. Hubert Schrade
8.

lished an old

zum
The

bo. Gehurtstag dargebracht, Stuttgart, i960, 230.

picturesque facade of S. Gregorio, destroyed in

1908,

is

often illustrated as a characteristic example of

But documents prove (.\ccascina,

was not finished
until 1743. The strange campanile 'a lumaca' was
finished in 17 17, .M. Accascina suggests from a design
by Juvarra; this does not seem convincing.
9. Portoghesi, op. cit., wants to date the design about
Guarini's
ihid.,

style.

XLii (1957), 153) that the facade

1670, and

Hager (last Note), 232, follows Portoghesi's

There seems to be a general inclination to

late dating.

favour the

late date.

405. 10. L. Hzutec(EUT,Histoirede

47-82.

no. 8; also

pedestrian dissertation by

que en France,
ture.

The

11,

r architecture classi-

Paris, 1948, 245, with further litera-

history of the church has

by D. R. Coffin

now been

clarified

m Journal ofthe Society ofArchitectural

Historians, xv (1956), no. 2.

1

1.

The correspondence

Franc^ois

Mansart

at

with similar devices used by

an earlier date

(.\.

Blunt, .irt and

Architecture in France, 148; P. Smith, Burl. .Wag., cvi

(1964), 114, figure 20, suggests that .Mansart had de-

vised a cut-ofl
early as 1645)

is

dome

design for the Val de Grace as

striking.

There seems

to

have been an

interesting give and take between Guarini and the

dome

of Saintc-

in all likelihood

developed

French. While Guarini's truncated

Anne-la-Royale (1662) was

Brinckmann, Brizio, and Viale, Turin, 1949. - On the

Baroque architecture at Carignano near Turin, see G.

from .Mansart 's staircase at Blois, the latter in turn followed Guarini's version of Sainte-.\nne for the design
of the Bourbon Chapel at Saint-Denis (1665). In his

congresso della Societa Pie-

church of the Invalides(i679ff".),J.Hardouin-Mansart

French, see the monograph by Cognasso, Bernardi,

Rodolfo, in Atti del

montese di Archeologia

Deput. subalpina
86. -

e Belle

Arti (A cura della R.

used the same type of dome, but adjusted the curve of

Turin, 1937, 130-

the second vault, w hich he closed in the centre (instead

di storia patria),

See also Bibliography,

of opening

III.

Apart from P. Portoghesi's monograph on

Guarini (Milan, 1956), which is useful in spite of the
brief text, see T. Sandonnini, 'II Padre Guarino Gua-

404.

rini',

5.

Atti e mem. R. Deput. di storia patria

modenesi

parmensi, ser.

3,

II,

no. 5 (1928);

provincie

v (1888), 483; E. Olivero,

'La vita e Parte del P. Guarino Guarini',

di Torino,

W. Hager

in //

Duomo

in Miscellanea

it

porated this
tano

into a lantern).

Once again Guarini

incor-

latest version into his project for S.

Gae-

at \'icenza (last period).

pagoda-like build-up, for which precedents

Northern Italy (p. 122), was often used by
Guarini and developed much further than ever before.
The most advanced example: his design for the Sanc12.

The

exist in

tuary at

Oropa

(1680).

BIBLOSARTE

562

NOTES TO CHAPTER

A. Terraghi in Allt del

13.

arch.,

Rome,

and 659
1

h)5(), 373,

for the

17

X Congresso di storia dell'

suggests a date between 1656

church and

oft'crs a

hypothesis regard-

ing Guarini's hkely stay in Portugal. But

Congress

in

Turin (1968)

F.

at

the Guarini

Chuecas suggested

that

Guarini's church was not buih until i6g8.

14. Begun by Guarini in 1679 and continued by
Michelangelo Garove (1650 1713). Further for the
history of the church, G. Chevalley, 'Vicende costruttive della Chiesa di San Filippo Neri', Bnllettmo del

Centra di studi areheulogin

del Piemonle, fasc.

11

on Garove's

The

Palazzo Carignano (1670-92)

is

by

far

the

most important of Guarini's domestic buildings. Its

plan combines motifs from Borromini's designs for the
Palazzo Carpegna and Bernini's first Louvre project,
but in the treatment of detail and of the decoration
Guarini is highly original. Much material in O. Cravero, Tl Palazzo Carignano', Atti e Rass. tecmca della

Soc. Ingegneri e Architetlt in Torino., xvii (1963).

analysis of the palace in

Rococo Architecture,

fine

H. A. Millon, Baroque and

New York,

1961, 22. Guarini also

made designs for the royal castle at Racconigi (between

1679 and 1683; C. Merlini in Torino, xix (1941), 35)
and for other palaces (see Portoghesi, op. cit.). We leave
a discussion

his

of all this aside in favour of an analysis of

work at Turin.
His design of 1678 had to incorporate an older

major

16.

alle

Quattro Fontane.

The

may

Palazzo Carignano

illustrate

how he

applied similar contrasts to a palace; see the undulat-

window frames (produced

ing

as if

by chance) con-

constantly repeated star-pattern of the court front.

410. 20. See also E. Battisti, 'Note sul significato della

Cappella della

Rome,

Lorenzo

21. S.

ecclesiastical

Sindone', Atti del

S.

storia dell'arch.,

is

Theatine church.

Congresso di

1959, 359.
Its

foundation

stone had been laid, long before Guarini, in 1634. See

G. M. Crepaldi, La Real Chiesa

work.
15.

Carlo

409. 19.

tained by hard geometrical forms, particularly the

406.

(1942). Here, too, further information

408. 18. See the oval reliefs in the pendentives of S.

di

San Lorenzo

in

Torino, Turin, 1963.

22.

Reference

may be made

to the fact that

two ad-

joining niches with statues always vary in depth and

stand

angles to each other which cannot easily be

at

perceived. Moreover, since the sides of the octagon are

not equally curved (the curves are

main

flatter in the

axes than in the diagonals), the relationships differ be-

tween two adjoining columns and the niches behind.

The Architettura civile contains, however, no

412. 23.

chapter on domes. This omission suggests that the

MS. was
24.

unfinished at the time of Guarini's death.

With Naples and

of Castile,
Guarini's

it

Sicily belonging to the

seems unnecessary

early

about

Hispano-Moresque

with

contacts

Kingdom

to speculate

architecture.

The

star-shaped

eight-pointed

dome above

the

church the dome of 1703 does not correspond to Guarini's design; enlargement by Juvarra, 17 14. Decora-

crossing of the cathedral of Saragossa probably

tion finished in 1740. Facade, 1854-60. Addition of

twelfth-century vestibule of the cathedral at Casale

nearest to the

dome

of S. Lorenzo.

four elliptical chapels, 1899-1904. See P. Buscalioni,

Monferrato near Turin with

La Consolata

secting ribs was, of course,

known

Guarini himself designed

S.

Turin, 1938.
documents in the State Archive,

nella storia di Torino,

407. 17. According to

Turin (available in the Soprintendenza), Bernardino

Quadri directed the work until 1667, supported by
Antonio Bettino (1659-64). 1660-3: construction of
the sacristy and the communication with the Palazzo
Reale. 1667: the carpenter G. Rosso is paid for the
wooden model of Guarini's project. Guarini had to use
marble and bronze which had already been worked.
The altar, planned by Guarini, was executed by Antonio Bertola. 1690; execution of the pavement. 1694:
transfer of the relic into the finished chapel. See also

Olivero in
7,

II

Duomo di

Torino,

11

(1928), no. 3

material about Bertola, 1647- 17 19,

a military architect) A.
;

(ihid.,

no.

who was mainly

Midana, 'II Duomo di Torino',

and above all M. Passanti,

in Italia Sacra, v (1929);

'Real Cappella della S. Sindone', in Torino, xx (1941),

1
and idem, Nel mondo magico (above, Note
For Antonio Bertola, see N. Carboneri, in Studi di

nos. 10,
5).

Storia dell'Arte

48

ff.

in

onore di Vittorio Viale, Turin, 1967,

The

comes

extraordinary

a vault consisting of inter-

to Guarini. In 1671

Filippo at Casale

Mon-

complex interpenetration of circular spaces. This church was completely altered in 1877.
See also Terraghi (above, Note 13), 369.
413. 25. Similarly, the system of the dome of the Cappella della SS. Sindone may have been stimulated by
the stalactite work in Islamic architecture.
26. But see W. Miiller, 'The Authenticity of Guarini's
ferrato,

based on

Stereotomy

in his

Architettura Civile', Journal Soc.

Architect. Historians, xxvii (1968), 202

in

Guarino Guarini

ff.,

and idem,

Tinternazionalita del Barocco,

Turin, 1970, I, 531 fT.

27. His publications of the 1670s and 80s are mainly

concerned with mathematics and astronomy.

28.

Guarini celebrated the

probably

first

Mass

in S.

Lorenzo

unique case of the alliance of architect and

same person.
same year, 1680, Emanuele Filiberto Amedeo,
Prince of Carignano, appointed him his 'teologo'. The
revealing document mentions that in him 'are united

priest in the

In the

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

highest

the

29.

See Olivero

befit a zealous priest'.

its

and admitted

size

strong influence from Bernini's Louvre project. Sacchetti followed Juvarra's design more closely in the

For Piedmontese architecture between the death

execution of the garden front of the palace of La Granja at S. Ildefonso near Segovia. New documents for

di Torino,

(1928), no. 4.

11

of Guarini and the arrival of Juvarra, see H. Millon,

'Michelangelo Garove and the Chapel of the Beato

Amedeo of Savoy in the Cathedral of Vercelli', Essays
the History oj Architecture presented to R.

in

who reduced

Battista Sacchetti,

in

Duomo

//

and theological

moral

philosophical,

which

sciences,

563

17

London, 1967, 134

successor to

ff.

Amedeo

Next

Commeniari,

in

ix

(1958), 273.

ittkower,

Garove, the most gifted

Castellamonte and Guarini (see
to

work, published by E. Battisti

this

None

37.

of his great projects for

Rome

(Sacristy of

St Peter's, Spanish Staircase, facade of S. Giovanni

Laterano) were executed. Juvarra was not an

in

official

above, Note

participant in the Lateran competition of 1732, but his

active:

early biographers

14), the following minor architects were

Maurizio Valperga, Giovanni Francesco Ba-

roncelli (d. 1694),

3)

and

to

whom

who

built the Palazzo Barolo (1692-

the Palazzo Graneri (1682-3)

is

tradi-

a project; for this

his other

work

in

mention

that he

was invited

sketches survive (Turin),

Rome,

see

!V1.

Loret

to

send

.^s

regards

in Critica

d 'Arte,

Emanuele Lanfranchi (16321721) and Antonio Bertola (1647- 17 19) who worked

(1937), 485, and also Arti Figurative, Ml (1947), 130.

on three of the buildings left unfinished by Guarini.

For Bertola, see also above Note 17; for Garove, R.

these churches will be discussed later.

tionally attributed. Carlo

Pommer, Eighteenth-Century Architecture in

mont, New York-London, 1967, passim.
414. 30. The principal publication on Juvarra

Pied-

Comitato per

the

first

le

onoranze

volume appeared

a F.J.'),

is

that

of which only

38.

With

39.

The

the exception of S. Croce, Turin (1718

ff.),

palace of the Venaria Reale (1714-26), Pa-

Madama

(1718-21), the castles at Rivoli (1718-

25; see A. Telluccini in Boll. d'Arte, x (1930/1), 145,

193) and at Stupinigi (begun 1729).
40. Palazzi Birago,

now Delia

Valle; Martini di Ci-

now Belgrano (both 17 16); Richa di Covasolo;

and Guarene, now d'Ormea (both 1730).

gala,

in 1937.

For the early Juvarra, see G. Chevalley in Boll. Soc.

(1947), 72, and, above all, M. Accascina in Boll, d 'Arte, XLi (1956), 38 XLii (1957), 50. For
Piemontese, N.s.

(1936), 198, and R. Battaglia in Boll. d'Arte, xxx

lazzo

by L. Rovere, V. Viale, and A. E. Brinckmann ('A cura

del

415. 41. This would have been even

The

the wings had been built.

more evident

palace,

if

which screens

Piedmont see A. Telluccini, L'arte dell'

Juvara in Piemonte, Turin, 1926.
31. Sketchbooks in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
London, and the Biblioteca Nazionale, Turin. For the
theatre, see A. Rava, // Teatro Ottobom nel Palazzo
della Cancelleria (R. Istituto di Studi Romani, ill),

widow of Carlo
Emanuele IL Construction was interrupted in 72 .\.
Telluccini, II Palazzo .Madama di Torino, Turin, 1928.

Rome,

not correct in maintaining that the French influence

the

work

in

architetto Filippo

Brinckmann, Theatrum Ped. (above, Note

32.
-

1942.

A. A. Tait, Burl. Mag., cviii (1966), 133

the

work on the Palazzo Pubblico

f.,

Lucca

at

4), 31.

attributes
to

Fran-

the medieval castle, was erected for the

cannot always follow

W.

Collier's analyses ('French

Influence on the .Architecture of Filippo Juvarra',

Architectural History,

VI,

1963, 41), but he

is

certainly

on Juvarra has been overlooked.

It should, however, be pointed out that the
type with radiating wings was also developed in

416. 42.

cesco Pini on the basis of documents.

eighteenth-century Austria and France. Boff'rand even

Here Juvarra planned an enlargement of the old

royal palace, which was, however, not executed; see
Augusta Lange in Bollettino storico-biblwgrafico sub-

maintained

33.

alpino, XLiv (1942), nos.

1-4;

M.

Accascina, Boll.

remained on paper; the palace

by Johann Friedrich Ludwig and his son

34. Juvarra's project

was

built

Lnre

his

Nancy with

Paris,

d' architecture,

1743,

a plan similar to Stupinigi, that the latter

Brinckmann (Baukunst
den romamschen Landem, Berlin, 9 9, 3 6) has shown that Boff^rand 's assertion is without foundation. But J. Garms, in II lener
was designed by him.

des

d'Arte, XLII (1957), 158.

in

where he published the Chateau La .Malgrange near

I J.

und

18.
1

.A.

E.

Jahrhunderts

in

184

accepts Boff'rand's

X-

Johann Peter.

Jahrb., xxii (1969),

Juvarra also designed the lighthouse in the harbour

of Lisbon and the church and palace of the Patriarch.

shaped plan as

santi in L'Architettura, HI (1957), 268, published

he dedicated a volume with architectural

fantasies to Lord Burhngton, now at Chatsworth; see

measured drawings. After Juvarra's death Alfieri (see

Note 72) was probably responsible for the planning of

35. In 1730

Wittkower

in Boll. Soc. Piemontese, N.S. in (1949).

The wooden model of Juvarra's design in the

Museo de Artilleria, Madrid. The palace was executed
36.

between 1738 and 1764 by Juvarra's pupil, Giovanni

ff".,

genuine product of

2. .\1.

Pas-

good

the considerable extension of Juvarra's project (1739).

in 1740 by the Frenchman F.
Bernard. For further information, see M. Bernardi, La
Palazzina di Caccia di Stupinigi, Turin, 1958. N.

The park was begun

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

564

M.

Gabrielli (with
burini), Aluseo
zitia di
ton,'

Tam-

Tagliapietra Rasi and L.

deirArredamento Stupmtgi. La Palaz-

caaia. Catalogo, Turin, 1966, contains the his-

of Stupinigi and

of new documents.

Pommer

by

17

decoration based on a wealth

its

The same documentation was used

comprehensive analysis of Stu-

for his

pinigi in Eighteenth-Ceniury Architecture in Piedmont,

New York- London,

1967,61-78, 188-218. Theapogee

of Stupinigi studies

is

In

pages, Stupinigi.

L. Malle's foho of over 500

capulavoro del Settecento europeo

Turin, 1968.
original great design, published by Tavi-

tra barocchetto e classicismo,

The

43.

tern; in 1727 the campanili were built, and in

Belloni in Torino, xi

( 1

93 1

quoted above. Note

able source
5

The

is

Borromini's doors

ratio is

now

In 1734 Juvarra made a design similar to that of the

for the church of the Padri Gesuiti at Ver-

celli;

execution later (1741-73), with considerable

Congresso di storm
\ iale in Atti del

changes. See \

Rome, 1959, 427.

419. 45. See Pozzo's altars in S. Maria degli Scalzi,

dell'arte,

Venice, and,

later, in

the Jesuitenkirche, \ ienna (I703-

Fischer von Erlach used the motif first in a design

5).

church

for the high altar in the

at

Strassengel

{c.

1690,

Albertina).
46.

The

in

Vienna (designed

17 15,

example seems

to

be the Stiftskirche

Waldsassen, Oberpfalz, 1685-1704, designed by the

Italianizing A.

Dientzenhofer

Leutner from Prague, with Georg

between the two churches would need further

The

Rovere-Viale-Brinckmann,

op. cit., plates 31

In view of Juvarra's further development, the

change of proportion as compared with S. Agnese is
notable. In S. .\gnese the body of the church is related
side).

to

drum and dome as

i.e.

the importance of

i,

in Juvarra's project as

drum and dome

15,

has grown.

untenable

53.

in

424. 54.

is

They
to

be
at

W. Herrmann

See

which seems

view of Juvarra's other production

schaft, IV (1927), 129

m Jahrbuch fur

Kunstwtssen-

ff.

Among Juvarra's contemporaries and

follow-

mentioned Gian Giacomo Planteri, the

architect of the Chiesa della Pieta and S. Maria dell'
Assunta at Savigliano (both begun 1708) and of the
magnificent Palazzo Saluzzo-Paesana at Turin (171522); for Planteri, see A. Cavallari Murat in Atlie Rasers should be

segna tecnica Soc. Ingegneri

and

S. J.

Woolf,

Architetti in Torino, xi
ibid.,

XV (1961, Septem-

ber issue); further G. B. Sacchetti (see Note 36) and

the Conte Ignazio Tavigliano (Note 43).

The most

extensive architectural practice next to Juvarra's was

from Mondovi (1672-1750);

he was, however, infinitely

less

Among

Juvarra of Vittone.

imaginative than either

his

more distinguished

works may be named the Chiesa Parrocchiale at Carrii

(1703-18; see Chapter 12, Note 7), with a characteristic centralized plan, often varied by him; the Chiesa
della Misericordia (1708-17) and the cathedral at

Mondovi (1743-63);
30); SS. Trinita at

Croce

420. 48. Another scenic feature (without pedigree)

investi-

designs for S. Raffaello are similar.

that of Francesco Gallo

of works.

as clerk

and
32. One will easily recognize the features deriving from
Borromini, Bernini, Rainaldi, Carlo Fontana, and even
from Longhena's Salute (figures above columns in47.

begun 17 16,

drum and dome finished after

The not unlikely connexion

gation.

(1957), 313,

earliest

The body of
drum and

Similar relationships prevail in Fischer von Erlach's

Karlskirche

that period.

Carmine

Paroletti,

dome.

gutted during the

war.

.\1.

in S. Ivo.

are usually dated as early as 17 18,

last

and

1:15; see Note 47.

Tamburini, Le chiese di Torino dalrinasctmento

al harocco, Turin, 1968, 339-50. The church was
44. L.

0,

Superga. Turin, 1808.

the church looks therefore like a base to

423. 52.

14.

Fischer's death, 1739).

Chevalley's paper,

731 the

By horizontal segments of masonry The same

method was used in the satellite chapels. The prob-

1730 it was reduced to its present

form without crossing and dome. On the complex
see G.

422. 50.

executed until 1722, but

history of this church,

nos 9,

),

Description historiqiic de la

gliano in 1758, was influenced by Rainaldi's S. Maria

in Campitelli. In

decoration of the interior was finished. See also G. A.

S. Giovanni at Racconigi (1719Fossano (1730-9); and the oval S.

(also called S.

(1737-43), which

is

Bernardino)

at

Cavallermaggiore

perhaps his masterpiece and be-

He

the perforating of the pillars with three openings in

trays Vittone's influence.

the balcony zone through which one can look into the

the completion of Vittozzi's Sanctuary at Vicoforte di

domes of

the satellite chapels. -

church combines

ornament

that

classical

shows almost

The

tabernacle
a

Rococo

detail

of the

frames with

tinge.

The church was intended as a thanksgiving by

King Vittorio Amedeo II for the support given by the
49.

Virgin to the royal house. In

model,

still

May

17 17 the

existing in the monastery,

wooden

was paid

for;

by

1726 the structure had been carried as high as the lan-

Mondovi (1701-33).

was also responsible

for

All his buildings excel in the

harmony, and taste of their decoration. A

fully documented monograph about him was published by Nino Carbonieri, Turin, 1954.
55. On Vittone see the monograph by E. Olivero
(Turin, 1920) which is useful for the collection of factual material. Further: G. Rodolfo, 'Notizie inedite
dell'architetto Bernardo Vittone' in Atti della Soc.
richness,

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

di Arch, e Belle Arti, XV ( 1933) C. Baracco,

'Bernardo Vittone e I'architcttura Guariniana' in Tor-

Piemontese

ino, XVI (1Q38),

22; Olivero in Palladia, vi (1942), 120;

C. Brayda, 'Opere inedite di Bernardo \'ittone' in Boll.

Soc. Piemontese, N.s.

XV

( 1

(1Q47); P. Portoghesi,

ihid.,

XIV-

960-1). P. Portoghesi published a very well-

illustrated

monograph

1966;

in

also contains the

it

The

66.

68. E. Olivero in Boll. Soc. Piemontese, IX (1925),

431. 69.

that Vittone

was born

in

made

1967,

it

likely

about 1702 rather than

1704 or 1705 as is usually assumed.

The Acts of the 1970 Vittone Congress

in

H.

.\.

at

Turin are

(Boll. Soc. Piemontese, N.S. Xll-xiii,

Rome

before going to

and that he was

still

in

Turin on 29 July 1730.

57.

Vittone himself

Istruzioni element ari,

58. Very
Note 56.
59.

little

of his

calls

Juvarra his teacher; see

Lugano, 1760, 285.

pre-Roman

activity

Height less than 70 feet, diameter

was whitewashed in 1939.
It is

On

70.

Bonvicini, see .Augusta Lange in Bolletiino

432. 7

some of

money

is

known,

50

c.

feet.

see

The

particularly close to Guarini's unexecuted

most

contemporary
was the Cionte Benedetto .Alfieri (1700 67), who succeeded juvarra as
'First Architect to the King'. Outstanding among his
palaces are the Palazzo Ghilini at .Alessandria (now
Palazzo del Governo) executed in 1732 from a design
distinguished

own palace at .Asti 749) and the Pa(now Accademia Filarmonica) at Turin.
He is particularly remembered for his share in the
decoration of the Palazzo Reale, Turin, and, above all,
by Juvarra his

( 1

Giovanni Battista

for S.
its

with alternating concave and convex recesses prob-

Ingegnen

ably influenced Vittone.

Moccagatta

Hexagonal plans occur often in Vittone's aeuvre; see

the Chiesa Parrocchiale at Grignasco (1752-67), the
designs for S. Chiara, .Alessandria, and the church of
the Collegio dei Chierici Regolari, Turin; also S.
Chiara at Vercelli, the Chiesa Parrocchiale at Borgo

Sesia, Turin, i960, 151.

de Bernardi Ferrero

be found

in the

at

Alba, 1749, and

at

Carignano (1757 64) with

.Alfieri, see D.

in

.-////

e Architetti in

Memorte

in Atti e

Rassegna tecnica Sue.

Torino, xili (1959), and V.

del Congresso di I'arallo

Among those influenced by \'ittone's manner may be

mentioned, apart from Rana and Bonvicini (Notes 69,
70), Costanzo Michela who was responsible for the
undulating plan of S.
.4rt

Bull.,

.Maria Morari (d.

at

Maria Maddalena

extraordinary horseshoe plan. For

mer,

design of S. Gaetano, Nice.

63. See, e.g., S.

to

architects

See our discussion of hexagonal planning in relation to Borromini's S. Ivo (p. 206). The plan of S. Ivo
61.

to

sums

not received any

for a long time.

Vittone's

72.

himself.

is

who had

his collaborators

lazzo Caraglio

design for S. Gaetano, Nice, later built by Vittone

d'Ale (1770), and others.

427. 62. Again, the closest analogy

1.

Like some other great men, Vittone was extra-

among Piedmontesc

exterior

425. 60.

Rana, see C. Bravda, Tormn, xix (19^9),

ordinarily mean. His heirs had to pay large

Millon

1958-9) has shown that Vittone was a practising architect

On

16.

storico-hibliogra/ico siihalpino, XLIV (1942), no.

in the press.

56.

who was
The

at Vallinotto.

ments. R. Pommer, Eighteenth-Century Architecture

New York-London,

in 1744. It

the expense of .Antonio Faccio,

Sanctuary

565

church was consecrated in 1749. See G. Rodolfo,

Baroccn a Carignano (above. Note 4), ^y.
67. Badly redecorated in 1945.
nos 1-2.

Piedmont,

stone of the Hospital was laid

at

also responsible for the

long inventory of Vittone's estate and other docu-

in

first

was erected

17

Cumiana

.Vlarta at .Aglie

L (1968), 169
c.

1758),

who

ff.);

(1760; R.

Giovan

built the parish

Pom-

Battista

church

(Olivero, Miscellanea di archtt. Piemontese

G. B. FerSan Germano

del Settecentn, Turin, 1937, 5); the spirited

the project for S. Chiara at .Alessandria.

roggio, the architect of the church at

428. 64. It should be mentioned that there is a close

connexion between the architectural conception of S.

Vercellese (1754-64), of the Chiesa dello Spirito Santo

at Turin (1764 7, Olivero in Torino, xii (1934), no.

Chiara

at

Bra and the quadratura frescoes

in

the

dome

of the Consolata, Turin, executed by Giambattista Alberoni from designs by Giuseppe Bibiena, with figures

by Giambattista Crosato;

to

be dated, according to F.

Fiocco, Giambattista Crosato, Padua, 1944, 49, in 1740,

i.e. just before Vittone planned his church. The relationship of Vittone's architecture to

Piedmontese

would need further investigation.

430. 65. Millon (Note 56) suggests as date 1738-40
and places correctly in the same period the little jewel,
S. Luigi Gonzaga at Corteranzo.

quadratiira painting

12;

bombed during

the war) and the interesting oval

(1766 73); and the Conte Filippo

di Robilant (1723-83). the builder of S. Pelagia at
Turin (1770; for this and his other works, see Olivero
S. Catarina at Asti

Torino, x (1932), 42, and N. C^rboneri, 'Per un

profilo dell'architetto Filippo Nicolis di Robilant', in

in

Sludi

in

With

memoria

di

G. Chierici, Rome, 1965, 183

fl.).

Vittone's devoted pupil Mario Quarini, Pied-

montesc architecture turns towards Neo-classicism

(see his large cathedral at Fossano, 1779-91, after the

model of St

Peter's).

BIBLOSARTE

566

NOTES TO CHAPTER

CHAPTER
433.

the

e.g.,

German

brothers Schor,

whom we

Giovan Paolo,

important

par-

in

recognize now as an

artist in Bernini's studio; until fairly re-

cently he was almost entirely

Chapter

Note

14,

nini's circle

33).

Among

unknown (see above,

Frenchmen of Ber-

the

may be mentioned Claude Poussin

('Clau-

dio Francese' or 'Claudio Porissimo' in Italian docu-

who was

ments),

responsible for the River Ganges on

Bernini's Four Rivers Fountain (the statue

wronglv given

to

is

usually

another Frenchman, Claude Adam);

whom

Niccolo Sale,

Bernini employed very often,

e.g.

on the tomb of the Countess Matilda, for the Cappella

Raimondi in S. Pietro in Montorio, and the Four
Rivers Fountain; and Michel Maille ('Michele

in

Ma-

'MonsCi Michele', 'Monsii Michel Borgognone'

glia',

tomb of Monsignor .Agostino Favoriti in S. Maria

Maggiore (1682-6).
6. Design of the altar by Andrea Pozzo. The sculptural work, begun in 1695, was mainly finished in 1699.
For the altar, see now Pio Pecchiai, // Gesii di Roma,
the

18

See,

I.

ticular

18

documents), who worked the figure of Alexander VII

Rome,

1952, with further literature. See also C. Brica-

and G. M.
Archivum Hisloricum Socielatis Jesii, in
(1934), 300. For the contribution of the Florentine
bronze sculptor Lorenzo Merlini, see Lankheit, 183.
For Pozzo's oil sketches preparing the small bronze
reliefs by Rene Fremin, Angelo de'Rossi, Peter Paul
Reiff, and Pierre Etienne Monnot, see B. Kerber, in
An Bull. ,\L\ii (1965), 499. Altogether over a hundred
artists and artisans worked for the altar. Fullest discussion, based on new documents, in Kerber, A.
relli in

March

Pozzo,

Civil ta Cattolica, Lxxiii (1922), 401,

in

97 1, 140-80.

436. 7. For Ludovisi, see

of the pope's tomb (1675-6); he belonged to Ferrata's

kiaisthist. Inst, in

studio and carried on the Berninesque tradition in

wants

independent works

until 1702,

when he seems to have

This group, known as La Renommee, shows

Fame writing the deeds of the King into the Book of
History which is carried by Time, together with a
medallion portrait of Louis XIV. The work was not
2.

finished until 1686. Its present position

is

near the

Bassin de Neptune in the garden of Versailles. For the

relations of Guidi with

Lebrun, see A. de Montaiglon,

Correspondence des dtrecteurs de I 'Academie de France a

Rome,

I,

76

ff.

L. Hautecceur in G.d.B.A.,

iv,

vii

Wittkower mJ.W.C.L, 11 (1938-9), 188.

435. 3. For Mazzuoli see, above all, V. S\iho& mjahrh.
Preuss. Kunslslg. IIL (1928), 33, and F. Pansecchi in
Comment ari, X (1959), t,^, with new material, mainly
(1912), 46;

at

Siena.

Wittkower in Rep.f. Kunstw., L (1929), 6. Ottoni's

best friend was the French sculptor Theodon, who
4.

cunningly managed

to take

over Bernini's studio be-

hind St Peter's which the Congregation had promised

to Ottoni. Ottoni's

most extensive stucco work

Peter's, particularly

is

in St

above the arcades of choir and

transept (1713-26).
5.

The

illustration

shows the stuccoes above the

altar

and one of the four medallions of the vault with scenes

from the life of St Francis. They are surrounded with
realistic palm leaves and roses and carried by putti the
;

chapel

is

entirely white. All this lends support to the

rather gay and light quality of Carcani's

art.

In his

marbles Carcani followed Berninesque prototypes

more
tomb

closely.

The

allegory of Charity on the Bonelli

Maria sopra Minerva (1674), for instance,

derives directly from the tomb of Urban VIII. Similar
observations may be made in regard to later works, e.g.
in S.

Mitteitg. des

The

author

exclude Ludovisi's collaboration on the St

Ignatius altar and argues that the sculptor was probably not

died.

434.

to

U. Schlegel,

Florenz. x (1963), 265.

bom

before 1700. But see E. Lavagnino,

Altari barocchi in

Roma, 1959,

174,

and R. Enggass,

Mag., cx (1968), 438 ff., 494 ff., and 613 ff.

8. He had come to Rome from Milan, where he had
worked for twelve years under Giuseppe Rusnati. For
Rusconi,seeA. L.Elkan, Thesis, Cologne, 1924; Wittkower in Zeitschr. f. h. Kunst, LX (1926-7), 43; S.
Burl.

Baumgarten in Revue del' art, LXX

(1936), 233 ; Donati,

1942; Samek Ludovici in Archtvi, XVII

(1950), 209; V. Martinelli in Commentari, IV (1953),
231 I. Lavin in Boll. d'Arte, XLII (1957), 46.

Art.

Tic.,

9.

Carlo Maratti supplied designs for these statues;

M. Loret in Archtvi, 11 (1935), 140; L.

Un Mecenato in Roma harocca, Florence,

Montalto,

see

1955, 279,

442, 530, 54510. Suboff, Zeitschr. f. h. Kunst, LXii (1928-9), iii.

11. For Cornacchini, see H. Keutner in North Carolina Museum of Art Bulletin, i (1957-8) and 11 (1958);
Lankheit, 188; Wittkower in Miscellanea Bibl. Hert-

zianae, 1961, 464: full documentation for the Charle-

magne. Also C. Facciolo,

in Studi

Romani, xvi (1968),

431 ffIn the context of the relationship of such Late Baro-

que works

to the theatre (see above, p. 366),

it is

worth

noting that a copy of Cornacchini's Charlemagne was

shown on the

stage of Cardinal Ottoboni's theatre in

1729 on the occasion of the opera Carlo Magno performed in honour of the birth of the Dauphin (engraving by Gabbuggiani). See A. Rava, / Teatri di

Roma, Rome, 1953,

83.

For Cornacchini's statue of Clement XII

in

Ancona,

see W. E. Stoppel, in Rdm.jfahrl>.f. Kunstg., xii (1969),

203

ff.

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTF.R

438. 12. See

Wahl

in

Rep.

f.

A'nj/n'.,

XXXiv (191

1), 15,

and J. Fleming and H. Honour, in Essays in the History

of Art presented lo R. Wtttkoirer, London, u)67, 255
13. Erected by Clement XII to his uncle's memory.
ft".

It is

not without interest in our context that Cardinal

Neri Corsini was papal Nunzio

in Paris in 1652.

Giuseppe Lironi (1679, not

Lironi, see U. Schlegel, above. Note

ing allegory of Courage),

1689,-1749; for
7, 259), another pupil of Camillo Rusconi

who

(his is the

Monaldi (1691-

cool allegory of Jusiue), and Carlo

more Baroque in his allegories in S.

Maria Maddalena (1727) than in the figures which accompany Maini's statue of Clement XII in the Corsini
1760),

Chapel

(for

is

Monaldi

see R. Chyurlia in Clummentari,

worked the

567

composition.

tomb of Leo XI

21. .Algardi's

is

centrally

composed

but aftbrds a number of satisfactory views, while Rus-

tomb

proaches

it

illustration

Donati,

ofters a coherent view only if one apcoming from the transept (compare the
here with the wrong view published by

An.

Tn., figure 461).

22. Filippo della Valle departs slightly

by placing the sarcophagus

in

from tradition

an isolated zone under

the triangle of the figures; but for the latter, he reverts

Chanty being derived from that of the

tomb of .Alexander VII, but he translates Bernini's
drama into calm graciousness.
to Bernini, his

The architecture of the chapel is by RaguzThe tomb was designed by Carlo .Marchionni

443. 23.
zini.

portant Bartolomeo Pincellotti and Paolo Benaglia

(1704 80), the architect of the Villa .Albani and the

Sacristy of St Peter's, who also executed the relief

and, unconnected with the Rusconi circle, the French-

The

men

Bartolomeo

(1950), 222). In addition, there

Pierre Lestache and Lambert-Sigisbert -\dam.

Between 173 1 and 1733 most of these

among

a host

sculptors,

of others, supplied important works for

Mafra (Portugal); see A. deCarvalho,

em Mafra, Mafra, 1956.
V. Moschini in L'Arte, xxviii (1925); H. Honour

the cathedral

less

im-

demie (I. Budde, Katal. Jer Handzeichnungen, no. 449,

plate 66) shows that Rusconi began with a symmetrical

coni's

Apart from Maini, the principal contributors

were Cornacchini (marbles and stuccoes), Filippo della
Valle, Pietro Bracci, Giuseppe Rusconi (the classiciz14.

l8

at

escultura

15.

in Connoisseur,

CXLIV (1959), 172 (with (vuvre cata-

in

should also be recalled that Bouchardon worked

Rome

between 1723 and 1732.

monograph by K.

439. 17. See the

Domarus

(Stras-

and developed through many stages

from 1629 onwards for fully a hundred years. .After
Nicolo Salvi's project was chosen in 1732, the execu-

as early as 1453

The

four statues of the

by Bartolomeo Pincellotti, Agostino Corsini, Bernardo Ludovisi, and Francesco Queirolo were finished
in 1 735 (see inscription). The second period of the execution began under Salvi's successor, Giuseppe Pan-

attic

nini (further for the history of the fountain, see

ter 16,

Note

45).

To

this period

Chap-

belongs the sculptural

decoration of the lower part: 1759-62, Bracci's

Nep-

tune and Tritons, Filippo della Valle's Health and

Fecundity, and the reliefs illustrating legendary episodes of the origin of the Fontana Trevi by Giovanni
Battista Grossi and .Andrea Bergondi.

See O. Sobotka's classic article in Jahrh.

Preuss. Kunstslg., xxxv ( 1914), which can, however, no
longer entirely be followed; see also M. \'. Brugnoli,
Boll. cl'Arie, XLV (i960), 342.
442. 20. A preparatory sketch in the Diisseldorf Aka-

440.

19.

is

by Bracci's collaborator,

According

Pincellotti.

to

Soprani

( \

He de'

was the painter Pietro Bianchi

who helped Marchionni on this and other occasions.
For Bianchi, see Chapter 15, Note 13.
24. It is true, however, that he used w allegory. Faith
(and not the customary two). Together with the Angel
of Death and the lions, it belongs to a zone composi.

genovest)

and

it

spiritually entirely

divorced from the

praying pope.

This interesting artist, who was born at Cattinara

Piedmont in 1669 (not 1682) and died in Rome in
1736, worked for fifteen years in the studio of Lorenzo
Ottoni. His most important works arc the four Barberini tombs in S. Rosalia, Palestrina, of which the
25.

v.

bourg, 191 5) and C. Gradara (Milan, 1920).

18. The history of the Fontana Trevi is long and
complicated. It began in the reign of Pope Nicholas V

tion progressed fairly quickly.

put on

tionally

logue); Lankheit, 190.

16. It

allegory of Humility

in

two

earlier

ones of 1704 show Baroque angels related

C. Pericoli in Capitiilium, XXXMII

to Raggi's style.
( 1

963), 131, contributes

some new material

for

Cametti

but erroneously believes that he was born in Rome in

1670. For a full monographic treatment of Cametti
with reliable autre catalogue, see
Preuss. Kunslslg., N.F.

L".

Schlegel mjahrb.

(1963), 44, 151.

444. 26. Painted portraits on tombs occur, of course,

before the eighteenth century. The most interesting is

perhaps the one which Giovan Battista Ghisleri erected for himself in 1670 in S. .Maria del Popolo with the

Death looking out of his vault. The inscripunder the portrait nkqif. ilic VIVLS and
under Death neqle illic mortixs (Male, 221)

figure of

tions

point out that 'he (Ghisleri)

dead

in the

is

neither alive here nor

beyond'.

27. This feature was introduced by Raphael in the

memorial chapel of the Chigi family in S. Maria del
Popolo. During the sixteenth and the first half of the
seventeenth centuries, however, tombs with pyramids

BIBLOSARTE

568

NOTES TO CHAPTER

remained

18

was once again Bernini who, with the

ft.), opened the
way to using the pyramid as a Baroque sepulchral element. For Raphael's Chigi Chapel and later changes,
see J. Shearman in J. li. C.I. xxiv (1961), 129 (134, on
pyramid tombs), and J. Pope-Hennessy, Italian Hi^h
Renaissance and Baroque Sculpture, London, 1963,
rare. It

redecoration of the Chigi Chapel (1652

Catalogue, 43.
family of Flemish artists

Rome

years.

The

who had settled

member

in Paris,

of a

went

1728 and remained there for seventeen

in

Bruno

St

is

his masterpiece in

Rome. See

Bibliography.
447. 29.

The

The execution lay in the hands of twelve

among whom .Marcellini, .\ndreozzi,

Giuseppe Piamontini, Giovacchino

dani

first

important examples of Italian ex-

Fortini,

Kven though Lankheit

as other

should not be used

strate,

(77) claims that these as well

works executed with the help of assistants

moreover, how

tural tasks

Foggini's potentialities as

to assess

were

and demon-

his responsibility

Florence the few major sculp-

in

were handled

which

in

the available

all

talent joined forces.

Foggini himself,

of his portrait busts

in the finest

(Cosimo III de' Medici and Gran Principe Ferdinando de'.Medici, both c. 685, Donaueschingen Lank1

port of Baroque sculpture are works by Bernini: the

heit, figures 175, 176), despite his reliance

bust of Cardinal Melchior Klesl in the cathedral of

busts of Charles

Wiener Neustadt (Austria), the (destroyed) bust of

King Charles I of England, and the portrait of Mr
Baker (Victoria and .\lbert Museum). (For these see

smothered the heads

Wittkower, Bernini, Cat. nos 22, 39, 40.) Also fairly

early is Algardi's marble relief of Mary Magdalen carried

up

Heaven (1640)

to

Maximin

Provence.

in

the church at Saint-

in

Among

later exports

mentioned Ferrata's and Guidi's

orial

may be

figures for the

mem-

chapel of Cardinal Friedrich, Landgraf of Hesse

Darmstadt,

in the cathedral at Bratislava

( 1

679-83 see
;

B. Patzak, Die Elisabethkapelle des Breslauer Doms,

Bratislava, 1922); Guidi's

peaux de

la

monument

Vrilliere in the

sur-Loire (1681

to

Louis Phely-

church of Chateauneuf-

see Sobotka in Amtliche Ber. d. kgl.

sories

I,

Francis

on Bernini's

of Este, and Louis XIV,

emphatically suggestive acces-

in

and played havoc with the 'amputated' arm.

33. Lankheit,

110-60, with further literature. For

Soldani as architect, see U. Procacci,

Ulrich Middeldorf, Berlin, 1968, 476

in

162. Carlo Marcellini, .'\nton

34. Lankheit,

millo Cateni, Giuseppe Piamontini are hardly

these sculptors studied in the Florentine .Academy in

Rome
35.

before

it

closed

its

doors

For Giovanni Baratta and

Francesco, see H.

Honour

in

in 1686.

his brothers Pietro

(1958), 170 (with ceuvre catalogue); also idem in Diz.

30. For Foggini and the following, see Lankheit, 47 ff.

and passim. Foggini was with Ferrata for three years

career as sculptor to the Turin court.

The

(1673-6). In 1687, after Ferdinando Tacca's death, he

the sculptor of the

was appointed court sculptor and slightly later also

court architect. His all-powerful position was there-

Hochkirchen

fore assured. His 'Giornale', a sketchbook of almost

Lankheit, 175.

300 drawings (Uffizi and Victoria and Albert Museum;

and idetn, Riv. d 'Arte, xxxiv ( 1961 ),

Ticciati,

prises

on which the

artist

was engaged

in the years

and

The Connoisseur, CXLii

ence (1697-8). Later, Giovanni had

an excellent idea of the great variety of enter-

men-

tioned in art historical writing before Lankheit. All

Cecil and his wife in St Martin's at Stamford (1704).

55), gives

Fran-

cesco Andreozzi, Francesco Ciaminghi, Giovanni Ca-

Giovanni's best

see Lankheit, 5 1 -9

Festschrift

ff.

tomb of
Lady Jane Cheyne in Chelsea Old Church, London
(1671, partly destroyed); and Monnot's tomb of John
Pr. Kunstslg., xxxii (1910/11), 235); Raggi's

and Sol-

may be mentioned.

a sculptor, they

446. 28. Michelangelo Slodtz (1705-64),

to

Lankheit, 88.
collaborators,

Biogr. degli Italiani, 1963, v, 790;

known work

is

and Lankheit, 172.

the very Florentine

monumental Tohias and Angel reliet

note

is

also very strong in

in

Schottmueller

Among

in S. Spirito,

Flor-

distinguished

Florentine

Giovacchino Fortini, who

is

tomb of General Degenhard of

the cathedral of Cologne; see F.

in

Boll.

d'Arte, XXVI (1932-3), and

the sculptors of this generation Girolamo

Antonio Montauti (the

artist

of the Pietd in

the crypt of the Corsini Chapel, S. Giovanni in Later-

ano,

Rome,

work of doubtful merit but

traditionally

1713-18. See also K. A. Piacenti, in Festschrift Ulrich

attributed to Bernini), and the skilful bronze sculptor

Middeldorf, Berlin, 1968, 488

Lorenzo Merlini (see above. Note 6) are worth mentioning. For these artists, see Lankheit, passim.
36. Another (reputed) pupil of Ferrata, Giovan Bat-

31

Foggini's

tomb of Donate

ff".

dell'Antella in SS.

An-

nunziata (1702), according to Lankheit, 73, by an

assistant, is particularly close to Guidi.
32. Corsini

Chapel: Lankheit (70, 83, and Mittei-

lungen des Flor. Inst., viii (1957), 35) believes that of

the three large pictorial reliefs of the chapel only that

over the altar with the Apotheosis nfS. Andrea Corsini

(1677-83)

is

by Foggini's hand.

Feroni Chapel:

tista

Barberini

{c.

1625 91), deserves a note. Like

others born in the Lake Como

became one of the most sought after stucco
sculptors in northern Italy. His work is to be found at
Cremona, Bologna, Genoa, Mantua, Bergamo, Como,
and elsewhere and, in addition, in Vienna, Krems-

Ferrata and so

many

region, he

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

miinster, and Linz. His emotional, typically

realism shows few links with his master.

Lombard

The

almost

forgotten book by H. Hoffmann, Der Stuckplasliker

G. B. Barberim ( 1625-91 }, Augsburg, 1928, is un-

(many documents). See

usually informative

Gavazza

in

Arte Lombarda,

also E.

vii {1962), 63.

448. 37. See G. Piccaluga Ferri, in

(1967), 207-24. Buzzi was born

xviii

1708 and

in Viggiii in

Further on Lombard sculpture: S. Vigezzi, La

lomharda nell'eta harinca, Milan, 1930, and

G. Nicodemi, / Caligan
1

scultori hresciani del Setle-

The work

924.

of the Caligari often

has real Rococo charm.

39. F.

XVIIe
I

Ingersoll-Smouse, 'La Sculpture a Genes au

G.d.B.A., lvi, ii (1914).

siecle',

prima

40. P. Rotondi, 'La

attivita di

Filippo Parodi

scultore'. Arte Antica e Ahtderna,

11, no. 5 (1959), 63

(and idem, F. Parodi, 1962, 24), suggests that Parodi
studied with Ferrata rather than Bernini, but this is

supported neither by the sources nor by the evidence

of Parodi's Genoese work. Moreover,
entirely satisfactory

book

(p. 66)

summing up of Ladatte's

H'lttkoirer,

in the

career

History 0/ Art presented

London, 1967, 242

AT.,

569

is

by

to

R.

with bibliography.

47. A. Telluccini, 'Ignazio e Filippo C^ollini e la scultura in Piemonte nel secolo .\\ III', Boll. d'Arte, II

M. Strambi,

lino', in Boll. SocielH

'La cultura dei Col-

Piemontese Arch,

1964; L. Rosso, La piltura

e Belle Arti,

e la scultura del 'joo

For Piedmontese sculpture, see also J. Fleming,

i), 188, and L. .Malle's chapter in
the Catalogue of the Turin Baroque Exhibition, 1963.
48. In his stucco work .Mazza was c-apabic of displaying a luscious Late Baroque manner (Palazzo BianconApollo, LXiv (1963,

cmi, Bologna), which vies with the richest decorations

anywhere

in Italy.

For Mazza, see

noisseur, CXLVIII (1961),

J.

Fleming

in

Con-

206 (with auvre catalogue).

Giuseppe xMazza, who began his career as

was the son of Camillo .Mazza (1602-72),

a painter,

.Algardi's

pupil. Giuseppe's pupil, .Andrea Ferreri (1673- 1744),

settled at Ferrara, where he was appointed director of

her not

the .Academy (1737). .Angelo Pi6( 1690- 1770), a pupil

she oflers the im-

of Ferreri and Mazza, followed the general trend by

going to Rome in 1718, where he worked under Ca-

probable hypothesis that Parodi was

from 1653

latest

Torino, Turin, 1934.

sculttira

cenio, Brescia,

The

(1922-3), 201, 254;

Commenlan,

died there in 1780.

38.

46.

L. .Malle, in Essays

l8

in

in

Rome not only

but again from 1668 to 1674.

41. Parodi's main work in the territory of Venice and
one of the principal monuments of the Late Baroque in

millo Rusconi; see E. Riccomini, Arte Antica e .\iod-

is the Cappella del Tesoro in the Santo

Padua; he executed the rich multi-figured decora-

continued the Late Baroque tradition of Mazza and

to 1661

northern Italy
at

tion
late

between 1689 and 1692 with the help of pupils. A

Genoese w ork, S. Pancratius, was published by R.

Preimesberger,

in

Pantheon, xxvii (1969), 48

Reference should also be made

ficent decorative sculpture

and furniture,

Rotondi has drawn attention

ft.

to

Pio to the end of the century. Best information on Bo-

lognese sculpture of the eighteenth century

Ricco-

See L. Planiscig, Venezianische Bildhauer der

Renaissance, Vienna, 192

in the sacristy

1,

597. Nicolo's antependium

of S. Moise, V enice (executed together

with his son, Sebastiano; signed and dated 1633), deserves special mention. It is a work of fascinating

Another collaborator was Francesco Biggi, who

beauty. Its strange iconography would require detailed

executed the famous lions

at

the foot of the staircase

of the Palazzo dell'Universita from Parodi's models.

43. V. Martinelli in Commentart, iv (1953), 231.

For Francesco Schiaffino's and Diego Carlone's

investigation, but the depth of sensibility

tion expressed by the

many

closely to the religious

col-

laboration in the twelve large stucco figures in S. Maria

50.

The

following

names may be mentioned:

ous

450. 44. Le casacce e

la

di

1935, with

S. Francesco di Assist

much

documentary-

material for C. Giuseppe and his son Giovan Battista

Plura (who died in

three notori-

is well known); and the

Hungarian Michele Fabris, called 'Ongaro' or 'Lngheri", whose painterly and diffused style may be
studied in the chapel of Cardinal Francesco Vendramin built by Longhena in S. Pietro di Castello (f.

in Connoisseur, cxxxviii (1956), 176.

Chieri,

all

(.Meyring's clumsy imitation of Bernini's S. Teresa in

See also E. Olivero, La chiesa

Torino,

.Meyring,

handling of the Berninesque idiom

Genoese

Exhibition, 1939).

Fleming

for their facile

scultura lignea sacra genovese del

Setcento e del Settecento (Catalogue of the

45. J.

.Mel-

chiorBarthel (1625-72) from Dresden and theTirolese

Thomas Ruer and Heinrich

(1962), 105.

it

art.

Lomharda,

vii

and devo-

small bronze figures ally

temper of counter-reformatory

Carignano (1739-40), executed in a post-Rusconi

nervous quasi-Rococo manner, see E. Gavazza, Arte

di

in

in

mini's exhibition Catalogue (1965, see Bibliography).

XLIV (1959),

(Boll. d'Arte,

46).

42.

.XVIII

(1967), no. 213, 60. Filippo Scandellari (1717-1802)

49.

magniwhich P.

to Parodi's

and idem, Paragone,

erna, VI, no. 21 (1963), 52,

London

G. B. Bernero (1736-96).

in 1757), for

Clemente and

the Chiesa degli Scalzi, 1699,

John Bushnell (b. c. 1630) may be menEngland after 1660, spent some time in
Rome, and settled in Venice for about six years where
1670-4). .Also

tioned; he

left

BIBLOSARTE

570

NOTES TO CHAPTER

l8

under Josse de Corte he executed parts of the

Mocenigo monument

in S. La/.zaro dei

large

Mcndicanti.

For Meyring, see D. Lewis, in Boll, dei Musei Civui

Vencziaui, xii (1967), 15 f. Lewis removed the large
Holy Family in the Scalzi from the work of Giuseppe
Torretti and attributed

it

to

Meyring (1700 2).

'Monsu Giusto

452. 51. For de Corte see N. Ivanoff,

ed

collaboratori del Longhcna', Arte Veneta,

altri

(ig48),

De

15.

Corte's

tomb of Caterino Cornaro

li

in

the Santo at Padua shows a standing figure of the admiral, baton in hand,

surrounded by trophies with

prisoners at his feet;

became

similar tombs.
altar

The

the prototype of

many

pictorial tendencies of the

main

it

of S. Maria della Salute were further developed

in his last

work, the sculptural decoration

of the

main

453. 56. The older and younger generation collaborated on these works. The fai^ade ot the Gesuati has

sculpture by .Antonio Tarsia, Francesco Cabianca,

Giuseppe Torretti, Francesco Bonazza, .AlviseTagliapietra, Gaetano Fusali, and Gian Maria Morlaiter; in
the Cappella del Rosario, which suffered in the fire of
1867, worked Giovanni Bonazza and his sons, Giuseppe Torretti, Alvise Tagliapietra and his son Carlo,
and, above all, Gian Maria Morlaiter.
Giovanni Bonazza and his sons spent most of their
lives at

The best known of his sons is -\ntonio

who is famed for the garden figures in

Padua.

(1698- 1763),

Widmann

at Bagnoli di Sopra (Padua), execharming realistic Rococo style (1742); see

C. Semenzato, Antonio Bonazza, Padua, 1957.
57. Corradini has been fairly well studied; see G.

the Villa

cuted

in a

Andrea della Zirada (1679).

For de Corte and the other Venetian Baroque sculptors mentioned below, see C. Semenzato, La scultiira

Biasuz in Boll. d'Arte, xxix (1935-6); A. Callegari,

ihid., XXX (1936-7); G. Mariacher in Arte Veneta,

veneta del seicento e del seltecenlo, Venice, 1966.

(1947), and A. Riccoboni,

altar

of

S.

52. Knowledge of
Temanza, Zthaldon,

The

this sculptor's

ed.

N.

work

Ivanofl",

is

based on

Venice, 1963, 42.

catalogue; T. Hodgkinson, in

Museum

Zibaldim should also be consulted for Michele

Thomas

Fabris,

53. Marinali

Ruer, and Antonio Tarsia.

58.

Tua

in Riv. d'Arte,

G. Biasuz and A. Lacchin, A. Brustolon, Venice,

59.

For Schulenburg

He

radini

graph, i960 (Bibliography). Barbieri also published

century Venetian

Studi in onore di

Civico, Vicenza, in

60.

arti (cl. di scienze morali, lettere

7),

195

54.

55.

ed

arti),

cxxv (1966-

The above-mentioned Thomas Ruer and Michele

On

Note

50.

the Valier

monument were engaged

rarese Pietro Baratta, Giovanni

Bonazza

the Car-

(c.

(1663- 1 739), and Marino Groppelli

(i

662-1 721).

On

the fafade of S. Stae worked the same Pietro Baratta

and Antonio Tarsia and, in addition, Paolo and Giuseppe Groppelli, Paolo Callalo, Matteo Calderoni,
Francesco Cabianca, and two more significant artists,
Giuseppe Torretti (c. 661 -1743) and Antonio Corra1

dini (on

whom

( 1

688-(. 1773), see C. Semenzato,

Crttica d' Arte, v (1958), 150,

and H. Honour

in

Dizi-

nnario hiugra/ico degli Ilaliani, 1963, v, 793. For

tonio Tarsia

(c.

An-

1663- 1739), see H. Honour, Connois-

artist

it

took

him

CXLVI (i960), 27 (with aeiare catalogue). For

called il Torretti, see C. Semen-

the

Cor-

to

Vienna, Prague,

Giuseppe Torretti

(see above,

a highly sophisticated

Rococo

Notes

50, 55) practised

style; see his excellent

statues in the crossing at the Chiesa de'Gesuiti. For

work

Torretti's

at

Udine (mainly Cappella Manin,

( 1

f.

h.

Kunst, xxxix

9 1 7-1 8), 243. Torretti's nephew, Giuseppe Bernardi-

1694-1774), was Canova's

Torretti

(r.

Munoz,

Boll. d'Arte, iv (1924-5), 103).

61.

For Marchiori, see

(1925-6) and

VI

W.

first

teacher (A.

Arslan in Boll. dArte, v

(1926-7), and L. Menegazzi, Arte

Veneta, xiii-xiv (1959-60), 147 (a sketchbook

not by Marchiori, as the author believes); for
laiter,

see

after,

MorG. Lorenzettiin Dedalo,\\ 1930- 1) and W.

(

.Arslan in Riv. di Venezia, xi (1932). L. Coletti, .4rte

Veneta, xiii-xiv (1959-60), 138,

makes the point

that

the bozzetti mentioned in the text need not necessarily

laiter e la scultura
e

veneziana del Rococo',

M Mor-

in Sensihilita

Razionalitd del Settecento, ed. V. Branca, Venice,

1967,

II,

454. 62.

591

M.

fl'.

Picone, La Cappella Sansevero, Naples,

Giuseppe Bernardi,

1959, with full documentation.

456. 63. Other similar veiled fi.gures by

zato, Arte Veneta, xii (1958), 169.

Sarah

seur,

all

63.

had the typical career of the migrant eighteenth-

be by Morlaiter. See also G. Mariacher, 'G.

see below).

For Pietro Baratta

Note

Dresden, Rome, and Naples.

1654-

1736), the head of a family of sculptors, Antonio Tarsia

fif.

veil are discernible; see

1732-6), see H. Tietze Zeitschr.

ff-

Fabris, see

forms under the

Mistrorigo, Vicenza,

1958, III. See also L. Puppi, 'Nuovi documenti sui

Marinali', Atti dell' htitiito Veneto di scienze, letlere ed

and patron see A.

specialized in veiled figures in which

His most important commission was

the sculptural decoration of the Sanctuary on Monte
Berico near Vicenza (1700 fl.); see F. Barbieri's mono-

Museo
Federico M.

as a collector

Binion, Burl. Mag., cxu (1970), 297

XVII (1935), 281.

Marinali's work in the

and Albert

Victoria

Bulletin, iv (1968), 37.

1928.

was also influenced by Parodi. His aiivre

has been collected by Carmela

(1952) with autre

ihid., Vi

in S.

Giacomo, Udine;

BIBLOSARTE

him

female bust,

are: the

Museo

NOTES TO CHAPTERS

Correr, Venice; Faith of the altar of the Sacrament,

Cathedral, Este; a similar figure from the Manin

Monument, Cathedral, Udine,t.

1720; Time and Truth,

Grosser Garten, Dresden; Tuccia, Staatl. Skulpturenslg., Dresden; etc. See also G. Matzulevitsch, 'La

"Donna

Velata" del Giardino d'Estate di Pietro

Grande', Boll. d'Arte, L (i{)65), 80 fl".
64.

The

radini's

il

relationship of Sammartino's marble to Cor-

model

Museo Nazionale

in the

was discussed by G. Alparone

(1957), 179- See also

Among

di S.

Martino

in Boll, d' Arte, XLii

M. Piconc (Note

62), 108

other Late Baroque sculpture

AND

l8

U)

371

da

send, XVII, XVIII, XIX. Mostra, Naples, 1938,

and R. Causa, Piltura napoletana dal
at XIX
seiolii, Bergamo, 1957. See also Bibliography.
For Luca Giordano see, above all. Posse's excellent

XV

article in

Thieme-Becker. Also

.\.

Griseri, Paragone,

(1956), no. 81, 33; G. Heinz, Arte Veneta, X (1956),

146; F. Bologna, Solnnena, 1958, 34; Y. Bottineau,

VII

G.d.B.A., LVi (i960), 249;

M. Milkovich, L.G. in
America (loan exhib.. Brooks Gallery), .Memphis,
Tennessee, 1964 (with full bibliography). The threevolume monograph by O. Ferrari and G. Scavizzi

ff.

Naples
may be mentioned the decoration of the nave of S.
Angelo a Nile with a number of symmetrically ar-

(1966) supersedes most of the older literature; see

ranged tombs (1709), a coherent programme echoing

the influence of churches like Gesu e Maria in Rome.

678

65.

Attention

may

Paolo Persico,
verino and

at

at

drawn to the following names:

who worked in the Cappella SanseCaserta; the versatile Domenico .Analso be

tonio Vaccaro(i68i-i75o), prominent

member

of the

artists, whose w ork in the CerMartino is worth a more thorough studv and
Matteo Bottiglieri and Francesco Pagano, both pupils
ot Lorenzo Vaccaro who collaborated in the decoration
of the Guglia dell'Immacolata (1747-51) designed by
Giuseppe di Fiore.

well-known family of

tosa di S.

66.

The

artists

responsible for the figures are, above

Bibliography. See also O. Ferrari, Burl. Mag., cviii

(1966), 298

fl'.,

and H. E. Wethev,

ihid.,

cix (1967),

ff.

.Among Luca's pupils may be mentioned Solifacile and academic Paolo de

Matteis (1662 1728), whom Lord Shaftesbury chose
3.

mena's competitor, the

as a congenial painter to translate into visual

terms the
dogmatic essay, the Choice of
Hercules; further, the Heming VVillem Borremans {c.
670- 1 744), who brought his master's style to Sicily
(principal work; the frescoes in the cathedral of Cal-

directives given in his

tanisetta, 1720);

and

who endeavoured

.Nicola .Malinconico (1663

1722),

to emulate his teacher (L. Prota-

Giurleo, Pitt. nap. del Seic, 1953, 38).

A special place must be assigned to Giacomo del Po,

Mention should here at least be made of the macabre

wax allegories of the Sicilian sculptor Gaetano Giulio

in Rome in 1659, moved to Naples in

worked there until his death in 1726. Under
Giordano's and Solimena's influence but never forgetting the lesson learned from Cortona and Gaulli in
Rome, he developed in his late works towarijs a free,
Picone in
painterly, quasi-Rococo manner; see

Zumbo

Boll. d'Arte, .\Lii (1957), 163, 309.

all,

Paolo Persico,

67. R. Berliner,

.'Angiolo Brunelli, and Pietro

Denkmdler der Krippenkunst

Solari.
,

.-Kugs-

burg [1Q25-30]; idem. Die Weihtiachlskrippe, Munich,

1955-

( 1

656- 1 70 1 ) they
;

R.

Zumbo worked

W. Lightbown,

up with the South

popular imagery, but

taste for supra-realistic

ing that

tie

for the Florentine

Italian

it is

tell-

Court

(see

who was born

1683, and

4.

See F. Bologna's

(1968), 35

459. 69. G. Agnello, 'II prospetto della cattedrale di

Siracusa e I'opera dello scultore palermitano Ignazio

465.

Marabitti', Archivi, iv (1937), 63, 127, with biblio-

teristic

Sicilian

Baroque, and

ibid.,

\\\\

(1955), 228 with further literature.

F. Ignazio Marabitti, Palermo, 1937, 12, the sculptor
in

17 19; he

went

to

Rome

in

1740

and

stayed there for fully five years.

5.

Magus,

a prelimin-

(Quarterly,

.4rt

in

I'he Fall of Simon

Maggiore I325], show-s the characarrangement of figures radiating from a nodal

.\n early

work, dated 1690,

S. Paolo

..g,.,

the

nude man

in the

right-hand corner of

325 and the soldier with the fasces above

him derive from the Igntidi of the Farnese Gallery the
mother seen from the back with her child clinging to
illustration

her

is

standard group coming

down from Domeni-

chino, etc. Solimena's Heliodorus in the Gesii

CHAPTER

xxxi

fl.

point in the centre like spokes of a wheel.

6.

According to documents published by R. Giudice,

was born

monograph, w ith

dano's influence, see idem,

Bibliography).

458. 68. A. Sorrentini in Boll. d'Arte, vii (1913), 379.

graphy concerning

fine

arv wuvre catalogue and full bibliography. For Gior-

Nuovo,

Naples, combines features from Raphael's \'atican

19

Heliodorus and School 0/ .Athens.

461.

I.

Letter to Cav. Gabburi, 10 September 1733.

Bottari, Lettere,

Good

11,

surveys of Neapolitan eighteenth-century painting by L. Lorenzetti in La ptttura napoletana

462.

2.

7.

Many

painters of the Solimena succession are at

present not

404.

is

much more

than names, but work on them

proceeding; see R. Enggass, Burl. Mag.,

304, for .Andrea deir.\ste

BIBLOSARTE

((.

1673

i.

cm

(1961),

721) and Matteo

572

NOTES TO CHAPTER

19

M. Volpi, Paragone, x (1959),

Domenico Mondo {<. 1717-1806),

Siscara (1705-65), and

no.

119, 51, for

See F. R. di Federico, 'Documentation

i6a.

Francesco Trevisani's Decorations

for

for the Vestibule

whose paintings are often mixed up with those by Gia-

of the Baptismal Chapel

quinto. Also H. Voss, in Festschrift Ulrich Middeldorf,

Arte, no. 6(1970), 155

Berhn, 1968, 494 ff., for Lorenzo de Caro.

8. For Giaquinto's career, see M. Volpi, Boll, d' Arte,

sion occupied Trevisani for almost the last 35 years of

and d'Orsi's monograph (BiblioAmigoni and Giaquinto in Madrid, see

G. V. Castelnovi, in Studies in the History of Art.

Dedicated to William E. Suida, London, 1959, 333,
with further references.

XLiii (1958), 263,

graphy); for
the

documents pubhshed by E.

Battisti,

Arte Antica

Aloderna, in, no. 9 (i960), 62. See also the book by A.

Videtta (Bibliography).

For a

9.

full

study of de iVlura's attractive decoration

of the Chiesa della Nunziatella

Naples with the large

at

ceiling fresco of the .Assumption of the Virgin (1751),

see R. Enggass, Bnll. d'Arte, .xlix (1964), 133

ff.

De

Mura's manner was continued by his pupil Giacinto

Diano ( 1 730- 1 800), who enjoyed a considerable repu-

The problems connected

were solved by

The

with our illustration 326

Mag.,

Faldi, Burl.

I.

ci (1959), 143.

illustration represents the oil sketch for a ceiling

of

c. 1 75 1, originally in the Palazzo Santa Croce, Palermo, and installed in the Palazzo Rondanini-San-

severino,
loa.

G.

Rome, more than

life.

17.

The

468. 18.

picture

is

a fascinating re-interpretation

of Raphael's Transfiguration

in a Correggio-Lanfranco
manner. For Benefial, see G. Falcidia, Boll. d'Arte,

XLVIII (1963), III

discusses decoration of the salone

Palazzo Massimo, Arsoli (1750). See also

Clark, Paragone, xvii (1966), no. 199, 21 ff., and
in the

Paolini, ihtd., xvi (1965), no. 181, 70

Sestieri, 'Contributi a

1 1

Sebastiano Conca',

Mazzanti's paintings are sometimes mixed up

with those by Francesco Fernandi, called Imperiali

ff.

Benefial's contemporary, Placido Costanzi (prob-

be mentioned.
to A.

M.

He

has

become

Clark's paper in Paragone, xix(i968), no. 219,

scarcely independent of Conca's style in his S. Cecilia

two years earlier.

Emmerling, P. Batont. Darmstadt, 1932; L.
Marcucci, Emporium, xcix (1944), 95; L. Cochetti,
Commentari, ill (1952), 274; R. Chyurlia, Emporium,

(b.

19. E.

cxvii (1953), 56; A.

233.

Much

M.

Clark, Burl. .Mag., ci (1959),

of the older literature has been superseded

reconstruction of his oeuvre by E. Waterhouse, Arte

cxii (1970), 817.

(1958), loi,

Paragone,

this artist's links

vi (1955), no. 61, 55,

Domenico

Cortese, Commentari,

XIV (1963), 254.

13. See above, Chapter 14, Note
F. A. Salvagnini's

An

14.

artist's

discussed

On

Cortese, see

by E. Schaar

to the

Ceres' in the Villa Falconieri at Frascati, in Festschrift

fur Ulrich Mtddeldorf Berlin, 1968, 422

ff.

Kerber (see Bibliography),

shows that the artist also drew inspiration from the
Carracci, Reni, Cortona, and Sacchi.
16. For Masucci, see Bibliography. Mancini began as
a pupil of the Bolognese Carlo Cignani and painted
mainly in the Marches and L'mbria. His principal work
1 5.

in

Chiari's biographer, B.

Rome

is

the frescoes in the 'Kaffeehaus' of the Pa-

Colonna (1735-40; see E. Toesca, L'Arte, XLVi

(1943), 7), the attractive architecture of which is due
lazzo

to

Niccolo Michetti (1731).

Lucca

in

here be mentioned. Born in

Rome, he worked

at

the courts of Dresden (1752-3), Vienna (Schonbrunn,

1

760-

1 ),

Turin 1 765-6), and St Petersburg in

Rococo manner; see S. Beguin in Para-

Berlin,

a classicizing

and, above

all,

Klara Garas

(1963), 269. See also

preparation in sketches of his 'Sacrifice of

at

Also F. Russell, Bml. Mag.,

gone, VI (1955), no. 63, 10; A. Griseri,

i.

work (1937).

interesting contribution

A lesser name, that of Gregorio Guglielmi (1714-73),

may

with Gaulli's manner. For a fuller

treatment, see G. di

1967; see Bibliography.

and A. M. Clark, Burl.

Mag., cvi (1964), 226.

12. F. Zeri,

here

owing

39 ff. his great ceiling fresco in S. Gregorio Magno,

dated 1727, reveals a classicizing sobriety which is

by the Catalogue of the Batoni Exhibition

III

may

a tangible figure

Milan, 1679), whose pleasant Marattesque pictures

were fashionable in early-eighteenth-century Rome;

Lomharda,

.\. M.
M. G.

fresco of

years ago.

fifty

Commentari, XX (1969), 317-41; xxi (1970), 122-38,

with aeuvre catalogue.
467.

Storia dell'

monumental commis-

this

ably 1701-59), pupil of Trevisani and Luti,

tation.
10.

his

in St Peter's', in

ff.;

Osterreichischen
(1965),

ff.,

in

ibid.,

no. 69, 29;

Acta Hist. Art mm,

M. Demus,

in

ix

Almanack der

Akademie der Wissenschaften, cxv

about the restoration of Guglielmi's

ceil-

ing painting of 1755-6 in the large hall of the Vienna

Academy.
20. Just as Bellori in his Life

ofMaratti had extolled

the latter's artistic genealogy back through Sacchi and

Albani to Annibale Carracci, so Benefial saw himself

in line of descent, from Annibale to .\lbani

proudly

and Carlo Cignani (Bottari, Lettere, V, 10) - an indication how such an artist interpreted the high road of the
classical tradition.

should be recalled, however, that true

judged differently. Winckelmann regarded
Mengs's Parnassus in the Villa Albani (i 760-1) as the

469. 21.

It

classicists

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

most beautiful work of modern art even for BurckMengs was the rejuvenator of modern painting.
22. M. Marangoni's article in Riv. d'Arte (igi2, re;

hardt

printed in Arte barocca, Florence, 1953, 205) is still the

foundation of any study of Florentine Settecento
painting.

For Gabbiani, see A.

Bartarelli, Riv. d'Arte, xxvii

and 1678 studying with Giro

and Gregorio de Ferrari's proto-Rococo may

The full fruit of this change is to be seen

Piola's

be observed.

in Galeotti's frescoes in

the Palazzo Spinola (1736).

For older bibliographical references see H. Bod-

28.

mer, Mitteilungen des kunsthislonschen

Instituts

Rome

between 1673

Ferri. .Although he suc-

471. 29. S.

Of the

Buscaroli, Carln Cignani, Bologna, 1953.

who reached fame, only Cignani

.\lbani pupils

continued to produce the small cabinet painting

niscences linger on, for instance, in his masterpiece,

bani's

the Apotheosis ofCosimo the Elder

tion in the

at

Poggio a Gaiano

(1698).

From

the large

may be

number

of Gabbiani's pupils and fol-

singled out

Tomaso Redi (1665- 1726),

worked with Maratti in Rome; Giovanna

Fratellini (1666-1731), famed in her time for her
pastels; and Giovanni Battista Gipriani (1727-85),

who

later

who made

his fortune in

England.

manner. Cignani's masterpiece

dome

1959, 146

Dandini.

(.Mitnchner Jahrb.
1

(1950), 105;

Edward

same author has now published

a full

monograph on

Mention may be made of Vincenzo Meucci (1694who studied at Bo-

1766), Ferretti's contemporary,

logna with dal Sole and came later under the influence
is

the frescoes in the

dome

of S. Lorenzo, 1742.

M. M.

Pieracci, 'La difficile poesia di

un

ribelle

all'Accademia; Alessandro Gherardini', Commentan,

IV (1953), 299.

For

a richly illustrated

monographic

treatment of Gherardini, see G. Ewald in Acropoli, iii

(1963), 81-132 (with a hitherto unpublished Life of
the artist by Baldinucci). In the allegoric-mythological
cycle of frescoes in the Palazzo Corsini, Gherardini

Gabbiani (they had the lion's share).

Pier Dandini, Bonechi, and minor masters.
A modest follower of Luca Giordano was Niccolo

worked next

to

Lapi (1661-1732). Francesco Gonti (1681-1760) began in Maratti's manner, but later became a Ricci
follower.
27.

N. Garboneri, Sebastiano

P. Torriti, Atttvitd di

S.G.

Forii,

1702

6.

viii

(1932), 89.

Comunedi Bologna, XXI (1934), no.

D. G. Miller, Boll, d 'Arte, XLI ( 956), 318; idem. Burl.
.Mag., xcix (1957), 231, and ibid., cii (i960), 32; E.
31.

.ArfcUi,

.\.

1 1

Feinblatt, ibid.,

which

cm

(1961), 312; P. Torriti, ibid., civ

D. C. Miller published

a Toilet

of Venus

Kunst, IX-X (1958-9), 263)

d. bild.

illustrates very well Franceschini's reliance

.\lbani.

For

his relationship with

idem. Burl. .Mag., CXII (1970), 373

For Giulio Quaglio

(i

on

Pope Clement XI,

ff.

668-1 751),

Franceschini's

pupil, a highly successful fresco painter, see R. Marini,

Ferretti (see Bibliography).

of S. Ricci; his main work

W-

ff.

Wiener Jahrb.,

(1962), 423.

A. Maser, The Disguises of Harlequin by G. D. Ferret ti.

The University of Kansas Museum of Art, 1956. The

at

in

the Assump-

His grandson, Paolo (1709-64), continued the school

into the second half of the century. Sec Emiliani, in
Maestri delta pittura del Seicento emiliano, Bologna,

G. .Arrigucci, Commentan, v (1954), 40.

24. Bonechi may be studied in the Palazzo Gapponi
(after 1705), where Sagrestani, Lapi (Note 26), and
Antonio Puglieschi (1660- 1732) also worked. The
latter stemmed from Gortona through his teacher Pier
470. 25. L. Berti, Commentari,

of the Cathedral

is

.Among his pupils may be named Luigi Quaini (16431717) and his two sons, Felice and Filippo Cignani.

30.

23.

26.

in

Florenz, v (1937), 91 See also Maestri della piitura del

Seicento emiliano. Catalogue, Bologna, 1959.

cumbed to the influenceof Maratti, Gortonesque remi-

lowers

573

(1951-2), 105. Gabbiani was in

Galeottt, Venice, 1955;

in Liguria,

Genoa, 1956.

most important work at Genoa is the cycle

of frescoes in the Ghiesa della Maddalena (1729-30;
with G. B. Natali (1698-1765) ^squadraturista), where

Galeotti's

the transition from Giordano's

IQ

manner

to

Domenico

Arte Veneta,

IX (1955), 155; xil (1958), 141.

Mauceri, Comttne di Bologna, xix (1932), no. 6,

35; G. Lippi Bruni, Arte Antica e Moderna, il (1959),
32. E.

109 (with

ffinrt' catalogue).

Dal Sole's pupil, Felice ToreUi (1667- 1748), though

less distinguished than his master, was yet a figure of
importance in his day; see D. C. .Miller, Boll, d Arte,
XLix (1964), 54
33. C. Alcsuti,

17; R.
VI,

ff.

(with ceinre catalogue).

Comune

RoH, Arte Antica

di
e

Bologna, XIX (1932), no. 9,

.Woderna,

no. 23 (1963), 247; for Roll's

see Bibliography. Also C.

(1969), 374

ff.

many

and

1967,

facets, as the pic-

Owen McSwiny

interesting set of paintings, see

Creti's style as a

(1959). 328,

Lloyd, Burl. .Wag., cxi

Creti's style has

tures painted for

II

monograph of

Note

prove.

On

this

63.

draughtsman, subtle, refined, and

was fashioned on Reni, see O. Kurz, Bolognese

Drawings at Windsor Castle, London, 1955, and R.

elegant,

Roli, Boll. d'Arte, XLVii (1962), 241.

H. Bodmer (Note 28) claims that Benedetto Gennaro

nephew and pupil of Guercino, whose
Bolognese activity lies between 1692 and his death in

the younger,

generation of
171 5, forms the link between the older
Franceschini and the younger of D. Creti.

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

574

19

472. .^4. There is a puzzling connexion brtween our

picture and an almost identical but more extensive

Museum, Lisbon (no.

unknown to me
68). The referCharles Alphonse Dufresnoy (161

composition

in the

National

shown

sign,

and

Baroque

stage.

Giuseppe's de-

as illustration 335, gives an idea of the rich

restless effect of diagonal perspective.

Yet the purpose of the design

for reasons

294), there attributed

to

that revolutionized the

medieval mystery plays.

is

in

the tradition of the

reproduces one of 'the in-

It

peepshows, or theatra sacra, that Giuseppe con-

ence to the Lisbon painting escaped the attention of R.

tricate

D. Creti, 1967, 87, nos. 21-8. Roli dates the picture here illustrated in the second decade of the
eighteenth century (which appears to me too early).

structed yearly for the court chapel at Vienna. Each

Roli,

35. H. Voss, Paragnnc\ i\ (1958), no. 97, 53, and R.

RoH, Arte Antua e Moderna, ill, no. 10 (i960), 189.
36. Not to be mixed up with his namesake from Brescia

(1646- 171 3), a master of battle-pieces

in the

man-

ner of Borgognone. For Francesco Monti, see R. Roli,

ff.
D. C.
and Art Qiiarterly,
XXXI (1968), 423 ff. In addition, U. Ruggeri's monograph, Francesco Monti Bolognese, Bergamo, 1968.

in

Arte Antua

Miller,

ihid.,

Aloderna, no. 17 (1962), 86

no. 25 (1965), 97

37. R. Roli in Arte Anttca

ff.;

eModerna, vi, no. 22 (1963),

166.

473. 38. Crespi worked under

them

in

1680-4

^i^d

1684-6 respectively.
39. C. Gnudi, Bnlogua (Riv. del Comune), xxii
(1935), 18.
474. 40. V. Constantini,
Milan, 1930, 11, 202.

La pittiira

italiana delSeicento,

Between 1686 and 1688 Crespi worked in his

studio. See E. Riccomini, Arte Antica e Moderna, 11,
no. 6(1959), 219. For Burrini, see H. Brigstocke, Burl.
42.

cxii (1970), 760.

He

continued Malvasia's Felsina

pittrice,

Rome,

H. Voss,

Zeitschr.

Roli, Arte Antica e

f.

Kunstg.,

Moderna,

11

(1933), 202; R.

in, no. 11 (i960), 300.

D. C. Miller, in Art Quarterly, xxxi (1968),

42 1 ff emphasized Donato Creti's influence on Bigari.
45. E. Feinblatt, 'A Letter by Enrico Haffner', Burl.
44.

.,

Mag.,
46.

his

is

work

cxii (1970),

An

229

authoritative

wanting.

Some

ff.

work on the

quadraturisti

material in C. Ricci,

is still

La Scenografia

at

Bayreuth

(1748).

Francesco's main theatre buildings (only partly sur-

House in Vienna and the theatres

Nancy, Verona (Teatro Filarmonico), and Rome
(Teatro Aliberti, 1720). Antonio distinguished himself as theatre architect (Teatro Comunale, Bologna;
viving) are the Opera

at

p. 391) and as painter of illusionist frescoes

(Vienna, Pressburg, etc.).
The Bibiena had a large school. Mention may be

above,

made of an

outsider,

draughtsman

Mauro Tesi 1730

(

manner of

in the

66), an excel-

the Bibiena,

who

was at an astonishingly early date attracted by Egyptian

archaeology as subjects for his designs. His special
claim to fame

lies in

that

Count

and advertised him.

48. For Verona, see below,
school of Brescia

1769.
43.

exuberant decoration of the opera house

lent

41.

Mag.,

of Corpus Christi brought a fresh variation on the

theme of wide ramps of stairs converging on a balustraded platform where the Man of Sorrows stood
under a vast arch opening on lofty architectural distances' (Hyatt Mayor, op. cit., 12).
Giuseppe was famed for his opera sets at Vienna,
Dresden, Munich, Prague, Venice, and Berlin. The
feast

Emma

Algarotti patronized

p. 484.

Calabi,

Best survey of the

La

pittura a B. nel

Seicento e Settecento, Catalogue, Brescia, 1935. Brescia

minor genre painters such as Faustino BocBambocciante who introduced the

of showing people with large heads and small de-

excelled in

chi (1659- 1729), a

trick

formed bodies; Giorgio and Faustino Duranti (16831755, 1695-1766), who made birds and hens their
speciality
ally

Francesco Monti (see Note 36), internationfor his battle-pieces; and the landscapist

known

see E. Calabi, Rir. dArte,

Italiana, Milan, 1930 (with comprehensive bibliography) and V. Mariani, Storm della scenografia itali-

Giuseppe Zola (1672- 1743;

ana, Florence, 1930; see also H. Tintelnot, Barock-

logu, Pittori minori liguri, lombardi, piemontesi del '600

e 'joo,

Berlin, 1939.

t heater,

xii (1934), 84).

476. 47. Apart from the works

Mayor,

see

by C. Ricci and Hyatt

/ Bibiena scenografi. Mostra dei loro disegni,

schizzi e bozzetti, Florence, 1940.

In 17 1

Ferdinando published his important L'/Jn/i;-

tettura civile preparata sulla geometria e ridotta alleprospettive,

where he discussed

at

length his 'scene vedute

from an acute angle. It

was this not entirely new device (Marcantonio Chiarini had staged his La Forza della Virtii in Bologna
showing a prison as a scena per angolo as early as 1694)
in angolo', stage designs seen

See also

for this

whole section G. De-

Venice, 1931.

49. Voss, 589. Seiter left

Rome in

Cortonesque manner

Turin

in

1688 and practised

to the

end of his

life.

Before Seiter's arrival in Turin, Giovan Paolo Recchi

and his nephew Giovan Antonio handled large fresco

commissions; see A. M. Brizio in Arte Lombarda, 11
(1956), 122.

For Piedmontese painting, see the older works by L.

Rosso and by V. Viale, and Andreina Griseri's Catalogue of the Turin Baroque Exhibition, 1963 (references in the Bibliography).

BIBLOSARTE

NOTES TO CHAPTER

For the position in Turin at the beginning of the

seventeenth century, see A. Griseri, Paragone, xii
(1961), no. 141, 19.

Vesme,

50. A.

'I

575

55. Lorenzo de Ferrari

680 744) has already been
mentioned (p. 392). For Domenico Parodi (1668( 1

1740), Filippo's son, sec S. Soldani, 'Profilo di

Van Loo

dell'arte, vi {1893), 333.

family of painters, above

Piemonte', Arch.

in

star,

Other members of this large

all Giovanni Battista (1684-

Do-

menico Parodi', Cnlicad' Arte, xiv, no. 87 (1967), <x> ff.

Paolo Girolamo Piola (1666 1724), Domenico's son,

who switched over

to .Vlaratti's international style,

de-

1745), also painted in Turin.

serves a note, and so

Conca and Giaquinto were, of course, 'romanized'

Neapolitans. Conca was in Turin ofifand on during the

Mulinaretto' ( 1660 1745), who painted grandiloquent

portraits reminiscent of Rigaud (M. Bonzi, // .Mulina-

720s painting

in the

Venaria Rcalc, the Superga, and

the Palazzo Reale; Giaquinto

and again
1741

3,

in

came

twice,

first in

1733

1740-2 (frescoes Villa della Regina and S.

in the Palazzo Reale in

De Mura worked

Teresa).

and

and sixties reNaples and sent

in the late forties, the fifties

ceived payments for work executed in

Mura

to

Turin; see

di

Napoli, Madrid e Torino", Paragone,

.\.

Griseri, 'Francesco

fra le corti

xiii (1962),

no. 155,22.

On

Pietro Tempesta, see C. Roethlisherger, Burl.

Mag.. Cix (1967), 12
56. Among them .Andrea Lanzani ( 1 639 1712), Filippo Abbiati ( 1 640 7 5 F. Renzo Pescnti, Commentari.
ft".

Battista Crosato', Paragone, xii (1961), no. 135, 42.

cal.

Crosato came

going to

1733 and again

in 1740.

478. 53. A. Griseri, 'Operc giovanili di CI. Fr. Beau-

mont

e alcune note in

Scritti

van,

II

(a

margine

much

Torino), Turin, 195 1, with

also idem. Connoisseur,

For further references

54.

Delogu,

op.

tit.,

valuable material;

CXL (1957), 145 (documents).

Beaumont, see Catalogue of

to

the Baroque Exhibition,

made

alia pittura barocca', in

cura della Facolta di Magistero di

11,

Mention should

also be

Domenico (d. before 1771) and

1761) Valeriani who had come from

of the brothers

Giuseppe

Rome

to

(d.

Venice

in

about 1720 and painted between

73 1 and 1733 the Gran Salone at Stupinigi [292] in a

manner reminiscent of contemporary Genoese dec1

For their work and that of Crosato, Carlo

Andrea Van Loo, and V. A. Cignaroh at Stupinigi, see
A. Telluccini, Le decoraziom della gia Reale Palazztna
orations.

di

Caccia di St., Turin, 1924, \\. Bernardi's book of

1958, and L. Malle's Stupinigi, Turin, 1969.

For the
ily

Galliari, the distinguished

ofquadraturisti and theatrical designers, see Tintel-

5)

He

followed the fashionable course of study by

Rome and working under .Maratti. But his

work shows that he was much impressed by Lanfranco.
In 1697 he accepted a call to V ienna; later he went to

He returned home shortly before his death; see

M. G. Turchi in L'.4rte, LIX (i960), 99 (with wuvre

Spain.

catalogue).

Among

Lombard painters may be mentioned

who studied with Dal Sole in Bo-

other

fratellt Galliari,

logna and became a quadraturista of distinction (his

fresco of 1715 in the Oratory of S. .Angelo, Milan,
tour deforce, derived

see

M.

Turin,

wards Venice

( 1

Commentari,

vili

131; Critica

d'.-irte, vii

fratelli Galliari ptttori,

ill

(1958), 105; iv (1959),

(i960), 377; and her book /

Milan, 1962.

The

best frescoes

of the Galliari are in the Salone of the Villa Crivelli at

Castellazzo di BoUate, w here the exuberant quadratura
unifies walls

and

vault.

vi (1961),

43; (2)

who was oriented

to-

and shows close connexions

Colombo

in

in

Arte

viii, 2 (1963), 253; (3) the minor Rococo

masters Gian Pietro and Cesare Ligari; see R. Bossa-

Lomharda,

Commentari, X (1959), 228;

(4) Pier

Francesco

Guala (1698- 1757), who appeared with unconventional and impressive portraits at the Turin Baroque
Exhibition, 1963, and won laurels as an arcadian
painter in the
(5)

manner of Crosato

(see Bibliography);

Carlo Innocenzo Carloni (1686-1775), probably

Lombard Rococo painter, who was

many places of Central Europe,
Vienna, Prague, southern Germany, and

ceaselesslv active in

Giovanni and Giuseppino, see the papers by R.

1767),

(1957), 211, and S.

the most gifted

Bossaglia in Arte Lomharda,

is

Ignazio ceiling);

S.

with the Piazzetta follower Petrini; see E. .Arslan

1963 for the frescoes of the three brothers Bernardino,

son's,

69

(Pittoni)

Fabrizio, and Giovanni Antonio and of Fabrizio's

from Pozzo's

Bussolera in Arte Lomharda,

Antonio Magatti

P.

glia in

Piedmontese fam-

not (Note 46), 95; M. Ferrero Viale, Disegnt scenografici

dei Galliari, Catalogue, Turin, 1956, and idem. La
scenografia del Setteceitto e

17 13/

343 ft".), and Stefano Maria Legnani ( 660have pride of place. Lanzani's career is typi-

(i) Pietro Gilardi,

81.

235. -

'il

Genoi, i962),and Carlo Antonio Tavella( 1668who began as friend and follower
of the romantic Haarlem master, Pietcr Mulier (called
'il Tempesta', c. 1637701 ), then followed Claude and
Gaspar Dughet, but also collaborated w ith Magnasco.

first in

.Maria delle Plane,

1738), a landscapist,

XVII (1966),

do Giovan

retto,

G. Fiocco, G. B. Crosalo, Venice, 1941 2nd ed.

1944; A. Griseri, Tl "Rococo" a Torino e Giovan
52.

19

above

all

in

northern Italy; see

.\.

B. Brini

graphy). Characteristic for his

and K. Garas (Biblio-

manner

trophic quadratura frescoes in the \

ilia

are the hyper-

Lechi

tirone near Brescia, painted together with

Lecchi

in

746 see Connoisseur. cxi.\

;

A. Barigozzi Brini in Arte Lomharda.

BIBLOSARTE

i960),

at .\lon-

Giacomo
1

53 ; also

vi (1961), 256.

NOTES TO CHAPTER

576

19

For these and other Lombard painters, see the excelchapter by A. M. Romanini in Sloria di Milano,

lent

.Angeli (1710-98), Francesco Daggiii, called

Cappella (1714-84), .\ntonio Marinetti, called il

il

Chiozzotto ( 1720- 1803), and Domenico Fedeli, called

1959, XII, 713.

The Piedmontese Giuseppe Antonio

57.

Giuseppe

Pianca

.Maggiotto (171 3-93). About

il

Rn.

(1703-after 1755) was to a certain extent dependent on

lucchini,

Magnasco. This long forgotten

giotto's pupil

aroused

much

interest; see C.

Ptemontese di archeol.

M.

158;

Rosci

artist

Debiaggi

has recently
in Boll. Soc.

e di belle arti, xii-xill

Memorie

in Alti e

(1958-9),

del Congresso di

Va-

Turin, 1962, 115; idem, G. A. Pianca.

Calalogo, Varallo Sesia, 1962 (exhibition catalogue

rallo Sesia,

many

with

illustrations).

di

all

these artists, see Pal-

Mag-

Venezia, X (1931), XI (1932).

Ludovico Gallina from Brescia (175287) also worked in Piazzetta's academic manner.
The Ticinese painter Giuseppe .Antonio Petrini

much

(1667-1758/9) has recently attracted

owing

to a

comprehensive exhibition

came

pupil of Bartolomeo Guidobono, he

Piazzetta's influence,

at

attention

Lugano.
later

.-X

under

whose manner he imitated with

N. Ivanoff, Moslra del Bazzani in Mantova, Bergamo, 1950, with full documentary material and bib-

varying success; see W. .\rslan, G. A. Petrini, Lugano,

liography.

CM

479. 59. Francesco Maria Raineri, called Schivenoglia

(1962), 294

58.

(1676-1758), whose work

beginning to become

just

is

similar to Bazzani's,

Volpe and N. Clerici Bagozzi, Arte Antica

VI,

is

a defined personality; see C.

e

Moderna,

O. Benesch, Staedel Jahrbuch,

III-IV (1924), 136,

discussed Bazzani's influence on Maulpertsch.

For the following

61.

am much

Fiocco's work (1929) and, above

all,

indebted to G.

to R. Pallucchini's

eighteenth-century Venice

in

an eminently

62. B. Nicolson, Burl.

all

Mag., cv (1963), 121, has col-

data referring to Ricci's relation to

Lord

Burlington in London.
pitt. ten.,

1946, 34.
Illustration 353 represents a work of collaboration of

Marco Ricci (pp. 498-501). It is uncommands special interest be-

usually brilliant and

cause

it

belongs to the

of twenty-four allegories

set

commissioned by the impresario Ow en McSwiny from

the foremost Bolognese and \'enetian painters. This
series of pictures has been intensely studied; see H.
Kunstw., xlvii (1926), 32; W. Arslan,
Riv. d'Arte, XIV (1932), 128; ihid., xv (1933), 244, and
Voss, Rep.

f.

Commentari,

vi (1955),

189; T. Borenius, Burl. Mag.,

LXix (1936), 245; F. J. B. Watson, ibtd., xct (1953),

362; W. G. Constable, ibid., xcvi (1954), 154; idem,
Canaletto,

mary

172 (documents), 432. Best

1963,

sum-

in Haskell, Patrons, 287.

successfully) to interpret this picture allegorically.

65. R. Pallucchini,

W.

.-Vrslan, Critica

66.

Goering,

ibid.,

Preuss. Kunstslg., LVI (1935),

II

Of the more

Rn.

di Venezia,

d'Arte,

xin (1934), 327;

(1935-6), 188.

important pupils

may be mentioned

(1935-6), 205;

(1937), 177. E. .Arslan,

Lombard

Emporium,
Ben-

influence on

covich through Filippo .Abbiati, .Magnasco's teacher.

69. On Pagani, see H. Voss, Belvedere,
N. Ivanoff, Paragone, viii (1957), no.

that Giulia

who

Lama

also

vm

1929), 41

89, 52, claims

belongs to the circle of Pagani,

has his place on the

way which

from the

'leads

Venetian Caravaggeschi to Piazzetta'.

69a.

The

painting of illustration 340 belongs to Ben-

him strongly

influ-

enced by G. M. Crespi in fact, until fairly recently the

work had been attributed to the latter.
;

Fontebasso, an untiring worker, came under Tie-

polo's influence

and ended

his career in a rather tired

Tiepolesque manner. At the beginning of the 1760s he

followed a call to St Petersburg. Recent studies on
Fontebasso by A. Pigler, Arte Veneta, xiii-xiv (1959and R. Pallucchini, ibid., xv (1961), 182.

60), 155,

For G. Diziani, see F. Valcanover, Mostra

di pitture

del Settecento nel Bellunese, Venice, 1954, 85; A. Rizi

in Acropnli.
tella,

11

(1962), iii. For Zompini, O. Battis-

Delia vita e delle opere di G.G.Z., Bologna, 1930,

with ceuvre catalogue.

For the Veronese painter Giovan Battista Marcola

1701-80), whose style as draughtsman shows undeniable links with Sebastiano Ricci, see L. Ruggeri,
Critica d'Arte, xvii, no. no (1970), 35 ff., and ibtd.,
(c.

no. 112, 49

D. M. White and A. C. Sewter, Art Qitarterly,

(i960), 125, attempted (to my mind, not wholly

482. 64.
xxiii

^a/ir/.

Moderna, V

68. R. Pallucchini, Rtv. d'Arte, xiv (1932), 301 (with

70.

481. 63. Viatico per cinque secoli di

Sebastiano and

Goering,

covich's early period and shows

readable form.

lected

M.

67.

152, with ceuvre catalogue.

xcviii (1943), 158, claims

La pittura veneziana del' /OO, Bolognz, 1951, 1952. His

La pittura veneziana del Settecento, Venice, i960, contains the latest summary of current research. - Part iii
of Haskell's Patrons contains a great deal of new material for

Colomho, Arte Antica

(new documents).

(i960), 118; S.

autre catalogue) and Critica d'Arte,

no. 24(1963), 337, 339.

60.

i960 (with wuvre catalogue); L. Salmina, Burl. Mag.,

71.

Kunst,

XII

Ant onto
483. 72. H.
di

ff".,

with further literature on the

M. Goering,

artist.

Miinchner Jahrbuch der bildenden

(1937-8), 233 A. Bettagno, Disegm

;

e dipinti

Pellegrini, Venice,

1959 (basic study).

\o^s,,Jahrh. Preuss. Kunstslg., XXXIX ( 1918),

145 .Arslan, Critica d'Arte,

;

1 (

1935-6), 238;

ward, Burl. Mag., XCIX (1957), 21; G.

BIBLOSARTE

M.

J.

Wood-

Pilo,

Arte

NOTES TO CHAPTER

I9

577

Veneta, xii (1958), 158 (review of older literature);

be a preliminary sketch for the group of a river god,

idem, Arte Antica e Muderna,

naiad,

ill,

no. 9 (i960), 174

connexions with Ricci and Pellegrini); A.

Griseri, 'L'ultimo tempo dell'Amigoni e il Nogari',
Paragone, xi (i960), no. 123, 21.
(also for

73.
velli

From Amigoni's school came Pier Antonio Nomuch of whose work belongs to the

(1729- 1 804),

Angelica Kauffmann's husband, and the sculptor

Michelangelo Morlaiter.
74. L. Coggiola-Pittoni,

and bibliography.
75. .\ development similar to that of Pittoni was
taken by Nicola Grassi (1682 -1748) from Friuli who
began his career in Venice under Nicolo Cassana (d.
17 3). .^n artist of distinction, he was drawn in his late
phase to Pittoni's manner; see G. Fiocco, Dedalo, x
ceuvre catalogue

(1929), 427; L. Grossato, Arte Veneta,

G. Gallo, Mostra

11

(1948), 130;

di Nicola Grassi, Catalogue,

Udine,

boy

76. E. Battisti,

end of the south portion

Bean and F. Siampfle,

New York Collections III. The EightNew York, 1971, 47, no. 82.

Knox, 'G. B. Tiepolo and the Ceiling of

486. 84. G.

the Scalzi', Burl. .Mag., ex (1968), 394

M. H. von Freden and

85.

C.

ff".

Lamb, Die Freshen der

Witrzhurger Residenz, Munich, 1956.

by his sons, Gian Domenico and Lo-

86. .Assisted

renzo,

who had accompanied him

87. A. Morassi, Tiepolo e la Villa

to

Madrid.

Valmarana, Milan,

1945; R. Pallucchini, Gli Affreschi

di G. B. e G. D.
Valmarana, Bergamo, 1945. \l.
Levey, J.H'.C./., xx (1957), 298, has analysed brilliantly the iconography of the \ almarana cycle.
88. This feature derives from \alerius Maximus

Tiepolo alia

Villa

('.Agamemnon saw Iphigenia advance towards the fatal

he groaned, he turned aside his head, he shed
tears, and covered his face with his robe"); classical

altar,

authors assert that

Commentari, v (1954), 26 (with wuvre

in his

famous

(lost)

thus he appears on Greek vases and

catalogue).

fresco.

484. 77. G. Fiocco, Pitt, venez., 1929, 47 (English ed.),

pointed out that Balestra's influence extended from

with textual

Mantua

his Laocoon, 1766

Trentino and the .^ustrain Baroque.

78. F. R. Presenti, Arte Antica e Moderna, in, no. 12
to the

painting

Death of Rachel caused a sensation.

was exhibited in the Piazza S. Marco and
was, according to a contemporary observer, studied by
one and all with admiration and amazement.
79. Hugh Honour, 'Giuseppe Nogari', Connoisseur,
CXL (1957), 154. For Nogari's connexion with \m\goni, see Griseri (above. Note 72).
80. Derivation from Balestra made Bortoloni an easy
prey to the influence of the Frenchman Louis Dorigny
(1654-1742), who painted in Venice, Verona, and
Udine in Lebrun's cool academic manner. That influ78a. Cignaroli's
it

ence will be noticed

in Bortoloni's

remarkable decora-

Cornaro

Piombino Dese (N.

tion of Palladio's Villa

Arte Veneta,

at

iv (1950), 123).

Tim-

way
Pompeian

in this

in a

In a learned dispute of his day, Tiepolo sides here

and decorum, as did Lessing

fidelity

in

('Timanthes knew the limits which

the Graces had fixed to his

.Art").

The

opposite view-

Falconet "s words (1775): 'Vou

think of veiling Agamemnon; you have unveiled your
point

(i960), 418.

Ivanoff',

J.

anthes of Sikyon represented .Agamemnon

1961.

In 1770

at the far

eenth Century in Italy,

'Pseudo influenza francese

nell'arte di G.B.P.', Rtv. dt Venezia, xii (1933), with

fisher

Drawings from

history of Neo-classicism (see

.\1. Voltolina, Riv. dt

Venezia, xi (1932)), also Antonio Zucchi (1726-95),

and

of the Clerici ceiling; see

is

epitomized

own ignorance
takes

in

.'. Reynolds (/^/r/A Discourse,

1778)
up an empirical, common-sense position: The
.

veiling 'appears

now

to

be so

much connected

with the

subject, that the spectator would, perhaps, be disap-

pointed in not finding united

always united

in his

in the picture

what he

mind, and considered as indis-

pensably belonging to the subject'.

89.

Mengozzi-Colonna was responsible

for the t/uad-

ratura.

487. 90. For Tiepolo's help to Mengozzi-Colonna, see

A. Morassi, Burl. .Mag., c.i (1959), 228.
489. 91. See T. Hetzer, Die Freshen Tiepolos in der

Wiirzhurger Residenz. Frankfurt, 1943.

Another Balestra pupil, Giambattista Mariotti (i 6901765), adhered later to the Bencovich-Piazzetta current; see N. Ivanoff", Boll. Aluseo Civico Padova, xxxi-

490. 92. See G. Reynolds, Burl. .Mag., l.xxxii (1940),

XLiii (1942-54), 145.

Raggi,

N. Ivanoff", Boll. d'Arte, xxxviii (1953), 58.

82. See the excellent introduction by .\ntonio Morassi, G. B. Tiepolo, London, 1955, with bibliography;
and the accompanying oeuvre catalogue, London, 1962.
485. 83. P. d'Ancona, Tiepolo in .Milan: The Palazzo
Ciena Frescoes, Milan, 1956. It has been suggested
that the drawing reproduced as illustration 345 might
81.

44-

491. 93. For the

minor pupils of Tiepolo, Giovanni

.Menescardi, Francesco Lorenzi,

Fabio Canal, and others, see R. Pallucchini, La put.
venez.,

Giustino

ii,

25.

For Francesco Zugno (1709-87), see the

monograph by G. M.
e

.Memorie

Pilo,

Venice, ig$8, idem in Saggi

di storia delTarte,

(suvre catalogue),

i!

(1958-9), 323 (with

and Paragone, \ (1959), no. in,

2,2,.

Jacopo Guarana (1720 1808) continued the Tiepolesque tradition into the nineteenth century.

BIBLOSARTE

578

NOTES TO CHAPTER

As

94.

IQ

early as 1678 Malvasia {Feh. pitt.,

11,

129)

103. R.

Longhi, Critica d'Arte, in (1938), 121.

criticized this specialization.

496. 104. Longhi, op.

493. 95. For the chronology of Longhi's portraits, see

V. Moschini, L'Arle, XXXV ( 1932), 1 10 also W. Arslan,

L'Arte, xxxvi (1933), 255; M. Mojzer, Acta Historiae Artium (Budapest), iv (1956), 77.

Emporium, xcviil (1943), 51.

96. See R. Longhi, I'ialiio, etc., 35. It is true that
Rosalba had a formative influence on Maurice Quentin
de la Tour, Liotard, and others.
Of other portrait painters may be mentioned Francesco Pa vona (1692-1777),

oneof Rosalba's

imitators;

Bartolomeo Nazari (1699-1758), who began as a follower of Fra Galgario and later embraced Amigoni's
more elegant manner (F. J. B. Watson, Burl. Mag., xci

Ludovico Gallina (Note 66) from

whose work has affinities with A. Longhi's

105.

W.

106.

The

cit.

.'^rslan,

Arti dt Bologna appeared several times be-

tween 1646 and 1740 and had a wide circulation.

107. The connexion is particularly clear in those cases

where the

figure, large

and isolated

in the

architecture.

A. Griseri, Paragone, XII (1961), no. 143, 24, has

pointed out that the Lombard Gio venale Boetto

78) etched popular types (1633

Bologna even before the

(1949), 75); and

di

Brescia,

Boetto

may have

ff.)

97. / pittori delta realta in Lombardia, Catalogue.

in

the-Catalogue quoted in the pre-

604-

appeared and that

latter

influenced Ceruti. Griseri studied

1966 (see Bibliography), 42

108. Arslan, op.

Milan, 1953.
98. Bibliography

( 1

similar to the Arti

these problems further in the Boetto

and Rosalba's.

foreground,

not co-ordinated with the indication of landscape or

is

monograph of

ff.

256.

cit.,

109. Longhi's pupil, the

Frenchman Giuseppe

Fli-

ceding Note. In addition G. Testori, Paragone, v

part (1721-97), found a ready public for this type of

(1954), no. 57.

genre in Spain, where he settled as court painter.

Owing

and exhibitions (see

BibHography) the number of works now known by
Ceruti has almost doubled in recent years; his career
can be followed from 1724 to 1761 and perhaps even
to fairly recent research

rather facile genre of a similar kind was practised

by Marco Marcola (1740-93) from Verona.

In this context I may come back to another Veronese
artist,

Pietro Rotari (1707-62),

who was

a consider-

beyond this date. Unexpectedly, some landscapes and

some remarkable still lifes by him have been found;

able success in his day. His teachers were Balestra in

see A. Morassi, in Pantheon, xxv (1967), 348

Solimena

in

riculum.

He

ff.

494. 99. Traversi's career was reconstructed by R.

Longhi, Vita Artist ica, 11 (1927), 145. Dated religious

Naples (1749), Rome (1752),

and Parma (1753). See also Longhi, Paragone, i (1950),
no. I, 44, and A. G. Quintavalle, ibid., vii (1956), no.

paintings by

him

are in

M.

loi.

M. Abbruzzese, Commentari, vi

(1955), 303;

Clark, Paragone, xiv (1963), no. 165, 11. See

also F.

Negri Arnoldi,

ihtd.,

xxi (1970), no. 239, 67

ff.

M.

a typical

eighteenth-century cur-

specialized in sweetish heads rendered

with great precision in clear, cold colours; see G.

Fiocco, Emporium, XLViii (1942), 277.
497. 1X0. I cannot discuss the battle-piece, animal
genre, and still life. All these had their great period

The many eighteenth-

century painters go the trodden path.

For the battle-piece, see L.Ozzola, //);//// (//^a/Za^/zf

nel Seicento e nel Settecento,

Mantua, 1951, with brief

comments on all the practitioners. Francesco Simonini from Parma (1686- 1753), who worked in Venice
in the 1740s, has been more carefully studied; see A.

&

Morassi

Smith's album of caricatures. Also D. Bodart, 'Disegni

giovanili inediti di P. L.

Palatino, xi (1967), 141

Ghezzi

nella Bibl. Vaticana',

ff.

Ghezzi's Venetian counterpart as a caricaturist was

Antonio Maria Zanetti the Elder (1680- 1767), distinguished collector, engraver, and draughtsman, whose
'Album Cini' (now belonging to the Fondazione Cini,
Venice) with about 350 caricatures gives an enchanting

impression of the society of eighteenth-century Venice; see A.

Bettagno, Caricature di Anton Maria Zan-

Venice, 1969.

102.

Venice, Trevisani in Rome, and

Loret, Capilolium, xi (1935), 291, with notes

his sketch-books with caricatures. See also A.

on all
Blunt and E. Croft-Murray, Venetian Drawings of the
XVII XVIII Centuries ...at Windsor Castle, London, 1957, 138 ff., with a detailed analysis of Consul

etti,

in

Naples

during the seventeenth century.

81, 39-

495. 100.

A.

Verona, Piazzetta

H. Voss, Pantheon,

11

(1928), 512.

Padrono,

in

Pantheon, xix (1961),

i;

G. M. Zuccolo

.4rte Veneta, xxi (1967), 185

ff.

In Naples the brilliant Andrea Belvedere ( 1 652- 1 732)

and others followed in the footsteps of Ruoppolo.

Felice Boselli ( 165 1- 1732) from Piacenza excelled in
animal, bird, and fish still lifes; see G. Bocchia Casoni

Parma per '.-/r/f XI V ( 1 964), 3 1 Bologna had in the

Cittadini a whole family specializing in fruit and flower
in

still lifes.

For Pier Francesco

Cittadini, see E. Ricco-

mini, Arte Antica e .Moderna, iv (1961), 362, and A. G.

Quintavalle, Artisti alia corte di Francesco d'Este,

Mo-

dena, 1963, 32. Arcangelo Resani (1668/70-1740), the

painter of impressively compact still lifes, may here be

mentioned. Born in Rome, he moved early

BIBLOSARTE

to

Bologna

NOTES TO CHAPTKR

and on

and Ravenna, where he died; see A.

18:5, 52 ff'., and

to Forli

Corbara,

in

Paragone, xvi (1965), no.

L. Zauli Naldi,

Carlo Magini
still lifes

ihui.,
1

55

720

with a Caravaggesque flavour; see A. Servo-

Commentan, via

Paintings by the litlle-known Alberto Carlini (1672

after 1720) are often attributed to

Pannini see H. Voss,

;

M. G.

117.

Rossi, Commeniari, xiv (1963), 54

much new

study of Ghisolfi with

fine

material was pub-

(1957), 125, with further litera-

lished by \. Busiri Vici, in Palalino, viii (1964), 21220.

painting in Emilia, see \. G. Quintavalle,

logue of the 1964 Parma Exhibition of this painter

118. C. Lorenzetti, C. I'anvilelli, .Milan, 1934, with

auire catalogue and bibliography G. Briganti in Crilica d'.4rle, V (1940), 129; idem, Caspar I an H illcl,

(1667-1720).

Rome, 1966

lini,

ture.

For

still life

Chnstofnro Miinan

e la

nalura mnria emiltana

The lure of Roman ruins has a

Cata-

long historv of

(see Bibliography).

the Hypnenitomacbia Polifili (1499). Their early 'ro-

Caspar Vanvitelli had followers in Rome, above

all the Dutchman Hendrik Frans van Lint (16841763), who spent most of his life in Italy, and Giovanni

mantic' inclusion in landscapes by

Battista Busiri (1698

498. III.

own going back

its

to Petrarch and, in visual terms, to

tendencies of northern

artists,

Brill,

the antiquarian

such as Heemskerck,

and the appearance of ruins in the work of the Bamboccianti and northern landscapists of the mid seventeenth century cannot here be discussed. For the early
history of the cult of ruins see W. G. Heckscher, Dte
Riimrumeii, Wiirzburg, 1936; for the general problem

19.

the small format and

lar

1757),

who had

with eighteenth-century P^nglish 'Grand Tourists'.

See the

fully illustrated

Vici, G. B. Busiri.

monograph by .Andrea

Busiri

romano del

Rome,

edultsla

120.

SeeG. M.Pilo's excellent Catalogue of the Mar-

XVII

logue / vedulisli veneziani,

XVIII

secolo', L'Arie, xvi (1913),

in

i,

112.

Paragone.xu (1961), no. 139,

prima maniera di .Andrea Locatelli', Palatnw. xi (1967), 366 ft"., and M. M. Mosco,
'Lestroismanieresd' Andrea Locatelli', Revue del' An,
1

13.

A. Busiri Vici,

no. 7 (1970), 19-39.

Locatelli's art; with

Alto,

le

'I, a

This is the fullest discussion of

wuvre catalogue. See also '.Monsii

maitre de Locatelli',

ihid., 18.

H. Voss, Apollo, III (1926), 332.

115. O. Ferrari, 'Leonardo Coccorante e la "veduta
ideata" napoletana'. Emporium, cxix {1954), 9; W. G.
Constable, 'Carlo Bonavia and some Painters of Ve114.

dute

Honor ojG. Smarzenski,

For Bonavia, see also the same

in Naples', Essays in

Chicago, 1952, 198.

author in An Quarterly. 1959, i960, 1962.

Mention may also be made of the anonymous nor'Monsu X', an artist reconstructed by R. Longhi Paragnne, V ( 954), no. 53, 39) who w orked mostly
in Rome and combined influences from Rosa and
Courtois with those from Seghers, Rembrandt, and

therner
(

other

Dutch

painters.

Pandolfo Reschi, born

most of his life in

He died
1 1

co Ricci Exhibition, 1963 (Introduction by R. Palluc-

501.

For Marieschi,

6.

in

1699

in

Danzig

in 1643,

who

spent

imitated Salvator and Courtois.

Florence where he mainly worked.

Italy,

in

F. Arisi's monograph

( 1

96 1 ) with elaborate,

fully

illustrated ceuvre catalogue supersedes L. Ozzola's

monograph of 1921 and must be consulted

questions concerning Pannini.
that Pannini

was

in

Rome

The author

as early as 171

for all

established

1.

all

see, apart
.A.

previous research.

from the 1967 Cata-

Morassi,

.\\.

Marieschi.

Calalogo, Bergamo, 1966, and idem in Festschrift U.

.Middeldorj: Berlin, 1968, 497

51-

'joo,

1966.

chini), with bibliography listing

See A. M. Clark

penchant for

w hose work w as immensely popu-

Rose Macaulay's excellent book The Pleasure uj Ruins,

London, 1953; for the particular problems under review, L. Ozzola, 'Le rovine romane nella pittura del
112.

57C)

Burl. Mag., CI (1959), 443.

ft'.

806) from I'orh painted homclv

ICj

122. Apart

ft".

from C. Mauroner's monograph, see H.

Voss, Rep. J. Kunstw., XLVii (1926),

i.

On

Carlevarijs's

Swedish pupil, Johan Richter (1665-1745), "^^^ \\\*i^

in Venice from 1717 on, see G. Fiocco, L'.-irie, XXX\
(1932)123. W. G. Constable, Canaletto, 1962, 102, 265. J.
G. Links, Burl. .Mag., cix (1967), 405 ft., published

some paintings unknown

to C^onstable.

503. 124. See the basic article by H. F. Finberg,

pole Society, IX (1920

i),

21

Hal-

also Constable, op.

cil.,

Consul Smith, see Haskell, Patrons, 299.

Canaletto's later work deteriorated in quality. .Mass
production and the grow ing demands made upon him
32. P'or

bv

tourists led to a progressive mechanization ot his

style.

125.

Other minor

vedulisli,

such as .Antonio Visentini

(1688- 1 782), famed as architect and engraver, Antonio Jolli (f. 1700 77), PietroGaspari(i720 85), and

Francesco Battagholi (b. c. 1722), can only be mentioned; for the whole trend, R. Pallucchini, Pilt. ten.,
II,

and

126.

Pitt. ven. Settecento,

It is

well

known

i960, 205.

that Canaletto as well as Bellotto

and other painters before and after them, among them

G. M. Crespi and even Guardi, regarded the camera
ohscura as a convenient aid for rendering 'correct'
views. Best survey of this problem in H. Allwill Fritzsche, B. Bellotto, Burg, 1936; see also J.

BIBLOSARTE

Byam Shaw,

580

NOTES TO CHAPTER

The Drawings of

19

London, 1951, 22; T.

F. Guardi,

lerie di

263, where he tried to round ofTGianantonio's ceuvre.

demia, Venice. Constable, Canaleiio, 1962, 162, seems

have been unaware of Gioseffi's publication.

See M. Muraro, Burl. Mag., cii {i960), 421.

128. Idem, ibid., C (1958),

The question was opened up in a penetrating

article by W. Arslan {Emporium, c (1944), July-Dec,
summarized by A. Morassi,

(1951), 195; see also T. Pignatti,

'conciliatory' position
(op. cit..

at

the expense of Francesco. See also

N. Rasmo's balanced assessment

3.

129.

first

was taken up by J. Byam

Note 126, 46) and R. Pallucchini, Pitt.
venez., II, 196, and Pittura venez. del Settecento, i960,
131 (full discussion), who do not accept the encomium
.\

Shaw

of Gianantonio

127.

and

.-irrf

ihtd.,

cxiv

Fenf/a, iv (1950),

D. Gioseffi

in

Emporium, cxxvi (1957), 99, once again

advances reasons for dating them as

fends the old position of Francesco's primacy, first

in his classic monograph of 1923 (see

art turn historiam pertinent la

delle opere dt

esistenti nel Trentino,

Francesco

Gianantonw Guardi

Trent, 1949; also Arte Veneta,

vi

Cultura Atestna,

attributes the S. Raffaele paintings to Francesco and

while A. Morassi,

defined by him

in

IX (1955), 150.

appeared also F. de Maffei's partisan Gian

Antonio Guardi pit tore di figure (Verona), which aroused considerable controversy. G. Fiocco valiantly de144. In 1951

Most ra

Francesco Guardi.

recently,

who

based his-research on the same quaderno, a sketchbook

with 1 38 original Canaletto drawings, now in the Acca-

3)

more

Venezia, Milan, 1958, 20; and the penetrating

analysis by D. Gioseffi, Canaletlu, Trieste, 1959,

to

(1952), 99, and,

L'Angelo Raffaele, Turin, 1958). Once again, Morassi

summarized the problem in Burl. Mag., xcv (1953),

Pignatti, II quaderno di disegni del Canaletin alle Gal-

new arguments

ihid., cx.xxi

1780-90,

Gianantonio. See
Acta ad archaeologiam et

for the attribution to

also S. Sinding-Larsen, in

Norvegiae),

late as

(i960), 147, 199, offers

(1962), 171-93.

(Institutum

The

607-8) should be consulted for

Guardi brothers.

BIBLOSARTE

Romanum

Bibliography (pp.

later writings

on the

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Bibliography cannot aim at completeness. As a

I have excluded the literature listed in Thieme-

3.

Sculpture

rule,

4.

Architecture

Becker's Kiiiisiler-Lexikon. Only those older articles

5.

Drawing

and books which are still standard works to-day are

here included. Moreover, to a certain extent the foot-

III.

notes and the Bibliography supplement each other:

I

had

to

exclude from the Bibliography

many refermany im-

Genoa and Liguria

Milan and Lombardy

portant studies will appear only in the Bibliography.

Titles of articles are quoted only

Naples and the South

they contain a

if

Rome

specific key to the content.

In a few exceptional cases book reviews of special

Sicily

Turin and Piedmont

Venice and the Veneto

merit are mentioned.

I

have tried

and Provinces

Florence and Tuscany

in the footnotes; conversely,

ences given

Cities

Bologna and Emilia

to characterize a

number of important

items by brief comments. For reasons of space these

had

be selective.

to

IV.

would otherwise be doubtful.

For older bibliographies, see N. Pevsner, Die

nische Malerei vnni

Ende der Renaissance

gehenden Rakoko, Wildpark-Potsdam,

1948

De

(full

cento e

il

m Roma

Rinaldis, L'arte

bis

zum

The

//

Sei-

art theory: J.

Schlosser-

lelleratura artistua, Florence- Vienna,

best up-to-date bibliographies are in the

current issues of Cnmnienlari, Arte Veneta, Zeitschrift

fiir Kitnstgeschichte.

The Dizionarw

Rome, i960

ft'.,

Biografica degli

should also be consulted.

this revision only twelve

At the time of concluding

volumes have appeared.

The

I.

SOURCES

A.

DOCUMENTS AND LETTERS

Bologna,

bibliography for Rome); V. Golzio,

pensable for the sources and

Italtam,

bibliographical material

BARON I,
a

Documenti per

C.

Milano

BOTTARl, M.

is

arranged under the

CERROTI,

G.,

and Ticozzi,

Lives of

Edifici

Raccolla

di lettere

Lettere e memorie autografe ed inedtle

F.

FOGOLARI,

G. 'Lettere pittoriche del

di

Rome,

archivio Chigi.

Letters

GUHL,

.Artists

E.

1st., VI

Documenti

V.

Rome,

Gran principe

a Niccolo Cassana (1698-

Toscana

1709)', Riv. del R.

B.

S.

diartistitratte dai tnanoscriiti della Corsiniana.

GOLZIO,

Sources

Documents and

pittura, scultura ed architeltura. Milan, 1822.

Ferdinando

A.

Florence, 1940.

sacri.

siilla

la storia dell'archilettura

nel rinascimento e nel barocco.

i860.

following headings:

I.

506

aits-

1928 (paint.

See p.

italie-

Settecento, Turin, 1950 (selection). Indis-

Magnino, La
1964.

sequence

LIST OF PRINCIPAL ABBREVIATIONS:

identity

ing); A.

Artists in alphabetical

of artists are given only in cases where the

Initials

(1937-8).

artistici

sul

Seicento

nelV

1939.

Kiinstlerbriefe.

2nd

ed.

by

.\.

Rosenberg.

Berlin, 1880.
II.

General Studies
A.

Interpretations of the Baroque

B.

Iconography
Histories and Studies
of Baroque \n and Architecture

c.

The Three

2.

Painting

.Arts

ORBAAN, J. A. F. Documenti sul barocco in Roma.

Rome, 1920.
POLLAK, O. Die Kunsttdtigkeit unter irban VIII.
Vienna, 1927, 193

POLLAK,

o.

Barockzeit',

1.

'Italienische

>Ar^.

Preiiss.

Beiheft.

BIBLOSARTE

Kiinstlerbriefe

aus

der

Kunslslg., xxxiv (191 3),

582

B.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

LIVES OK ARTISTS

BAGLIONE,

Le

G.

Vile

II.

cif'

pillori. uullori. architelli,

ed inlagliulori, dal ponlijicalo

Lrham VIII

tempi di Papa

1^72. Jiiw a

Rome,

XIII

Grei>orio

di

net 1642.

Rome, 1935.
Notizic de' professori del dise^no da

Bellori (ed. V. Mariani).

Cimahue

F.

Florence,

in qua.

BELLORI,

Le

G. p.

interpretations OF THE BAROQUE

del

1642. Facsimile ed. with marginal notes by

BALDINUCCI,

A.

GENERAL STUDIES

ANCEScm,

'Retorica e Barocco'

stici:

Carlo Maratti (ed.

and G.

M.

Rome,

Piacentini).

Sacifii e

1942. Fac-

with an essay by Eugenio Battisti on

simile ed.

'Bellori as Critic', a Life

Works by Elena

and Catalogue of published

and with Indices appeared

Caciagli,

1969) in the Qjiadenii

dell' Istituto di

Storia

dell' Arte

L. Vite de' pit tori holognesi

Felsina Pit trice.

DE DOMINICI,
tetti

1769.

O. Giutite

stille

lognesi.

Vite dei pittori

napoletani

C. C. Felstna pit trice.

Vite de pittori ho-

Bologna, 1678; also Vite

di pittori Bolognesi

(Appunti

inedtti).

MANCINI,

Ed.

.\.

Arfelli,

Considerazioni

G.

Baroque Art and the Jesuit Contribution. .\ Symposium

ed. by I. Jaff'e and R. Wittkower, New ^'ork, 197 1,
with contributions bv

T. Culley,

BRIGANTI,

Bologna, 1961.

siilla

pittura

(ed.

.\.

du

XV^

ibjj.

sculton, ed architetti

Rome,

Jiiio

al

1772. Re-issued with notes by J. Hess.

dell'arte

vero

le

vite

degl' illustri pittori veneti e dello stato. Venice, 1648.

New critical ed.

with notes by D. von Hadeln. Berlin,

SANDRART,

von. L'academia todesca della archi-

J.

scultura

Modem

1675-9.

5"

pittura.

ed.

with

Niirnberg-Frankfurt,
notes

by A.

Peltzer.

SOPRANI,
tori,

siecle", .4 travers

11

Bari, 1929.
les arts

en

Fart italien

Paris, 1949.

Steele.

Storia segreta dello

Costruzione della

L.

interesting

stile

Emporium,

critica

d'arle.

dei

CI

Rome,

chapters on Baroque

N. 'Stile e maniera', in Saggi

storia dell'arte,

art

KURZ,

.Memorie di

(1957).

how

writers from the Renais-

sance onwards interpreted

'style'

and maniera.

o. 'Barocco: storia di una parola', in Lett ere

Italiane, XII (i960).

LEE,

w.

R.

Theory of

MAHON,

"t/

'

pictura poesis'^: the

Humanistic

Painting', .irt Bull., XXil (1940).

Studies

D.

R.,

and ratti,

C. G. Vite de' pittori, scul-

ed architetti genovesi. Genoa, 1768-9.

F.

Le

MA HON,

in

Seicento

.Art

and Theory.

D. 'Eclecticism

vite dei pittori messinesi, 1724.

Martinelli, Florence i960.

and the Carracci: Further

Reflections on the Validity of a Label', J.IV.C.I.,

XVI (1953)-

pA N OFSK Y

Munich, 1925.

SUSINO,

3;

London, 1947.

1914-24.
tectura,

i,

Best terminological study.

Le maraviglie

C.

(1950), nos

theory and good bibliography.

Vienna, 1934.

RIDOLFI,

XVr

Investigation of

Roma, morti dal 1641

che haiino lavorato in

L. 'Barocco e arti figurative'.

IVANOFF,
pittori,

XX^

au

With

Vite de' pittori, sciiltori ed architetti

G. B.

epoque,

1955-

Rome, 1730-6.

moderni.

PASSERI,

style,

(1945)-

Many later editions

with additions.

du

GALASSi PALUZZi, c.
Gesiiiti. Rome, 1951.

.ihecedario pittorico. Bologna, 1704.

.\n encyclopedia of artists.

Vite de

'Le "Baroque":

J.

G., in Paragone,

Italic a la fin

GRASSI,

L.

H. Hibbard, R. Taylor,

CROCE, B. Storia dell'etd barocca in Italia.

FRANCASTEL, P. 'La contre-reforme et

tions until 1630. See also J. Hess, 'Note Manciniane', .Miinchner Jahrb., Xix (1968), 103 ft.

PASCOLI,

.\ckerman, P. Bjurstrom,

L'Information d'Histoire de I'Art, VII

attitude', in

GRASSI,

P. A.

J.

S. J., F. Haskell,

R. \\ ittkower.

Marucchi and L. Salerno). Rome, 1956 7.

Written between 16 14 and 1621, with addi-

ORLANDi,

Ba-

.M. Tagliabue, '.Kristotelismo e

(1951), no. 13.

O. .Morisani). Naples, 1941.

MALVASIA,

all,

(1962).

Vite de' pit ton, sculton ed archi-

napoletani. Naples, 1742-3.

GIANNONE,
(ed.

Rome,
B.

non descritte nella

1955.

rocco'.

BiALOSTOCKi,

della L niversita di Geriova, no. 4.

CRESPI,

Rome,

C. G. .\rgan, 'La "Rettorica" e Parte barocca',

ed architetti

Rem, Andrea

G. p. Vite di Giiidij

of important papers, above

Collection

moderm. Rome, 1672.

BELLORI,

Florence,

alt re prove.

Atti del III Congresso Internazionale di Stiidi L mani-

681 -1728.

vite de' pitlori. sciiltori

Del harocco ed

L.

1953-

Idea

' .

em Beit rag ziir

Begriffsgeschichte

derdlleren Kiinsttheorie. Leipzig-Berhn, 1924; Italian

ed., 1952.

Ed. V.

RIEGL,

A.

Die Entstehung der Barockkunst

Vienna, 1908.

BIBLOSARTE

in

Rom.

583

ST A M M R (ed. ) Die Kutistformen des Baroikzeilalters.

Munich, 1956.
A collection of papers by fourteen authors.
,

.\n encyclopedic attempt with close to a thou-

TINTELNOT,

sand illustrations.

GRISERI,

H. Biiriuktht'iiUr unci hanicke Kunst.

Berlin, 1929.

many

WEISBACH, w. Der Barock ah

reformalKin. Berlin, 192

wiTTKOWER,
MORI,

der Cegen-

Ktirisl

in Italia',

Wcanti-

D., 'L'eta barocca', in Manierismo, Barinco,

Accademia

termini,

cccLix (1962), 319, 395.

H. Renaissance

WOLFFLIN,

iind

dei

ideas;

concentration

on

the

Patrons and Painters:

F.

Study

.A

Relations between Italian Art and Svciely in the

the Baroque.

Age of

London, 1963.

An

Ltncei,

Barock. Munich,

challenging

Piedmont.

HASKELL,

1.

barocco

R. 'II

Rococo: concetti

important work; supplements ideally the

present book.

LEES-MILNE,

1888.

J.

Baroque

London, 1959.

Italy.

Useful as an introduction.

SALMI, M.
B.

Le metamorfost del harocco. Turin, 1967.

and fascinating work, containing

A.

i\n unusual

ICONOGRAPHY

ASKEW,

'The Angelic Consolation of St Francis of

P.

L'arte italiana.

III.

Florence, 1944.

TAPIE, v.-L. The Age of Grandeur. Baroque and

Classicism in Europe. London, i960 (first French ed.,
1957)-

Assisi in Post-Tridentine Italian Painting',^. W.C./.,

Emphasis on

XXXII (1969), 280 306.

relatively small section.

An exemplary
DEJOB,

De

C.

iconographical study.

r influence

dii

beaux arts

literature et les

1933

ft.

Stona

A.

dell' arte italiana.

6-7 Painting;

i.x,

Milan,

IX-XI.

Sculpture;

x, 3

xi,

2-3

.Architecture.

MALE, E. L'art religieux de la Jin du XVle siecle, du

XVIIe siecle et du XVI lie siecle. Paris, 1951.
The indispensable study.'
MRAZEK, w. 'Ikonologie der barocken Deckenmalerei', Sitzungsberichte der phil. hist. Klasse der
Oesterr.

VENTURI,

peuples catholiques.

Paris, 1884.

These volumes should be used for the tranfrom the sixteenth to the seventeenth

sition

century.

WEISBACH, w.

in

Kunstchronik.

Die Kunst des Barock

Italien,

Frankreich. Deutschland und Spanien. Berlin, 1924.

Volume XI of the 'Propylaen Kunstgeschichte'.

Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1952.

MRAZEK, w.

up a

Poor English trans-

lation.

Conctle de Treiite sur la

ctiez les

historical aspects. Italy takes

IX (1956).

Plan of an analytical index of Baroque icono-

2.

Painting

graphy.

MUNOZ,

A., in Rassegna d'Arle, in (1916), IV (1917),

PIGLER,

A.

Barocktliemen.

enlarged ed..

SALERNO,

L.

New
'II

Budapest,

1956.

New

// concetto di

dissenso nella pittura. Intorno a

altri',

in Italy,

lumimsmo

e la pittura

veneta

best of Italian Seicento painting, drawing,

magic on one
hand and stoicism on the other by a group of
seventeenth-century painters,
voss, H. 'Die Flucht nach Agypten', Saggte .Memone
discussion of the interest

di stona dell' arte,

Pigler,

sculpture in .\merican collections.

in

(1957).

Supplements

1600- i~oo. Ed. F. Cummings, Intro-

duction R. Wittkower. Detroit, 1965.

The Detroit Exhibition brought together the

dell'Arte. no. 6 (1970), 34-65.

Suggestive ideas.

Art

York, 197 1.

Filippo Napoletano, Caroselli, Salvator Rosa e

Stona

ARSLAN, E

barocca. Milan, 1946.

v(i9i8).

who does not mention

the

and

Learned

catalogue entries by seven experts.

BUSCAROLI,

R.

La

pitliira

di

paesaggw

in

Italia.

Bologna, 1935.
The only comprehensive study.

COSTANTINI,

V.

La

pittura Italiana del 'boo. Milan,

930-

theme.

Contribution to the

HISTORIES AND STUDIES OF

BAROQUE ART AND ARCHITECTURE

histor\-

of ideas rather than

style.

C.

DELOGU, G. La pittura

italiana del Seicento. Florence,

1931/.

FRIEDLAENDER, w. Mannerism and Anti-.Wannerism

The Three Arts

in Italian Painting.

GOLZio,
Third

v. // Seicento e

ed., 1968.

il

Seltecento.

Turin, 1950.

New

Reprint of classic
1929.

BIBLOSARTE

York, 1957.
articles,

first

publ.

1925,

584

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GALETT

and C A M

F,

SASCA

Etiiuldpcdia

First serious attempt to catalogue

dcllti

piltura italiana. Milan, igsi.

Valuable

on

articles

eighteenth-century

and

seventeenth-

painters,

with

biblio-

graphies.

XV

See M. Levey, Burl. Mag., cm (1961), 139.

PEVSNER, N. Die italienische Aialerei vom Ende der
Renaissance his zum ausgehenden Riikoko (Handbuch

Bologna, 1962.

Exhibition catalogue with a

number of essays

der Kunstwissenschaft). Wildpark-Potsdam, 1928.

of great value. Review by E. Schaar, Zeituhr.f.

complete

pittarica dell' Italia. Bassano,

ed.). First

pioneering work.

PEVSNER, N.

Kimstg., XXVI (1963), 52.

(first

siecle.

others. L'ideak ilassiio del Seicentii

in Italia e la pittura dt paesaggio.

LANZI,L. Storm

Review

Mag., cx (1968), 159 f.

I He
Petit Palais. La peinlure ilalientie au
Nov. 1960-Jan. 1961.
E. Harris, Burl.

Exhibition catalogue with good bibliographies.

K.

Halle, 1923.

C, and

illustrate

Die ideiik LandsLhaftmuikrei.

GERSTENBERG,
GNL'Dl,

and

Italian Seicento paintings in Spain.

all

English transl.

1795-6
by Roscoe,

Wandlung

'Die

urn

1650

der

in

italienischen Malerei', Wiener Jahrh., VIII (1932).

WATERHOUSE,E.

Italian

Baroque Painting. London,

1962.

1828.

An

Still unequalled for knowledge of the material

and breadth of approach.

LORENZETTI,

G.

La

pit t lira Italiana del Settecento.

eminently readable introduction.

J. Sculpture

Novara, 1948.

The

BRINCKMANN,

best general treatment of the subject.

MARANGONI,

M. Arte hanicca. Florence, 1953

(first

ed. 1927).

Reprint of articles on still life, Guercino,

G. M. Crespi, Caravaggio, Florentine Settecento painting,

MCCOM^

only general study in English. Limited

1967.

Introduction by R. Wittkower on the history

oil sketch. A number of bozzetti never
shown before are discussed and illustrated. Re-

of the

view D. Posner, Burl. Mag., cix (1967), 360

MOSCHINI,

La

V.

pittura

DELOGU,

italiana

ff.

del Settecento.

FALDI,

Useful brief compilation, not always reliable.

I. La scultura barocca in Italia. Milan, 1958.
Brief,

competent

text.

illustrations.

MARTINELLI,

V. Scultura Italiana dal tnanierismo al

rococo. Milan, 1968.

illustrations.

High Renaissance and

Baroque Sculpture. 3 vols. London, 1963.
An excellent introduction, though the space
allotted

to

J.

Italian

the Baroque

is

relatively

brief.

Scholarly catalogue entries.

pittura italiana del Seicento. Novara,

SOBOTKA,

G. Die Bildhauerei der Barockzeil (ed. H.

Tietze). Vienna, 1927.

1946.

OJETTI,

DAMI,

U.,

L.,

and TARCHIANI, N. La

pittura italiana del Seicento e del Settecento alia mostra

di

scultura italiana del Seicento e del

FERRARI, G. La tomha nell'arte italiana. Milan, [1916].

FERRARI,G. Lo stucco nell'arte Italiana. Milan, [1910].
These two volumes are handy collections of

bottini.

La

La

Useful introduction with good

- II Seicenio europeo. Rome, 1957.

With contributions by various authors. Catalogue prepared by L. Salerno and A. Mara-

U.

G.

POPE-HENNESSY,

Brief text.

NEBBIA,

largely antiquated.

Barock-Bozzetti. Frankfurt,

E.

Settecento. Florence, 1932, 1933.

Florence, 193 1.

Mostra

A.

1923-4-

usefulness.

New York,

Berlin-Neu-

A vast and still important collection of material.

Masters of the Loaded Brush. Oil Sketches from Rubens

to Tiepolo. Columbia University Exhibition Catalogue.

now

spirited enterprise,

BRINCKMANN,

etc.

\. Baroque Painters in Italy .H-iTSdivdi^ i934-

The

A. E. Barockskulptur.

babelsberg, 19 19.

Palazzo

Pitti.

and others. // ritratto

vaggio al Tiepolo. Bergamo, 1927.
A monumental work.
U.,

PEREZ SANCHEZ,
en Espana.

Architecture

ARGAN,

Still basic.

OJETTI,

4.

Milan-Rome, 1924.

A. E.

italiano dal

Ptntura Italiana del

Madrid, 1965.

Cara-

G. C. L'architeltitra harocca in Italia. Milan,

1957Brief, stimulating text.

ARGAN, G.
s.

XVII

Appunti
Tanno accademico 1959-

C. L'architettura harocca in Italia.

delle lezioni tenute durante

60, raccolti dal prof Maurizio Bonicatti.

dell'Ateneo), i960.

BIBLOSARTE

Rome

(ed.

585

BR AND I,

La prima

C.

tircliiletliini

Bondmim, Benimi.

Cortnna,

Ihinma. Pictrn du

Bari, i()70.

Collections II. I'be Seienteenth Century in Italy.

paperback well worth while studying.

BRIGGS, M.

G.

Biirtiiiiic

London,

Architeclurc.

An important
1913.

A.

cix (1967), 253.

Bdukunsl

E.

Kunstwisscnschatt).

1919 (and

(IcS

Utld

J.

/,S.

Ldndeni (Handbuch

Jalirhiinderts in dai romanisihen

der

catalogue containing much new

Review W. Vitzthum, Burl. Mag.,

material.

Antiquated.

BRINCK.VIANN,

New

York, 1967.

Berlin Neubabelsberg,

.Much work has been done on draw ings of the Baroque

in recent years.
See entries under BOLOGNA,
MILAN, and, above all, VENICE.

later editions).

Stimulating, but difficult to digest.

CATTAV

G. L' archil ett lira barmca.

I,

brief

CHIERICI,

G.

XIX. Milan,

Rome,

1962.

palazzfi italiarw dal secolu

//

XVII

al

BODM ER

General, useful illustrations.

e del

Settecentn. Florence, 1935.

Rome

.Milan, 1926.

Geuliuhle dei Bannksliles

in

Italien.

Stuttgart, 1887.
still

\V. Biiroik Architektiir.

graphy and chronological

Z A F Meniorie degli
4th ed. Bassano, 1785.
I

Coniune

'.\spettideirarchitetturabolognesedella

XVI

alia fine del Seicento*,

Bologna, XVlll (1931), XIX (1932).

di

others. .Maestri della pittura del Sei-

cento emiliano. Catalogue. Bologna, 1959.

The

learned Catalogue, which accompanied

decade, must be consulted for

ari lutein anticlii e mnderiii.

all

questions

concerning the Bolognese seventeenth century.

KURZ,

o. Bolognese Drawings of the

Centuries

O. 'Der .Architekt im 17. Jahrhundert in

fiir Geseli. d. Arcliilektiir. in

(1909

LONGHi,

'Momenti

R.

Problems of the profession and terminology

based on documents.
L'archilettiira Ihiranu in Italia.

Turin, 1922.

XI

II <5

X I'll I

Windsor Castle. London, 1955.

at

della

pittura

bolognese',

L'Archiginnasio, xxx (1935).

MALAGUZZi-VALERi,

10).

RICCI,C.

des

one of the most stimulating exhibitions of the

tects.

Rom', Zeituhr.

.\lalerei

di disegni del seicento emiliano

seconda meta del secolo

tables.

A primary source for eighteenth-century archiPOLLAK,

bologneser

Florenz, v (1951).

GNUDI, C, and

useful.

Baden-Baden, 1968.
.\ thoughtful, all-European history w ith biblio-

MI L

iiber die

nella Pinacoteca di Brera. .Milan, 1959.

//

revolutionary work;

.^

H 'Studien

FOR ATT I, A.

Brief, but interesting text.

HAGER,

Jahrhunderts', .Mitteilungen des kunslhisturtschen

Institiits in

D. Arcliitettura banicca.

C.

18.

E.MILIANI, A. .Mostra

General survey.

GLRLITT,

BOLOGNA AND EMILIA

1957.

DF.LOGL', G. L'arihitettura italiana del Seicento

FREY,

AND PROVINCES

CITIES

III.

summary.

On

Bolognese

F.

Arte gaia. Bologna, 1926.

festivals,

drawings, caricatures,

etc.

MALVASiA,

Le pi tt lire

c.

di

Bologna. Bologna, 1686

(also eighteenth-century editions).

Collection of illustrations.

The most important contemporary guide5.

book.

Drawing

MATTE LCCI,
BEAN,j.,andSTA.\iPFLE,F. Drawingsfrom New York
Ci/llectiiins III. The Eighteenth Century in Italy. New
York, 197 1.
IVANOFF, N. / disegni
veneta, lombarda,

Examples

ROL

R.

ligiire,

also of

M. Carlo Francesco Dottt^e Farcht-

A.

tettura bolognese del Settecenlo. Bologna, 1969.

Foundation

for a long-neglected field of study

Biographical material, ifuvre catalogues, docuitaliani

del Seirenlo. Scuole

napoletana. Venice, 1959.

minor

artists.

/ disegni italiani del Seicento

sciiola emiliana,

toscana, romana. marchigiana e umbra. Treviso, 1969.

Reviews by W. \ itzthum, .-irte Illustrala. ill,

34-6 (1970), 88 ft., and, most detailed, by .\. S.
Harris, .4rt Bull.. Liii

(i

971), in press.

STAMPFLE,F.,andBEA.\,j. Dra wings from New York

ments,

chronological table.

Mostra del Setlecento

bolognese. Bologna, 1935.

Essential.

Ricci, c, and zlcchini, g. Guida

di Bologna. 6th

ed. Bologna, 1930.

The

best

RiccoMiM,

E.

modem
Mostra

guide-book.
della scultura bolognese del

Setlecento. Bologna, 1965.

Contains

the

only

coherent

history

eighteenth-centun, Bolognese sculpture.

BIBLOSARTE

of

BIBLIOGRAPHY

586

RICCOMINI,

Seicento ferrarese. Milan, ig6q.

E. II

new

great deal o(

unknown,

hitherto entirely

ZANOTTI,

M.

F.

Many

material.

ft.

help ot

HAATZ,

G. Edijici di Bologna. Repertorw bihlio-

Rome, 1931.
G Paesaggi e rovtne nella

I ,

.,

and CI N EL L

I ,

G Lf helkzze
.

della cilia di

An

Bull., .xlviii (1966), 133

Palazzo

Pitti.

Revealing for the taste of

G. Pillori minori

DAL POGGETTO,

P. Arte

DE NEGRI,

Valdelsa dal

XII

sec.

al

lomhardi

ligitri,

in the

excellent survey of Florentine

Baroque paint-

See also Gregori, Paragone, no. 145, 21 ft".,

and no. 169, 11 ft.
HIBBARD, H., and NISSMAN, J. Florentine Baroque

Art from American

Collections.

New

York, 1969.

A Columbia

University Exhibition

Metropolitan

Museum. The

.\merica

to

first

present a coherent

the

at

attempt in
picture

Sanctuary

'La

Madonetta'

church

GROSSO,
GROSSO,
GROSSO,

O. Parlali

at

XVIIIe

Genoa, the

at

Arenzano,

and

S.

Matteo

S.

Giovanni

at Laigueglia.

palazzi di Genova. Milan fn.d.].

Rome,

o. Decaralari genavesi.

1921.

0. Dimari genavesi. Milan, 1956.

siecle',

MANNING,

R.

F.

'La Sculpture a Genes au

G.d.B.A., lvi,

and

ii

(1914).

B. Genoese Masters.

Camhiaso

la

Magnasca ij^o-ijjo. Exhibition at the Dayton Art

Institute, Ringling .Museum of .Art, and Wadsworth
Atheneum. Dayton, Ohio, 1962.
A fine catalogue many pictures from American
;

private collections.

MARCENARO,

Florentine seventeenth-century painting.

ft".

interesting

parish

of

INGERSOLL-SMOUSE, F. 'La Sculpture florentine a

la fin du XVIIe siecle', G.d.B.A., 5 per.,
(1920).
LANKHEIT,K. Florentitiische Barockplustik. Munich,

ft".

of

INGERSOLL-SMOUSE,

ing.

ellittica

G. 'Aspetti dell'architettura set-

Battista at Cervo,

Introduction contains an

minor masters.

of

some scarcely known, but

Baroque churches such as the

Discussion

fiorentmo. Florence, 1965.

The

piemontesi

tecentesca in Liguria', Palladia, xv {1965), 129

XVIII. Exhibition Catalogue. Certaldo, 1963.

Interesting for a number of minor Tuscan
Baroque painters.
GREGORI, M. JO pitlure e scullure del '600 e 'joo

Palazzo Strozzi.

del Genovesato', Ballet tiiw Liguslico (1967), 43

sec.

Catalogue of an important Exhibition

di

degli Studi di

'Chiese settecentesche a pianta

E.

FIESCHI BossoLO,

the Florentine court.

cittd

'Chiese barocche liguri a colonne

G.

Indispensable for the study

in the

la

del '600 e 'joo. Venice, 1931.

1969-

Fully documented catalogue of an exhibition

per

Quadernu

DELOGU,

ft".

illustrativa

n. j (Lniversita
Genova) (1970), 99-184.

binate',

Artisli alia carle granducale. Florence,

Guida

F.

Gennva. Genoa, 1875.

Best older guide-book.

COLMUTO,

'Medici Patronage and the Baroque:

Reappraisal',

I'lorenz. I'Vankfurt,

1940-54.

ALIZERI,

Best contemporary guide-book.

CHI AR INI, M.

many drawings.
t. Die Kin hen von

GENOA AND LIGURIA

Firenze. Florence, 1677.

CAMPBELL, M.

and

Indispensable.

FLORENCE AND TUSCANY

I

pittura holognese

del Settecento. Bologna, 1947.

Bocc H

important episode reconstructed with the

.\n

grafico e icunografuo.

ZUCCH N

Giessen, 1970.

Clementina.

Bologna, 1739.

ZUCCHINI,

87

are discussed.

deW Accadcmici

C. Stiirta

Beilrdge zur Kunstgeschichte, Feslschnfl G. Fiensch,

painters,

vesi a

Genova

C.

(and others). Maslra dei pitlori gena-

nel '600 e nel 'joo.

Genoa, 1969.

Scholarly catalogue of a great exhibition which

constitutes a landmark despite

some harsh

criticism (e.g., C. Volpe, in Arte Illustrata,

1962.

A monumental
field to

which

standard work opening up a

little

attention had been paid

MARANGONI,
Viii

M.

'Settecentisti

(1912);

reprinted

fiorentini',

in

Arte

only survey of Florentine eighteenth-

A.

Maslra

della pillura del Seicenla e Sette-

far the fullest presentation

MORAZZONi,G. Sluccfii italiant.

XVI-XIX. Milan, 1950.
Maslra

K. 'Der Hauptaltar von Santo Stefano in

Pisa: Cortona, Ferri, Silvani, Foggini', in Giessener

of this material.

Maestri genovesi sec.

di pitlori genovesi del Seicenla e del Settecento.

Catalogue by O. Grosso,

century painting.

NOEHLES,

So

Riv.

harocca,

Florence, 1953.

The

1969).

cento in Liguria. Catalogo. Milan, 1947.

before.

d'Arte,

II,

MORASS I,

M.

Bonzi, and C.

cenaro. Milan, 1938.

Still

very useful; good bibliographies.

BIBLOSARTE

Mar-

587

RATTI,

Jnslruzwm' di quaiito puo vedersi

C. G.

di piii

Genova. Genoa, 1780.

hello in

in

ROSSI, A. L'archilellura n-li,siiisu harocca a Genova.

Genoa, 1959.
Good photographic survey.

ROTONDI,

Calalo^o della

p.

RUBENS,

p.

nio.tlra

della

With

1622; ed.

H.

De

cooperative enterprise by E.

date historv of Milanese

oque period.

Negri, C.

X,

part iv:

1957;

195S;

XI,

XII,

tury; part vi. G.

guide to about

painting to

150 seventeenth- and eigh-

and near Genoa.

villas in

during the Bar-

art

.Mczzanottc, Mila-

!'.

nese architecture to the mid seventeenth cen-

Fera, L. Grossi Bianchi, E. Poleggi. Reliable

teenth-century

X,

The three volumes contain the most up-to-

Pubhshed by the Genoese Section

Nostra'. Genoa, 1967.

illus-

1959-

ville i^enovesi.

of 'Italia

lomhardi (Bibl. d'aric

Limited usefulness.

Gurlitt, Berlin, 1924.

Le

e del Settecento

bibliography.

full

NICODEMI, G. Pitlon
trata). Rome, 1922.

Sloria di Milano. Milan, vol.

Palazzi di Genova.

p.

F. Mostra di Fra Galgario

Bergamo. Catalogo, .Milan, 1955.

Madonna

Genoa, 1952.

nell'arte in Li^uria.

.MAZZINI,

.\.

Dell'.Acqua, .Milanese

part

1630;

vii:

G. Nicodemi,

Sculpture to 1630.
XI, part

MILAN AND LOMBARDY

.Mezzanotte, .Architecture from

viii:

Ricchino

to

Ruggeri; part

Nicodemi,

x:

ix,

Painting and Sculpture i<i30 1706.

BARELLI,

Disegni di maestri lomhardi del primo

E. S.

BARONI,

C. L'archilellura

Part ix: Mezzanotte, .Architecture; parts x,

da Bramante at Ricchino.

xi: .\. .M.

The

Milan, 1941.

BASCAPE,

G. C. / palazzi della vecchia Milano. Milan,

La

E.

pilliira di Brescia nel Setcenio e Selte-

cento. Catalogo. Brescia, 1935.

Still

Seicento. Varese e

il

sua territorio. Milan, 1970.

C.

5.

Maria

Monte

del

the 'Sacro Monte'.

// Diionio dt

With important contributions

Milano.

.4tti

liira.

to the sculpture

architettura Leccese'; .M. Calvesi, 'Intluenze

Lom-

G. Bresciani

late sixteenth

in

Lombardy

and the second half

HOFFMANN,

H. 'Die Entwicklung der Architektur

Mailands von 1550- 1650', Wiener Jahrh.. IX (1934).

of the few satisfactory studies of .Milanese

architecture.
R., and TESTORI,G. I pitlori
Lombardia. Catalogo. Milan, 1953.

LONGHI,R., CIPRIANI,

Important catalogue. Full bibliographies.

'Dal Moroni

(1953), no. 41.

al

Ceruti", Paragone, iv

.Alvarez, '.Accostamenti e

un'impostazione

per

critica

dell'

napoletane e siciliane sull'architettura barocca

del

of the eighteenth century. First-rate.

della realtd in

Barocco salen-

Proposia

hui-hihlwgrajico di archiletti in

between the

'II

e del rococo.

Dictionary of architects working

R.

1959.

Contains papers by B. Calza,

tino';

hardia. Milan, 1966.

LONGHi,

Congresso Nazionale di storia dell'archilel-

proposte

Province del harocco

One

IX

Rome,

Baroque

period.

lessico

Atti del

in the

and the planning of the facade

un

lomharda neU'etd hamcca.

scullura

Varese.

Congresso Inlernazionale. 2 vols. Milan, 1969.

di

La

S.

NAPLES AND THE SOUTH

monograph on
GATTI PERER, M. L. (ed.).
Full

L.

Cairo.

General, but the only book on the subject.

sopra

Varese, 1933.

GRASS I,

Del

including

Milan, 1930.

tant, scarcely studied buildings.

DEL FRATE,

century

Bibliography.

VIGEZ7,I,

Scholarly publication that focuses on impor-

the

is

research.

G. .Mosira del manierismo piemontese e lom-

seventeenth

Projilo della archilettura religiosa del

S.

new

hardo del Seicento. Turin, 1955.

Concerned with the masters of the early

very useful.

COLOMBO,

Romanini, Painting and Sculpture.

section on painting, in particular,

result of a great deal of

TESTORI,

1945-

CALABI,

concerned with the eighteenth century.

XII is

Seicento. Catalogo. Milan, 1959.

Salento';

Manieri

.M.

Elia,

'II

Barocco

Salentino nel suo quadro storico'.

BOLOGNA,

r.,

and doria, g.

.^\ostra

del ritrallo

Naples, 1954.
In the Heel oj Italy. London, 1910.

slorico napolitano.

BRIGGS, M. S.
CALVESI, M., and manieri-elia, m. .'ir chit el t lira
harocca a Lecce e in terra di Piiglia. Rome, 1971.
First full modern study of Apulian Baroque;
excellent illustrations; bibliography.

CARPEGNA,

n. di. Pit I on napolitani del 'boo e del

'yoo. Catalogue.

Exhibition

Rome,
in

1958.

the

Palazzo Barberini.

biographical notes and bibliography.

BIBLOSARTE

Good

588

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CAUSA,

del hnzzelti luipoletam del '600 e

Mostra

R.

CAUSA,

R.

Madnmm

La

sn WELL,

nella pitlura del '600 a Napoli.

XV al XIX secolo.

R. Pit turn mipiileliina diil

An

discgni napolitani, V\ot-

C. Monbeig-Goguel, Le dessm a Naples

excellent survey, with full bibliography.

documenti su

XVI

artisti napolitani',

Nolizie del hello delFanticn e del curiasa

della citid di Napoli.

Naples, 1856-60

dii

Steele,

Rome,

del Sei- e del Settecento.

1970.

Kxhibition of 80 drawings

ed. 1692).

(first

XVIir

Louvre, Paris, 1967.

W., and causa, r. Disegm napoletani

au

VITZTHUM,

Archivi, iv (1937).
C.

Sette-

ence, 1967 (Lffizi Exhibition), and idem and

G. 'Notizie e

CELANO,

London, 1924.

pioneering enterprise.

See also idem. Cento

Bergamo, 1957.
CECi,

.Art.

w. Disegni napoletani del Sei-

cento. Catalogue. Naples, 1966.

Catalogue (with bibliography). Naples, 1954.

CAUSA,

Southern Baro(jue

s.

viTZTHUM,

del '-joo. Catalogue. Naples, 11)47

in

the Palazzo Bar-

berini, partially identical with those exhibited

Most important Neapolitan guide-book.

CHiERici, G. 'Architettura religiosa a Napoh nei
secoli XVII e XVIIF, Palladw,
(1937).
CONSTABLE, w. G. 'C. Bonaria and some Painters
of Vedute in Naples', Essays in Honor of Georg

at

Naples, 1966.

BLUNT,

Smarzenski. Chicago, 1952.

d'elia, M. Mostra

Rome,

al Rococo.

dell' arte in Piiglia del

tardo antico

London, 1960.

1964.

Important

for

Baroque painters working

in

New

BONNEFOY,

Rome

Baroque Painters of Naples. Catalogue.

Sarasota, Florida, 1961.

An

interesting catalogue;

many

pictures from

siecle',

L.

graphs by L. von Matt.

G.d.B.A., 4 per., v (191

MANCINI,

F.

XVIIT

'Les arts a Naples au

1).

Scenografia napoletana dell'etd harocca.

scholarly

work

that

breaks

much new

M. Mostra

S.,

LORENZETTl, C, and BIANCALE,

XVII-

della pittiira napoletana dei secoli

XVIII- XIX.

histor}'

of Neapolitan

PANE,

R.

Architettura

dell'etd

harocca

Napoli.

in

Naples, 1939.
The only book on the subject, but

it

will

replaced by a work by Anthony Blunt that

be

PANE,
PANE,

Napoli imprevista. Turin, 1949.

R. Ville vesiiviane del settecento. Naples, 1959.
Rich material concerning very little known
and rapidly disappearing buildings. Contri-

BRUHNS,

U. Pit ton nupolctani del Seicento.

Naples, 19 1 3.
Biographical, based on documents.

SCHIPA, M.

L,

e nel 'joo.

// regno di

Borhone. Milan, 1923.

Napoli al tempo di Carlo di

N. di. Paesisti

Catalogue.

CHIARINI, M.

Roma

und

17.

18.

in

der

Jahr-

iv (1940).

Die Kunst der Stadt Rom. Vienna, 1951.

With good chapters on

the

Baroque

e vedutisti

Rome,

city.

Roma

nel 'boo

1956.

Paesisti bamhoccianti e vedutisti nella

seicentesca. Florence, 1967.

Catalogue of 53 paintings, originally Medici

property, now Palazzo Pitti.

butions by several authors.

PROTA-GIURLEO,

16.,

hunderts\ Riim. Jatnb. f Kitnstg.,

An important publication.

CARPEGNA,

R.

Rome. Fully

important for the fresco decorations.

L. 'Das Motiv der ewigen .\nbetung

is

in the press.

1950.

BRUHNS,

romischen Grabplastik des

painting before Causa's book.

Rome,

BRIGANTI, G. // Palazzo del Qiiirinale. Rome, 1962.

Documented and fully illustrated. Particularly

Naples, 1938.

The best comprehensive

special value the

entirely with

Concerned almost
documented.

ground.

ORTOLANl,

Of

on the painted decoration of the

Palazzo Pamphili, by D. Redig de Campos.
BRIGANTI, G. / Bamhoccianti. Pitt on della vita posections

polare nel Seicento. Catalogue.

Naples, 1964.

in

BOSTICCO, S. (and others). Piazza Navona, Isola dei

Pamphilj. Rome, 1970.
.A monumental work with excellent photo-

x^merican collections.

HAUTECOEUR,

contemporan, events

about 1630 with special emphasis on

French contribution.

the

Rhetorical.
C.

L'horizon du premier

i6jo.

.\ttempt at sketching

Neapolitan Painting of the Seicento.

A.

York, 1929.

GILBERT,

Rome

Y.

haroque. Paris, 1970.

Apulia.

DE RINALDIS,

and COOKE, H. L. I'fie Roman Drawings

and XVIII Centuries at Windsor Castle.

A.,

XVII

of the

CHYURLiA,

R.

settecentesca a
/r/n,

'Di alcune tendenze della scultura

Roma

e Carlo Monaldi', Coninien-

1(1950).

COLASANTI,

A.

Case

Milan, 1913.

BIBLOSARTE

palazzi harocchi

di

Roma.

589

DE R NAL

ceiito.

S,

L'lirte

III

Rditui c/ul Seicetitu al

Nove-

Barockarchitektur',

Bologna, 1048.
Controversial;

DONATl,

U. Artisti

Interesting

full

ticitu'si

bibliography.
a

Roma. Bcllinzona, 1942.

illustrations;

original

little

Le Fonlane di Ruiiia. Rome, 1957.

new documentarv material. The basic

work to be consulted tor Roman fountains.

d'onofrio, c. Roma vista da Roma. Rome, 1967.
See BERNINI.
d'onofrio, C. Roma net Seuenlo: 'Roma oniata
dair Archilettura,

Matthiae and R. Battaglia.

GLOTON,

C.

Much

Fwravante

Pi/liira e Scollitra' di

les eglises

Roman guidebook

written between

his friend

DREYER,
Dahlem,
ly

GOLZio,

HAGER,

la Jin

HESS,

Kopenhagen,

Rom. Arkiteklurem Liv fru Bermiii

til

in,

iind Klassizismiis.

chiese di

Roma

nel 'joo.

The volume, which had no

much documentary material
teenth-century churches and
V.

'Classicismo

Qjiaderrii (i()Si\ no.

FOKKER,
Style.

T.

H.

romano

Studieti

zur

i :

Traslevere.

sequel, contains
for

minor eigh-

artists.

nel

Settecento',

Richly

in

Frascati.

.Munich-

Berlin, 1956.

FREY,

D.

1967.

'Beitrage zur Geschichte der romischen

Rome.

in

oj the

Palazzo Bor-

Important

documented.

seventeenth-century architecture
H. Boll. d'.Arte, LII (1967), 99

177

documents from the

for
in

.\rchivio

Roman

early-

Rome.
Storico

buildings be-

tween 1586-9 and 1602-34.

E.,

Allari barocchi

G. R., and SALERNO, L.

Roma. Rome (Banco di Roma),

ANSALDI,
in

1959-

Splendid publication with colour

plates.

LOTZ, w. 'Die Spanische Treppe als .Mittel der

Diplomatic", Rom. Jalirb. f. Kunsti;., xil (1969), 39
The final word on the Spanish stairs, with
fl'.

complete documentation.
See also M. Laurain-Portemer, '.Mazarin,
et I'escalier

de

la

Trinite des .Monts',

G.d.B.A., LXXii (1968), 273 94.

G. // barocco a

Roma

neirarchitettura e nella

scultura decorativa. Turin, 1911-13.

Still

Die Barockvillen

Rome,

mainly the Early Baroque

MAGNI,
study, biased and difficult to

read.
C.

2 vols.

Benedetti
Art. The History of a

Oxford, 1938.

FRANCK,

Kunstgeschichtliche Studien zu Renaissance

LAVAGNINO,

3.

Roman Baroque

A cumbersome

1912.

Tietze in Kunstgeschuhtltche

HIBBARD, H. The .irchitecture

jlhese. Rome, 1962.

comprehensive treatment of Rome's

Geschuhte der .irchitektur Roms. Leipzig, 1910.

FASOLO, F. Le
Rome, 1949.

renaissance de I'antiqutte

el la

siecle. Paris,

Capitolino referring to

architecture of this period. Danish text.

Barofk

Rome

over a period of 40 years and concerning

.\

Thurvaldseii. Gyldendal, 1956.

FASOLO,

J.

HIBBARD,

K.

L.

XVI IF

Review by H.

material for Rai-

(1950)-

ESCHER,

du

standard

much new

no.

first

fJ".

monographic treatment with

Collection of widely dispersed papers written

and Borromini.
ELLiNG, c. 'Function and Form of the Roman Belvedere', Del. Kgl. Danske Videmkah. Selskab. Ar-

The

detailed

two-volume work en-

based on archi\al material.

C.

und Baugeschichte der

.-inzeigen, 19 12.

m Piazza Navona.

naldi

ELLING,

S.

(1933-4).

archival material.

und Barock.

Meddel.,

.-Irifini,

Jalirb. f. Kunsts., xi (1967-8), 191

HAUTECCEUR,

Stockholm, 1970.

kaeol.-Kuiuth.

1965.

ceiling fres-

sculture nella chiesa di

H. 'Zur Planungs-

Berlin-

between 1650 and 1750.

Fahbnca di S. Agnese

publication with

Rome,

Roman

Zwillingskirchen auf der Piazza del Popolo', Rom.

new

G. Ltf

tirely

'Pitture e

V.

.^gnese a Piazza Navona',

A most

Banickzeuiiiiiiiineii.

volume of

of

problems,
and bibliography.

a chronological table,

first

decor pla/onnant dans

et

baroque.

fullest discussion

'edited' the text for

1969.

The

I'di^e

turies: iconography, style, technical

Catalogue of 1 50 Berlin drawings dating main-

EiMER,

Trompe-l'wil

coes of the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-

M.

Romisthe

P.

by .Marti-

and 1663; with

i6()0

who

notes by Borromini,

c.

romaines de

Documents.

Publication of the manuscript (Bibl. Casanatense 4984) of a

M.

The

Martiiielli. Florence, 1969.

nelli

lener Jalirh., in (1924).

GERLINI, E. Piazza Navona. Catalo^o. Rome, 1943.

With contributions, among others, by G.

re-

search; extensive bibliographies.

d'onofrio,

Important.

MAHON,

D.,

invaluable for the

and SLTTON,

many

excellent plates.

D. Artists in ijth

Century

Rome. Exhibition, Wildenstein. London, 1955.

MissiRiNi, M. .Memorte per servire alia storm

BIBLOSARTE

delta

590

BIBLIOGRAPHY

romaiia Accademia dt S.

Moslru

Liicii.

Rome,

zoc;CA, M.

1823.

Riima secentescu. (A cura dciristitiito di

di

Rome,

studi Romani).

cupola di S. Ciaconw in Augusta e

/.(/

cupole elittiche

le

Roma. Rome, 1945.

1930.

Catalogue 0(871 exhibits

MUNOZ, A. Riima harmca. Milan, 1928.

NOACK,

und Kunstbesitz der Familie

'Kunstpflcjte

F.

Borghese', Rep.

f. Kiinsiir.,

1.

(ig2y).

II
OZZOLA, L. 'Le rovine romane nella pittura del
e XVIII secolo", L' Arte, xvi (1913).
PASTOR, L. VON. Gesfhhlile der Pa pile. Freiburg im

Breisgau, 1901

ft.

The

vol. XIII.

chapters on their patronage are

indispensable.

Basic study.

AGNELLO,

AGNELLO,

.4tti

una

di

L.

la sociele

pursuing the story

de

much

work catalogues

as to the

VAN. La peintwe flamaude

de

a catalogue

RiCCOBONi, A. Roma
miideriKi. Rome, 1942.

by

L.

Rome.

annee 1933.

I'art fratifais,

of works

iiell'arte.

of

BOTTARi,

for this

Roman Baroque

TITI,

F.

Rome,

Descrizwne

Still

delle

puhbluo

in

pit I tire,

Rinna.

artistic

sculture e archi-

Rome,

Rome.

The
its

Rome

(Cassa di Risparmio), 1961.

main thoroughfare and

A monumental publication by
authors. Most important the contri-

history of Rome's

buildings.

several

butions by L. Salerno.
VOSS, H. Die Malerei des Baroek

Rom. Berlin, 1924.

The basic study without which no work in
E.

D.

.\L

Messina-

The Baroque
alia

iii

Barocjue Pamtinii in Rome.

Seventeenth Century. London, 1937.

CEuvre catalogues; indispensable.

period.

conoscenza dell'archi-

for the south-eastern part

E.

Breve

storia dell' architettura in Sicilia.

Bari, 1938.

Best survey.

CARONIA ROBERTI,

S.

//

Barocco

in

Palermo. Pa-

lermo, 1935.
Unsatisfactory.

des sciences

humames,

le

baroque meridional'. Revue

fasc.

55-56 (1949).

DE SIMONE, M. Vilk palemiitaiie

XVIII. Genoa, 1968.
EPIFANIO, L. Schemi compusiltvi
pulermitana

sacra

del

Setcento

Palermo, 1950.
FICIIERA, F. G. B. Vaccarim
cento

Sicilia.

Text

the field can be undertaken.

WATER HOUSE,

biblio-

ft.

cultura figurativa in Sicilia.

CHASTEL, A. 'Notes sur

1763.

the best guide to Baroque works of art in

Via del Cur so.

fuU

Review^

Bibliography.

'Contributi

S.

CALANDRA,

particularly useful.

tetture esposle al

with

tettura del '700 in Sicilia', Palladia, \III (1958).

neglected period. Bibliography.

still

is

architects

of the island.

1959.

year-by-year chart of important

events

La

S.

Pp. 71-90.

scultura ncll'evo

a great deal of interesting material

Contains

Caronia Roberti (his-

Smith, Burl. Mag., CXi (1969), 569

Spagna. Naples, 1967.

Catalogue.

II Settecenlo a Rtima.

Palermitan

Important study
di

S.

Florence, 1954.

La

all

di storia dell' archi-

BLUNT, A. Sicilian Baroijue. London, 1968.

The best study of Sicilian architecture. Good

BOTTARI,

catalogues

Ptazza

iv

graphical references).

of

sculptors.

SALERNO,

orientale,

Palermo, 1956.

illustrations.

I'liistoire et

(Euvre

Sicilia

Guccione Scaglione (extensive bibliography

for Sicilian Baroque); G. Di Stefano (drawings

the late

to

'Les sculpteurs fran9ais a Rome', Bull, de

With

la

toriography of Sicilian Baroque studies); R.

Brussels, 1950.

REAU,

per

Stor.

Contains papers by

civiltii

individual architects.
L.

Arch.

Documents.
VII Congresso Nazionale

tettura.

eighteenth century, attending to general view-

PUYVELDE,

Catanese,

Stor.

Boll.

del

most ambitious enterprise with almost 500

points as

dell'archi-

storia

delta

'Architetti ignorati del Settecento a

G.

Siracusa',

Villa .Medici.

illustrations,

'Preliminari

G.

tettura barocca a Siracusa',

(1951)-

PECCHIAI, p. La scalinata di Spagna e

Rome, 94 1.
With rich documentation.
PORTOGHESI, P. Rdtnu hariicca. Staria
architelloiiica. Rome, 1966.

a Messina dal

xi-xii (1947-8).

(also English ed.).

seventeenth-century popes begin with

The

ACCASCINA, M. Profilo dell' architettura

iboo al iHoo. Rome, 1964.

Rome,

XVII

dei sec.

dell' architettura

del

Settecento.

r architettura

del Sette-

1934.

difticult to use.

Large corpus of

illustra-

tions.

The

GANG I,

G. // Barocco nella Sicilia orient ale.

1964.

Good

photographs.

BIBLOSARTE

Rome,

591

LOHMEYER,

Palagunisches

K.

Frankfurt,

Bcirock.

BRiNCKMANN,

Questionable hypotheses on connexion with

German
LO JACONO, G.

StiiJi e rilievi di palazzi

Palermo,

pakrmitam

BRizio,
dal Sei-

"Degli architctti del senato di Palermo nei

XVII

XVIIT, Anh.

s/oruo per

.Sialia,

In

IV-V (1938-9).

ss

cetilo

I ,

F.

Rome,

n'liiosii del

Selte-

C liar nil

his

harona

Piemonte.

in

G. Gil architetti. rarchilelliira e

delle

XI 'HI

piemontesi nel

ville

de-

la

secolo.

Turin, 1912.

DE ROSSI,

Nuova guida

O.

per

la

citta

di

Torino.

N. BdiiHco

III

Siiilui.

in

pro-

G.

Syracuse, 1958.

1961

Sacro .Monte

//

di

Varallo,

I'arallo.

Setleceiitd.

iiel

Le

L.

arti figurative in

Piemonte. Turin (n.d.,

2).

comprehensive up-to-date survey

.\

Cataiiiti

p.

Basic study.

MALLE,

weak work.

POLiCASTRO,

best guide-b(X)k.

CiALLONi,
1909-14.

1958.

\incial towns. Bibliography.

.\

Ciiariiio

L'architettura

.M.

The

Aspelli deiriiri/iiielliini

Plans and photographs of churches

PiSANi,

Von

E.

Turin, 1781.

Siiiliu.

ill

A.

cor azione

Important. Documents.

M N

A.

Turin, 1953.

CUE VALLEY,

Reliable dictionary; extensive bibliographies.

F.

BRINCKMANN,

Balthasar Neumann. Berlin, 1932.

ic)62.

Plans and elevations of eight palaces.

secoli

Piedmont. Indispen-

in

sable.

LO .MONACO, 1. DI. Pitton e uullori siciliani

cento al pnmo Oti/uento. Palermo, 1940.
MELl,

Baroque architecture

rococo.

dell'eta harncai.

Theatriim Soviim Pedemontii.

A. E.

Dusscldorf, 1931.

1943-

in

con-

siderable detail, without notes but with exten-

Catania,

sive bibliography.

1950.

ZANCA,

A.

La

ZIINO,

V.

Ciiiilrihiili alio

caltedrale di Palermo. Palermo, 1952.

studio dell'arcliilelliira del

concerned

Palazzo Aiadama

L.

with

Important

\illas.

in

Torino. 2 vols. 'Turin,

1970.

.MARINI, G.

'joo in Siiilia. Palermo, 1950.

Mainly

MALLE,

L'arcliileltura harocca

L.

Piemonte.

in

Turin, 1963.

study.

not always reliable, but nevertheless useful

survey, with bibliography. Review by H.

TURIN AND PIEDMONT

Millon, in

OLIVERO,
BAL DI DI VESME,
d.

A. 'L'aftc ncgli stati sabaudi', Atti

Socield Pieiuoiiiese di archeoloaia e belle

BENEVOLO, L.

arli.

durante Teta barocca', Palladio.

\.s.

iii

nos 22-4 (1957).

Competent survey of buildings

(1953); also

west of \

Turin, 1958.
M.

BERNARD I,

1. 1

ERO, E

in the valleys

p ASS A NT
I

Caaia

di Stiipiiiigi.

Palazzo Reale

di

Miscellanea

M.

I,
,

// SaiTii

.Monte

dt

di arc hit el I lira

piemonlese del

.irchitettura in Piemonte. Turin, 1945.

Ville dei secoli

Varallo.

Turin,

XVIIeXVIII in Piemonte.

material, especially the illustra-

tions.

POMNtER,
.\i

Turin, 1965.

Torino. Turin,

1959-

BERNARD I,

much biographical and documentary

many Piedmontese artists.

Most valuable
//

Francesco di .i.wsi in

material on

pEDR N
di

di S.

ctiiesa

Settecento. Turin, 1937

arallo.

M. La Palazziihi

La

E.

e le sue opere d'arte. Chieri, 1935.

Contains

1932.

'L'architettura della \ alsesia superiore

Qjiaderiii.

BERNARD I,

Torino

Piedmont.

Eighteenth-Century

R.

New York-London,

Architecture

Palazzi Carignano and delTAccademia Filar-

monica and

\illa

della

Regina.

.\\\

BRAYDA, c, COLI,

L.,

versial ideas.

RESSA,
secoli

reproductions.

A. 'L'architettura religiosa in

XVII

and SESIA, D. 'Ingcgneri e

.\

XVIIT,

good collection of plans.

La

pittura e la scultura del '-00 a Torino.

ROSSO,

Rassegna teaiica della Societddegltingegnerieanhitetli

Turin, 1934.
T A M B L R N L Le chicsc

L.

.Appeared also as a separate publication. 731

names w ith brief biographies and chronological

wuvre catalogues. Extremely

Piemonte nei

Torino, xix (1941).

architetti del Sei e Settecento in Piemonte', .4lti e

in Torino. XVI! (1963).

and

and with challenging and contro-

\ ittone,

these

publications with scholarly texts and excellent

much new

archival material, especially for Juvarra

Tie pahizzi a Torino. Turin, 1963.

in

1967.

.\n industrious, useful study with

i960.

BERNARD I, M.

.K.

.4rt Bull., xi.vii (1965), 532.

I ,

di 7 orino

harocco. 'Turin, 1968.

.\n excellent critical studv.

useful.

BIBLOSARTE

dal rinascimento al

592

BIBLIOGRAPHY

TESTORI,

Aioslra

Ci.

TESTOR

Ci.

pieintintcie

iihinu'nsiiio

del

DONZELLI, c, and

Manieristi piemotitesi f lumhurdi del 'boo.

Milan, 1967.
Discusses painters from Moncalvo to Francesco del Cairo, with emphasis on Cerano

270

FIOCCO,

painting

with

work,

M.

Collaborators:

Carbonieri,

ptttiira

M.

rich

biblio-

N.

Bernardi,
A.

Ferrero,

Viale

Seicento

Griseri,

dictionary form.

in

leneziana del Seicento

e del

summarizing previous re-

'LWccademia veneziana

G.

di pittura e

scultura del '700', L'Arte, xvi (1913).

und Geschichte

K. Wllegorie

Malerei des

zianischcn

in

der vene-

Acta

Jahrhunderts',

18.

Historiae Artiiim, XI (1965), 275

indispensable

graphies.

/ pit ton del

search.

GAR AS,

del haniccii piemontese. Calalogo.

3 vols. Turin, 1963.

An

La

FOGOLARI,
survey of eighteenth-century

Piedmont.

in

Mustra

V.

discussed

artists are

G.

I'he basic study,

Torino, XX (1942).

VIALE,

M.

Paris).

VI ALE, V. 'La pittura in Piemonte nel Settecento',

excellent

(i.

Settecento. Verona, 1929 (also Knglish ed., Florence

and Morazzone.

An

Fii.o,

veneto. Florence, 1967.

Turin, igss-

liimhardi) del Seicenta.

fi.

GIOSEFFI, D. Pittura veneziana del Settecento. Bergamo, 1956.

GOERING, M. 'Paolo Veronese und das Settecento',
Jalirh. Preuss. Kunstslg., LXI (1940).

L. Malle.

G. 'Studien zu den Quellen der dekorativen

HEINZ,

VENICE AND THE VENETO

.Malerei

im Venezianischen Settecento', Arte Veneta,

x(i956).

ARSLAN,

E. 'Studi

suUa pittura del primo Settecento

veneziane', Critua d'Arte,

F., CEVESE, R., and

Vuenza. Vicenza, 1956.

BARBIERI,
Guida

di

A model
BASSI,

E.

guide-book, with

Ar c hit ett lira

MAGAGNATO,

L.

full

A.

Disegni

del

venett

settecento

del In

latest

Venetian drawings; the previous volumes by

Parker, M. Mrozinska, and

A. Morassi discuss the drawings in the Janos

Scholz and Paul Wallraf Collections and in

Oxford and Poland.
BLUNT, A., and CROFT-MURRAY, E. I'eiietlil?! DlclWat Windsor
ings of the XVII and XVIII Centuries
Castle. London, 1957.
BRUNELLI,B., and CALLEG AR A Ville del Brentd e
.

I ,

degli Euganei.

Milan, 1931.
e

'joo.

G.

Pittori

veneti

minori

del

Settecento.

M.

Veneta,

.-Irte

not quite justified.

LORENZETTI,

Le

G.

feste e

le

ma sc here

veneziane.

Venice, 1937.
Catalogue. .\n important contribution.

Venezui

G.

il

Slid

esluano.

Rome,

1956.
I'he best

MARTINI,

E.

Venetian guide-book.

La

pittura

veneziana del Settecento.

Venice, 1964.
A provocative, scholarly work, written by a
restorer who has an unmatched knowledge of

Venetian painting.
G., and others. Le

MAZZOTTI,
1954.

Second

.About a thousand

A.

ville venete.

Treviso,

ed., 1967.

full

villas are

listed

and de-

bibliographies.

ALPAGO.

Ville dellu provincia di Bel-

luno. Venice, 1968.

R. Gil incisori veneti del Settecento.

Venice, 1941.
R.

La

pittura

veneziana del 'yoo.

Bologna, 1951-2.

Important publication, based on courses ot

The content of this work was incor-

Venice, 1930.
Still indispensable.

lectures.

c / pittori veneti del Settecento. Florence,

.

porated into the next item,

p A L L l: c C H N

1957-

With

is

in

Viatico per cinque secoli di pittura venezi-

PALLUCCHINI,

ttnger Gel. Anzeigen, 1929.

PALLUCCHINI,

Unsatisfactory; see review N. Pevsner, Got-

NOVELLO,

G. / pittori venezuiiii del 'boo

Bologna, 1928.

DONZELL

xiii-xiv (1959-60), 250,

LONGH

scribed

splendid publication.

DELOGU,

condemning re\iew

LORENZETTI,

of a series of books concerning

M. Muraro, K. T.

Lon-

ana. Florence, 1946.

Fundazione G. Cini. Venice, 1963.

DAMERINI,

III Century Venice.

general, verv readable introduction. G.

.\

bibliography.

del Sei- e Settecento a Venezia.

Standard work, superseding most previous

studies of Venetian Baroque architecture.

The

m Xl

Painting

Pilo's

Naples, 1962.

BETTAGNO,

LEVEY, M.
don, 1959.

(1935-6).

(Pinre catalogues and

full

bibliographies.

L(/ pittura veneziaiui del Settecento.

Venice, i960.

BIBLOSARTE

593

Standard work. Must be consulted tor all

painters of the Venetian eighteenth century.
Bibliographies only up to 1457

La

TEMANZA,
Rome,

-Many

8.

pittura del Scueuto a Veiu-zia. Catalogo. Venice,

P.

The

Pilo.

Zampetti, G. .Mariacher, G.

first

M.

exhibition de\ oted to the Vene-

primary source,

minor Baroque

for

in

artists

AI.CANOVER,

with

The

bibliography.

full

contro\ersial

nature of some of the pictures shown

in the reviews ; see, abo\ e

Mag.,

Cl (1959), 286,

all,

and

is

villi'

Affresitii

Milan, 1968. English

veiiele.

.A

ed.,

London,

des

many unpublished

fresco

A. Sturia dell'arte in Fniili. II Scicenlo.

Ldine,

Contains

cycles.

RIZZI,

F.

B.

J.

Eighteenth Century Venue,

An

London, 1951.

See R. Pailucchini,

ZAMPETTI,

P.

.irte I'enela,

vedutisti

(1951).

veneziani del Setteeento.

Venice, 1967.
catalogue of the extensive

Critical

\ enice

Exhibition, with over 30 pp. of bibliography.

1969.
I ,

private

Jahrhunderts', /?c/)./ Kunslir.. XLVii (1926).

18.

WATSON,

coherent study of this important

first

Bergamo

in

collections,

Exhibition,

The

enezui joo. Bergamo, 1969.

voss, H. 'Studien zur venezianischen Vedutenmalerci

selleieiilcsctti

1971.

subject.

Gallery Lorenzeiti Exhibition of eighteenth-

century Venetian painting

Morassi, Arle

Veneta, xiii-xiv (1959 60), 269.

PRECERUTTI GARBERI, M.

VALSECCiii, M.

reflected

B. Nicolson, Burl.
.\.

K. Alostra di pniiire del Sellea-nio iiel

Venice, 1954.
With bibliography.

Belliinese.

tian seventeenth century. Extensive catalogue

R I ZZ

\ enice-

\ enice.

Authors:

delle

Ivanofl.

of I'emanza's notes are a

particularh

1959-

Ed. N.

Zihatdon.

T.

1963.

A Si una
.

dell' uric in Friiili. II S:llcienlii.

Ldine,

See also R. Pailucchini,

in Atti dell'Isiiiuto

venetu di seienze. lettere ed arti, Classe di scienze

1967.

.\lthough the names ot artists discu.ssed in

these
tian,

two volumes
they contain

known

much unknown

ZAMPETTI,

many unpublished

F.

'Rembrandt's Influence

Jaarboek, XVlll (1967), 167

So far the

important

1-12 (1Q70), 5

f^.

major masters the contribution of

ALBA N
in

Frescoes

Pantheon,
in the

win

(193^).

Palazzo \ erospi.

Boschetto, A., in Proporzioni,

Bergamo, 1968.
large group of drawings by Giulia
drawings by such minor artists as

Harris,

11

ti948).

.A.

S., in .U(/.s7(T

Drawings.

\ii (i9()9),

152

t1.

Publications of chalk drawings by Albani.

\ an Schaack, E. 'Ln'opera tarda di F. A.', Arte
e

Antua

.Woderna. no. 21 (1963), 49.

See also idem. \\n Lnpublished Letter by

Francesco Migliori.

SEMENZATO,

a I Tiepolo. I pit ton di Jigura

Lnreliable.

u. Disegiii piazzattesehi. Disegni inedili di

also

Run

enezui. \ enice, 1969.

ARTISTS

IV.

racialle hergannisilie.

Lama;

for the

Bodmer, H.,

Publishes a

Dal

the Exhibition was considerable.

brilliant study.

RUGGIERI,

Paruuone, xix (1968), no. 217,

Bencovich, Grassi, Diziani, and I'ontebasso.

Ev en

Crisis of the Venetian Renaissance

Tradition', L'Arte, nos.

in

ff.

fullest investigation of this

'The

f\.;

Eigh-

question.
D.

397

et al.

in

teenth Century Venice', Nederlands Kunslliislori.uti

ROSAND,

as

paintings b\ such

Maftei, Mazzoni, Fontebasso, Grassi,

ROBINSON,

7),

reception, but was illuminating for such artists

Bombelli, Carneo, Celesti, Cosattini,

artists as

(1966

This Exhibition did not have an enthusiastic

della pill lira venela del SeiceiiUi in

excellent catalogues; both exhibitions

contained

p.

del Settecento a

Ldine, 1968.

Two

arti, c;xx\

Pilo, in .-irte Veneta. XXI (1967), 2^)9 ft.;

fl-

37

dclhi pilliira veneta del Selleeenlo in

RIZZI, A. .Mosira

.\1.

R. Longhi,

or scarcely

Ldine, 1966.

Friuli.

G.

material.

RlZZi, A. Mosira
Friuli.

morali, lettere ed

are predominantly \ ene-

G. La sculttira veneta del Sen en to e del

V..\.\ .-in Bull.. LI (1969), 72.

Settecento. Venice, 1966.

The first systematic attempt

ineognila of \enetian

to

master the terra

Baroque sculpture: bio-

graphies and (euvre catalogues.

AL

KR

Chev alley, G.
.tl/ieri.

n avvocato architettn

lurin, 1916.

BIBLOSARTE

il

conte Benedetto

594

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Rosci,

M.

'Benedetto Alfieri e I'archilettura del '700

in Piemonte', Palladio, N.s.

iii

BACiLIONE,

in Boll. d'.4rte,

xxxix (1954).

Longhi, R., in Paragone, xiv (1963), no. 163.

Pepper, S., in Paragone, xviii (1967), no. 211.

ALCARDI
Monographs by M. Heimbiirger, J. Montagu,
and O. Raggio are in an advanced state of

BALESTRA

preparation.

Battisti,

Nava. 'L'Algardi restauratore

A.

Cellini,

G.

C,

Guglielmi,

(1953).

in

Y..,

With

Villa

Commenlari, v (1954).

(euvre catalogue.

Pamphilj', Paragotw, xiv (1963), no. 161.

Nava. 'Note per I'Algardi,

Cellini, A.

xvm

Reni', Paragone,

il

Bernini, e

(1967), no. 207, 35

The 'Pallavicini

Crucifix' as a

il

BAMBOCCIO,

IL see LAER, P.

BARBIERI,

F, See

work by

.\lgardi.

<;.

OUERCINO

Heimbiirger, M., in Paragnnc, xx (1969), no. 237.

Heimbiirger, M., in Sludi Roniani (1970), 216 fF.

BASCHEMS

Johnston, C. 'Drawings for Algardi's "Cristo.\ ivo"',

.\ngelini, L. / Baschenis.

5ttr/.

.'Wa^.,cx (1968), 458

Montagu,

cxii (1970),

282

Some Related Models', Burl. Mag.,

ff.

Munoz, .\.,in.^//;

mcnwrie

della R.

Accademia

di

S.

Luca. Annuario 1912.

Munoz,

ed.,

ran5/oSa.t/;f/i(/6o7-/ 677). Exhibition Catalogue,

Galleria Lorenzelli. Bergamo, 1965.
Geddo, A. Evansto Basihenis. Milan, 1965.
A brief monograph.

milan and lombardy, longhi a. o.,

and pro-

See also

'Alessandro Algardi

.A.

Bergamo, 1943; 2nd

1946.

flf.

'Alessandro Algardi's Altar of S. Nicola

J.

da Tolentino and

VAN

fl.

ritrattista',

Dedalo,

als .\rchitekt',

Zemchr.

Mostra, 1953, under heading cities

vinces.

1(1920).

PoUak, O. 'Alessandro .Algardi

(1910-11).

BATON!

Preuss. Kunstslg., .xxv (1905).

Barsali,

f. Gesch. der Archilektur, iv

Posse, H.,

mjahrb.

the basic article on the sculptor.

Still

Raggio, O. 'Alessandro .\lgardi e

gli

stucchi di Villa

Pamphili', Paragone (1971), no. 251, 3

Vitzthum,

W.

B. Mosira di

I.

Pompeo Batoni. Catalogo.

Lucca, 1967.

if.

'Disegni di Alessandro Algardi', Boll.

An

excellent catalogue with contributions bv

A.

M.

Clark, A. Marabottini, F. Haskell,

and

Belli Barsali,

I.

of 65 Batoni letters.

a dossier

A. Busiri Vici, Le 'donne' del Batoni, Lucca,

d'.4rte, XLviii (1963).

1968, contains reprints of all the reviews of the

AMIGONI

Exhibition.

Griseri, A., in Paragone, XI (i960), no. 123.

G. M., in Arte Veneta, Xli (1958).

Voss, H., mjahrh. Preuss. Kunstslg., xxxix (19 18).

Borelli, E.

Pilo,

The

Pompeo Batoni {i/o8-ij8y). Lucca,

1967.

brief but excellent study.

Chyurlia, R., in Emporium, cxvii (1953).

Clark, A. M., in Burl. .Mag., Ci (1959).

pioneering study.

Cochetti, L., in Commentari,

ARIGUCCI

ill

(1952).

Emmerling, E. Pompeo Batoni. Darmstadt, 1932.

Battaglia, R. 'Luigi Arigucci architetto camerale di

Urbano

VIII', Palladia, vii (1942).

BAZZANI
IvanoflF,

ASSERETO

N. Aiostra

del

Castelnovi, G. F., in Emporium, cxx (1954).

Full

Grassi, L., in Paragone,

bibliography.

Longhi, R.,

The
BACiccio

Bazzani

in

Aiantova. Bergamo,

1950.

in

Dedalo,

III

vii

(1952), no. 31.

(1926-7).

see

Tellin, C. Perina.

Lombardo,

basic study.

documentation,

xiii,

ii

aitire

catalogue

and

'Precisazioni sul Bazzani', Arte

(1968), 103

ff.

bealmont

gaulli

.A., in Scritti van, 11 (1951)

Facolta di Magistero di Torino).

(a

cura della

vita e le opere di CI. Fr.

Beaumont.

Griseri,

BADALOCCHIO

Mainly on the early work.

Salerno, L., in Commenlari, ix (1958).

Zucchi,

M. La

Turin, 1921.

BIBLOSARTE

595

BELLOTTO

Bernini, G. L. Fontana di Trevi. Comniedia inedita.

Bernardo Bellnltn genanni CanalelKi

in

Dresden

iind

Warachau. Exhibition Catalogue. Dresden, 1963.

Review J. Bialostocki, Burl. Mag., cvi (1964),
S. Kozakiewicz, Bulletin du Musee
289
National de Varsovte, vi (1965), 17 ff.
t".

Villa Hijgel, Essen, 1966.

62 paintings and

(15

568

Bernardo

Brauer, H., and Wittkower, R. Die

Bellotto.

Burg, 1936.
vols. 1969.

biographical, second ceinre cata-

VIII),

and Kozakiewicz, S. Aiostra di Bernardo

i/20~8o. Opere provenienti della Polonia.

cia' in

almost identical exhibition (with Cata-

concerned

of Gianlorenzo's youth
contains

Canaletto, the Painter oj Warsair.

Warsaw,

on Bellotto's Polish views.

(iii)

the 'Barcac-

The book
with

almost

is

The

Bernini.

number

ol

works

to Pietro Bernini will

many

suggestive ideas.

Fjnem, H. von. 'Bemerkungen zur Cathedra

Sachruhten dcr Wissenscliajten

1954-

A monograph

des

scarcely find wide acceptance, but this book

Liverpool, 1957.

M.

Scipione Borghese,

Piazza di Spagna.

author's attempt to ascribe a

logue in English) at the Walker Art Gallery,

Wallis,

(ii)

exclusively

Exhibition, Venice, 1955.

An

Zeuhmmgen

monograph of Bernini was dependent on that

written by Domenico Bernini.
D'Onofrio, C. Roma vista da Roma. Rome, 1967.
Three parts: (i) .Vlaffeo Barberini (later Urban

S.,

Bellollo

(1964),

A contemporary diary, invaluable as a source.

C, in Palatino, x (1966), 201.
The author makes it probable that Baldinucci's

logue.

Lorentz,

Xi.vi

Gianlorenzo Bernini. Berlin, 1931.

Chantelou, M. de. Journal du voyage du Cat. Bernin
en France (ed. Lalanne). Paris, 1885.

drawings; bibliography of

Kozakiewicz, S. Bernardo Bellotto. 2

First vol.

Lavin, .in Bull.,

I.

ff.

D'Onofrio,

previous Bellotto exhibitions.

.\.

1963.

Review bv

See also the Catalogue of the Bellotto

Exhibition in Vienna in 1965, with Introduction by V. Oberhammer.
Europdische I edulen des Bernardo Bellotto. Exhibition.

Fritzsche, H.

Introduction and commentary by C. d'Onofrio.

Rome,

in

Petri',

Gbttmgen. Philol.-

Hist. Klasse (1955), no. 4.

Fagiolo deir.-\rco, Maurizio and .Marcello. Bernini,

BENCOVICH
Goering, M.,

Una
in Criiiea d'.4rle,

II

An

Pallucchini, R., in Riv. d'Arte, xiv (1932), with aeuvre

catalogue, and Critica d'Arte,

almost complete,

survey

intelligent

of

Bernini's entire activity, based on a remarkable

(1935-6), in (1938).

Rome,

introduzione al gran teatro del haroeco.

1967.

(1937).

knowledge of the

BENEFIAL

literature; bibliography of

almost 700 items.

Falcidia, G., in Boll. d'Arte, xlviii (1963).

Fraschetti, S. // Bernini .Milan, 1900.

.

Standard work.

BERNINI,

Gonzalez-Palacios,

G. L.

The

Bernini literature

is

steadily growing.

To

supplement the list below the following may be

summarily mentioned 1957 0. P. Berendson,
:

Marsyas,

viii;

R.

Enggass, Art

Bull.;

E.

Commentari. 1958: E. Battisti, ihid.\

C. Gould, .Art Qiiarterly. 1959: F. Zeri, Paragone, no. 115. i960: A. J. Braham, Burl. Mag.
Sestieri,

1961

M.

V. Brugnoliand

I.

YMi^-irte Antica

Moderna. 1962: P. della Pergola, Capitolium,

G. Matzulevitsch, Boll. d'Arte.
Baldinucci, F. Vita diGian Lorenzo Bernini. Florence,
e

Modern

ed.

by Sergio Samek Ludovici, Milan,

'Bernini as a Furniture

Grassi, L. Bernini pittore.

Rome,

719

De-

ff.

1945.

See also Burl. .Wag., cvi (1964).

Harris, .\. S., in Master Drawings, \I (1968), 383 ff.
Important addition to Bernini's corpus of
drawings.

Hibbard, H., and

Jaffe,

I.

'Bernini's Barcaccia', Burl.

Mag., CVI (1964).

.An exemplary iconographical study.
Hibbard,

no. II. 1963:

1682.

.\.

signer', Burl. .Mag., CXII (1970),

in

Boll.

d'Arte, xliii

See also

(1958) and

.XLVi (1961).

Hibbard, H. Bernini. Harmondsworth, 1965.

.\n excellent introduction to B., with learned

1948.

Main source

for Bernini's

notes.

life.

Bernini, D. Vila del Car. Gio. Lorenzo Bernini.

Rome,

Kauffmann, H. Giovanni Lorenzo

liilien

1713-

Written by the

artist's

son Domenico.

Bernini. Die jigiir-

Kompositionen. Berlin, 1970.

The most

important Bernini publication ol

recent vears; tendency towards iconographic

BIBLOSARTE

59^

BIBLIOGRAPHY

in\csiigations.

The author's

Bernini

earlier

papers have been incorporated.

Sacchetti Sasseiti,

T. K. 'Bernini's Church I'avades: Method ot

Design and the Ctintiiipp<isli\Joiinni/ Sik. Archilecl.

\xiv (icjds), 263

Kruft, H.-W., and Larsson,

fiir

die Engelsbriicke in

ft.

I..

O. 'Entwiirfe Berninis

Rom', Miiiichner Jahrh. dcr

bildendeii Kii/isl, xvii (u)66), 145

(igfxS),

und

Kuhn,

130

seiner

Dissertation.

Munich,

F. H., in .Art Qjiarterly, xxxiii (1970), 30

.\mbitious but problematic attempt to link

Suggestion of influence of a Jesuit

Bernini's religious imagery closely to Francis

book,

und Moderne Kunst,

xii,

94 (1967),

of

the

Cornaro

interpretation

Loyola', in Argo. Festschrift

fiir

Laurain-Portemer. 'Mazarin

Kurt Badt, Cologne,

et le

Bernin

verite"

",

propos du

G.d.B.A., Lxxiv

Important new documents.

'Five

New

Youthful Sculptures by G.L.B.

Revised Chronology of his Early Works', Art

L (1968), 223

I.

Bernini and the Crossing of Saint Peter's.

full

discussion of Bernini's decoration and

the stages of

its

brief biography.

see also Studi

Romani,

ill

(1955) and

J.

'Two Small Bronzes from

Bernini', Burl. Mag., cix (1967), 566

S. Weil, Burl.

Review of

Man., CXili

ft.

Identification of a bronze statuette corres-

over the ciborium of the altar

to that

and documents

for

in St Peter's

work

Bernini's

the

in

chapel.

H. Kaitff-

Verita', Festschrift

niann. .Minuscula Discipuliiruni. Berlin, 1968, 393

ft.

iconological study.

Wittkower, R. Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 7 he Sculptor of

the Roman Baroque. London, 1955. Second reworked

and enlarged

ed., 1966.

Wittkower, R.,

f Kunstg..

the Studio of

Publication of the

in the coll.

Zamboni,

ft.

Petersson, R. T. The .4rt af Ecstasy. Teresa, Bernini,

and Crashaw. New York, 1970.

An unusual book in which mystical experience,
Baroque art, and poetry are sensitively inter-

S.

zum

Vier-

stromebrunnen auf Piazza Navona', Konsthistorisk

Tidskriji, xxxv (1966), 72 ft.
Interpretation stimulated by H. Kauftmann's.

326 ft.
60 ft.

first

version of the bust of

Da

the version formerly

of Principe Enrico Barberini.

Bernini a Pinelli. Bologna, 1968.

Publication of the modello for the Four Rivers

Fountain

in

the

Accademia

di

Belle

Bologna.

BERNINI,

preted.

Pochat, G. 'liber Berninis "Concetto"

x.xx (1967),

in Burl. Alag., C\\ (1969),

Urban VIII known from

Ciiininenlari, vii (195ft), ^ ('959)i ^^'l (1962).

Montagu,

a certain extent.

ft.'

XX1X-XX.X (1966-7), 7

Zeitschr.

Martinelli, V. / ritratti di pontefici di G. L. Bernini.

Rome, 1956;

Berlin, 1967.

With bibliography and critical cenvre catalogue. Second ed., review H. Kauftmann, in

development.

Martinelli, V. Bernini. Milan, 1953.

Ram.

Journal of the Halters Art Gallery,

An important

York, 1968.

S., in

Winner, M. 'Berninis

ft.

ideas about chronology.

New

of the Cappella del Sacramento

Revolutionary discoveries and controversial

Lavin,

(1970,98

M.

ponding

(1969), 185.

I.

van St Peter

ment each other to

both works bv M.
Weil,

la

on

(1624),

Ihelen's and Lavin's works (see abo\ e) supple-

Ignatius von

ft.

qui decou\re

desideria

Thelen, H. Ziir Entstehungsgcschichte der Hachultar-

Chapel.

"Temps

H. Hugo's Put

ft.

emblem

Bernini's Lodo\ica .-Mbertoni.

devotion.

R., in Alte

1970, 324

ix

purchased by the Berlin .Museum.

Sommer,

ic)66.

Kuhn, R. 'Gian Lorenzo Bernini und

5;///.,

.VUiseen,

Publication of the small marble Piitio with

.-irchiteklur

Jahrhuch der Berliner

in

ft.

Ddlphin, a fine work of Bernini's early period,

Attempted

and

L.,

(1907), 274

xxvi

ft.

Lavin,

\iaggio del Bernini in P'rancia nei

'II

(i95f)).

ft.

ot Sales'

.\.

documenti deir.\rchi\io Segreto Vaticano', Boll, del

centra di sliidi per la si ana dell' archilellura, no. 10

R. Die Enlslehmiii des Bernini' sclieii Heiliacn-

hildcs.

Kuhn,

Panlhenn,

Werkstatt',

Schiaxo,

Schlegel,

ff.

Kruft,H.-W.,andl.arsson, L.O. 'Portratzeichnungen

Berninis

xxii

.-irchiii.

Documents.

Kitao,

Hisliiritins,

'Bernini a Rieti',

.\.

(1955)-

Rotondi,

p.

P., in Rii: del

R.

1st., \

(1935-6).

Martinelli, V., in Conimentan, iv (1953).

BERRKTTINI .SWCORTONA

BIBLOSARTE

Arti,

597

BIANCO,
Protumo
il

Longhi, R.,

B.

Miiller, L. 'Baitolomco Bianco architctto c

barocco geno\ese',

per

Bulleiiiiui del Ceiiiro di Stiult

Wethey, H.

Sloria dell' Architetluru, no. 22 (u)68).

la

The

monograph

first

Baroque

in

Madamo\vsk\ F. Die Familie Bihienu in Wieii. Leheii

und PVerk fiir das Theater. Vienna, 1962.
.\ great treasury ot documents and recorded
,

drawings.
Bihieiia Family.

New

^ori^, 1945.

best survey, with further references.

Ricci, C. / Bihieiia. Milan, 191

5.

artistua e nelle

L'Arte,

i.x

well informed intro-

relatively brief, but

to

Borromini.
of

Rome, 1964.
Review H. Millon,

Portoghesi.
.\.

Cnneiiale Baelln. Fos-

known

archi(eiivre

little

Gregg

Press.

Biirromiiii, Stiidi

B.

siil

.4tti

dair Aecademia Nazioiiale

catalogues.

Rome,

Only the

Martinelli, V., in Comtnenlari, x (1959).

so tar appeared.

aeinre catalogue. - See also A.

in Parat^ane,

Mil

(i9(>2), no.

N.

Cellini,

Brizio,

F.

147.

del Canieo.

Ldine,

Important exhibition catalogue. Introduction

Naz.

'II

Celehrazumi

Milanese years.

B. nelle stanze di S. I'ilippo alia \ alli-

Palatum,

xii,

(1968), 13.

Fagiolo dell'Arco, \\. 'Francesco Borromini', Storia

Critical survey of

BONAVI A

Borromini literature

of 1967,

1968.

Constable, \V. G.,

in

ceiivre

Art Quarterly, XXII (1959).

Hempel,

BONAZZA

.A

Semenzato, C. Antdiiw Bmiazza

E. Franeeseu Bornimini. \ ienna, 1924.

Standard work,

catalogue.

Marconi,

i6g^-i/6j). Padua,

P.

Fa Roma

fine survey

listing full\ older literature.

Rome,
man\ revealing

del Bnrroinini.

with

Q^iivre catalogue,

documents, bibliography.

Montalto, L.

'II

illustra-

in

Palatnm, \ (1966).

drammatico licenziamento

di I'ran-

.Agnese in

Agone',

cesco B. dalla fabbriat di S.

BONONI

1968.

tions.

See also .Marconi's paper

1957-

Palladia, \u\ (1958).

Emiliani, A. Carlo
Schleier, E.

Fiiuei.

dell'Arte, 1-2 (1969), 200.

by R. Pallucchini.

With

dei

1968.

interest tor Borromini's

Bruschi, A.
cella'.

1964.

Liiea. Rnnie, ig6/.

'Nel terzo centenario della morte di

Rome,

Of
e

M.

.\.

Lincee.

Alaslra del Bmubelli

del Cuineiiiiii pninwsso

San

with 20 contributions has

first vol.

B.\ Aecademia

BOMBELl.l

di

1970.

BOLGI
With

Burl. .V/a?., cviii (1966),

See also the facsimile reprint by the

433.

and engra\er, with documents and

.An excellent study of this

.\.

Vita, opere, for-

1725 ed. with introduction and notes by P.

sano (Cassa di Risparmio), 1966.

Rizzi,

lettera-

hannea. Turin,

Borromini. Opus .inhiteetonniiin. Republication

(i()6i).

(i.

Carboneri, N., and Griseri,

tect

iiella

della

Bellinzona, 1967.

tiiiia.

the

BOETTO,

ho

S.

1967.

duction
in

ineisiotii dell'etd

Bianconi, P. Franeeseu Bnrnimini.

NAGo

Mezzanotte, G.,

di

Sapienza', Qiiaderni, no. 3 (1953).

Bernardi Ferrero, D. de. L' opera di T.B.

.A

Bnrroiniiii. \ erona, 1952.

Concist and forcible in style.

Benevolo, L. Ml tema geometrico

tiira

H. The

.-V.

Borgianni.

of early

BORROMINI

architect.

Argan, G. C.

The

study.

Mag., cvi (1964).

E., in Burl.

Reconstruction

Mayor,

Wll (1914).

Arte,

Genoa's greatest

ot

B B E N .A
I

I.'

The fundamental

Boiioiii.

Ferrara, 1962.

'C.B. and .\ntonio Gherardi', .Master

Important: 28 pp. documents.

Ost, H. 'Borrominis romische Lniversitiitskirche S.

ho', Zeitsehr.j.

Drairinns, vii (1969), 4i.Vff.

Kiinsti;.,

A serious attempt

BORGIANM

pretation.

Bottari, S., in Commentari, VI (1955).

Borgianni's

first

signed and dated work.

BIBLOSARTE

\\\ (1967), loi

at

fl.

an iconological inter-

598

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M.

Piazzo,

Rome,

del. Riiiigiuiiili Jidnoniinuiiii.

i()()8.

C.aialoguc ot the iy<)7 ICxhibition of Boiro-

documents by the Director

niini

Archise.

State

Borromini's

Basic

lite

many

tor

Roman

ot the

aspects

ot

(All' A
Cellini,

(u)55), nos. 23

II

(ig^S);

c)

Bust

c:

itclln nilliiici

Rome,

ciimpti.

his house,

Portoghesi, P.
u)f)S.

el

Appen-

oj Bornimiiii.

New

La Penta tiom

ci

N A c: c

tor earlier literature.

G.C.\

Pasini, P. 'Note ed aggiunte a

Ill

(1967), 78

supported by splendid photo-

\ 1,

no. 24

963).

del

!.

M.

Brunori,

'Considerazioni

Francesco del Cairo',

See also Brunori,
Vlatalon, S., in

graphs.
la.

Boll, d' .hie.

ft.

Documents.

CAIRO,
ot i9()4.

Stress on an interpretation ot B.'s architec-

in

the Italian

Supplements the author's monograph

Rutfiniere du Pre}, P. de

.4rl

Buscaroli, R. II piltarc Cuidn Cagnacci. Forli, 1962.

York,

lyhy.

tural language,

nf

Alexander VII.

of

Zufta, M., in Arte .Inlica e .Moderna,

cil.

The Rome

Translation by B. L.

Rome,

Museum

.Melrof^idilan

in

lo be consulted
collection ot earlier papers enlarged.

dices containing B.'s will, the inventory ot

ed.,

R.,

Piillin/ia, iv (11)54);

i()(i4.\

(1956).

Bulletin, April, 1959.

5f*//. (/'./;/(, .\L (i()55).

I'ortoghesi, P. Bdrnnniiii

VII

Burl. Mag., l.xxxix (1947).

J., in

Wittkower,

and work.

Portogihesi, P., in Qiicii/enii, no. 4 (1953), no. 6 (11)54),

no.

N., in Paragone,

.A.

I'leming,

'Solomonic Symbolism

in

Rn:

prime tempo

sul

Boll. d'Arie, xi.ix (1964),

Pantheon, xxv

236

(19^)7), 105

di
ft.

ft.

d'Arte, XII (1930).

Testori, G., in Paragone,

III

(1952), no. 27.

Borromini's Church of S. Ivo delta Sapienza',

Zeituhr.

Kiiiisla.,

f.

xxxi (1968), 216

CALICJARI
Nicodemi, G. / Caligari

ft.

Interesting ideas that carry conviction.

Sedlmayr, H. Die Archileklw Borrinniins. Berlin,

scullori hresciani del Sette-

Brescia, 1924.

ceiilii.

1930; Munich, 1939.

challenging but often controversial work.

M.

Tafuri,

'Inediti borrominiani', Palatino, \\ (19(^)7),

255 ft. See also idem,

Thelen, H. /o disegni
dell' Albertina di

Thelen,
niiiigen.

H.

ihii/.,

Vienna. Catalogue.

Fraiicesca
Ahteilinii!.:

i.

A.C,

x (1966).

Francesco B. dalle collezumi

di

CAMASSEI
Domenico

Rome, 1958-9.

Cortese, G.

di.

'La vicenda artistica di

Comineiilari, xix (1968), 281

Harris, A. S. 'A Contribution to

ft.

Andrea Camassei

Studies', .Art Bull., Lii (1970), 49-70.

The

Die HandzeichZeitraiim von 1620- J2. Graz,

Boirumini.

first

biographical survey and critical cata-

logue of this rather neglected

artist.

1967.
First

volume of the corpus of Borromini drawBasis for

ings.

further study of B. But

all

although the author

is

Kunslg.,

A. Blunt,

in

Fully documented ceuvre catalogue.

many

controx ersial problems. Reviews by H. Brauer,

/'.

Schlegel, L., in Jahrh. Preuss. Kunstslg., n.f. \(i963).

guided by the most

meticulous scholarship, he also opens up

Zeilsclir.

CAMETTl

x.xxii

Ktinstchronik

(1969), 74

(March

ft.

and

1969), 87

ft.

CANALETTO
Chiappini,
letto'.

no.

BRACCI

Kiinslsiescliuiile

bourg, 191
\

Pieiro Bracci. Beitrdge

des

XI

III.

zw riimischen

Juhrhiindevls.

Stras-

ery important contribution, generally o\ er-

W. G. Giovanni Antonio

The

sciillorc ronniiio

Milan Rome, 1920.

Based on Bracci's own

f/oo-i//j.

definitive

H.

del

Cana(1968),

Canal, i6gj~i/68.

F.

monograph.

'Canaletto

in

England',

IValpole

Society, ix (1920-1).

The

lookcd.

morte

York, 1962. French ed., Toronto, 1964-5.

Finberg,

5.

Gradara, C. Pieiro Bracci

New

'Gli atti di nascita e di

f.

Constable,

Domarus, K. \on.

2,

I.

Boll, dei .Musei civici veneziani, xiii

Gioseflfi,

basic study.

D. Canaletto.

II

quaderno

delle gallerie vene-

ziane e Fimpiego della camera otiica. Trieste, 1959.

diary.

An

ingenious study.

Hadeln, D. \on. Die Zeichnungen von

BRUSTOLON

nannt Canaletto. Vienna, 1930.

Biasuz, G., and Lacchin, \. .-indrea Briislolim. Venice,

1928.

BIBLOSARTE

.-/.

Canal, ge-

599

Moschini,

\'.

Canalciin. Milan, 1454 (also

London,

1955)-

and bibliography.
Parker, K. T. The Drawings of Antonio Canaletio
at Windsor Castle. London, 1948.
Parker, K. T., and Shaw, J. Byam. Canalello e Giiardi.
.

'II

"realismo" nella poetica del Cara-

vaggio', Seritti di storui dell'arte

With chronological

G.

.\rgan, C.

tabic

Catalogue. Venice, 1962.

Fitty C.analetto drawings from Windsor Castle
and Guardi drawings from various collections,

exhibited

the Fondazione Cini. See T.

Master Drawings, (1Q63).

at

Pignatti, in

Pignatti, T. // quaderna di disei>ni del Canaletio alle

gallerie di Venezia.

Milan, 1958.

volume and

text

Rome,

.^ronbcrg Lavin, .M. 'Caravaggio

the Barberini .-Krchive', Burl.

F. J. B. Canaletio.

ot

I.

.An important, but controversial paper.

inanu. Berlin, 195^).

Baumgart, F. Caravaggio; Kunst and Hirkluhkeit.

Berne-Joflroy,

.\. Ia'

dossier

Caravage. Paris, 1959.

Cara-

London, 1949.

vaggio research.
e

caravaggeschi nelle gallerie di

Firenze. Catalogue. Florence, 1970.

in

.,

Emiliani, K.,

Para^one^
Arle

in

(1950), no.

.inlica

The

7.

Moderna,

11,

no.

Bousquet,

Catalogue

ot Cantarini's

drawings and etch-

trovers Fart

it alien

XV

dii

au

incdits sur C.

.,

in Boll, d' .Arte, Liii

S. Pietro at

Qitarterly, XV (1952),

and

ihid...

XXIV (1961).
in

Revue

(1968), 11

f1.

Master Drawings,

and T. Poensgen,

ihid.,

C,

Palatino,

(1967), 13.

The

vil (1969), 164,

v (1967), 165

copy.

Enggass, R. 'L'.Amore Giustiniani del

XI

Also idem,

date des
.",

Carpineto Romana; the painting

had only been known through

.-irt

Attribution to Caravaggio of a St Francis in

CANUTi
Feinblatt, E., in

la

chapelle Saint-Matthieu

la

Brugnoli, .M. V

Paris, 1949.

sii'ile.

'Documents

J.

tableaux de

des Arts (1953).

ings.

Lavallee, M., in

number

scholarly catalogue contains a

of pictures never before illustrated.

(1959)-

XX"

cix (19^7), 470

Critical survey ot the historiography of

C.^NT.'VRIM

Documents trom

Mag.

Bauch, K. 'Zur Ikonographie von Caravaggios IViihwerken', Kunstgeseliuiillithe Studienjur Hans Kauff-

Borea, E. Caravaggio

.\rcangeli,

onore di L. Ven-

1603 as date of the Sacrifice of Isaac (Uffizi).

.\rslan, E., in Arte .-tntua e .Moderna, 11 (1959).

facsimile reproductions of the sketchbook.

Watson,

195ft.

BcKlin, 1955.

volume with 74 pp.

liiri.

Berlin painting

is

discussed

in

terms of

an allegory celebrating the attainments of the

fi.

patron, Vincenzo Giustiniani.

c.AR.ACCiOLO

Carita, R., in Parasone,

Causa, R.,

in

Longhi, R.,

Fagiolo dellWrco, .M. 'Lc "Opere di misericordia":

(Battistello)

Paraaone,

in

II

Contributo

{1951), no. 19.

(1950), no.

(1968), 37

9.

poetica del Caravaggio', L'Arte, no.

ambitious and,

.\n

L'Arte, xviii (1915)-

Fundamental study.
Voss, H., mjahrh. Preuss. Kitnslsla.,

alia

ftit

seems, on the whole

successful attempt to clarify the iconography

ill-

of C.'s Seven Works of Mercy.

W. Caravaggio Studies.

(1927)-

Friedlaender,

Important.

Princeton,

1955-

Graeve,

CARAVAGGIO
For a survey ot the vast literature up to 1955:
F. Baumgart, Zeilschr. f. Kunstti., xvii {1954)
(1955)'
and A. M. Raggi, .irte Lombarda,
177. In addition articles by L. Salerno, C.
1

Maltese, and F. Battisti in Commentari,

\\

La Revue des .Arts, v (1955),

J.
R. Jullian in Arte Lomharda, 11 (1955)1 and
D. Macrae, Burl. Mag., cvi (1964), 412. For
a complete survey of Caravaggio studies from
(1955),

95 1

to

del!' Area

Rene

in

1970 (139 items), see .M. Fagiolo

and M. .Marini,

12 (1970), 117

f\.

in L'.-irte, .\os. 11-

M.

.\.

'The Stone of Unction

Painting for the Chiesa Nuova',

An
Hess,

J.

in

Caravaggio's

.Art Bull.,

XL (1958).

important iconographical study.

'.Modelle e modelli del Caravaggio',

ment an, \ (1954).

I links, R. Michelangelo

.Vierisi

Com-

da Caravaggio. Lon-

don, 1953.

W ith

further literature.

Jullian, R. Caravage.
.A

Lyon

well considereil

knowledge

Paris, 1961.

monograph, based on

Longhi, R., and others. .Mostra del Caravaggio

caravaggeschi. .Milan, 1951.

With

lull

lull

ot the literature.

bibliography, 1603

BIBLOSARTE

1951.

e dei

()00

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Longlii,

'Lltimi siudi

R.

cerchia', Pniporzidiii,

CAiiaxaggio c

siil

sua

la

(1943).

Very important for the Cara\aggeschi.

Longhi, R. II Ciiriivuiiuio. Milan, 1952. Reprint with
slight changes, Rome Dresden, igftS.

Rizzi, A. Disegiii, iinisioiii e hozzelti del (Carlevarijs.

Catalogo della .Mostra. Ldine, 1964.

Discussion ot 122 items. Bibliography.
Rizzi, A.

Carlevaris. \ enice, 1967.

/,//((/

See D. Mahon, Burl. Mii., \c\ (1Q53).

CARLOM

Sec also Longhi's contributions

Brigozzi Brini,

111;

no.

(ic>5()),

\i

(ig6o),

in

Paniaone,

no.

121; xiv

'A Late Caravaggio Rediscovered', Burl.

.Marangoni, .M. / Carloiii. Florence, 1925.

The

Mag., xcviii (1956).

Moir, A.

Cambridge,

An

of

Followers ofCaravasaio. 2 \ols.

J'he Italian

and Garas, K. Carlo Innocenzu

Kxhaustive monograph.

(1963), no. 165.

Mahon, D.

.\.,

Carloiii. .Milan, 1967.

only comprehensive work on this dynasty

artists.

.Mass., 1966.

extensi\e compilation

tence

making an

at

not without

without the pre-

original contribution, but

pitfalls,

see reviews

by

.A.

lucci, Piiragiine, xviii (1967), no. 213,

Pao-

CARNF.O
Geiger, B. Antonio Cameo. Ldine, 1940.
Rizzi, A. Antonio

ft.;

(1968), 635

ft.;

{1970), 324

ft.

i960.

catalogue,

ueiivre

completely illustrated. See also

\V. Bissell, in Renaissaine Quarterly, xxi, 3

(1968), 325

Cameo. Ldine,

Preface by L. Coletti. With

67-78;

bombelli.

B. Nicolson, in Burl. Mas., cx

C.

Dempsey,

in

Art Bull.,

Lli

CARPI OM
G. M. Carpioni. Venice, 1962.
CEuvre catalogue and bibliography.

Pilo,

Moir, A. 'Did Caravaggio Draw?", Art Quarterly,

xxxiii (1969), 354.

Much

support tor the obvious, namely that

C. did draw.

Anderson,

Rottgen, H. 'Giuseppe Cesari, die Contarelli-Kapelle

und Caravaggio',
201

CARRACCI

Zeitsehr.

/'.

Kuiists., xx\ii (1964),

late .Annibale.

Kunst., xx\iii (1965), 47

in

ft.

Publication of documents revolutionary for

the chronology of C.'s work in the chapel.

Bellori,

Kunst. XX (1969), 143

I'llil.

A most

simboli nel C.

Scavizzi,

'Poesia e

dipinti emblematici', Palatino, X

G. Caravaggio

e caravaggesehi. Catalogo della

Bull., XLi (1959).

Venturi, L. // Caravaggio. Novara, 1951.

Wagner, H. Miehelangelo da Caravaggio.

Caravaggio's art

Berlin, 1958.

in relation to the art

of the

Renaissance; industrious, but not always convincing. Large bibliography.

C.^RLEVARIJS, L.
Mauroner, F. Luca

.igostino C.

Carraeci. Burg, 1939.

Friedlaender's review in Art Bull.,

Catalogue.

Rome,

Dempsey, C.

'

Le nuisioni

dei Carraeei.

1965.

"Et Nos Cedamus Amori" Observa:

tions on the Farnese Gallerv', Art Bull., L {1968),

ft.

Mostra. Palazzo Reale, Napoli. Naples, 1963.

Steinberg, L. 'Observations in the Cerasi Chapel',

With

W.

See

XXIV (1942).

W. H.

the

1968.

Bodmer, H. Lodovico

Cahesi, M., and Casale, \

Wilson,

in

Enggass). Lniversity Park and London,

ft.

T.,

Mahon on

The Lives of Annihale and

P.

stimulating interpretative paper.

Salerno, L., Kinkead, D.

(1966), 106

G.

(transl. C.

Rottgen, H. 'Caravaggio-Probleme', Muiuhrier Jalirh.

Art

an important essay by D.

pino's part in decorating the chapel.

J'.

Agostino Carracci"

96 1.

\\ ith

Cs. Werk", Zeitsehr.

d.

Mainly concerned with the Cavaliere d'ArRottgen, H. 'Die Steliung dcr Contarelli-Kapelle

di

Bacou, R. Dessins des Carraclies. Louvre Exhibition.

Paris,

ff".

'The "Sala

J.

the Palazzo del Giardino", Art Bull., Lii (1970).

363Foratti,

.\.

/ Carraeei nella teoria e nell'arle. Citta di

Castello, 1913.
.\ \ery good book.
Kurz, O. 'Engravings on Silver by .\nnibale Carracci',
Burl. Mag., xcvil (1955).
Mahon, D. Mostra dei Carraeei. Disegni. Bologna,

1956.

Forms the critical basis

Mahon, D. '.Afterthoughts on

for further study.

the Carracci Exhibi-

G.d.B.A., XLix (1957).

Martin, J. R. 'Imagini della Virtu;
tion',

Carlevarijs. Padua, 1945.

(Buvre catalogue and bibliography.

the

Camerino Farnese', Art

BIBLOSARTE

The

Paintings of

Bull., xxxviii (1956).

6oi

Martin,

An

R., in

J.

XLV (1963).

Bull.,

The Renaissance

monte

pedigree ot the Butcher's

Shop.
Martin,

J.

Brino, G., a.o. L'opera

R. The Faniese Gallery. Princeton, 1965.

monumental study with a complete cata-

logue ot drawings and extensive discussion of

the iconography. Reviews by D. Posner, in

(iqhh\ icy;
Master Drawings, iv (1966),

.4rt Bull., xi.viii

\\

in

47.

\ itzthum,

Drawing by Agostino Carracci

Miller, D. C. 'A
his Christ

and the Adulteress

Drawings,

vii

Mostra

in the Brera',

tor

critical

Collobi,

dt Castella-

Boll,

in

storico

hihliograjico

suhalpmo,

V.

Labo, M.,

Emporium, xcvi (1942).

in

Commentan,

Riccio, B., in

viii (1957).

The Drawings of Giovanni Ballista Castiand SteJ'ano della Bella

at H'indsor Castle.
London, 1954.

Blunt,

.\.

glione

H. C.I.

Monotypes of Gio.

Calabi, A. 'The
glione',

J.

assessment of Casti-

critical

glione's career; also

The Print

viii (1945).

Battista Casti-

Collector's Qtiarterly, \ (1923), XII

(1925), XVII (1930).

in

Master Drawings,

C. Johnston, Burl. .Mag.,

in .-irle .Anttcae

The

Amadeo

CASTELLO,

no. 9 (i960).

ill,

Bologna, 1966.

Posner, D.,

L.,

Contains new

Antica e Moderna,

Iconography of the Palazzo Fava frescoes.

Ottani, .\. Gli affreschi Carracci in Palazzo Fava.

Reviews

Carlo

XXXIX (1937).

bibliography.
S., in .4rte

di

monte. Turin, 1966.

CA.STIGLIONE

(1969), 410.

work of collaboration, with an introductory essay by

Gnudi. Basic, with lull
Ostrow,

Torino nel secolo XVII.

Master

dei Carracci. Catalogo critico. Bologna, 1956.

e lo sviluppo edilizio

Turin, 1896.

ci,\

.Moderna.

IV, 3

(1966), 311;

{1967), 596
Ill,

Delogu,

no. 12(1960).

Contribution

bale's latest period.

At the time of going

aeuvre

Casliglione

detto

il

to C.'s life

ff.

and chronology, with

documents.

Posner, D. .'innihale Carracci. London, 1971.

an

Battista

Percy, A., in Burl. Mag., CIX (1967), 672

frescoes of the Herrera Chapel and .\nni-

contains

Giovan

G.

Grechetto. Bologna, 1928.

t.

to press the

catalogue,

Percy,

.A., in

.Master Drawings,

had not yet

appeared.

(1968), 144

fl.

have been identified.

least 13

Salerno, L. 'L'opera di Antonio Carracci", Boll. d'.4rie,

Attempted reconstruction of a large Castiglione 'album' of drawings of which so far at

work, that

Wunder,

R. P., in Art Bull., xlm (i960).

XLi (1956).

Mnnibale Carraccis Galerie

Tietze, H.

ini

Palazzo

Farnese und seine romische Werkstatte', Jahrb.

d.

kunsthist. SIg. des .illerhiichsten Kaiscrh., \XVI (1906).

Opens modern

at If indsor

Castle. London, 1952.

Zamboni, S. 'Ludovico Carracci e Francesco Gessi:
due dipinti inediti', Antichitd Viva, vii (1968), no. 1,

Benesch, O.,

in

Jahrb. der kunsth. SIg. Vienna, N.F.

(1926).

De

research; a masterly work.

Wittkower, R. The Drawings of the Carracci

CAVALLINO

Rinaldis, A. Cavallmo.

Liebmann, M.

Rome,

1921.

ex (1968), 456 ff.

Picture in the Pushkin Museum, .Moscow.

Milicua,

J., in

P., in Burl. .Mag.,

Goya,

11

(1954).

Percy, A. The Paintings of Bernardo Cavallmo. Pennsylvania University Press, appearance imminent.

ft-

See also

articles

by F. .\rcangeli, F. Bologna,

Fenyo, M. Gregori, R. Longhi, and M. Jaffe in

Paragone, \ii (1956), \lii (1957), Burl. Mag..
Cii

(i960); .M. Calvesi, Commeutari.

Bull,

vii

(1956);

du .Musee Hougrois des Beaux-Arts, xvii

(i960) and XXV (1964); Master Drawings,

Only

\.

(1967); L. Street, in Art Qiuirterly. xxxiii

monograph of Cavallino with

full

cata-

logue raisonne.
Refice,

C,

in

Emporium,

cxili (1951).

Brief text.
Sestieri, E., in L'Arte, xxiii (1920)

and Dedalo.

Tzeutscher Lurie, A. 'Bernardo Cavallino: Adoration

of the Shepherds', Bull. Cleveland .Museum of

(1970).

Lvi (1969), 136

.-irt,

ff.

CARRIKRA
Malamani, V. Rosaiha Carriera. Bergamo, 1910.

CAVEDONI
Bodmer, H.,

On

CASTELLAMONTE
Boggio, C. Gli architetti Carlo

.Amedeo di Castella-

11

(1921).

in

Die Graphischen Kiinste, v (1940).

drawings.

Roli, R., in Paragone. vii (1956), no. 77.

BIBLOSARTE

602

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CECCO BRAVO

see

MONTELATICI

CHIARI,

G. B.

Kerber, B.,
CKLF.STI, A.

Mucchi, A. M., and Delia Crocc, C.

Celesti.

in .4rt Bull.,

.\n entirely
II piliore

Roman

Late Baroque

Andrea

L (1968), 75.

monograph

satisfactory

of

this

painter.

Milan, ig54.

QLtivre catalogue

CIGNANI

and bibliography.

Buscaroli, S. V. Carlo Cignant ( 1628-i/ig). Bologna,

CERANO

(G. B. Crespi).

Deir Acqua, G.

A., in L'Arte,

Pevsner, N., in Jahrh.

Rosci,

M. Mostra

1953-

xlv (1942), xlvi (1943).

Preiiss. Kiiiistslg.,

Novara,

del Ceratui. Cat.

Fullest treatment of Cerano,

.\ fine

monograph, with bibliography.

XLVi (1925).
1

CIGOLI

964.

summarizing

all

Cigoli,

{L. Cardi)

G. B. Vita

Commune

previous research.
Testori, G., in Para^ime, vi (1955), no. 67.

Valsecchi, M., in Paragone, XV (1964), no. 173.

Cigoli,

di Lodovico Cigoli, per cura della

della citta di S. Mtniato. Florence, 19 13.

Biography by Cigoli's nephew.

Lodovico Cardi da. '.Macchie di

sole e pittura;

carteggio L. Cigoli-G. Galilei, 1609- 1613', ed.

CERESA
Longhi, R., Cipriani, R., and Testori, G. I pit tori

dellii

Lamhardia. Catalogo. Milan, 1953.

Testori, G., in Parasmie, iv (1953), no. 39.

della citta di

amhiente. San .Miniato, 1959.

pittore

di

Gregori contributed

On

Boschetti, A., in Paragone, Xix (1968), no. 219, 55

ff".

Fiocco, G. 'Giacomo Antonio Ceruti a Padova', Saggi

on

artists in

paper on Cigoli

di storia dell' arte, vi (1968), 113

2 (1953).

The

Hague, 1954.

comment on

Fascinating

ff'.

i,

Cigoli as architect.

Panofsky, E. Galileo as a Critic of the Arts.

Longhi, R., Cipriani, R., and Testori, G. / pittori

della realta in Lombardia. Catalogo. Milan, 1953.

Galileo's letter to

Cigoli, 1612.

CIPPER (Todeschini)

Also Longhi, in L'CEil, no. 73, Jan. 1961.

tempo

section

as architect.

CERUTI

tistica del siio

and L. Berti

Cigoli's circle

Fasolo, v., in Qitaderni, nos

Malle, L., and Testori, G. Giacomo Ceruti

letters.

Indispensable for the study of Cigoli. .M.

nature morte", Paragone, v (1954), no. 53.

See also LAER, P. va.n.

Memorie

XXii, N.S. no. 32 (1959).

Bucci, M., and others. Catalogo della mostra del Cigoli

e del suo

CERQU07.ZI
Briganti, G. 'Michelangelo Cerquozzi,

San Miniato,

Fully annotated edition of Cigoli's

realta in

.\.

Matteoli, in Bollettino della .Accademia degli Euteleti

e la ritrat-

nell' Italia settentrionale.

Arslan, W., in L'Arte, xxxvi (1933).

Turin,

COCCORANTE

1967.

which next to
Ceruti paintings by R. Carriera, G. B. CroCatalogue of an exhibition
sato, V. Ghislandi, P. F.

in

On

la

"veduta ideata"

napoletana', Emporium, CXix (1954).

Guala, F. Guardi,

CODAZZI

and others were shown.

Marini, O.,

O. 'Leonardo Coccorante e

Ferrari,

Paragone, xvii (1966), no. 199, 34

Ceruti's patrons at Brescia.
in

ff.

Testori, G., in Paragone, v (1954), no. 57.

G. Giacomo Ceruti. Mostra di J2 opere inedite

JO Oct. -14 Nov. ig66. 'Finarte', Milan, 1966.
Bibliography. Emphasis on connexions with

Brunetti, E., in Paragone, Vli {1956), no. 79.

Longhi, R. 'Codazzi
listica',

Paragone,

e I'invenzione della

veduta rea-

\\ (1955), no. 71.

Testori,

older painters in Brescia.

CORNACCHINI
Keutner, H.,
Bulletin,

in

North Carolina Museum of Art

(1957-8),

II

(1958).

Monographic treatment.
Wittkower, R.,
Graziani, A., in Critica d'Arte, iv (1939).
An excellent paper.

in .Miscellanea Bibl.

Hertzianae, 1961.

Full documentation for the Charlemagne in

St Peter's.

CORRADINI
Biasuz, G., in Boll. d\4rte, xxix (1935-6).

BIBLOSARTE

6o3

Callegari, A., in Boll. d'Arle, \xx (1936-7).

.\

Mariacher, G.,

new

in

Arte Veneta,

(1947).

Riccoboni, A., in Arte Veneta, vi (1952).

With

Roman

.Masterly investigation of a great

CORTE,

J.

Ivanoft",

N., in Arte Veneta,

de (Lecurt)

CORTON.A, p. da
Briganti, G. Pietro da Cortona

e delta pittura hanicca.

Florence, 1962.

XVI

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W. Vitzthum,

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Burl.

cv

.Ma^.,

Palazzo

disegm di P. da C. per

di

Pitii.

gli

Exhibition, Uffizi, Flo-

rence, 1965.
la

cappella del Sacramento in

Roma', Comment ari, xx (1969), 93

ft.

Publication of documents.
Chiarini,
Pitti:

233

M., and Noehles, K.

un episodio

'P.

.\

Jahrh. Preuss. Kunslslg.. XL (1919).

Samek-Ludovici, S.
scritta di Pietro

W.

und Ciro

da

'F. S. Baldinucci, Vita

C,

mano-

.Archiii, xvii (1950).

Sammelbandes des
mit Zeichnungen von P. da Cortona

'Inventar eines

spiiten Seicento

Ferri', in Studies

Renaissance and Bar-

presented to Anthony Blunt, no. xxii.

.4rt

Lon-

don, 1967.
Wibiral, N. 'Contributi alle ricerche sul Cortonismo
in

da C. a Palazzo

Basic study.

oque

Casale, V. 'P.d.C. e

San .Marco

Barberini

Vitzthum,

(1963).

Campbell, M. .Mustra
affreschi di

des romischen Malers und Architekten Pietro da

Cortona', Kumtchronik, xxiii (1912).
Posse, H. 'Das Deckenfresco des P. da C. im Palazzo

Considers only Cortona as painter. Indispensable. Broad critical analysis and wuvre catalogue.

Bar-

oque structure. .\ new standard of detailed

and circumspect presentation.
Pollak, O. 'Neue Regesten zum Lebcn und Schaftcn

(194S).

11

some

material.

Noehles, K. La chiesa dei SS. Liu a e .Martina nelr opera di Pietro da Cortona. Rome, 1969.

catalogue.

ceircre

bird's eye view of C. as architect with

Roma.

pittori della Galleria di .\lessandro \'II

nel Palazzo del Quirinaie", Boll. d'.4rte,

ritrovato'. Boll. d'.4rte, lii (1967),

.\

first-rate

study based on

xi,

(i960).

wealth of

new

documents.

ff-

Del Piazzo, M. Pietro da Cortona. .Mostru docnmentana. Rome, 1969.

A brief guide through the exhibition of Cor-

Wittkower, R. 'Pietro da Cortonas Hrganzungsprojekt

des Tempels in Palestrina", Festschrift .4dolph Goldschmidt. Berlin, 1935.

tona documents organized in the .Archivio di

Stato,

Rome, on

the occasion of the tricen-

tenary of Cortona's death.

tona, 1896.

Collection of Jacques Courtois's Drawings and a

partial

Still useful.

Reconstruction of the Bellori N'olume', Burl.

.Mag., cviii (1966), 345

Geisenheimer, H. Pietro da Cortona

Pitti.

Museum's Phillips-Fenwick

Holt, E. L. 'The British

Fabbrini, N. Vtta del Car. Pietro da Cortona. Cor-

Palazzo

COLRTOIS (CORTESE)

e gli affreschi di

Florence, 1909.

Salvagnini, F.

.\.

ft'.

/ pittori horgognoni Cortese.

Rome,

1937-

Documents.
Lavin,

I.

'Pietro da

Cortona and the Frame', The Art

Moschini, V. 'Le architetture

di Pietro

da Cortona',

L'Arte, xxiv (1921).

Mostra

di Pietro

bottini

and L.

F.

Rome,

.A.

Fullest study of Cortona as painter before

CRESHI, D.
Nicodemi, G. Daniele

2nd

Briganti's book.
d'.\rte).

Paragone,

(1928).
vi (1955), vii (1956).

vii (1956), no. 73.

.Vlara-

1956.

Mufioz, A. P. da Cortona (Bibl.

Montalto, L., in Commentari,

.Vlortari, L., in

da Cortona. Catalogue by

Berti.

COZZ.\,

Lopresti, L., in Pinacuteca,

Qiiarterly, xix (1956), 55.

Rome,

1921.

Cortona as architect.
Noehles, K. 'Die Louvre Projekte von P. da C. und
First study of

Crespi.

Busto

.\rsizio,

191 5;

ed. 1930.

See R. Longhi's review in L'.-irte, XX (1917).

Ruggeri, U. 'Per Daniele Crespi', Crttica d'.4rte, xiv,
no. 90 (1967), 45

ft.;

XV, no,

93 (1968), 43

ft.

Carlo Rainaldi', Zeitschr.J. Ktinstg., xxiv (1961).

See also P. Portoghesi,

in Qjiaderni, nos. 31

48

(1961), with similar results.

G. M.

.\rcangeli,

Noehles, K. 'Architekturprojekte Cortonas', .Miinchner Jahrh. d. btld. Kunst, XX (1969), 171

CRESPI,

fl'.

F".,

and Gnudi, C. Mostra

celehrativa di

Giuseppe Maria Crespi. Calalogo. Bologna .Milan,

1948.

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLIOGRAPHY

604

Preface by R. Longhi. Important catalogue,

DERIZET

with bibliography.

Prandi,

Arcangeli, F. 'Nature morte di G.M.C.", Paragotic,

di S.

.A.

'.Antonio Derizet c

Giovanni

il

concorso per

la

facciata

Laterano', Roma, XXii (1944).

in

XIII (1962), no. 149.

Gnudi, C. 'Mazzoni
Riv. del

Commune,
Art

Lasareff', V., in

.Merriman,
Burl.

M.

in

'Two

late

C,

Paragone, xiv (1963), no. 163.

in

Discusses Dolci's

Works by G. M.

Crespi',

Heinz, G.,

in

Jahrb.

development.

stylistic

d. kunslhisl. Slg. in

Wien, LVi

(i960).

ft'.

logue by the same author

Volpi,

C,

Del Bravo,

monograph of Crespi with

full

DOLCI

America, xvii (1929).

cx(i968), 120

,Wrt^?.,

P.

e le origin! del Crespi', Bolngiui,

XXII (1Q35).

.An excellent study

oeuvre cata-

in the press.

is

concerns Dolci's religious

convictions.

in Piinigone, VIII (1957), no. 91.

On

M.

the beginnings of G.

Voss, H. Giuseppe Maria Crespi.

DOMENICHINO

Crespi.

Rome,

Borea, E. 'Domenichino a Fano', Arte Antica

1921.

derna,

II,

Mo-

no. 8 (1959).

With documents.

CRETI

An

Borea, E. Domenichino. Milan, 1965.

Offers valuable information particularly for

publication;

D.'s early career, but contains weaknesses and

Roll, R. Dorialo Creti. Milan, 1967.

Based on the author's own

important,

richly

earlier papers.

illustrated

autre catalogue and bibliography. Review by

D. C. Miller, Burl. Mag., cxi (1969), 306 f

CROSATO

inaccuracies. R. E. Spear's remarkable review

(Art Bull., XLix (1967), 360) should be read

with the book.
Borea, E., and Cellini, P., in Boll. d'Arte, xlvi (1961).

Fiocco, G. G. B. Crosato. Venice, 1941

2nd

Important

ed. 1944.

frescoes in S. Luigi de'

for the

Francesi.

DAL SOLE

Fagiolo-Dell'Arco,

Bruni, G. Lippi, in Arte Antica

With auvre

Muderna,

II

(1959).

M. Domenichino ovvero Classicismo

del Primo-Seicento.

With

catalogue.

Rome,

1963.

well considered critical apparatus.

Keller, H. 'Das Jiinglingsbild des

DE FERRARI,

G. A.

Falletti, E., in

Commentan,

A. M.,

Darmstadt', Festschrift
vii

(1956) and Goffredo,

Rotondi,

P., in Boll. d'Arte,

XXXVI {1951).

affreschi del

brief, pedestrian

Pope-Hennessy,

DE FERRARI, G.
De Masi, Y. La vita

opere di Gregorio de Ferrari.

London, 1948.
With a stimulating

Rome,

introduction.
il

Domenichino.

1909.

Standard work.

L.

Gavazza, E. Lorenzo de Ferrari

1680-IJ44). Milan,

Spear, R. E. 'The Early Drawings of Domenichino

at

1965.

important publication, because one of the

great

book.

J.

Serra, L. Domenico Zampieri detto

Griseri, A., in Paragone, VI (1955), no. 67.

An

D. a Roma. Rome, 1958.

Castle.

Genoa, 1945.

DE FERRARI,

in

The Drawings of Domenichino in

the Collection of His Majesty the King at Windsor

e le

Domenichino

Middeldorf, Berlin,

1968, 408.

Neppi, A. Gil

ihid.

L'lrich

but not sufficiently

first

is

certainly correct.

Spear, R. E., in Master Drawings, vi (1968), iii

catalogue.

Bull., xlix (1967), 52.

the majority of which

time been

given a monographic treatment with oeuvre

Art

New identification and changes of attribution,

known Genoese

decorative talents has for the

Windsor Castle and some Drawings by the Car-

racci',

significant contribution to

ft".

Domenichino's pre-

paratory drawings (but see k. Sutherland Harris,

DEL GRANDE,

A.

Pollak, O.,

Kunstli. Jahrb. der

kommission.

in
III

Burl. Mag., cxii (1970), 47 f). See also Spear's

K. K. Zentral-

(1909).

paper on Domenichino cartoons, ibid., v (1967), 144,

and C. Johnston, Revue de PArt, no. 8 (1970), 56
ff^.

six

DELLA BELLA,

S.

See

CASTIGLIONE

new drawings.

Wittkower, R., in Burl. Mag., xc (1948).

BIBLOSARTE

6o5

DOTTl

FERRATA

Foratti, A., in L'Arte, xvi (1913).

See also above. Part

Cellini,

of Bibliography (under Bo-

iii

logna).

'Contribute

N'.

.\.

al

periodo napoletano

di

F.rcole Ferrata', Ptiragnne, xii (19(11), no. 137.

Golzio, V. 'Lo "studio" di

irchni,

F-,rcolc F'errata',

'>('935)-

DUQUESNOY,
Faldi,

I.,

in

Important inventory.

F.

Arle Antica

Modenia,

Rediscovery of the original

fano
Fransolet,

11

(1959).

Amor divmo

pro-

M.

FERRETTl,
Maser.E.

relief.

Frutifois

du QuestKiy uulpleiir d' L

rhaiii

VIII. Brussels, 1942.

Huse, N. 'Zur "S. Susanna" des Duquesnoy', in Argo.

Festschrift fiir Kurt Badt, Cologne, 1970, 324

The Disguises ofHarlei/iiin. An Kxhibition

organized and presented by the University of Kansas
-Museum of Art. Lawrence, 195ft.

Maser,

I.

'Duquesnoy's "Nano di Crequi" and

Busts by Francesco Mochi', Art Bull.,

132

F..

Cum Domenun

A.

Ferrelii. Florence, 1968.

.Monograph with aeinre catalogue and biblio-

ft".

Lavin,

G. D.

.V.

Two

graphy.

Lii (1970),

FETTI

fl".

Lavin solved once and

for all the

small bust in the

of Prince Urbano Bar-

berini that

to

XLIII (1961).

.\n important studv.

vision of Mochi's

Maderna,

'.An

by Domenico

Xiii (1962).
\ii, no.

25

See also Burl. .Wag.,

(ill

(1961).

De Logu, G.

Cummentun,
Arte .iiitud

in

.Askew, P. 'The Parable Paintings of D. F.\ .in Bull.,

Bernini

development.

Martinelli, V., in

Noehles, K.,

had been attributed

and suggests a new

(Sestieri),
stylistic

coll.

problem of a

Unknown

Portrait of .Monteverdi

Feti', Burl. .Wag., cix (1967),

'Domenico I'etti a Venezia",

.Michelini,P.

706

ft.

.irte I'enela,

IX (1955).

(1964).

Contains observations on Duquesnoy's stylistic

Wilde,

development.

Schlegel, U., in Pnutheon, .vwii (1969), 390.

Feti.

Rome,

in Jahrh. der kunsth. SIg.,

J.,

1921.

Vienna, N.F. X

{'93^)-

FINELLI

EMPOLi (J. Chimenti da)

De Vries, S., in Rn. d'Arte,
Forlani, A. Mustra di

Oldenbourg, R. Dimteuiai

xv (1933).
disegni di jf. da E. Florence,

Cellini, A. N., in Paragane, xi (i960). no. 131

On

Finelli's portrait busts.

1962.

FOGGINI
F.\CC1NI

Marangoni, M.,

in L'.-lrte, xiii (1910).

Arte Banucii, 1953.

Posner, D., in Piiragoiie,

Reprinted

in

Lankheit, K., in Riv. d'.irte, xxxiv (1959).

On the Uflizi sketchbook of 70 pp. For Lank1

heit's
xi

monographic treatment of Foggini, see

Florentiuischc Bannkplustik.

(i960), no. 131.

Faccini's relation to and break with the Car-

Saxl, F., inJf.W.C.I.,

M.

C.

and Hager, H., 'The Tomb of Christina",

Queen Clirislina aj Sweden.
1

A.,

in .-inalecta Reginensni

FALCONE
Soria,

FONTANA,
Braham,

111

Dmuments and

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fl.

History of the tomb based on drawings and

Art Qiiarterly, xvii (i954)-

S., in

Studies, Stockholm, 1966, 48

documents.

FANZ.^GO
Cunzo, M.

Braham and Hager

.\.

de.

nella Certosa di

'I

documenti sull'opera

di C. F.

San Martino', Mapoli Nnhilissima,

Fogaccia, P. Ctninio fuinzago. Bergamo, 1945.

StrazzuUo, F. 'La vertenza tra Cosimo Fanzago e la

deputazione del tesoro di S. Gennaro', Areh. slor.
le

prov. napoliiane, xxxiv (1955).

Documents.

at

Windsor Castle which was due

to appear

in 1971.

VI (1967), 98ft.

per

are the authors of the

corpus of P'ontana drawings in the R. Library

C^udenhovc-Erthal, E. Carlo Fontana und die .irchitektur des romischen Spdiharock. Vienna, 1930.

FRANCESClllM, M. A.
Comune di

Arfelli, A., in

BIBLOSARTE

Bologna, xxi (1934). "o

"

6o6

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Miller, D.

C,

is in

f.ANDOI.FI
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A monograph
Miller

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in Boll. d.Artc. xli

Mag., xcix (1957),

with catalogue raisonee by D. C.

Rome,

1938.

Zucchini, G., in

the press (1971).

memone

.itli e

dell'

.iccademia Cle-

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On

FRIGIMELICA
Zaccaria, M., in Bollciiino del Miiseo

xxix-xxx (1939

Cnico

di

GAULLi

40).

(Baciccio)

'An Exhibition of Paintings, Bo/.zctti and Drawings

by Giovanni Battista Gaulli', .illen .Memorial .irt

FUGA
Agostco, A., and Pasquini, A.
sult a.

Rome,

//

Palazzo

dclla

Con-

Museum

del Settecenlo.

Rome,

e di altri

Rome,

e la

M.

Fully documented. Compilation of documents

by R. Mormone.

FURINI
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des Allerhoclnteii Kaiser-

hauses, xxvii (1907-8).

compreft.

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(tuvre catalogue.

sity Press, 1964.

Standard work with ceuvre catalogue. Reviews

by F. H. Dowley, .4rt Bull., xlvii (1965), 294,
E. Waterhouse, Burl. Mag., cvii (1965), 530.
Tacchi-Venturi, P. 'La convenzione tra G. B. Gaulli
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StanghelHni, A., in Vita d'Arle,

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Enggass, R. The Painting of Baciccio. Giovan Battista

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With

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1.

Biirkel, L., in Jahrh.

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195

Spencer, E. Water-

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Matthiae, G. Ferdiuaiido Fuga

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Scholarly exhibition catalogue with entirely

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With contributions by

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With

W.

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Bissell, R.

Carboneri, N. Sehastiauo Galeotti. Venice, 1955.

Torri, P. Attivita di Sehastiauo Galeotti in Ligurta.

W.

The

Genoa, 1956.

Man-

ft'.

O. G.
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A new Docu-

.\.

G. See

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also Bissell in

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GALILEI

in Festschrift i'.

graph on A. Galilei.
Toesca, I. 'Alessandro Galilei
Miscellany,

III

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preparing a

mono-

in Inghilterra", Euglisfi

Campos, R. de, in Riv. d' Arte,

With full bibliography.
Crino, A. M., in Burl. Mag.,

BIB! EN A

Bossaglia, R. I fratelli Galliari pittori. Milan, 1962.

528

CII

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cm

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For the stay in the Marches.

Longhi, R., in L'Arte, xix (1916).

GALLIARI
Rexiew A.

xxi (1939).

with B. Nicolson.

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Emiliani,
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CVIII (1966),

Rosci,
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The basic work.

M. Orazio Gentileschi

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(I

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.\.,

in Burl.

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Discusses the stay in Paris.

GALLO,

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Middeldorf

Berlin, 1968, 414.

Kieven, E. (Bonn University)

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197

Bull., L (1968), 153

basic study for

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GALL

Farfa

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mented Chronology', Art

G.

vill (1964),

F.

Carboneri, N. L'archilello Francesco Gallo. Turin,

GESSI,

F.

Roli, R., in Arte Antica

1954-

Exhaustive documentation.

BIBLOSARTE

Moderna.

I,

no.

(1958).

6o7

GHERARDI,

A.

The

Mezzetti, A., in Ball. d'Arte, xxxiii (11)48).

scholarly treatment of these sculpbased on documents in the Barberini

first

tors,

.\rchive.

GHERARDI,

F.

Cerrato, A.

M.

'Giovanni Coli c I'ilippo Gherardi',

Ciimmenlari, X (1959).
With mare catalogue.

GIOVANNI DA SAN GIOVANNI

Giglioli,

O. H. Giovanni da San Giovanni. Florence,

1949.

Review by G. Briganti

GHISLANDl (FRA GALGARIO)

Fra Galgarui

i('>S5-i743) "dlf ('nlk'ziotu private Ber-

in

Paragone,

(1930),

no. 7.

gammche. Bergamo, 1967.

This fine catalogue ot 37 paintings is introduced by a paper by R. Pallucchini.
Locatelli Milesi, A. Fra Galgarm. Bergamo, 1945Longhi, R., Cipriani, R., and Testori, G. / pilturi

Zeri, v., in Paragone,

GRASSI
Gallo, G. Mosira

(1952), no. 31.

di Nicola Grassi. Catalogue.

dine,

1961.

80 works

Lomhardia. Catalogo. Milan, 1953.

Mazzini, F. Ainstra di Fra Galgaria e del Settecetito a

illustrated.

Paragone,

delta reallii in

Bergamo. Catalogo. Milan, 1955.

111

xiii

M.

See also

Gregori, in

(1962), no. 147.

GUALA
Carita, R., in Atti Soc. Piemonteae d'.4rcheologia e Belle

GIAQUINTO
Dania, L.,
Orsi,

Arli. N.s.

in Paragaiie,

M. d\ Corrado

xx (1969), no. 235.

Rome,

Giaqutiitn.

(1949).

Basic paper with

all earlier literature.

Castelnovi, G. V., in Studies in the History of

1958.

CEinre catalogue; bibliography.

Dedicated

to

.irt.

William E. Suida. London, 1959.

Videtta, A. Coiisiderazioni su Cnrrada Giaqmiitu in

rapporto

at disegni del

Museo

di S.

Martina. Naples,

Mainly an attempt

to define the

graphic prin-

and G. A.

F.

M.

'C.

G.

e alcuni aspetti della cultura tigura-

tiva del '700 in Italia', Boll. d'Arle, XLIII (1958).

GIORDANO,
Ferrari,

Their Life and Milieu, with a Catalogue oj their

Drawings. Dissertation, Columbia University,

ciples of Giaquinto's drawings.

Volpi,

GUARDi,

Binion, A. Giovanni Antonio and Francesco Giiardi

1965.

L.

O. 'Una "vita" inedita

di

Luca Giordano',

Napoli Nobilissima. v (1966), 89 ft'., 129 ff.

Publication of the 'Life' written by Francesco
Saverio Baldinucci from the

MS.

Lma

The

work

will

be for

basis for further

W.

much new ground,

long time to

Giordano

come

studies.

the

Review

Vitzthum, Burl. Mag., cxil (1970), 239

the

work

ft.

Lurie, A. T. 'L.G.

The

.\ssisi'.

Art, LV (1968), 39

ft'.

(1933),

monograph

no. 197.45

i\

Bull.

la

ff-

Francesco Guardi

Moderna,

'Le pitture dell'.^ngelo Raftaele e

il

suo tempo nelle raccolte private

hergamasche. Bergamo, 1969.

Cleveland Miis. of

Galleria Lorenzelli F.xhibition. Contribu-

tions

(19A1).

A. and G.
Montagu, J 'Antonio and Giuseppe Giorgetti Sculp:

tors to Cardinal Francesco Barberini", .4rl Bull., Lii

by R. Pallucchini, .VL Valsecchi, B.

Lorenzelli.

Goering,

M.

Haskell, F.,

GIORGETTI,

ft.

(1937), and his

by Fiocco

xiii

Confraternitadel Sacramento', Paragone, xvii ( 1966),

.\pparition of the Virgin to

Saint Francis of

(1970), 278

Fiocco, G.

in Spain.

Griseri, A., in Arte Antica e

il

Dedalo,

Francesco Guardi, L'.ingelo Rajfaele. Turin,

Giordano. 3 vols.

Griseri, A., in Paragone, Vli (1956), no. 81.

On

classic biography. .Mso articles

in Burl. .Mag., XLVi {1925),

in the Bibl.

1958.

tour de force breaking

this

the Rosary' by Francesco and

Giovanni .\ntonio Guardi.

Naples, 1966.

'Madonna of

Critica d'Arte,

and Scavizzi, G.

processional banner of the

Discovery of

Fiocco, G. Francesco Guardi. Florence, 1923.

Naz., Florence.
Ferrari, O.,

New

York, 1971. Also idem. Burl. .Mag.. c.\ (1968), 519.

Fenyo, L, in Burl. Mag., ex (19^18), 65 ft.

Francesco Guardi. \ ienna, 1944-

mJ.W.C.I.,

xxiii (i9f>o).

Hutter, H. Francesco Guardi in der Gemdldegalene

Wien. Vienna,
der Akademie der Btldenden Kiinsle

1967.

Kultzen, R. Francesco Guardi

Munich, 1967.

BIBLOSARTE

in der .-ilten

Pmakothek.

6o8

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gum

Maftei, F. de.

AnlauKi Giiardi pillon-

tii

Jiffure.

Verona, 1031.
Contains challenging hypotheses.

Mahon,

D., in Burl.

Mahon

Mtii;..

Guardi began painting

Morassi, A.,
to

el

which F.

Guarini, G. Architettura

of Art. Dedicated

(1968), 132

ff.

Greca.

Florence,

1967.

Prohlemi guardeschi. Atti del convegno di studi promosso

da Ha mostra dei Guardi. Venice, 1967.

With 20 contributions, some of them provocative, especially D. Mahon's (66-155).

Rasmo, N.,

in

Cultura Atesina,

An

dei

full

bibliography
Tavassi

La

facsimile reprint of the Treatise

was

.4tti

igbS. 2 vols. Turin,

his contributions to

various fields of learning, and his influence.

Miscellanea Bibtiothecae Hertzianae,

in

1961.

W. 'Bemerkungen zu Guarino Guarini und

Juan Caramuel de Lobkowitz', Raggi (Journal of
Art History and Archaeology), ix, 3 (1969), 91 ft.

Oechslin,

Important investigation of Guarini's relationship to Caramuel and his unorthodox ideas.

excellent book.

Zampetti, P. Mostra

work and theory,

tural

IX (1955).

Valuable summary of Guardi problems.

Shaw, J. Byam. The Drawings of Francesco Guardi.
London, 195 1.

An

1968.

with brilliant intro-

critical edition

1970.

Hager, W.,
Guardi.

Turin, 1737.

civile. .Milan,

43 contributions, partly of considerable length,

covering every aspect of Guarini's architec-

Venezia. Venice, 1942.

dei

civile.

del convegno internazionale

Nicolson, B., in Burl. Mag., cvil (1965), 471 f.

Pallucchini, R. / disegm del Guardi al museo Correr di

Disegm

arte del maestro.

published by the Gregg Press in 1964.

Guarino Guarini e t'lnternazionatitd del harocco.

figure paintings by Francesco.

T.

I'

and notes, and appendix by B.

cxxx (1959)-

Pignatti,

Architettura

duction by N. Carboneri,

Moschini, V. Francesco Guardi. London, 1957.

Muraro, M., in Burt. Mag., C (1958) and Emporium,

On

Modern

Emporium, CXXXI (1960).

Reconstruction of Antonio's wuvre on the basis
of new documents. - See also idem in Master
vi

Guarini,

in

Drawings,

simile ed. ot the plates of Guarini's treatise.

William E. Suida. London, 195Q.

On Francesco's beginnings as vedutista.

Morassi, A.,

Guarino Guarini

Interesting observations introducing a fac-

ff.

at

vediite esalle.

in Studies in the Histiiry

Ferrero, D. / 'Dtsegni d'arcliilettura civile

ecclesiastua' di

Turin, 1966.

ex (1968), 69

claims 1750 as the date

De Bernardi

Passanti,

M. Nel mondo

magico

Guarino Guarini.

di

Turin, 1963.

revealing study

b^'

an architect.

Portoghesi, P. Guarino Guarini. Milan, 1956.

A fine, though brief monograph; bibliography.

Guardi. Venice, 1965.

expert catalogue with exhaustive biblio-

graphy. See also idem, Bihliografia delta mostra,

Venice, 1966, listing the publications discussing the Exhibition.

Portoghesi, P. 'Guarini a Vicenza:

Maria

La

chiesa di S.

d'Araceli', Critica d'Arte, nos 20, 21 (1957).

Sandonnini, T.,
patria

in Atti e

memorie R. Dep.

di storia

provincie modenesi e parmensi, ser. 3, v

(1888).

GUARINI

An

Anderegg-Tille,

M. Die Schule Guarinis.

Winterthur,

Guarino Guarini. Turin, 1968.

1962.

A somewhat

pedantic work, based on the

categories developed by A. E.

Published by the Turin 'Istituto

Brinckmann

di

half a century before.

Crepaldi, G.

M. La Real

Chtesa di

bis

Batthasar

M.

Pas-

Most valuable measured

di

De

Grazia, D. Guercino Drawings

'II

conte

I.

Caramuel de

Vigevano, architetto e teorico

dell'architettura", Pattadio, xv (1965), 91

ft'.

discussion of Caramuel's theo-

which influenced Guarini so deeply.

in the

Art

Museum

Princeton University. Princeton, 1969.

Grimaldi, N.

XLVii (1965), 531.

Bernardi Ferrero, D.

ries,

continues the style of

GuERc No

ant review by H. A. Millon, in Art Butt.,

modem

who

santi's investigations.

in

Primarily a social and cultural study. Import-

First

Elementi

drawings.

San Lorenzo

Torino. Turin, 1963.

Lobkowitz, vescovo

di

Arch, e Rilievo dei Monumenti'. By an

architect

Brinckmann, A. E. Von Guarino Giiarmo

Neumann. Berhn, 1932.

De

important study.

Torretta, G. Un'analisi detla cappella di S. Lorenzo di

//

Guercino. Gtan Francesco Barbieri,

iSgi-1666. Bologna

[n.d., 1957?].

Improved 2nd

ed.

1968.

A work

of

little

distinction.

Mahon, D. 'Notes on the young Guercino', fi//r/.

Lxx(i937).

BIBLOSARTE

.Mag.,

6o9

Mahon, D.

Studies

Art and

Seicentn

in

Contains facsimile reproduction

Theory.

London, 1947.

Mahon, D.

// Giiercino.

Catalogo

critico dei dipinti.

Bologna, 1968.

The best critical work on Guercino

reviews D.

Posner, Burl. Mag., C\ (1968), 596 ff'., R.

Longhi, Paragone, xix (1968), no. 225, 63 fl".
Mahon, D. // Guercino. Catalogo critico dei disegni.

Bologna, 1969.
The standard work on G. as draughtsman.

Mahon, D. Omaggio

Mezzetti, A., and

Mostra
Denis

Rovere, L., Viale, V.,

Juvarra. .Milan, 1937.

Standard work;
Telluccini,

Important especially
Cento. D.
for

Mahon

drawings from

al Guercino.

Elogio,

logue also appeared separately as Disegni del

Guercino

della

colleziofie

di Filippo

.Art

Bull.,

disegni di F.

'I

and near St
Viale Ferrero,
teatrale.

in the

palazzo del conclave',

.VI.

Conclave near the Lateran

Peter's.

Filippo Juvarra scenografoearchiletio

monumental work containing

catalogue of

fl.

J.'s

complete

theatre drawings and repro-

ductions of every drawing.

Barberini

Wittkower, R. 'Ln libro

archive.

il

Turin, 1970.

.\

Works by Guercino recorded

per

J.

Publication of J.'s alternative projects of 1725

LI (1969), 297.

Vivian, F., in Burl. .Mag., cxiii (1971), 22

(1968-9).

1968.

home-

.Maffei's

Sacchetti's

catalogue of drawings and models,

for a Palazzo del

town of Cento. Review Posner,

I'lta,

Atti della Accademia delle Sctenze di Torino, CIII

1967.

Reliable account of G.'s frescoes in his

work; contains

contemporary

the

and bibliography.
Viale, V.

Mahon, Bologna,

Roli, R. / fregt centesi del Guercino. Bologna,

Juvarra. Messina, 1966.

Catalogue of Drawings, biographical data,

for G.'s early paintings at

This Cata-

bibliography.

full

indispensable

modem

his collection.

very useful.

Mostra

An

supplied 50 learned entries

L'arte dell'architelto Filippo Juvara in

.\.

Still

Viale, V.

Londra. Cento, 1967.

di

Piemonte. Turin, 1926.

di dipinli restaurati e dei disegni delta collezione

Mahon

ol 'Modello
Torino 1758'.
and Brinckmann, A. E. Filippu

della chiesa di S. Filippo

di schizzi di Filippo

a Chatsworth', Boll. Soc. Picmontese,

Juvarra

111

(1949).

GUIDI, D.
Bershad, D. L. 'A Series of Papal Busts by Domenico
Guidi', Burl. Mag., cxii (1970), 805

Cellini, A. N., in Paragone, xi (i960), no. 121.

porzioni.

Wittkower, R. 'Domenico Guidi and French Classicism', J. ff'.C./.,

II

LAER, P .van
Briganti, G. 'P. van Laer and

ff.

.A.

rome.

L'ntersuchung

iiher

Pieter van Laer, genannt

.\.

'La formazione

artistica

di

Filippo

beginnings

of Juvarra's

study

Careful

documented study with

careful, fully

ceiivre

catalogue.

Juvara', Boll. d'Arte, XLI (1956), XLII (1957).

at

LANFRANCO

Messina.

X Congresso di storia dell'architettura. Rome,

Atti del

den holldndischen Maler

Bamhoccio. Dissertation,

Wiirzburg, 1968.

JUVARRA
Accascina,

M. Cerquozzi', Pro-

(1950).

Briganti, G.; see

Janeck,

(1938-9).

III

In addition to the literature given below, see

also E. Schleier, Burl. .Wag., Civ (1962); idem.

1959-

Art

Papers by T. Bianchi, L. Angelini, V. Viale.

Carboneri, N. 'Filipf)o
"alia gotica" del

J.

Duomo

il

problema

di Milano',

Arte Lomharda,

Hager, H. Filippo Juvarra

bandito da Clemente

Rome,

L (1968);

.\4.

Heimbiirger, Paragone,

Faldi,

I.,

in

Paragone,

vi (1955), no. 65.

Hibbard, H. 'The Date of Lanfranco's Fresco

VII (1962).

Pietro.

Bull.,

no. 243 (1970).

delle facciate

XI

per

il

la

concorso di modelli

nuova

sacrestia di S.

La

1970.

Rediscovery of Juvarra's wooden model as well

models believed burned during

as of other

World War

II.

Villa

Informative

text.

Mandracci, V. Comoli. Le tnvenzwni di F.J. per

chiesa dt S. Filippo Neri in Torino. Turin, 1967.

la

Borghese',

in

.Miscellanea

Bihl.

in

the

Hertzianae,

1961.
Penta, B. L. 'La decorazione della Cappella del

Sacramento a San Paolo',

Boll. d'Arte. xi.viii (1963).

// I'asari, vi

(1933 4).
Posner, D. 'Domenichino and Lanfranco: The Early
Development of Baroque Painting in Rome', in

Pergola, P. della, in

Essays

in

Honor of If

alter Friedlaender, 135

York, 1965.

BIBLOSARTE

ff.

New

6lO

BIBLIOGRAPHY

New

assessment of the importance

of

Lan-

Salerno, L. 'The early

Work

mentskapelle

Paolo fuori

S.

in

Das wiedergefundene Bild des

Antuae Moderna, no. 19(1965),
188

mura

le

The

della Valle.
13)

now

is

Ram

Sricchia, F. 'Lorenzo Lippi nello svolgimento della

S.

in a private collection.

pour

le

I'

decor de

Loge des

la

Benedictions a Saint-Pierre', Revue de

Art, no. 7

in Ball. d'Arte,

Frescoes

in S.

E. Schleier

Semenzato, C. L'architettura

meta

'600',

del

is

di Baldassare

Longhena.

Padua, 1954.
Wittkower, R.

'S. Maria della Salute: Scenographic

and the Venetian Baroque', Journal of
the Society of Architectural Historians, xvi (1957) and

.Architecture

Memorie di storia dell' arte, in (1963).

fully documented monograph on Longhena
by Douglas Lewis is on the point of going to

preparing

XLiv (1959).

Agostino,

prima

LONGHENA

Lanfranco monograph.

a full

della

Proporzioni, IV (1963).

Saggi

ff.

A fundamental study.
Toesca, L,

LanAndrea

fiorentina

pittura

originally

work before

et

monographic treatment.

Full

LIPPI

nf Quails (Exodus, XVI,

Regia au Quirinal

(1970), 40

di

9.

Wachtelfalls', Arte

Schleier, E. 'Les projets de Lanfranc pour

Sala

62ff. ;no. 30(1965),

destroyed),

decoration

(1927), no

Rom:

nos 31-2 (1965), 343 ff.

Detailed investigation of the chapel (most of
franco's most important

la

in

ff.;

its

LHiOZZI

'Lanfranco's Malereien in der Sakra-

Schleier, E.

dt Torino,

Bacci, M., in Proporzioni, IV (1963).

(1958): chronology of Lanfranco.

IX

Duomo

//

of Giovanni Lanfranco',

Burl. Mag., XCiv (1952); idem, Commentart, V (1Q54)

and

Duomo

Rovere, L. 'Le statue di Pietro Legros nel

Torino',

franco's early style.

press.

Rome.

LONGHI,
L.WGETTI

A.

Arslan, W., in Emporium, xcvill (1943).

Fiocco) G. 'G. B. Langetti e

il

naturalismo a Venezia',

Moschini, V.,

in

L'Arte, xxxv (1932).

Dedalu, in (1922).

The

LONGHI,

basic study.

P.

Pignatti, T. Ptetro Longhi. Venice, 1968. English ed.

Pallucchini, R., in Bull. d'Arte, XXVIII (1934).

London-New

York, 1969.
Standard work with over 500 illustrations;

LANZANI
M. G., in L'Arte, LIX
With aeuvre catalogue.

Turchi,

supersedes V. Moschini's monograph of 1956.

Reviews by M. Levey, Art Bull., Lii (1970),
463, J. Cailleux, Burl. Mag., CXi (1969) 567

(i960).

LAZZARINI
Pilo, G. M.

'Lazzarini e Tiepolo', Arte Veneta, xi

LUTI

(1957), and 'Fortuna critica di Gregorio L.', Critica

Dowiey,

d'Arte, V (1958).

Moschini, V.,

F. H., in

Baumgarten,

Pierre Legros artiste romain. Paris,

S.

Bull., XLIV (1962).

Bloch, v., in Burl. Mag., xcvii (1955).

Steinbart,

1933P., in

G.d.B.A..

xii

Legros and a Statue of the Blessed

Der .Maler aus Holstein.

Standard work.

Documents.
March, G. M., in Archivum Historicum Soc.Jesu, in

dell' arte,

li

(1958-9).

Summarizes

Stanislas Kostka', Burl. Mag., xcvii (1955).

MADERNO,

all

recent research.

C.

N. Carlo Maderno. Munich, 1934.

In many ways antiquated.

Caflisch,

(1934)-

Documents,
Preimesberger,

Liss.

Steinbart, K., in Saggi e Aie?norie di storia

tribution.
'P.

K. Johann

Berlin, 1940.

(1934).

Correction of Baumgarten; important con-

Haskell, F.

Art

in L'Arte, XXVI (1923).

LYS (Liss)

LEGROS

D'Espezel,

ff'.

R.

altar

of St Ignatius, Gesu.

Legros'

fur

Antamore', Rom.

his-

'Entwiirfe

Filippo Juvarras Cappella

Pierre

lorische Mttteilungen, x (1966-7),

200

ff.

Donati, U. Carlo .Maderno. Lugano, 1957.

fiir den Vorplatz

Egger, H. Carlo Madernas Projekt

von San Pietro

in

Vaticano. Leipzig, 1928.

BIBLOSARTE

6ii

Hibbard, H. Carlo Madernn.

monograph, based on a broad foundation of

new documents, appeared in 1972.
Panofsky-Soergel, G. 'Zur Geschichte des Palazzo
Mattei

Giove', Rvm.Jahrh.f. Kunslg.,

di

Hamburg

Originally a

Xi

(1967-8),

111-88.

represents the

first

dissertation, the

themes of M.'s paintings.

MANCINI
Berti

An

Toesca, E. 'Francesco Mancini

Colonna', L'Arte, XLVi (1943).

important, fully documented study.

MADERNO,

MANETTI,

St.

Nava.

Cellini, A.

Maderm

(I

maestri della scultura).

book

serious investigation of the

Palazzo

R.

Brandi, C. Rutilw Manetti. Siena, 1931.

Milan, 1966.

Nava. 'Stefano Maderno, Francesco Vanni

Cellini, A.

Guido Reni

a S. Cecilia in

Trastevere', Paragone,

XX (1969), no. 227, 18 ff.

Donati, A. S.M. sciiltnre. Bellinzona, 1945.
Hoist, N.

v., in

Ivanoff,

Bartolommeo Manfredi',

'

in Studies

Anthony

presented to

London, 1967.

Blunt, no. xxi.

in Burl.

MARABITTI

Mag., laix (1936).

Agnello. G., in Archivi, iv (1937) and xxii (1955).

Giudice, R. Francesco Ignazw Marabittt. Palermo,
1937-

N. Francesco Maffei. Padua, 1947.

N. Catalogo della mostra di Francesco Maffei.

Venice, 1956.

With
Marini, R.,

in

MARATTI
G.

Bellori,

full

bibliography.

P.

to clarify influences

and chronology.

Baptismal Chapel

Foratti, A., in Studi dedicati a P. C. Falletti. Bologna,

(19^15)-

1915in L'Arte, Ui. (1961).

Important study.

Saint Peter's",

M.

Diirst,

H. Alessandro Magnasco. Teufen-Basel, 1966.

Attempt at an analysis in depth of the phenomenon Magnasco.

Geiger, B. Alessandro Magnasco. Berlin, 1914.

important contribution, also

problems, supplemented by F. Schaar,

Bull.,

XLViii

ihid.,

Geiger, B. / disegm del Magnasco. Padua, 1945.

E.xhihitwn held

the C niversity

with an Introduction by

of

review
Raftaele, E.

Florence, 1945.

Bildinhalte des A.

M. Hamburg,

vervielfdlt.

del 1st., iv (1955).

Maratti.

im

F.

critical aeuvre catalogue.

e

.Moderna,
la

iv

(1961).

R. .4cadamia de

H. Dowley

in .4rt Bull.,

San

i.ii

in

an informative

(1970), 456

ft

Nntizie della familia del pitlore Carlo

Monza,

Schaar, E. 'C.M.'s

With bibliography.

Fernando : Carlo .Maratti, 4J Dihujos de tema religioso.

Madrid, 1965.
The attribution of 10 of these 43 drawings is

doubted by

Morassi, A. Mostra del Magnasco. Genoa, 1949.

Syamken, G. Die

Rn.

Nieto .\lcaide, V. \\. Dihujos de

.\.

Morassi.

M. Magnasco.

L (1968), 194.
O. 'Fin kunsttheoretisches

Standard work, with

See also Arte Antica

Michigan Museum of Art. Catalogue. 1967.

fine catalogue

in

F.R. di

classic paper.

Mezzetti, A., in

sandro Magnasco. Regesti e hihliografia. Venice, 1945.

An

(1966), 414, and

Kunst, XLII {1919).

delle pitture di Ales-

Speed Art Museum and

to art theoreti-

.\nschauungcn\ .Witteilungen der Ges.

Standard work.

Alessandro Magnasco (i667-i74g).

Bull., XLVii

Thesenblatt Carlo Vlarattas und seine asthetischen

Saggi sul Magnasco. Genoa, 1947.

Geiger, B. Saggto d'un catalogo

.-trt

cal

Federico,

in

Kutschera-Woborski,

Bonzi,

Piacentini).

An
Art

MAGNASCO

at the J. B.

M.

Dowley, F. H., in Art Quarterly. XX (1957).

Drawings at Diisseldorf
Dowley, F. H. 'Carlo Maratti, Carlo Fontana, and the

MAGENTA

Mezzanotte, G.,

Rem, Andrea Sacchi

Rome, 1942.

Vita di Guido

Carlo Maratti (ed.

Arte Veneta, xv (1961).

Attempt

Pospisil,

.4rt

Zeitschr.f. Kunstg., iv (1935).

MAFFEI
Ivanoff,

Rfnatssance and Baroque

Illuminating study of the St Cecilia.

Robertson, J,

MANKRED

Nicolson, B.

1943.

"Tod

Gesii', Festschrift

1968.

1965.

BIBLOSARTE

des heiligcn Franz Xaver"

H. Kauff'mann. 247

ft

Berlin,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

6l2

MARCHIONNI,

The

C.

Pietro nella Basilica Vaticana', Sliidi Romani,

Minuhner Jalirh.

Berliner, R., in

der Inld. KunsI, ix x

Gaus,

and

style

of

Connoisseur, cxLViii (1961).

J., in

With auvre

catalogue.

Riccomini, E. 'Opere veneziane

di

Giuseppe Maria

Mazza', Arte Venela, xxi (1967), 173

ments.

docu-

a richly

life

MAZZA
Fleming,

Drawings by Carlo and Filippo Marchionni.

A very rich study with a wealth of new docu-

providing

at

Masucci.

iv

(1958-9)-

only attempt

mented account of the

Berliner, R. 'Le sedie settecentesche della statua di S.

ft.

Carlo Marchionni. Ein Beilrag zur rotmschen

J.

.MAZZONI

Architekur des Settecento. Cologne, 1967.

documented monograph. Review A.

fully

Blunt, Burl. Mag., CXi {1969), 162

Gnudi, C,
Ivanoff^,

ft.

in Critica d'Arte,

(1935-6).

N., in Saggi e Memorie di storm dell'arte,

II

(1958-9).

MARCHIORI
Arslan,W.,

Basic study with ceuvre catalogue and biblio-

in Bull. i'yir/6',v(

1925-6) and

VI

graphy.

(1926-7).

MAZZUOLI

MARIANI

Pansecchi, F.,

Fiocco, G., in Le Arti, in (1940-1).

The

Commentari, x (1959).

in

Schlegel, U., in Burl. Mag., cix (1967), 388

basic study.

ft".

Cartlas bozzetto in the Victoria and Albert

MARIESCHI

Museum.

Mtchele Marieschi (iyio-i/4j). Bergamo, 1966.

Catalogue

Exhibition

with

Suboff^, v.,

by

preface

The first comprehensive appreciation

M. Precerutti-

Morassi.

of this veduttsta. - See also

Garberi, in Pantheon, xxvi (1968), 37

Preiiss. Kunstslg., ill (1928).

MEDICI,

G. DE'

Daddi Giovannozzi,

V., in Mitteilungen des kunst-

historischen Instituts in Florenz, V (1937).

ft.

MERLO

MARINALI
Barbieri, F. L'attivita dei

Monte

della basilica di

New

Marmali

per

la

decorazione

Gatti Perer,

documents.

First

Veneto di scienze,

dell'Istitutu

scienze morali, lettere ed

sui

lettere

arti,

Marinali',

ed

arti,

L. Carlo Giuseppe Merlo architetto.

comprehensive study of

this architect

based on documents and drawings.

Atti

Classe di

cxxv (1966-7), 195

ff^.

MITELLI,

A.

Feinblatt, E. Agostino Mitelli. Drawings.

in Riv. d'Arte, xvii (1935).

With

M.

Milan, 1966.

Berico. Vicenza, i960.

'Nuovi documenti

Puppi, L.

Tua, C,

mjahrb.

A.

oeuvre catalogue.

tion

from

the Kunstbiblwthek, Berlin.

Loan ExhibiLos Angeles

County Museum of Art, 1965.

MASSARI,

An

important addition
on Mitelli.

G.

Bassi, E., in Boll. Centra Internaz. Studt di Archi-

to the scarce literature

tettura, iv(i962).

Moschini, V.,

Semenzato,

MASSARI,
Volpe,

C,

in

C,

Dedalo,

in

xii

MITELLI,

(1932).

Arte Venetci,

xi (1957).

G.M.

Mitelli.

Bologna, 193 1.

MOCHI

L.
in

G. M.

Buscaroli, R.

Paragone,

VI (1955), no. 71.

See

also

duquesnoy.

Martinelli, V., in Commentari,

MASTELLETTA

With

Marangoni, M.,

in

ceuvre catalogue

Arslan, W., in Boll. d'Arte.

.\.

Arslan, E. 'Disegni del

M.

'.^.M.:

Roman

presented

to

full

iii

(1952).

bibliography.

MOLA

MASUCCI
of the

(1951) and

L'Arte, xv (19 12), reprinted in

Arte barocca, Florence, 1953.

Clark,

11

and

Conclusion and a Reformation

Baroque', Essays

R. Wittkoirer, 259

in the
ft.

History of .4rt

M.

History of Art presented

don, 1967.

London, 1967.

BIBLOSARTE

viii

(1928-9).

a Stoccolma', Essays in the

to

R. Wittkorrer, 197.

Lon-

6i3

W. 'Mola and

Lee, R.

An

sance an J Baroque

London,

no. xxvi.

lasso', in Studies in Renais-

presented

to

Anthony Blunt.

1967.

N.ACCHERINO
Maresca

di Serracapriola, A.

M.-Nacchenno

scultore

fiorenttno. Naples, 1924.

stimulating contribution.

Rudolph,

S., in

Arte lllustrata. nos 15

(1969), 10

1(1

ft.

Critical essay, containing; also a survey of all

NIGF.TTI

Rn. d'.irle. xxvi ( i95o)and xxvii

Berti, L., in

195

3).

previous Mola literature. See also R. Cocke,

in Burl. Mat;.. CXi (1969), 712 ft., tcJem. ihid.,
ex (1968), 558 ft., and A. Czobor, ihid.. 565 ft'.
Sutherland, .\. B., in Burl. .Mag.. CVI (1964).

NOME

(Monsii Desidcrio)

Causa, R.,
Sluys,

Paragone,

in

Didier Barra

F".

(1956), no. 75.

vii

et

Franfois de Nonudits Monsit

Desiderio. Paris, 1961.

MOLIN.^RI

The

Pappalardo,

M,

.\.

Science

in

.///;

dell' Istituto

Veneto dt

statement with

final

full

references and

ceuvre catalogue.

cxii (1953-4).

.,

NOVELLI

MONNOT

Di Stefano, G. Pietro Noielli. Palermo, 1940.

Sobotka, G.

'F.in

zum Grabinal

Elntwurf Marattas

Innocenz Xl\ Jahrh. Preuss. Kunstslg..

XX.XV (1914),

l^\

(J .\

Ivanoft, N., in Paragone. vili (1957), no. 89.

MONTEL.\Tici (Cecco Bravo)

Voss, H., in Belvedere,

viii

(1929).

Masetti, A. R. Cecco Bravo. Venice, 1962.

With auvre catalogue and bibliography.

PALM.\ GIOVANE
Forlani,

MONTI,

F.

Mostra

.\.

Ruggeri, U.

Francesco

Monti

holognese.

Jacopo Palma

di

il

Bergamo,

PANNINI

1968.

A monumental

work with

of

catalogue

almost 500 drawings.

Criticad' Arte. \\\, no. 108 (1969), 35
(1970), 37

ft.;

xvii, no.

109

G. M.

Panmi. Cassa

A monumental

di

Risparmio

di

Piacenza,

work, with wuvre catalogue;

fully illustrated.

PARIGI,

Waterhouse, E. 'A Note on G.M.M.', Studies in

Renaissance and Baroque Art presented to Anthony

A.

and G.

Berti, L., in Palladio,

Linnenkamp,

(1951).

R., in Riv. d'Arte.

.X.XXIII

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London, 1967.

Blunt, 117.

The

F. G. P.

96 1.

Ozzola, L. G. P. Pannini. Turin, 1921.

ff-

MORANDI,

.\risi,
1

Ruggeri, U. 'Francesco Monti bolognese a Brescia",

fullest

statement on

painter, with

this rather

neglected

work catalogue.

PARODI,

F.

Grossi, O., in Dedalo.

Rotondi Briasco,

MORAZZONE
Baroni,

disegnt

dt

Giovane. Florence, 1958.

Not

(Mazzucchelli, P. F.)

C, in L'Arte. XLiv
M. II .Morazzone.

Gregori,

11

(1921).

Genoa, 1962.
monograph.

P. Ftltppo Parodi.

yet the final

(1941).

PASINELLI

Milan, 1962.

Exhibition catalogue, with complete docu-

Baroncini,

C,

in .irie .Intica e

.Moderna,

11

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mentation, veuire catalogue, and bibliography.

PELLEGRINI

Supersedes previous studies.

Nicodemi, G.

II

Uncritical,

see

review N. Pevsner, Rep.

Kunstir., L (1929).

Zuppinger,

Bettagno, A. Dtsegni e dipinti di G. A. Pellegrini.

Alorazzone. Varese, 1927.

E., in

Commentari.

11

(1951).

f.

Venice, 1959.
Exhibition catalogue. Basic study. See also T.
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Burl.

.'^\ag..

CI

(1959), 451; R.

Pallucchini,in/^rfn//i<"n,xvili(i96o), 182,245.

Goering, M.,

MORLAITER

in

.Wimchner Jahrh.,

xii

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Arslan, W., in Riv. di Venezia. xi (1932).

Lorenzetti, G., in Dedalo, xi

(i

930-1).

PETRINI
.Arslan, E.

Giuseppe .Antonio Petrini. Lugano, 1960.

BIBLOSARTE

6l4

BIBLIOGRAPHY

comprehensive study, with veuvre cata-

First

logue and bibliography.

Goering, M.,

Mitleilungen des kiinsthistorischen

in

Instituts in Florenz, IV (1934).

Pallucchini, R. / disegni di G. B. Ptitoni. Padua, 1945.

PIAZZETTA
/ Jisegni di

Gwvan

Battista Piazzetta nclla Bihlinteca Reale di

Torino.

Rome,

albums
Pallucchini,

in

R.

Giambattista Pittoni', Riv.

dt

Venezia,

sull'arte
xii

di

(1933).

PIZZOCARO

1969.

Scholarly

'Pseudo influenza francese

L.

Pittoni,

Maxwell White, D., and Sewter, A. C.

catalogue

of

two

the

Piazzetta

Turin.
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Puppi, L. 'Antonio Pizzocaro architetto vicentino',

in Prospettive

di

Gtamhatltsta

(Milan), no. 23 (1961).

Piazzetta.

PONZIO

Bologna, 1934.
Standard work.

Crema, L. Flaminio Ponzio architetto milanese a Roma

(Atti del IV Congresso Nazionale di storia dell'

Pallucchini, R. Piazzetta. Milan, 1956.

architettura). Milan, 1939.

PICHERALI
Agnello, G., in .Archivio Stor. per
(1936-7), VI (1940), and serie

iii, 11

la

Sicilia,

ii-lll

PORPORA
Causa, R. 'Paolo Porpora e

(1947).

morta

il

Paragone.

a Napoli',

primo tempo

della natura

(1951), no. 15.

Ii

PIOLA
Castelnovi, G. V. / dipinti di S. Giacomo alia Marina.

Genoa, 1953.

POZZO
Carboneri, N. Andrea Pozzo architetto. Trent, 1961.

With

PIRANESI
Cochetti, L. 'L'opera teorica di Piranesi', Cnmmentari,

fur

An exemplary

M.

F. 'Die

den Chor von

Jahrb.

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Hist. Soc.Jesu, XXXIV (1956).

VI (1955)-

Fischer,

full

Kerber, B. 'Bibliographic zu Andrea Pozzo', Archtvum

S.

Umbauplane
Giovanni

d. hild. Kiinst,

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in Laterano',

Miinc finer

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Kerber, B. Andrea Pozzo. Berlin-New York, 1971.

A full study of Pozzo as painter and architect,

xix (1968), 207ff.

incorporating

all

previous research.

Focillon, H. Giovanni Battista Piranesi. Paris, 1928.

Marini, R. Andrea Pozzo

Hind, A. M. Giovanni Battista Piranesi. London, 1922.

Both Hind and Focillon are standard works.

Pergola, P. della. 'Le opere toscane di A. Pozzo', Riv.

Korte,

W.

'G. B. Piranesi als praktischer Architekt',

Zeitschr.f. Kunstg.,

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96 1.
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New

et

architectorum.

Rome,

PRETI,

F.

M.

M.

Favaro-Fabris,

V architetto Francesco Maria Preti.

York,

PRETI, M.

1952-

modem

Best

incisioni

di

study.
di

G.

Causa, R.,
B.

Piranesi.

Catalogue.

Bologna, 1963.
Introduction by S. Bottari. Useful survey.

Thomas, H.
Piranesi.

New

The Drawings of Giovanni Battista

York, 1954.

interesting material, but to be used with

caution.

II

in

xl (1955).
'il

cavalier calabrese'

Milan, 1929.
Mariani, V. Mattia Preti a Malta. Rome, 1929.
Refice, C. 'Gli affreschi di Mattia Preti nella chiesa di
S.

Domenico

Soriano', Boll. d'Arte, XXXIX (1954).

Professional,

but too brief and not always

',

PROCACCINI,

(1938-9)-

PITTONI
I.,

in Boll. d'.4rte,

reliable.

Wittkower, R. 'Piranesi's "Parere su FArchitettura"

J.W.C.I.,

Emporium, cxvi (1952).

Refice Taschetta, C. .Mattia Preti. Brindisi, 1961.

Ziirich, 1958.

Some

in

Fantuzzo, M.,

Frangipane, A. Mattia Preti,

Vogt-Goknil, U. Giovanni Battista Piranesi. Carceri.

Fenyb,

V (1935-6).

Pozzo, A. Perspectiva pictorum

Treviso, 1954.

Mayor, A. H. Giovanni Battista

Mostra

1st.,

Trent, 1959.

1693.

(1933).

Study of Piranesi as architect. Partly superseded by R. Wittkower, in Piranesi, Smith

College Museum of Art, Northampton, Mass.,
1

del R.

ptttore.

Acta Historiae Artium^

(1954).

G. c.

Pevsner, N.,

in Riv. d'.4rte, xi (1929).

Vigezzi, S.

primi anni d'attivita di G. C. Procaccini',

'I

Rtv. d'Arte, xv (1933).

BIBLOSARTE

6i5

Valsecchi, M., in Paragone, XXI (1970), no. 243, 12

in Riv. d' Arte, xv (1933).

ft'.

Wittgens, F.,

Johnston,

RAGGI

XI

Donati, U.,

in L'L'rhc, vi (1941),

Fountains

Nava,

A., in

Sorrentino,

I.'

at

the

in

Basic study.

Kurz, O.

Sassuolo.

in Riv. d'Arte,

Landscape Drawings

'Reni

(1937)-

ii

Arte, XL (1937).

.\.,

C.

Mariette Coll.', Burl. .Mag., cxi (1969), 377 ft.

Kurz, O., in Jahrh. d. kunsthist. Sammlungen, Vienna,

Sculpture by Guido Reni', Burl. Mag.,

'.A

Lxxxi (1942).
Pepper, D. S. 'Guido Reni's early Drawing Style',

xx (1938).

Farnese busts.

Master Drawings, VI (1968), 364

Pepper, D. S. 'Guido Reni's early Style; His Activity
ft".

RAGUZZINI
Rotili, M. Filippo Raguzzini e

in
il

rococo romatio.

Rome,

Bologna

472

1595 1601', Burl.

Mag., cxi (1969),

ff.

1951-

well

documented study with

further litera-

B F. R a

Bedarida, H.,

ture.

Steele. Paris,

RAINALDl,

I'

art itatien

du

XV' au XX'

1949.

Iconographical.

C.

Fasolo, F., in Qjiaderni. no. 2 (1953).

On

in .4 travers

Mayer, A. L. Jusepe de Rihera. Leipzig, 1923.

The

the latest period, with documents.

Fasolo, F. L'opera di Hieronlnw e Carlo Rtiinaldi.

standard biography.

Trapier, E. du Gue. Rihera.

New

York, 1952.

Rome, 1 96 1.
Important; many new documents, but some-

RICCHINO

what chaotic and

Cataneo, E.

difficult to use.

Constructive

review by K. Noehles, Zeitschr.

J.

Kunstg.,

XXV (1962).

Hempel,

E. Carlo Rainaldi.

Munich, 1919.

Matthiae, G., in Arti Figurative,

II

Mezzanotte,

Roman

P.

Ricci, M. and
Czobor, A.,
Derschau,

G.

Zeri, F., in Paragone,

Gabrielli,

REN!

zioni.

G.

Bellori,

P.,

Cuppini, L.,

On

jfcf

in

Reni's

Giondo, G. 'La

late

Reni', Riv. del

G. C. Mostra

Bologna, 1954.
Very important, with

Gnudi, C, and

Cavalli,

di

Guido Rem.

III

bibliography.

G. C. Guido Rem. Florence,

O.

mentari,
Pilo,

full

Richino

J.

s.

Acta Hisloriae Artiiim,

(1954).

Run. Heidelberg,

Sehastiano

1922.

N. 'Aggiunte

Sehastiano Ricci', Propor-

(1950).
in

America.

a loan exhibition illustrating

98

paintings and drawings.

1st., 11

Osti,

Cavalli,

in

Catalogue of

Guido

(1953)-

Gnudi, C, and

'.\pparati architettonici del

University of Kentucky, 1966.

(1952).

ill

manner.

critica su

Ricchino', Boll.

Milkovich, M. Sehastiano and .Marco Ricci

maratti

Commentari,

al

Standard work.

(1952), no. 33.

ill

del Richini. .Milan, 1957.

Archi-

tecture of the Full Baroque', Art Bull., xix (1937).

RECCO,

San Giuseppe

per nozze auguste', Rassegna d'Arte, XV (19 15).

(1946).

Wittkower, R. 'Carlo Rainaldi and the

II

Gengaro, M. L. 'Dal Pellegrini

d'Arte, xxx (1936).

Ricci

'Sehastiano
II

in

Inghilterra',

Com-

(1951).

G. M. Marco

Ricci.

Catalogo delta mostra.

Venice, 1963.

Introduction by R. Pallucchini. Fullest study

Marco Ricci. Discussion of 250 works; rich

of

1955-

Standard work with catalogue raisonne and

bibliography. See D. Mahon, Burl. .Mag.,

Pallucchini, R., in Arte Veneta, vi (1952) (Sebastiano),

xcix(i957), 23H.

Heinz, G., mjahrh.

d. kunsthist.

Sammlungen, Vienna,

XV (1955).
Hibbard, H.

'Guido Reni's Painting of the Immaculate Conception', The .Metropolitan Museum of

Art Bulletin, xxvili (1969), 19

ff".

sensitive contribution to R.'s iconography

and

stylistic

bibliography. Sec also Pilo, in Paragone, Xiv

(1963), no. 165.
IX (1955) (Marco), x (1956) (Sebastiano and Marco).
.Marco Ricci e gli incisori hellunesi del 'joo e '800.

Venice, 1968.

Catalogue of an Exhibition at Belluno based

on material from the .Mpago-Novello collection.

development.

BIBLOSARTE

6l6

ROSA,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ROTARI

S.

Cecil, R.

A. 'Apollo and the Sibyl of

S. R.', Apollo, Lxxxi (ig^s),

De

464

Cumaea by

Barbarani, E. Pietro Rotari. Verona, 1941.

Fully documented.

ff.

Rinaldis, A. Letlere medttc di Salvator Rosa a

RUSCONI

G. B. Ruciardt. Rome, 1939.

Limentani, U. Poesie

e lettere inedile di

Salvator Rosa.

Florence, 1950; idem, Bthlioifrafia della vita e delle

Baumgarten,

With further

npere di S.R. Florence, 1955.

Mahoney, M.
polis Inst,

'S.R.'s Saint

of Arts

Bulletin,

Humphrey', The Minnea3 {1964), 55

1.111,

Samek Ludovici,

published dissertation, Courtauld Institute, Univerof London, 1965.

See the author's paper on Rosa, in Master

Drawings,

ill

(1965), 383

Morgan, Lady Sydney. The

Life

and Times of Salvator

ner Jahrh. d. bild. Kunst, xiv (1963).

Webb, M.

Burl. Mag., xcviii (1956).

J., in

SACCHl
von Andrea

at

St

ff.

also

',

e opere dt

Salvator Rosa. Strasbourg,

Standard work.
e

la

giovinezza

ff.

fully

documented monograph with

only

reuvre

in the press.

Posse, H. Der romische Maler Andrea Sacchi. Ein

Beitrag zur Geschichle der klassizistischen Bewegung

Biographical.

catalogue.

is

Documents.

di

Salerno, L. Salvator Rosa. Milan, 1963.

modern monograph, with auvre

Review F. Haskell, Burl. Mag.,

im Barock. Leipzig, 1925.

Indispensable.
Wibiral, N., in Palladia, v (1955).

On

evil (1965), 263.

W. 'The Genius

Sacchi as architect.

of S.R.', Art Bull.,

SALINI,

XLVii (1965), 471.

An

489

Incisa della Rocchetta, G., in L' Arte, xxvii (1924).

U. La famtglia

Salvator Rosa. Naples, 1929.

Wallace, R.

ibid.,

Harris, A. S. .4ndrea Sacchi.

catalogue

The

Katalog

Diisseldorf Diisseldorf, 1967.

and Emilio Savonanzi

Romano', Burl. Mag., cx (1968),
idem, 'The Date of A.S.'s "Vision of

Romuald"

1908.

Prota-Giurleo,

Handzeuhnungen

Sacchi und Carlo Maratta.

the Collegio

249

Rosa's vamtas con-

to

ceptions.

Ozzola, L. Vita

Baldinucci's 'Life' of

Harris, A. S. 'Andrea Sacchi

classic biography.

Oertel, R. 'Die Verganglichkeit der Kiinste', Miinch-

Valuable contribution

S.

Rusconi.

Kunstmuseum

Rosa. Paris, 1824.

The

literature.

Harris, A. S., and Schaar, E. Die

ff.

(1936).

S., in Archivi, xvii (1950).

Publication of F.

ff".

Mahoney, M. The Drawings of Salvator Rosa. Unsity

La Revue de I'Art, Lxx

Commentan, iv (1953).

S., in

Martinelli, V., in

exploration of Rosa's conception of genius

based on an iconological study of his etching

T.

Salerno, L., in Commentari,

ill

(1952).

Zeri, F., in Paragone, vi (1955), no. 61.

'Genius of Rosa'.
Wallace, R. 'W. 'Salvator Rosa's "Justice appearing
to the Peasants", J. ff.C./.,

Wallace, R.

"L'Umana

W.

xxx (1967), 431.

'Salvator Rosa's

Fragilta"

',

Art

"Democritus" and

Bull.,

SALVl, N.
Schia\'o, A.

La Fontana di Trevi
Rome, 1956.

e le attre opere di

Nicola Salvi.

l (1968), 21.

See also the same author's 'Salvator Rosa's

"Death of Atilius Regulus" ', Burl. Mag., cix

SARACENI
Cavina, A. Ottani. Carlo Saraceni. Milan, 1968.
Brief text; curriculum;

(1967), 395-

documents;

(eitvre

catalogue. Supersedes the author's paper in

ROSSI,

A.

DE

Arte Veneta, xxi (1967), 218

Martinelli, V., in Studt Romant, vii (1959).

f^'.

Review B.

Nicolson, Burl. Mag., cxii (1970), 312

fl".

Porcella, A., in Riv. mensile della cittd di I'enezia, \ii

ROSSI, G.

A.

DE

(1928).

Spagnesi, G. Giovanni Antonio

De

Rossi architetto

romano. Rome, 1964.

Full

SARDl,

monographic treatment; many new docu-

ments.

G.

Mallory, N. A., in Journal Soc. Architect. Historians,

XXVI (1967), 83

ff.

BIBLOSARTE

6i7

First critical

monograph treatment of

eighteenth-century

Roman

this

monograph with (emre

Full

architect.

catalogue. Sec

V. Antonov, Paragone, XIX (1968), no. 22^,

74

ft'.

SCAMOZZI
Vimenzo Saimozzi. Vicenza,

Barbieri, F.

With

TACCA,

1952.

detailed 'regesto' and full bibliography.

Zorzi, G., in Arle Veneia, x (1956).

F.

Fully documented.

Lewy,

E. Pieiro Tucca. Cologne, 1928.

SERODINE

Unsatisfactory; see review by E. S. Bianchi,

W Melancholy .Astronomer by G.S.', Art

P.

and

d'Arte, Xiii (1931).

Documents.

Askew,

P.

Bianchi, E. S. 'Pietro and Fcrdinando Tacca', Riv.

Riv. d'Arte, XI (1929).

Bull., XLVii (1965), 121.

Longhi, R. Giovanni Serodtne. Florence

1954].

documents, bibliography.
Guivnnni Scrodine pit tore di

(Eiivre catalogue,

Schoenenberger,

W.

Ascona. Basel, 1957.

Partly superseded by Longhi's book, not yet

known

to the

author

at

the time of writing.

TANZIO
.\rslan, W.

Bologna, F.,
Calvesi,

35.

M.

in

Paragone, iv (1953), no. 45.

'Considerazioni su Tanzio da Varallo',

in

Turin, 1967.

Previtali,

Caradente, G. Gtacoma Serpoita. Turin, 1967.

G. 'Frammenti del Tanzio

gone, XX (1969), no. 229, 42

Excellent monograph.

Serpotta. Secondo centenario serpot-

a Napoli',

Tanzio Exhibition.
Testori, G. Tanzio da Varallo. Catalogue. Turin,
1959-

The fullest treatment of 'Tanzio

tiano 1732- 1932'.

SLODTZ, M.

Para-

ft.

bibliography of the decade after the

Full

Meli, F. Giacomo Serpotta. Palermo, 1934.

Basic work, published as vol. 11 to 'Gia-

bibliography.

TASSI
Hess,

Golzio, v., in Dedalo, xi (1930-1).

Souchal, F. Les Slodtz, sculpteiirs

rot. Paris,

Tanzio a Milano', Phoebus,

Stiidt di Storici deir Arte in onore di Viltorio Vuile,

SERPOTTA

como

'Affreschi del

11(1948).

decoraleiirs

el

dii

J.

Agostino Tassi, der Lehrer des Claude Lorratn.

Munich, 1935.
Salerno, L.

1967.

Exhaustive treatment of

all

the

members

of

'II

vero Filippo Napoletano e

Tassi', Storia dell'.irte, no. 6 (1970), 139

il

vero

ft'.

Revolutionary hypotheses concerning the two

the family.

artists.

Waddingham, M.

SOLIMENA
Bologna, F. Francesco Solimena. Naples, 1958.
First modern monograph, with auire cata-

R., in Paragnne, xii {1961

),

no. 139;

XIII (1962), no. 147.

TESTA

logue and bibliography.

Harris, A. Sutherland, in Paragone, xvili (1967), no.

STANZIONI

2i3>35ft'-

Schwanenberg, H. Lehen und Werk des Massimo

Stanzioni. Bonn, 1937.

First attempt at chronology

nassus', Burl. Mag., CXil (1970), 15

dissertation, not satisfactory.

opening up of Testa's

First

Lazareff, V., in .Miinchner Jahrh. der hild. Kiinst, VI,

The

icono-

M.

'L'attivita veneziana di

.\., in Commentari, v (1954).

Important paper, with an account of Testa's

Bernardo

art theory.

Strozzi', Arte Veneta, IX (1955).

M.

B. Strozzi. Catalogue. Binghamton,

T AR

N.Y., 1967.

Paintings by Strozzi in America.

Mortari, L. Bernardo Strozzi.

Rome,

basic study.

Marabottini,

best study of the early Strozzi.

Matteucci, A.

Milkovich,

difficult

Lopresti, L., in L'Arte, .vxiv (1921).

(1929).

The

ff.

graphy.

STROZZI
ii

of Testa's work.

Harris, A. S., and Lord, C. 'Pietro Testa and Par-

Fiori, T., in

Commentari,

1966.

BIBLOSARTE

viii (1957)-

6l8

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Malaguzzi

\'aleri,

Cnmache

in

I".,

M. Andrea

Szollbsi,

d' Arlt\

morali

(\i.)i^).

Tuirtnt ptllare Ixilognese.

Buda-

),

.A

cxxvii (1967 8), 211

work and

pest, 1936.

50.

thoughtful study based on diligent archival

a

wide knowledge of

literature.

also idem, in .4ntichitd Viva (1968), 2, 34

TlEPOLO,

G. B.

D'Ancona,

P. Tiepnlo in

and G.

D.

Rizzi,

Milan: The Palazzo

Clerici

Frescoes. Milan, 195A.

Hetzer, T. Die Freshen Tiepolos

in der

IViirzhiirger

logo.

and Morassi,
Udine, 1965.

.\.,

.\.

See
ff.

Disegni del Tiepolo. Cata-

Shaw, J. Byam. The Drawings of Domenico

London, 1962.

Tiepolo.

Restdenz. Frankfurt, ig43-

TORKI.l.

very sensitive study.

Knox, G. Catalogue of the Tiepolo Drawings in

Victoria and Alhert Museum. London, i960.
Fundamental for the study of Tiepolo

the

Bjurstrom,

as

.An

draughtsman.
Knox, G. 'The Orioft .\lbum of Tiepolo Drawings',

TRAVERSI

Burl.

Mag.,

cm

Bollettino

del

Aiusei

Civici

Veneziani,

xi

Album published

in

in Vita Artistica,

11

Quintavalle, A. G., in Paragmie,

(1927).

1946 by G. Loren-

(1956), no. 81.

\ii

TREVISANI
Griseri,

ff.

225 sheets of drawings in the Museo Correr,

supplementary to the publication of the Gatteri

and Baroque Stage

Torelli

Reconstruction of Traversi's career.

Knox, G. 'Giambattista Domenico Tiepolo: "The

Supplementary Drawings of the Quaderno Gat(1966), no. 3,3

Giacomn

important contribution.

Longhi, R.,

(1961).

Catalogue of g6 drawings.

teri" \

P.

Design. Stockholm, 1961.

.\.,

Paragone,

Xiii (1962), no. 153.

VACCARiNi see Sicily under heading cities and

provinces
:

zetti.

Knox, G. 'G. B. Tiepolo and the Ceiling of the

Scalzi',

Burl. Mag., CX (1968), 394.

Knox, G. Tiepolo. .4 Bicentenary E.xhthition 1770igjo. Fogg Art Museum, Harvard Univ., 1970.

vaccaro,

a.

Commodo

Izzo,

M.

.4ndrea Vaccaro pittore. Naples,

1951.

Indispensable for students of Tiepolo as a

VALENTIN

draughtsman.

Ivanoff, N. Valentin de Boulogne. Milan, 1966.

Longhi, R., in La Revue des .4rts, vili (1958).

Knox, G., and Thiem, C.

Tiepolo. Zeichmingen von

With

Giambattista, Domenico und Lorenzo Tiepolo aus der

Graphischen Sammlung der Staatsgalerie Stuttgart

catalogue.

VALERI

Stuttgart, 1970.

An

ceiivre

excellent, fully illustrated catalogue of

210

numbers.
Lorenzetti, G. .Mostra del Tiepolo. Catalogo. Venice,

Valeri,

U. L' ultimo

allievo del Bernini

Rome, 1946.
Monograph on

.4ntonio Valeri.

the uninteresting teacher of

Canevari, Salvi, and Vanvitelli.

1951-

With chronological survey and

full

biblio-

graphy.

Molmenti,

P.

The

G. B. Tiepolo. Milan, 1909.

classic

monograph.

Morassi, A. G. B. Tiepolo. His Life and Work. Lon-

VALLE, F. della
Honour, H., in Connoisseur, cxli\
With ceuvre catalogue.
Moschini, V.,

(1959).

in L'.4rte, xxviii (1925).

don, 1955.

reliable survey; selected bibliography.

Morassi, A.

Complete Catalogue of the Paintings of

G. B. Tiepolo. London, 1962.

despite

Levey,

in Art. Bull.,

Puppi, L.
di villa

'I

Tiepolo

Valmarana

the

harsh

a S. Bertiano', .4tti dell' Istituto

Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed

Briganti,

.-irti

(Classe di scienze

G.

G. Caspar Van Wit tele

settecentesca.

criticism by M.
XLV (1963), 293.
Vicenza e le statue dei "Nanni"

Basic,

VANVITELLI,

Rome,

I'

nrigine della veduta

1966.

broad study of topographical landscape

painting. CEuvre catalogue; richly illustrated.

Supersedes

all

previous writings on G.

Review W. Vitzthum,
317

f-

BIBLOSARTE

Burl.

v.

W.

Mag., Cix (1967),

6i9

VANVITELLl,

Oechshn, W. 'Ln tempio

L.

Atti dello VIII lanvegno nazumale di siorui

Rome,

tettura.

The

1956.

by many authors

M.

La

R.

is-

dedicated to L.

Reggiii di Caserla. Laiori cosio

effetti delld aistruzume.

G. La Reggiu

Rome,

di Caserta.

.\

M. Funzioni simboli
Reggia di Caserta. Rome, 1963.
Fichera, F. Liiigi lurivitelli. Rome, 1937.
Not very

Portoghesi, P. Bernardo

some documents, bib-

satisfactory;

Illumimsmo

203

Viiione.

Rome,

Rococo.

n artliiletto ira

1966.

cation of about 20 papers (presently in the

Clementino Van\

im Ehrenbogen

Rhm. Jahrh.

in .Ancona',

architects, of

For the time being the standard monograph.

.\ new situation will be created by the publi-

documents.
E. 'Der .\rco

die Statue Cornacchinis

di Architettura e Rilie\o

considerable interest.

liography-

XII

Elementi

Monumenti. Scholarly work by

valori delta

Galasso, E. V'atniielli n ficHt'cCH/^. Benevento, 1959.

W.

co-operative enterprise published by the

Istituto di

Fagiolo-dell'Arco,

New

valuable collection of facts.

Panizza, A., a.o. S. Liiigi Gonzaga di Curteranzo.

Turin, 1970.

New

1937.

I'lttone.

Turin, 1920.
.\

based

a social historian

fl.

the .Accademia di S. Luca, 1733.

Olivero, E. Le opere di Bernardo .intnnw

ed., u)6q.

Stoppel,

di .\losc. I disegni ofterti da

Vittone all'Accademia di San I.uca nel 1733',

Identification of Vittone's reception piece for

Milan, iq68.

Important study by
on new documents.
Chierici,

.\.

Bull. d'Arle. Lii (1967), 167

Vanvitelli.

CaroseUi,

B.

\olumc with contribu-

half of the

first

tions

ileH'iiri/ii-

und
Clemens

fiir

Kunstg., Xil (1969),

f.

press) delivered at the \ ittone Congress of

itcllis

1970
aril.

ff.

Vanvitelli, L. Dichiaraztone dei disegni del real palazzo

Turin.

in

Rodolfo, G., in

della soc. piemoniese di arch, e belle

.///;

.\v(i933).

Documents.
Wittkowcr, R. 'Vittone's Drawings

di Caserta. Naples, 1756.

With engravings of Vanvitelli's

ArtsDccoTaiiis'yin

project.

Art presented

in the

Musee des

udiesm Renaissance and Baroijue

Anthony Blunt. London, 1967.

lu

VASANZio (Van Santen)

Hoogewerfl, G.
(1942),

J., in

and Arch,

Roma,

della R.

\i (1928), Palladia, \\

VITTOZZI

Dep. ronuina

Carboneri, N. Ascanio

di

sluria

Maniensmo

patria, LXVl (1943).

.\

VASSALLO

fully

view bv V. .Moccagatta

Grosso, O. 'A.

M.

Vassallo e

la

pittura d'animali nei

primi del '600 a Genova", Dedalo.

iii

(1922

183

n architetto tra

in Palladio. \\

1966),

ft.'

Scotti, A. Ascanio Vitozzi ingegnere diicale a Torino

3).

of

(publication

VER.MEXIO
.^gnello, G.

Vilozzi.

Rome, 1966.
documented critical monograph. Re-

e Baroccn.

the

Istituto

storia

dell'arte

medievale e moderna all'Lniversita di

.Vlilano).

di

Florence, 1970.

/ Vermexui. Florence, 1959.

VITTONE

WITTEL,

G.

ZANCHI,

A.

VAN

SCe

VANVITELLI,

G.

Baracca, C. 'Bernardo Vittone e I'architettura guariniana', Torino, xvi (1938).

Brayda,

C,

in Boll. Soc. Piemontese. n.s.

Carboneri, N.,

Riccoboni,

(1947).

m Quadenii. xiiqf^T,), nos 55-60, 59-74.

Discussion of the Turin

olume of drawings

.\.

'.\ntonio Zanchi e

la

pittura vcneziana

del Seicento', Saggi e .\lemorie di storia delFarte. v

(1966), 55-134.

preparatory to V.'s publication of his Treatise

Full biography, catalogue raisonne. and biblio-

of 1766 and publication of drawings for the

graphy.

church
Carboneri,

at

N.,

Pecetto Torinese.

and

\'iale,

V.

Bernardo

I'lltone

ZLCCARELLI
Bassi Rathgeb,

architetto. \ercelli, 1967.

First-rate exhibition catalogue, published

on

Zuccarelli.

R.

in album

Bergamo, 1948.

the occasion of the restoration of Vittone's S.

Chiara

at Vercelli.

BIBLOSARTE

inedilo

di

Francesco

620

Levey,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M.

J'^59)Rosa, G.

'F. Z.

in

England', Italian Studies, xiv

zumbo
Lightbown, R. W.,

Ziicairelh. Milan, 1952.

Slight text.

563

in Burl. Mas;., cvi

(1064) t
486

fl

ft

pjrst professional attempt at assessing the

in

wax of this remarkable

BIBLOSARTE

artist.

work

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Sculpture; If the

medium

is

not given,

it

is

always

marble

Annibale Carracci;

The

Farncse Gallery, begun

1597. Frescoes. Rome, Palazzo Farnese (G.F.N.)

Painting; If the

medium

is

not given,

it

is

always

oil

Abbreviation G.F.N. Gabinetto Fotografico Nazion;

ale,

18.

Rome

19.

Annibale Carracci; Polyphemus. Farnese Gallery

[cf i8| (G.F.N.)

20. .\nnibale Carracci

The Triumph of Bacchus and

|cf. i8| (Anderson)
The .Assumption of the Virgin,

Ariadne. Farnese Gallery

21.

Annibale Carracci

1601. Rome. S.
Villani
1.

Rome,

2.

Flaminio Ponzio; Rome, S. Maria Maggiore, Cap-

piazza and fa(;ade of St Peter's (Anderson)

1605-11
Maria Maggiore, Cappella Paolina, I'omb

peila Paolina,

Rome,

3.

S.

of Paul V, 1608-15 (Alinari)

Rome,

4.

S.

S.

Gregorio Magno,

1629-33 (Alinari)
Flaminio Ponzio and Giovanni Vasanzio; Rome, S.

6.

Flaminio Ponzio and Giovanni Vasanzio; Rome,

S.

30.

Mondragone. Garden

front.

1573, continued by Vasanzio, 1614 21

Flaminio Ponzio; Rome, Acqua Paola, 1610 14

(Anderson)

c.

1614.

Padrt Mer-

his Father, 1628.

van Laer(?); The Brandy-Vendor,

after

Domenichino; St Cecilia before the Judge, 1613

Fresco. Rome, S. Luigi de' Francesi (Anderson)
Francesco .Albani; Earth, one of a series of The

14.

Four Elements, 1626-8. Turin. Pinacoleca (Alinari)

Guido Reni; The Triumph of Samson, c. 1620.
Bologna. Pinacoleca

Caravaggio; Bacchus,

c.

1595. Florence,

Uffizt

Palazzo
33.

Caravaggio; Supper at Emmaus, c. 1600. London,

National Gallery (Reproduced by courtesy of the

34.

12.

Trustees, the National Gallery, London)

13. Caravaggio; Conversion of St Paul, 1600-1. Rome,

Maria del Populo. Cerast Chapel (Anderson)

Caravaggio; Raising of Lazarus, 1608-9. Messina,

Museo Nazwnale (Alinari)

Caravaggio; Martyrdom of St Matthew,

15.

1599.

Rome, S. Luigt de' Francesi, Conlarelli Chapel

(Anderson)
16. Annibale Carracci; The Virgin with St John and
St Catherine, 1593. Bologna, Pinacoleca (Alinari)

Lodovico Carracci; The Holy Family with St

Francis, 591 Cento, Museo Cnico (A. Villani& Figli)

17.

Guido Reni;

32.

(Alinari)

S.

dei

31.

(Alinari)

14.

preaching,

Casa Generaltzta

Giovanni Serodine; Portrait of

28. Pieter

Begun

11.

della

Fontane (G.F.N.)

Raymond

cedart (.Alinari)
27.

29.

10.

alle Q^uattro

Carlo Saraceni; St

Rome. Chiesa

Giovanni Vasanzio; Rome, Villa Borghese, 1613From a painting (Anderson)

byM.Longhi,

Orazio Borgianni; St Charles Borromeo, 161 1-12.

Rome, S. Carlo

1625. Rome, Galleria Naztonale (G.F.N.)

15.

9. Frascati, Villa

Figli)

Sebastiano, 1609-13 (Alinari)

8.

&

Orazio Gentileschi; The .Annunciation, probably

Lugano. Museo Ctvico (V. Vicari author's copyright)

Sebastiano, 1609-13 (Alinari)

7.

with a .Monkey, before

1623. Turin, Pinacoleca (Anderson)

26.

Rome,

Man

1595. Florence, ijfizi (\. \ illani

(Alinari)
Battista Soria;

<".

23. .Annibale Carracci;

25.

Giovan

(.A.

Annibale Carracci The Flight into Egypt,

1604.
Rome, Galleria Dona-Pamphili (\. Villani & Figli)

of the pendentives and arches with frescoes by the

Cavaliere d'Arpino and Guido Rcni, 1610 12

5.

del Popolo, Cerasi Chapel

Figli)

22.

24.

Maria Maggiore, Cappella Paolina. One

&

Maria

(.A.

Villani

.Aurora,

&

P'igli)

1613-14. Fresco. Rome,

Rospigliosi, Casino dell' Aurora (.Anderson)

Guido Reni; The .Assumption of the Virgin, 1616Genoa. S. Amhrogio (Brogi)

Giovanni Lanfranco; The Gods of Olympus

17.

(re-

painted) and Personifications of Rivers, 1624 5. Detail of ceiling fresco. Rome. Villa Bwr^/uw (.Anderson)
35.

Giovanni Lanfranco; The Virgin

in

Glory, 1625-

7.

Fresco. Rome. S. Andrea della Valle. ^mf (G.F.N.)

36.

Guercino; .Aurora, 162 1-3. Fresco. Rome. Casino

Ludovisi (Anderson)
37. Alessandro Tiarini: St

Dominic

resuscitating a

Child, 1614-15. Bologna. S. Domenico (A. Villani

&

Figli)

Giacomo Cavedoni; The Virgin and Child with

SS. Alo and Petronius, 1614. Bologna, Pinacoleca

38.

(.Alinari)

BIBLOSARTE

622

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

39. Mastellctta

The

Rest on the Flight into Egypt,

c\

40. Carlo

Bonone: The Guardian Angel,

1610.

c.

Bartolommeo Schedoni: Christian Charity,

Naples. Museo Nazwnale (Anderson)

41.

The Ecstasy ot St Francis,

S. Marco, Museum (Alinari)
43. Cerano: The Virgin of the Rosary,
42. Cigoli:

161

1.

Morazzone: Ecce

Homo
Monte

c\

161

5.

Milan.

Chapel, 1609-13. Fres-

Antonio d'Enrico,

il

Mary Magdalen,

c.

c.

1620.

Varallo. Pinacnieca (Ferruccio Lazzeri)

Borromeo

Supper,

1628. Milan. Chiesa delta Passione (Alinari)

The Good Samaritan, c. 1622.

Metropolitan Museum (Metropolitan
Fetti:

New York,
Museum of Art)

Giovanni Lys: The Vision of St Jerome,

c.

1628.

Maderno: Rome,

S. Susanna, 1597- 1603

Barberini, 1628-33. P'^n adapted

drawing by N. Tessin showing the palace beHoward Hibbard)

53. Carlo Maderno and Gianlorenzo Bernini: Rome,
Palazzo Barberini, 1628-33. Centre of fa9ade( Andera

son)

Fabio Mangone: Milan, Collegio Elvetico (Archi-

first courtyard, begun 1608 (Alinari)

Lorenzo Binago: Milan, S. Alessandro, begun
1601. Plan (Adapted from C. Baroni, Uarchitettura
lombarda da Bramante al Richtni. figure 174)
56. Francesco Maria Ricchino: Milan, S. Giuseppe,
begun 1607. Section and plan (E. Cattaneo, // San

vio di Stato),

55.

Giuseppe del Richmi, figures 30, 32)

Francesco Maria Ricchino: Milan, S. Giuseppe,

57.

begun 1 607 (Cassa di Risparmio delle Provincie Lombarde)

58.

Francesco Maria Ricchino: Milan, Collegio Elve-

tico

(Archivio di Stato).

Facade, designed

1627

(Alinari)
59.

68. Francesco

634.

Mochi:

(.Alinari)

Christ, from the Baptism, after

Rome. formerly Ponte Molle (Calderisi author's

;

copyright)

de Oriente (Foto

Mas)

70. Gianlorenzo Bernini:

2.

71.

72.

Bust of Urban

VHL

1640-

Bronze. Detail. Spoleto. Cathedral (G.F.N.)

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Aeneas and Anchises, 1618Rome. Galleria Borghese (Anderson)

Gianlorenzo Bernini: David, 1623. Rome. Galleria

Phaidon Press)
Gianlorenzo Bernini StBibiana,

S. Salvatore,

1605-

23. Plan

Bibiana (Foto Vasari,

Gianlorenzo Bernini: St Longinus,

Rome. St Peter's (Anderson)

Rome, S.
1629-38.

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Bust of Pope Paul V, 1618.

Rome. Galleria Borghese (Schneider-Lengyel, by
permission of the Phaidon Press)
76. Gianlorenzo Bernini: Bust of Cardinal Scipione
Borghese, 1632. Rome. Galleria Borghese (Anderson)
77. Gianlorenzo Bernini: St Mary Magdalen, 1661-3.
Siena. Cathedral. Cappella Chigi (Anderson)
78. Gianlorenzo Bernini: The Angel with the Crown
of Thorns, 1668-71. Rome. S. Andrea delle Fratte
(Anderson)
79. Gianlorenzo Bernini The Angel with the Superscription, 1668-71. Rome. S. Andrea delle Fratte
(Anderson)
80. Gianlorenzo Bernini: The Prophet Habakkuk,
75.

1655-61. Rome. S. Maria del Popolo, Cappella Chigi

(Anderson)
Gianlorenzo Bernini: The Altieri Chapel with the

Blessed Lodovica Albertoni, 1674. Rome, S. Francesco a

Bartolomeo Bianco: Genoa, University, planned

1630. Courtyard (Alinari)
61. Bartolomeo Bianco: Genoa, University, planned
1630. Section and plan (Haupt, Palastarchttektur, 1,

l62.^-6.

Rome)

74.

81.

Giovanni Magenta: Bologna,

60.

67.

73.

fore rebuildingoff. 1670 (Courtesy

54.

The Virgin of the Annunciation,

Museo dell'Opera (Alinari)

Francesco Mochi: Alessandro Farnese, 1620-5.

Borghese (Schneider-Lengyel, by permission of the

(Anderson)

from

Francesco .Mochi

19.

Venice, S. Nicolo da Tolentino (Alinari)

Rome, Palazzo

66.

69. Pietro Tacca: Philip IV, 1634-40. Madrid. Plaza

Gioacchino Assereto: The Supper at Emmaus,

after 1630. Genoa. Private Collection (Brogi)

52.

15.

Camillo Mariani: St Catherine of .'Mexandria,

Rome. S. Bernardo alle Terme (G.F.N.)

65.

at

48.

51. Carlo

John the Baptist, 1614

St

della Valle (.Anderson)

Bronze. Piacenza. Piazza Cavalli

Tanzio: David,

47. Daniele Crespi: St Charles

50.

Pietro Bernini:

64.

1603-8. Onieto.

1616. Milan. Brera (Alinari)

Domenico

1610.

c.

Alhertinum (Staatliche Kunstsammlung,

Rome. S. Andrea

(Alinari)

45. Giulio Cesare Procaccini: St

49.

Dresden,

1600.

coes. V'arallo, Sacro

c.

Cappella dei Principi, begun 1603 (Alinari)

and Cacus,

Dresden)

1596. Florence.

Brera (Alinari)

46.

Giovanni de' Medici, .Alessandro Picroni, .Matteo

63. Stefano .Maderno: Hercules

Ferrara, Pinacnleca (Alinari)

44.

62.

Nigetti, Bernardo Buontalenti: Florence, S. Lorenzo,

1620. Bdhifjia. Ptnatdteca (Alinari)

Ripa (Schneider-Lengyel, by permission of

the Phaidon Press)

82.

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Constantine, seen from the

portico,

1654-68.

Rome,

St

Peter's

(Schneider-

Lengyel, by permission of the Phaidon Press)

plate 14)

BIBLOSARTE

623

83 Gianlorenzo Bernini: Tomb of Urban VIII, 1628

47. Bronze and marble. Rome, St Peter's (Anderson)
84.

Gianlorenzo Bernini: The Cx)rnaro Chapel, 1645Eighteenth-century painting. Schwerin, Museum

52.

(Photo A. Heuschkel)
85.

The

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

Kcstasy of St Teresa,

1645-52. Rome, S. Maria delta Vtttona, Cornaro

Chapel (Anderson)
Gianlorenzo Bernini:

86.

105.

106.

1624-33.

[cf.

Peter's

c.

Tomb

Peter's. Detail (Eric

113.

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Monument of Louis XIV.

Wash drawing, id-j],. Bassano MuseoCivtco(G . .N.)
95. Gianlorenzo Bernini: Rome, S. Bibiana, 1624-6
,

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Castelgandolfo, S. Tomaso

Villanova, 1658-61. Plan (Brauer-Wittkowcr,

Zeichnungen des G. L. Bernini, plate 170a)

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Castelgandolfo, S. Tomaso

1658-61. View into dome (Anderson)

di Villanova,

98.

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Ariccia, S. Maria

dell'

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Ariccia, S. Maria delP

Assunzione, 1662-4. P'^" (From a seventeenth-

99.

Maria
Assunzione, 1662-4. Section. Engraving
loi. Gianlorenzo Bernini: Ariccia, S. Maria
Gianlorenzo Bernini:

.Ariccia,

Assunzione, 1662-4. View into

S.

dome

dell'

Templorum
103.

dell'

Bernini:

Bernini:

Rome,

S.

Andrea

al

.Andrea

al

Quirinale, 1658-70. Section. Engraving

104.

Gianlorenzo

Quirinale,

facade.

Window

next to the arcaded centre,

c.

1630

Roma)
Francesco Borromini: Rome,

(From Magni,

Barocco a

//

S. Carlo alle
Quattro Fontane, 1638 41. Plan (Hempel, Borro-

115.

mini, figure 5)

Francesco Borromini: Rome, S. Carlo alle

Quattro Fontane, 1638 41. Section (From /nsignmm

Romae Templorum
117.

Francesco

prospectus, 1684)

Borromini:

Bernini:

1658-70.

View

Rome,

S.

towards

41.

Rome, S. Carlo
View towards high

alle

altar

(Alinari)

Rome,

Carlo

alle

Quattro Fontane, 1638 41. Dome (.Alinari)

119. Francesco Borromini: Rome, S. Carlo

alle

118.

Francesco Borromini:

S.

Quattro Fontane. Favade, 1665 7 (Alinari)

120. Detail of illustration 119, with .Antonio Raggi's

Borromeo (Alinari)
Rome, S. Ivo della
Sapienza, 1642-50. Plan (From F. Borromini, Opus

121.

Francesco

the

122.

Francesco

Borromini:

725)

Borromini:

Rome,

123.

Francesco

Borromini:

S.

&

Rome,

Ivo

della

Figlio)
S.

Ivo

della

Sapienza, 1642-50. Plan (Qiiadernt (i953). "

(.Anderson)

prospectus, 1684)

Gianlorenzo

of St

Sapienza, 1642 50. Interior (Vasari

Rome, S. .Andrea al
Quirinale, 1658-70. Plan (From Jnstgnium Romae
Gianlorenzo

Piazz.a

begun 1656. Aerial view Alterocca)

Francesco Borromini Rome, Palazzx) Barberini,

architectonicum,

century engraving)

102.

14.

Piazza of St

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Rome, The

Peter's,
1

The

de .Mare)

statue of St Charles

Assunzione, 1662-4. Exterior (G.F.N.)

100.

Alinari)

Quattro Fontane, 1638

(G.F.N.)

97.

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Rome,

116.

94.

di

Rome,

1650.

c.

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Rome, Vatican Palace,

Scala Regia, 1663-6

Navona (AUnari)

Fav'ade.

Vatican Library

112.

Phaidon Press)
91. Gianlorenzo Bernini: Bust of Louis XIV, 1665.
Versailles, Castle (Giraudon)
92. Gianlorenzo Bernini: Triton Fountain, 1642-3.
Travertine. Rome, Piazza Barberini (Chauflburier)
93. Gianlorenzo Bernini: The Four Rivers Fountain,
1648-51. Travertine and marble. Rome, Piazza

Paris)

St Peter's. Facade

with free-standing towers. Drawing,

of Alexander VII,

Gianlorenzo Bernini Bust of Costanza Buonarelli,

1635. Florence, Bargello (Brogi, by permission of

(From a drawing in the Louvre,

Carlo Maderno: Rome, St Peter's.

no. Gianlorenzo Bernini: Rome,

the

96.

Monte-

Palaz-'.o di

.VL Greuter's engraving, 1613

111.

87]

167 1 -8. Rome, St Peter's (Anderson)

90.

Gianlorenzo Bernini: Rome,

1664. Plan
109.

and stucco. Rome, St

Gianlorenzo Bernini:

al

begun 1650 (Anderson)

107. Gianlorenzo Bernini: Rome, Palazzo ChigiOdescalchi, begun 1664. With N. Salvi's additions,
i745(G.F.N.)
108. Gianlorenzo Bernini First project forthe Louvre,

(Leonard von Matt)

88. Gianlorenzo Bernini: Detail from the Cathedra of
St Peter

Andrea

S.

citorio,

87. Gianlorenzo Bernini: Cathedra of St Peter, 1656-

89.

Rome,

Bernini:

Baldacchino,

Bronze. Rome, St Peter's (Brogi)

66. Bronze, marble,

Gianlorenzo

Quirinale, 1658-70 (.Marburg)

altar

(Schneider-Lengyel, by permission of the Phaidon

'.

figure 3)
124.

Francesco

Borromini:

Rome,

S.

Ivo

della

Sapienza, 1642 50. Dome (Vasari & Figlio)

Ivo della
125. Francesco Borromini: Rome, S.
Sapienza, 1642-50. \ iew from the courtyard (Paolo
Portoghesi)
126.

Francesco Borromini: Rome, S. Giovanni

Laterano. Nave, 1646-9 (Alinari)

Press)

BIBLOSARTE

in

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

624

127.

Francesco

Rome,

Borromini:

Agnese

S.

Piazza Navona, begun 1652. Section and plan

in

(From

Insigntum Riimae Templorum prospeclus, 1684)

Rome, S. Agnese in
Navona, begun by Girolamo and Carlo
Rainaldi in 1632. Interior (Anderson)
129. F"rancesco Borromini: Rome, S. Agnese in
Piazza Navona. Faijade, 1653-5, completed 1666 by
other hands (Anderson)
130. Francesco Borromini: Rome, S. Andrea delle
Fratte. Tower and dome, 1653-65 (Alinari)
131. Francesco Borromini: Rome, S. Maria dei Sette
Dolori, begun 1642-3. Interior (Oscar Savio)
128.

Francesco Borromini:

Piazza

132.

Francesco Borromini: Rome, Collegio

ganda Fide. Church, 1662-4 (Vasari

&

F. Borromini,

153. Pietro

Gran Salone (Anderson)

154. Pietro da

di

di

Diana, after 1653. Rome, Palazzo Barherim (formerly) (Anderson)

142. Pietro

L. Ghezzi. London, Sir

the

163

Fresco. Rome, Palazzo Barherim (G.F.N.)

163. Alessandro Algardi:

B.

Romae

liche

Luca,
e

Rome, SS. Martina

e Luca,

S.

Maria

della Pace,

Vatican Library)

147. Pietro da Cortona:

Rome,

S.

Maria

della Pace,

1656-7. Fa9ade (Anderson)

148. Pietro da Cortona:

67.

(Alinari)

of Leo XI, 1634-44.

Peter's (Alinari)

166. Alessandro Algardi:

and

Tomb

Attila,

The Meeting

of Pope Leo

1646-53. Rome, St Peter's (Alinari)

Alessandro Algardi

The Decapitation of St Paul,

1641-7. Bologna, S. Paolo (Alinari)

Francesco Duquesnoy: St Susanna, 1629-33.

Rome, S. Maria dt Loreto (G.F.N.)
169. Francesco Duquesnoy: St Susanna, 1629-33.
Detail. Rome, S. Maria di Loreto (Anderson)

168.

Cortona: Rome,

1656-7. Plan of church and piazza (From a drawing

in the

Bust of Cardinal Laudivio

Rome, Palazzo Dona

165. Alessandro Algardi:

Rome, St

Rome, SS. Martina

1635-50. Facade (Anderson)

146. Pietro da

1628.

Museen)

after 1644.

Rome, SS. Martina

Luca, 1635-50. Dome, interior and exterior (Paolo

Portoghesi and Magni, // Barocco a Roma)
145. Pietro da Cortona:

c.

164. Alessandro Algardi: Bust of Camillo(?)Pamphili,

prospectus, 1684)

Pietro da Cortona:

Mary Magdalen,

Zacchia, i626(.'). Berlin, Staatliche Museen (Staat-

1640 (Alinari)

1635-50. Interior (G.F.N.)

144A and

1.

162. Alessandro Algardi: St

da Cortona: Rome, SS. Martina e Luca,

Templorum

Andrea Sacchi: The Vision of St Romuald, c.

Rome, Vatican Pinacoteca (Anderson)
Andrea Sacchi: La Divina Sapienza, 1629-33.

160.

Stucco. Rome, S. Silvestro al Qitirtnale (Alinari)

1635-50. Section and plan (From Insignium

143. Pietro da Cortona:

Andrea Sacchi: St Gregory and the Miracle of

Corporal, 1625-7. Rome, Vatican Pinacoteca

159.

(vicinity). Villa del

da Cortona: Rome, Palazzo Barberini.

c.

da Cortona: Xenophon's Sacrifice to

Pietro

158.

161.

Entrance to the theatre,

Sala

Cortona The Trinity in Glory (dome),

The Assumption of the Virgin (apse),
1655-60. Frescoes. Rome, S. Maria in Vallicella

Anthony Blunt (Author's photograph)

141. Pietro

Pitti,

(Anderson)

(vicinity). Villa del

thor's photograph)

P.

Cortona: Florence, Palazzo

1647-51, and

Pigneto, before 1630. Destroyed. Engraving (Au-

Drawn by

Sala

Apollo, 1647. Stuccoes (Alinari)

157. Pietro da

ganda Fide. Centre bay, 1662 (Alinari)

Pigneto, plan.

Pitti,

Giove, 1643-5. Stuccoes (Alinari)

156. Pietro da

Rome

Cortona: Florence, Palazzo

Marte, 1646. Ceiling. Fresco (Alinari)

di

(Alinari)

Rome, Collegio di Propaganda Fide. Facade, 1662 (Paolo Portoghesi)

138. Francesco Borromini Rome, Collegio di Propa-

da Cortona:

da Cortona: Glorification of Urban VIII's

Reign, 1633-9. Fresco. Rome. Palazzo Barherim,

137. Francesco Borromini:

140. Pietro

1629.

c.

(Anderson)

1646-9. River front (Anderson)

Rome

Pietro da Cortona:

Women,

Opus archttectonicum, 1725)

Borromini: Rome, Palazzo Falconieri,

139. Pietro da Cortona:

Rome, S. Btbiana (G.F.N.)

The Rape of the Sabine
Rome, Capitoline Museum

to Idols, 1624-6. Fresco.

152.

155. Pietro da Cortona: Florence, Palazzo Pitti, Sala

ganda Fide. Vaulting of the church (Oscar Savio)

134. Francesco Borromini: Rome, Oratory of St
Philip Neri. Facade, 1637-40 (Anderson)
135. Francesco Borromini: Rome, Oratory of St
Philip Neri and Monastery, begun 1637. Plan (From
136. Francesco

151. Pietro da Cortona: St Bibiana refuses to sacrifice

Propa-

di

Via Lata.

in

(G.F.N.)
150. Pietro da Cortona: Rome, S. Carlo a! Corso.
Dome, begun 668 (From Magni, //5arcfo a Roma)
Interior of portico

Propa-

Figlio)

Rome, Collegio

133. Francesco Borromini:

di

da Cortona: Rome, S. Maria

149. Pietro

Rome,

Facade, 1658-62 (Anderson)

S.

Maria

in

Via Lata.

Francesco Duquesnoy: St Andrew, 1629 40.

Rome, St Peter's (Anderson)
171. Francesco Duquesnoy: Tomb of Ferdinand van
170.

den Evnde, 1633-40. Rome, S. Maria delFAntma

(G.F.N.)

BIBLOSARTE

f)-25

172.

Francesco Duquesnoy

Putto from the Andrien

Vryburch Tomb, 1629. Rome, S. Maria

dell' Anima

(G.F.N.)
Putto, after

Bronze. London. Victoria and Albert

1630.

Museum

(Vic-

and Albert Museum)

174. Francesco Duquesnoy: Putto Frieze, 1640-2.
Terracotta model for SS. .Apostoli (Naples). Fortoria

Museum (Berlin Museum)

Rome, S. .Maria in Campitelli.

merly Berlin, Deutsche^

175. Carlo Rainaldi:

Project, 1662. S.

Rome;

GherardoSilvani: Florence,

Maria

Campitelli (Foto Vasari,

in

Cosimo Fanzago: Naples,

detail,

c.

S. Martino. Cloisters,

1630 (Alinari)

Cosimo Fanzago: Naples, S. Maria Egiziaca,

1651-17 17. Section and plan (Pane, Architellura

194.

dell'eta harocca a Napoli, 107, 108)

1629-39. Rome, St

195. .Andrea Bolgi: St Helena,

PeleVs (.\nderson)

The

196. Melchiorre Cafta:

finished 1667. Rome, S.

Ecstasy of St Catherine,

Caterma da Siena a Monte

Magnanapoli (G.F.N.)

author's copyright)

176. Carlo Rainaldi:

Gaetano. Facade,

S.

1645 (Brogi)
193.

Francesco Duquesnoy;

173.

192.

Rome,

S.

Maria

in Campitelli,

197. Melchiorre Caffa: St

Thomas

of Villanova dis-

1663-7. Interior (Marburg)

tributing .\lms, 1661. Terracotta model.

Rome, S. Maria in Campitelli,

1663-7. Plan (From Insignium Romae Templorum

Museum

177. Carlo Rainaldi:

178. Carlo Rainaldi:

Rome,

S.

Maria

in Campitelli,

1663-7. Fa(;ade (Marburg)

Maderno and Carlo

179. Carlo

Andrea della
(Marburg)
180.

Valle.

Rome, Piazza

Rainaldi:

Facade,

del Popolo,

Rome,

1624-9,

S.

1661-5

from G. B. Nolli's plan,

1748
181. Carlo Rainaldi and Gianlorenzo Bernini: Rome,
Piazza del Popolo. S. Maria di Monte Santo and S.

Maria de' MiracoH, 1662-79 (Alinari)

Martino Longhi the Younger: Rome, SS. Vincenzo ed Anastasio, facade, 1646-50 (Anderson)
Rome, Palazzo D' Aste1 83. Giovan Antonio de' Rossi
182.

Bonaparte, 1658-f. 1665 (Alinari)

184. Giovan Battista Bergonzoni: Bologna, S. Maria
della Vita,

begun 1686. Plan (H. Strack, Central-

und Kuppelktrchen der Renaissance m Italien, plate 30)

185. Baldassare Longhena: Venice, S. Maria della
Salute, begun 163 1 Section and plan (C. Santamaria,
L'Architettura,
(1955), and Cicogna-Diedo-Selva,
.

Le fabbriche

186. Baldassare

Salute,

begun

monumenti

cospicui di Venezta,

li)

Longhena: Venice, S. Maria della

1631. View towards the chapels

(Giorgio Cini Foundation)

Longhena: Venice, S. Maria

Salute, begun 1631. View towards the high

187. Baldassare

(Osvaldo

della
altar

Longhena: Venice,

S.

Maria

della

begun 1631 (AHnari)

Longhena: Venice, S. Maria della
Salute, begun 1631. View into the dome (Giorgio
Salute,

189. Baldassare

199. Ercole Ferrata:

on the Pyre, 1660.

Piazza Navona (Alinari)

The

Stoning of S. Emcrcnziana,

begun i66o(finished by Leonardo Retti, 1689 1709).

Rome, S. Agnese in Piazza Navona (.Anderson)
200. Antonio Raggi The Death of St Cecilia, 1660-7.
Detail. Rome, S. Apiese in Piazza Navona (.Alinari)
:

201.

Antonio Raggi:

Rome.

.Allegorical

Figures,

1669-83.

of nave (.Anderson)
202. Domenico Guidi Lamentation over the Body of
Christ, 1667-76. Rome, Cappella Monte dt Pieta
Gesit, clerestory
:

(G.F.N.)
203. Gianlorenzo Bernini: Gabrielc Fonseca,
75.

Rome, S. Lorenzo

204. Giuliano Finelli:

tonio Santorio, after

<.

1668-

Lucina (Leonard von Matt)

Tomb

of Cardinal Giulio An-

1630. Rome, S. Giovanni in

Laterano (.Anderson)

Model for the tombs of Pietro

and Francesco Bolognetti, after 1675. London, VicMuseum (Victoria and .Albert
toria and Albert

205. Francesco .Aprile:

Museum)
206.

Cosimo

Fancelli:

The Angel

with the Sudary,

1668-9. Rome, Ponte S. Angela (R. Moscioni)

207. Giovanni Battista Salvi, il Sassoferrato

Virgin of the Annunciation,

c.

The

1640-50. Detail. Cas-

peria (Rieti), S. Maria Nuova (G.F.N.)

208. Michelangelo Cerquozzi and Viviano Codazzi:
Roman Ruins, c. 1650. Rome. Pallaiictm Collection

himself
209. Pier Francesco Mola: Joseph making
known to his Brethren, 1657. Fresco. Rome, Palazzo

(G.F.N.)
Testa: Allegory of Reason,

del Quirinale, Gallery

210.

Pietro

Longhena: Venice, Palazzo Pesaro,

211. Salvator Rosa:

1640-50.

Moses,

Longhena: Venice, Monastery of S.

Giorgio Maggiore. Staircase, 1643-5 (Giorgio Cini

Institute of Art)

c.

Landscape with the Finding of

1650. Detroit, Institute of Art (Detroit

1652/9- 17 10 (.^hnari)
191. Baldassare

Etching

Cini Foundation)
190. Baldassare

Valletta,

(G.F.N.)

Bohm)

188. Baldassare

198. Ercole Ferrata: St .Agnes

Rome, S. Agnese

prospectus, 1684)

La

(.Author's photograph)

Foundation)

BIBLOSARTE

626

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

212. Salvator Rosa:

c.

The Temptation

of St Anthony,

1645-Q. Florence, Palazzo Pitli (Soprintendenza,

Giovan

Battista Gaulli: Adoration of the

of Jesus, 1674-9. Fresco.

Rome.

Name

of nave

Gesit, ceilini;

(.Alinari)

The

Battle

of Lepanto, 1675-8. Fresco. Rome, Palazzo Colonna,

The Triumph

of Clemency, after

Rnme, Palazzo Allien, Great Hall

Fresco.

(G.F.N.)

and St James, 1687. Rome, S. Maria

(G.F.N.)
22 1 Morazzone St Francis in Ecstasy,
:

dt

Montesanto

c.

1615. Milan,

c.

Museo del Castello Sforzesco (Alinari)

Guido Reni: Girl with a Wreath, c. 1635. Rome,

1630. Milan,

Guido Reni,

Portrait of

c.

Quadratura frescoes, 1641. Florence, Palazzo

Museo deglt Argenti, third room (Alinari)
Francesco Furini:

Faith,

1635.

c.

Palazzo Balbt-Groppallo, Sala

Detail. Genoa,

delle

Death of St

240. Gregorio de Ferrari:

Scolastica,

1700. Genoa, S. Stefano (Soprintendenza,

c.

Genoa)

della Miseri-

cordia (Alinari)

Artemisia Gentileschi: Judith slaying Holo-

fernes,

c.

1620. Florence,

Massimo

243.

LJffizi

(Alinari)

Stanzioni: Virgin with SS.

John the

1640. Naples, S.

c.

Paolo Maggiore (Alinari)

The Immacolata,

c.

1650.

Milan, Brera (Alinari)

245. Mattia Preti:

The Plague

of 1656. Naples, Museo

Nazionale (Alinari)

Ruoppolo:

Still life, late

seven-

teenth century. Naples, Museo di S. Martino (Alinari)

ceri,

Museum

1745. Etching (Metropolitan

Cremona, Palazzo Stanga,

of Art)

early eighteenth cen-

Carlo Fontana: Rome, S. Marcello. Fafade,

1682-3. Detail (Ahnari)

Bardi,

250. Carlo

Fontana Project
:

Piazza of St Peter's,

Colum-

South Carolina, Museum of Art (Kress FoundaGiambattista Langetti: Magdalen under the

Cross, after 1650. Venice, Palazzo Rezzonico, from

Le Terese
230. Francesco Maffei Parable of the Workers
:

Museo

Vaticanum, 420-1)

in the

(Alinari)

Rome, the Spanish Stairredrawn from the original in the

Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres, Paris

252. Francesco de Sanctis:
case,

di Castelvecchio

completion of the

for the

Rome, 1694 (Fontana, Templum

251. Francesco de Sanctis:

case, project, 1723,

1650. Verona,

Monte

Peter, 1608-9. Naples, Chtesa del

tury (Alinari)

tion)

231.

of

239. Gregorio de Ferrari: Decorative Frescoes, 1684.

249.

228. Giulio Carpioni: Bacchanal, before 1650.

c.

The Genius

Castiglione, 1648. Etching

Florence,

Pitti (Alinari)

Vineyard,

Rape of the Sabines, c. 1655.

Duca Nicola de Ferrari (Soprintendenza,

Genoa)

248.

1632. Florence, Palazzo P;V/; (Brogi)

229.

Coll.

238. Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione:

Pitti,

227. Carlo Dolci: Portrait of Fra Ainolfo de

bia,

Genoa,

247. Giovanni Battista Piranesi: Plate from the Car-

1640. Bologna, Pinacoteca (Alinari)

225. Angelo Michele Colonna and Agostino Mitelli:

Palazzo

Collection (Alinari)

246. Giovanni Battista

(Alinari)

Simone Cantarini:

226.

Van Beuningen

(.\linari)

Vterhouten,

1635.

c.

237. Valerio Castello:

244. Bernardo Cavallino:

222. Francesco del Cairo: St Francis in Ecstasy,

Museum

1620-5. Genoa, Accademia Ligustica

c.

Evangelist and Andrea Corsini,

Brera (Alinari)

Capitoline

Feet,

236. Bernardo Strozzi: David,

242.

220. Carlo Maratti: Virgin and Child with St Francis

224.

1650. Brussels,

241. Giovanni Battista Caracciolo: Liberation of St

Gallery (G.F.N,
219. Carlo Maratti:

Still life, after

Beaux Arts (Alinari)

Bernardo Strozzi: St Augustine washing Christ's

Alusee des

Rovine (Soprintendenza, Genoa)

of nave (Alinari)
218. Giovanni Coli and Filippo Gherardi:
ceiling

223.

Palazzo Rezzonico (Foto

Venice,

1698.

c.

234. Evaristo Baschenis:

235.

Pamphih,
1667-73. Fresco. Rome, Palazzo Pamphtli in Piazza
Navona, Library (G.F.N.)
215. Giovan Battista Gaulli: Head of an .Angel, after
1679. Fresco. Detail. Rome, Gesii, apse (G.F.N.)
216. Domenico Maria Canuti and Enrico Haffner:
Apotheosis of St Dominic, 1674-5. Fresco. Rome,
SS. Domenico e Sisto (G.F.N.)
217. Andrea Pozzo: Allegory of the Missionary Work
of the Jesuits, 1691 4. Fresco. Rome, S. Ignazio,
214. Francesco Cozza: Apotheosis of Casa

1673.

piths,

Cacco, Venice)

Florence)
213.

233. .Antonio Molinari: Fight of Centaurs and La-

Rome,

the Spanish Stair-

1723-6 (Alinari)

253. Filippo Raguzzini:

1727-8. Plan (Fokker,

Rome,

Roman

Piazza S.

Ignazio,

Barocjue Art, figure

240)

Sebastiano Mazzoni: Annunciation,

Accademia (Alinari)
232. Cecco Bravo: Apollo and Daphne,
Ravenna, Pinacoteca (Alinari)

c.

1650.

254.

Gabriele

Valvassori:

Rome, Palazzo Doria-

Pamphili, 1730-5. Detail (Alinari)

Venice,

c.

1650.

255. Nicola Salvi:

Rome, Fontana

(Anderson)

BIBLOSARTE

Trevi, 1732-62

627

256. Ferdinando F"uga

Rome, Palazzo della Consulta,

1732-7 (Alinari)
257. Carlo Maderno: Rome, St
13.

1667-90. Section from Architettura

Peter's. Facade, 1605-

Detail (Alinari)

Rome,

258. Alessandro Galilei:

S.

Giovanni

Late-

in

rano. Facade, 1733-6. Detail (Alinari)

259.

Andrea

(.\linari)

260. Giorgio Massari: Venice, Chiesa dei Gesuati,

1726-43 (Osvaldo Bohm)

261. Giorgio Massari

1749
262.

ff.

Venice, Palazzo Grassi-Stucky,

(.\linari)

Giovanni Antonio

Venice,

Scalfarotto:

SS.

Simeone e Giuda, 1718-38 (Osvaldo Bohm)

263. Giovanni Antonio Scalfarotto: Venice, SS.
Simeone e Giuda, 1718-38. Section and plan (Cimmumenti cucogna-Diedo-Selva, Le fabhrtche e
1

sptcut di Venezia, 11, plates 200, 201)

264. Francesco

56 (Osvaldo

Maria

Bohm)
Bologna,

Madonna

dome

(.\linari)

Guarino Guarini: Turin,

281.

S.

Lorenzo, 1668 87.

Plan from Architettura cnile. 1737 (plate 4)

282. Guarino Guarini: Turin, S. Lorenzo, 1668 87.
View of the interior (James .Austin)

Guarino Guarini: Turin, S. Lorenzo, 1668 87.

View into main dome and dome of the presbytery
(from G. \\. Crepaldi. La Real Chiesa di .San Lnrenzii

283.

Torinu. published by Rotocaico Dagnino, Via

in

Giuria 20, Turin)

284. Filippo Juvarra: lurin, Palazzo .Madama, 171821. Fa(;ade (.Anderson)

Filippo

Juvarra:

Stupinigi,

Castle,

1729-33

Filippo Juvarra:

Stupinigi,

Castle,

1729 33.

(.Alinari)

286.

265. Carlo Francesco Dotti

1737

Guarino Guarini: Turin, Cappella SS. Sindone,

280.

285.

Preti: Stra, Villa Pisani, 1735-

civile.

Guarino Guarini: Turin, Cappella SS. Sindone,

1667-90. View into dome (.lames .Austin)

279.

1667-90. Exterior of

Tirali: Venice, S. Nicolo da Tolentino.

Facade, 1706-14

Guarino Guarini: Turin, Cappella SS. Sindone,

278.

di S.

Plan (Tellucini, L'arte dell'architettn F. Juvarra, 91)

Luca, 1723-57. Plan (H. Strack, Central und Kuppel-

287. Filippo Juvarra: Turin, Chiesa del Carmine,

1732-5. View towards altar (\ ittorio

kirchen der Renaissance in Ilalien, plate 30)

266.

Giambattista Piacentini: Bologna, Palazzo di

Giustizia. Staircase hall, 1695 (Alinari)

Cremona, Palazzo

267. Antonio Arrighi;

1732-5.
Dati. Stair-

Cremona, Palazzo

Dati. Plan; staircase by

An-

tonio .Arrighi, 1769 (Haupt, Palast-Architektur, v,

Ferdinando Sanfelice: Naples, Palazzo San-

1728 (Author's photograph)

270. Ferdinando Sanfelice: Naples, palace in Via
felice. Staircase,

Foria.

Double

staircase

and plan (Pane, Archtletlura

dell'eta harncca a Napolt, 187)

begun 1752. Detail of facade

(.\linari)

272. Luigi Vanvitelli: Caserta, former Royal Palace,

begun 1752. Plan (From L.

Real Palazzo

Vanvitelli, Dtchiarazwne

begun 1752. Staircase (Alinari)

Guarino Guarini Messina, Church ot the Somascian Order. Project, i66o( ?). Engraving from Archi-

274.

275. Guarino Guarini: Paris, Sainte-.\nne-la-Royale,

begun 1662. Destroyed. Section from Architettura

Guarino Guarini: Lisbon, S. Maria

Plan from Architettura

della

Divina

civile,

1737

Guarino Guarini: Turin, Cappella SS. Sindone,

1667-90. Plan from Architettura civile, 1737 (plate 2)

de Superga. plate 6)

Turin, after 1729 (From

Civico, Turin)
Filippo Juvarra:

Duomo Nuovo,

drawing

Stupinigi,

in

the .\luseo

Castle,

1729-33.

Great Hall (Ahnari)

293. Bernardo Vittone: Vallinotto near Carignano,
Sanctuary, 1738-9 (Author's photograph)
294. Bernardo Aittone: Vallinotto near Carignano,
1738-9. Section and plan. Engraving

(Author's photograph)

view
295. Bernardo \ittone: Vallinotto, Sanctuary,
into dome (Prof. Paolo Portoghesi)
296. Bernardo Vittone: Bra, S. Chiara, 1742. Eleva-

and plan. Engraving (Author's photo-

graph)
297. Bernardo Vittone: Bra, S. Chiara, 1742.

dome (Prof

View

Paolo Portoghesi)

298. Bernardo Vittone; Turin, S.

Maria

di Piazza,

part of the church and choir, 175 1-4. Section and

plan

(plate 17)

277.

la hasiliqiie

291. F"ilippo Juvarra: Sketch for the

into

1737

Providenza.

de

tion, section,

tettura civile, 1737

276.

Turin, 1717 31

290. Filippo Juvarra: Supcrga near Turin, 1717 31.

Sanctuary,

di Caserta. 1756)

273. Luigi Vanvitelli: Caserta, former Royal Palace,

civile,

Theatrum Suvuni

(Alinari)

292.

271. Luigi Vanvitelli: Caserta, former Royal Palace,

dei dtsegni del

(Brinckmann,

Pe demon til. 194)

Section and plan (M. Paroletti, Descriptum histonqiie

plate 50)

269.

Section

\ iale, 'Turin)

Turin, Chiesa del Carmine,

289. Filippo Juvarra: Supcrga near

case hall, 1769 (Alinari)

268.

288. Filippo Juvarra:

299.

(From B.

A ittone, Istruzumi diverse. 1766)

Bernardo Vittone: Villanova

Croce,

1755.

View

Portoghesi)

BIBLOSARTE

into

di

vaulting

.\londovi, S.

(Prof

Paolo

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

628

Younger: St Louis Gonzaga

300. Pierre Legros the

in

Glory, 1698-9. Rome, S. Ignazio (Alinari)

cascade,

301. Giuseppe Mazzuoli: Angels carrying the Cibo-

rium,
302.

c.

in

Laterano,

c.

1685.

Cappella

Lan-

Matthew, 1713-15. Rome,

S. Giovanni in Laterano (Anderson)

304. Agostino Cornacchini:

The Guardian

Angel,

Monument

Neri Corsini, 1732-5. Rome, S. Giovanni

Cappella Corsini (Anderson)

Temperance,

to Cardinal
in

Laterano,

309. Filippo della Valle:

Peter's

Tomb

c.

1735.

of Innocent XII,

(Anderson)

310. Pietro Bracci and others:

Tomb

of Benedict

son)

Tomb of Giovan Andrea

Giuseppe Muti, 1725. Rome, S. Marcello (Alinari)
3 1 2. Pietro Bracci Tomb of Cardinal Carlo Leopoldo
Calcagnini, 1746. Rome, S. Andrea delle Fratte
(Warburg Institute)
313. Michelangelo Slodtz: St Bruno, 1744. Rome, St
311. Bernardo Cametti:

(Anderson)
Giovanni Battista Foggini: The Mass of S.
Andrea Corsini, 1685-91. Florence, Chiesa del CarPeter's

314.

mine (Brogi)
315. Filippo Parodi

The

Fall of

Simon Magus,

Corrado Giaquinto: Minerva presenting Spain

and Juno. Oil sketch for a ceiling, c. 1751,
in

Palazzo Sanseverino, Rome. London,

the

National Gallery (Reproduced by permission of the

Trustees, the National Gallery,

London)

The Crowning

of St Cecilia,

1725. Fresco. Rome, S. Cecilia (Anderson)

328.

Marco

ralla, S.

329.

Benefial: Transfiguration,

1730. Vet-

c.

Andrea (G.F.N.)

Pompeo

Batoni: Education of Achilles, 1746.

Florence, Uffizi (Alinari)

330.

Luca Giordano: Pluto and Proserpina. Oil study

for the Gallery

331.

of the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, 1682.

Mahon

Alessandro

Mahon)
The Dream

Collection (Denis

Gherardini:

of St

Romuald, 1709. Fresco. Florence, S. Maria degli

Angeli (now Circolo della Meridtana) (Soprintendenza, Florence)

Donato
Comune (A.

332.

333.

Creti: Sigismonda(?),
Villani

&

1740. Bologna,

c.

Figli)

Giuseppe Maria Crespi: The Queen of Bohemia

confessing to St John

Nepomuc,

1743. Turin. Pina-

coteca (Alinari)

334.

Giuseppe Maria Crespi: The Hamlet,

Bologna, Pinacoteca (A. Villani

335.

c.

1705.

& Figli)

Giuseppe Bibiena: Engraving from Architetture

Augsburg, 1740 (Metropolitan Mu-

e Prospettive,
:

Tomb of Bishop Francesco Mor-

1678. Detail. Venice, S. Nicold da Tolentino

Bohm)

seum of Art)
336. Alessandro
30. Cleveland,

Giuseppe Mazza: St Dominic baptizing, c. 1720.

SS. Giovanni e Paolo (Osvaldo Bohm)
317. Josse de Corte: The Queen of Heaven expelling
the Plague, 1670. Venice, S. Maria della Salute, high

316.

Venice,

altar (Anderson)

318. Josse de Corte: Atlas from the Morosini

ment, 1676. Venice, S. Clemente

all' /sola

Monu-

(Osvaldo

Bohm)

Magnasco: The Synagogue, c. 1725Museum of Art (Cleveland Museum

of Art)
337.

Giuseppe Bazzani: The Imbecile

(fragment.'),

1740. Columbia, University of Missouri,

c.

Museum of

Art and Archaeology (National Gallery of Art,

Washington, Samuel H. Kress Collection)
338. Sebastiano Ricci: Hercules and the Centaur,
1 706-7. Fresco. Florence, Palazzo Marucelli (Soprintendenza, Florence)

319. Antonio Corradini: Virginity, 1721. Venice, S.

Carmine (Fiorentini-Venezia)
320. Giovanni Marchiori: David, 1743. Venice, S.
Rocco (Anderson)
321. Francesco Queirolo: Allegory of 'Deception Undel

masked', after 1750. Naples, Cappella Sansevero

Sangn

1704.

Cappella del Tesoro

to Jupiter

London, D.

XIII, 1734. Rome, S. Maria sopra Minerva (Ander-

Maria

326.

327. Sebastiano Conca:

Rome,
S. Giovanni in Laterano, Cappella Corsini (Anderson)
307. Pietro Stefano Monnot: Tomb of Innocent XI,
1697-1704. Rome, St Peter's (Anderson)
308. Camillo Rusconi: Tombof Gregory XIII, 171925. Rome, St Peter's (Anderson)
306. Filippo della Valle:

(Osvaldo

Naples, S. Martino,

325. Francesco Solimena:

now

copyright)
305. Giovanni Battista Maini:

osini,

Fresco.

1690. Fresco. Naples, S. Paolo Alaggiore (Alinari)

1729. Orvieto, Ca//;f^rtf/(Raffaelli-Armoni; author's

Rome, St

Luca Giordano: Triumph of Judith,

324.

(Ahnari)

cellotti (Alinari)

303. Camillo Rusconi: St

1746.

The great

Caserta, Castle.

Vanvitelli:

1776 (Alinari)
323. Giacomo Serpotta: Courage, 1714-17. Palermo,
c.

S. Domenico, Oratorio del Rosario (.Alinari)

1700. Siena, S. Marttnn

Filippo Carcani: Stucco decoration,

Rome, S. Giovanni

Luigi

322.

(Alinari)

de'

339. Giovanni Battista Piazzetta:

The

Virgin appear-

ing to St Philip Neri, 1725-7. Venice, S.

Fava

Maria

della

(Alinari)

340. Federico Bencovich:

17 10. Bergantino, Parish

Madonna

del

Carmine,

c.

Church (Alinari)

341. Antonio Balestra: Nativity, 1704-5. Venice, S.

Zaccarta (Alinari)

BIBLOSARTE

629

342. Giambettino Ggnaroli;

The Death

of Rachel,

1770. Venice, Accademia (.\linari)

Pallucchini)
Plate

from the

Varj

Cappricj, published 1749. Etching

New

c.

1750.

Gian Paolo Pannini: Piazza

Library)

del Quirinale,

c.

1743. Rome, Qutrinal Palace (.Minari)

Shovel,

c.

Marco Ricci Epitaph

:

for .Admiral

1726. Washington, National Gallery (Na-

tional Gallery of .Art,

pen and wash.

York. Pierpont Morgan Library (The Pierpont

345. Giambattista Tiepolo: Sketch,

Morgan

352.

353. Sebastiano and

Giambattista Tiepolo:

The House Concert,

Milan. Brera (Alinari)

343. Giambattista Tiepolo: Sacrifice of Iphigenia,

1757. Fresco. Vicenza, Villa Valmarana (Rodolfo

344.

351. Pietro Longhi:

Washington, Samuel H. Kress

Collection)
354. Canaletto: Piazza S.

Marco,

c.

1760. London,

'Rinaldo and

National Gallery (Reproduced by permission of the

Trustees, the National Gallery, London)

Armida', 1757. Fresco. Vicenza, Villa Valmarana

(Rodolfo Pallucchini)

355. Gianantonio Guardi: Story of Tobit, after 1753.

Detail. Venice, S. Raffaele, parapet of organ (Fioren-

346. Giambattista Tiepolo:

Head from

Gian Domenico Tiepolo: Peasant Women (de1757. Fresco. Vicenza, Villa Valmarana
348. Giuseppe Ghislandi: Portrait of Isabella Camozzi de" Gherardi, c. 1730. Costa di Mezzate,
347.

tail),

tini-Venezia)
356. Francesco Guardi:

View of the Lagoon,

c.

1790.

Milan, Museo Poldo Pezzoli (Alinari)

Bergamo, Conti Camozzi-Vertosa Collection (Alinari)

Giacomo Ceruti: Two Wretches, c. 1730-40.

349.

Brescia, Pinacoteca (Alinari)

The drawings and

Gaspare Traversi A wounded Man, before 1 769.

Venue, Brass Collection (Alinari)

by Sheila Gibson. The

350.

adaptations in the text were

Bell-Scott.

BIBLOSARTE

map was

made

executed by Donald

BIBLOSARTE

INDEX

References to the notes are given to the page on which

number of the

the note occurs, followed by the

Thus

575'" indicates page 575, note 56. Artists'

under the

are always indexed

final

note.

names

element of the

surname thus Filippo della Valle will be found under

Valle. Where names of places or buildings are followed
;

by the name of an artist in brackets, the entry refers

work by that artist in such buildings or places; thus

to

Petraia

Florence, Villa

(Volterrano) refers to the

frescoes by Volterrano at the Villa Petraia.

architects appear in brackets in this

where they were responsible

way

in a

for only

Names

of

few cases,

part of the

building.

Abate, Niccolo
Abbatini,

dell',

Albani, Giovan Girolamo, 313

Alberoni, Giambattista, 565"^

95, 96

Guido Ubaldo,

142, 173, 526^*

Cherubino, 35, 41, 65,

Abbiati, Filippo, 478, 575'% 576*>

Alberti,

Academies
Ambrosiana,

Alberti, Giovanni, 65

116, 134,

550"

Leon

Alberti,

Romano,

Percossi, dei, 325

Alberti,

Royal Academy, London, 501

S. Fernando, Madrid, 465

.'\lbertoni.

Luca,

di, 39,

Battista, 43, 48, 69, 244, 263, 303, 417,

432,513'"

French, Rome, 363, 433, 434, 555"

S.

513'''

21

Blessed Lodovica, 152, 155

.\lbissola. Villa Gavotti, 392

232, 263, 327, 375, 419, 424, 434,

Alboresi,

(ill.

Giacomo, 549"

.\ldobrandini, Ippolito, 39

510", 555'

Aldobrandini, Margherita, 513-^

Sohmena's, 465
Venetian, 482, 503
Achillini, Claudio, 513^^

Aldobrandini, Pietro, 38, 40, 80, 82, 520^

Aldrovandini, .Mauro, 474

Acquisti, Luigi, 541^''

Aldrovandini, Pompeo, 474

Aldrovandini, Tommaso, 474

Adam, Claude, 566'

Adam, Lambert-Sigisbert,

Aleotti,

567'^

Giovan

Battista, 122-3,

Aedicule facade, 120, 282-3, 538"

Alessandri, A. and .M.,

Aertsen, Pieter, 71, 104, 509"

Alessandria

Affettt, 69,

S. Chiara, Vittone's project, 430,

565"

Agucchi, Giovanni Bajtista, 38-9, 63, 80, 81, 266,

165

Albani, .\lessandro, 364, 555-"

Albani, Francesco, 33, 39, 70, 78-9, 79, 80, 82-3

(ill.

30),i05,26i,265,343,47i,509'*^Si3",5i6^^-^*"'
535'-', 573''-

.^lessi,

sbs*'"^"

Galeazzo, 115, 121, 123, 521-^

Alexander the Great, 171

Alexander VII, 138, 140, 141, 143, 144,

509'"'''^

337>
Alba, S. Maria Maddalena, 565"

518",

522*^"

558"

Palazzo Ghilini (now del Governo), 565'^

265

Aglie, S. Marta,

81), 160

(ill.

"''O,

'''4-

89), 170, 172, 189, 195, 206, 212, 246, 279,

363, 442, 443, 526", 527"', 532'", 539-\ 543", 544",

566-

Alexander VIII, 440

BIBLOSARTE

632

INDEX

Alfieri,

Benedetto, 561% S^3*'^ 5^5"

Arigucci, Luigi, 540^'

Algardi, Alessandro, 138, 172, 261, 265, 266, 266-72

(ills.

162-7), 274, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314,

317, 318, 318-19, 322, 433, 436, 439, 440, 448,

,540^544^''^',567^',568^", 569^"
535'
Algarotti, Francesco, 368, 553'", 554",

Aristotle, 69, 140, 535*

Arpino, Cavaliere Cesare

Arsoli, Palazzo

Allegory, 252-3, 445-6

Arti

AUegrini, Francesco, 330, 547^^

AUori, Alessandro, 98

Asam

(ills.

267, 268)

Massimo, decoration, 572'*

578'"''

brothers, 161

Piceno

Aspetti, Tiziano, 450

Asselyn, Jan, 323

Assereto, Gioacchino, 105-6

Antonino, 560'*

Astarita, Giuseppe, 543''

Giacomo, 400, 560''

Aste,

560'"''

Andrea

dell',

(ill.

48), 347, 519^*, 551**

571'

Aste, Francesco d', 540^^

Paolo, 400, 560-'

Asti

Palazzo Alfieri, 565'^

Ambrosini, Floriano, 122

Ameli, Paolo, 377,

4), 33, 34,

S. Angelo Custode, facade, 538'

Ascona (Serodine), 76-7

Galanino
Valmarana, 557"'

Altieri, Giovan Battista, 290

Alzano Maggiore, S. Martino (Fantoni), 448
Amato, Andrea, 560'*

Lorenzo,

(ill.

Chiesa del Carmine, fa9ade, 538'

Altavilla Vicentina, Villa

Amato,
Amato,
Amato,
Amato,

32

Bologna (Carracci), 494, 496,

di

.'\scoli

Allori, Cristofano, 98, 518'''

Aloisi, Baldassare, see

d', 26, 28,

38, 45, 141, 173, 323, 356, 507", 508", 510"

Arrighi, Antonio, 391

574"

Luciano, 560""

All,

Ariosto, 486

S. Catarina, 565'-

556^''

Amico, Giovanni Biagio, 400-1, 560"^

Amidano, Giulio Cesare, 518'^
Amigoni, Jacopo, 462, 465, 479, 483,

Atri, cathedral, baldacchino, 176

572*,

576'^

August the Strong of Saxony, 414

Avanzato, Giovanni de, 560^'
Avanzini, Bartolomeo, 291, 541^*

577"-", 578""

Ammanati, Bartolomeo,

Azzolino, Gian Bernardino, 356

125, 237, 370, 539^^

Amorosi, Antonio, 495

Arco Clementine, 395

Baalbek, temple, 210, 244, 529'^

Babel, Tower of, 529'"

Gesii, 395

Baburen, Dirck van, 78

Ancona

GauUi

lazzaretto, 395

Baciccio, see

lighthouse, 395

Badalocchio, Sisto, 78, 80, 85, 5i3'>'^', 5x6^^

Bagheria, villas, 401, 56o''"'''

quay, 395
statue of Clement XII, 566"

Baglione, Giovanni, 28, 33, 35, 73, 74, 141, sh'

Bagnaia, Villa Lante (.'\rpino, Gentileschi, Tassi),

Andrea, Giovanni, 551"

5o8^\

Andreasi, Ippolito, 107

Andreozzi, Anton Francesco, 542^-, 568^-'

Bagnoli di Sopra, Villa

Baker,

Anesi, Paolo, 501

Thomas,

Widmann

(A. Bonazza), 570^''

150, 568-'

Mario, 550"'

Angeli, Giuseppe, 576""

Balassi,

Angelini, Francesco Maria, 390-1

Balbi, Alessandro, 122

Angeloni, Francesco, 39
Ansaldo, Andrea, 105-6, 551**

Baldi, Lazzaro, 330, 546'

Amelia, Donato

Baldinucci, Filippo, 161, 172, 212, 542*^

dell',

Baldini, Pietro Paolo, 546'

568^'

Balestra, Antonio, 461, 462, 479,

5,^76.77,80^5^810,

Antuhita romane (Piranesi), 364

Aprile, Carlo d', 459
Aprile, Francesco, 315

(ill.

205), 316,

sW'^

545^*

Aranjuez, S. Pascal (Mengs, Tiepolo), 486

Architettura civile (Guarini), 404, 405, 412, 413, 424,

562"

341),

Giacomo, 543'

Bamboccianti, 265, 266, 323, 515'*, 546*

Bambocciate, 77, 515'*
Bandini, Giovanni, 133, 523'^
Bandini, Ottavio, 543''

palace, 178, 527*'

Maria dell'Assunzione,

527""

(ill.

Bandinelli, Baccio, 134

Ariccia

S.

Balsimello,

483-4

(Naldini), 544^"

176, 178-81

(ills.

98-101),

Baratta, Francesco, 160, 305, 306, 308, 536-*, 543'

Baratta, Francesco (brother of Giovanni), 568^^

BIBLOSARTE

633

Baratta, Giovanni, 447, 568''

Baratta,

Bencovich, Federico, 474, 479, 482, 48^

576"", ""

Giovanni Maria, 217, 540-"

Baratta, Pietro, 568^', 570''

Baratti, Antonio, 503

Benedict XIII, 363, 439, 443

Benedict XIV, 364, 439

Barberini, Antonio, 263, 322

Benefial,

Barberini, Francesco, 112, 146, 231, 235, 246

Barberini, Giovan Battista, 568^''

Benso, Giulio, 551"

Barberini, Taddeo, 112

Barbiani, Domenico,

Museum

310)

Marco, 468 (ill. 328), 469, 471, 484,

Bensberg Castle (Pellegrini), 483

Bergondi, .Andrea, 308, 567'"

Bergonzoni, Giovan Battista, 291 2 (ill. 184), 541*"
Berhn (Algardi), 267-8 (ill. 163), 535"; (Baglione),

227)

(ill.

cathedral (Fanzago), 319

Barnabite Congregation, 40

74, 514"; (formerly, Caravaggio), 510"; (formerly,

'Barocchetto', 393
Barocci, Federico, 28, 34, 41, 91, 92, 95, 97, 98, 99,
105, 5i8Baroncelli, Giovanni Francesco, 563"'

Cerano), 99; (formerly, Duquesnoy), 278

537^^ (Gentileschi),

(ill.

108

Bernard, F., 563*Bernardi, Giuseppe, 57o'"'^5'>"

Barozzi, Serafino, 292

Bernardi-Torretti, Giuseppe, 570**

Barra, Didier, 359, 552"^

Barthel, Melchior, 569^"

'Bernardo,

Bartolommeo, Fra, 58

Bernero, Giovanni Battista, 450, 569'"

Baschenis, Evaristo, 350, 351 (ill. 234), 362, 493

Bassano, Jacopo, 95, 348, 505

Bernini, Gianlorcnzo, 24, 34, 38, 63, 112, 113

Bassano

Museo
(di

Monsu\

see Keil

Bernasconi, Giuseppe, 121,

519^'^

Bernini,

sii^*"

Domenico, 172
(ill.

53),

114, 115, 127, 132, 136(111.70), 137, 138, 139, 140, 141,

Civico (Bernini), 170

Sutri)

174),

514''; (LcKatelli), 546'; (Lys),

Baronius, Cardinal, 23, 40, 509^"

Bassano,

(ill.

340), 576"""

etc.), 515''

Barletta, 399

Bassano, Leandro,

572"'-2'>

Bergantino, parish church (Bencovich), 482, 483

(Albani

Bardi, Ainolfo de', 345

540), 485,

Beretta, Carlo, 448

Bergamo, Colleoni Chapel (Tiepolo), 485

558''''

Barbieri, Giuseppe, 548^^

Barcelona,

(ill.

(ill.

(ill.

94)

Romano, Palazzo Odescalchi

(Albani, Domenichino, etc.), 79, 509^"*

Bassetti, xMarcantonio, 5o8-\ 515", 520'"

142, 143-96

(ills.

71

108,

10-13), 197-8, 203, 206,

210, 219, 227, 229, 231, 234, 236, 237, 239, 242, 246,
247, 250, 261, 265, 266, 267-8, 269-70, 271, 272, 274,
275, 278, 279, 280, 284, 285-6 (ill. 181), 289, 29 1 , 303,

308,309,310,311,312,313,

Bassi, Martino, 120, 522''

305, 306, 307,

Bath, Royal Crescent, 399

Batoni, Pompeo, 468 (ill. 329), 470, 484, 493, 572'"
Battaglia, Francesco, 560'""

203), 315, 316, 3i7->8, 323, 325, 334, 337, 354- 355,

363, 369, 370, 375, 376, 419, 422, 427, 431, 433, 434,

435, 436, 439, 440, 442, 443, 444, 446, 447, 448. 456,
458, 487, 52i'\ 524'", 529^
545''540'^ 543"'", 544'"'

532-'",

Battaglioli, Francesco, 579'-'

564'", 567-=-, 568^' -''"^\ 569^"-

5"

Battistello, see Caracciolo

Battaglio, 541^*

Bayreuth, opera house (Bibiena), 574^^

Bazzani, Giuseppe, 478-9

(ill.

337),

576-^'''*''

Beaumont, Claudio Francesco, 476-8, 575^^

524-, 543^
Berrettini, Francesco, 531"

Bellange, Jacques, 348

Berrettini, Lorenzo, 550''*

Bellarmine, Cardinal, 313-14

Berrettini, Luca, 532'', 533^"'

Giovanni, 266, 274, 314, 327, 337, 469, 547-S

Berrettini, Pietro, see

*"

Cortona

Berrettoni, \iccol6, 467, 548^'

572-"

535-', 538'*,

548^ S62'^

563''.

Bernini, Luigi, 305, 528'"', 543Bernini, Pietro, 30, 128-9 ('" 64). 134, '43- 523*",

Bella, Stefano della, 346, 550"'

Bellori,

314(111.

Bellotto, Bernardo, 479, 503, 579'-*"

Bertola, Antonio, 562", 563-"*

Bellotto, Pietro, 495

Bertoldo, 133

Bellucci, Antonio, 349, 483

Beltrami, .\gostino, 552'"'

Bertotti-Scamozzi, Ottavio, 372, 389

Belvedere, Andrea, 578""

Bianchi, Francesco, 518'"

Belvoir Castle (Dou), 537^-

Bianchi, Marco, 391

Benaglia, Paolo, 567'^

Bianchi, Pietro, 366, 553'\

Bettino, .Antonio,

562"

BIBLOSARTE

567"

634

INDEX

Bianco, Bartolomeo, 123 5 ('"s- fto, 61), 2yo, 522^""

Bibicna, Antonio, 39 1, 476, 574''
Bibiena, Ferdinando, 364

6,

474-6, $$4^, 556*", 574""

Bibiena, Giuseppe, 475 (ill. 335), 476, 565"\ 574^'

Bibiena lamily, 474-6, 498, 574^'
Biffi, Andrea, 99, 134

Giovanni, 98,

Bianconcini (Mazza), 569^"

Cloetta-F*"antuzzi (Canali),

292

16-18

120,

122,

(Carlevarijs),

501;

(ill.

55),

521^2.23

(Gentileschi), 74, 514"

Battista, 524"'

Bizzacheri, Carlo Francesco, 376, 540^', 555"^

Blanchard, Jacques, 535'"

Casa del

Giustizia, di (Piacentini), 390

266)

see

(ill.

558''"

Magnani-Salem (Carracci), 64, 512^

Malvezzi-De Medici (Torreggiani), 391
Pepoli (Canuti), 548*-^; (Creti), 471
Sampieri-Talon (Carracci), 512^
Scagliarini, 558'"

Other secular buildings,

Comune

Bloch, Dr, Collection (Gentileschi), 514'

Bloemen, Jan Frans van,

561"

galleries, collections

472 (ill. 332), 574^^

Esposti, Ospedale degli (Spada), 94

Orizzonte

(Creti),

Blois, staircase,

Galliera, Porta, 291

Blondel, F., 372

Bocchi, Faustino, 574^*

Liceo Musicale (Torreggiani), 391

Linificio Nazionale, Casa del, 558''*

Boetto, Giovenale, 561', 578''

Pinacoteca

Boffrand, Germain, 563''^

Bolgi, Andrea, 305, 305-6

(ill.

391

Montanari, 390 391, 553^; (Angelini), 391

551**'*

Domenico and Giovan

(Borelli, Torreggiani),

Ghisilieri, see Linificio Nazionale,

Hercolani, staircase,

Biscaino, Bartolomeo, 353,

Bisnati, Alessandro, 116

Fava (Carracci), 64, 88, 512*

518'''

115,

Birmingham, City Art Galler>

Bissoni,

Palazzi

Davia-Bargellini, 291

Bigari, Vittorio Maria, 474, 553", 574^^

Biggi, Francesco, 569^Biliverti,

59), 281

(ill.

Credito Italiano, 558'"

Binago

Binago, Lorenzo,

Pietro, S., 122, 522^"

Salvatore, S., 122

Stefano, S. (Tiarini), 92

Bibiena, Francesco, 474-6, 574^'

Biffi, see also

Bologna conlinued

195), 318,

523",

SAl,'^'''"'

(."Vlbani), 82 (Bigari), 474 (Cantarini),

342-3 (ill. 224); (Carracci), 58, 59 (ill. 16), 60, 62,
68, 5120", 5i6^'; (Cavedoni), 93 (ill. 38);
;

BoUi, Bartolomeo, 391, 554^

Bologna, Giovanni, 130, 132-3, 134, 154, 319, 446,
542"'

(G. M. Crespi), 473 (ill. 334); (Faccini), 95;

(Guercino), 88; (Mastelletta), 94 (ill. 39); (Reni),

Bologna

(Tiarini),

Churches

Bartolommeo,

S. (Albani),

83

Celestini (Burrini, Haffer),

83-4

31),

(ill.

85,

150,

474
Colombano, Oratorio S., decoration, 82, 518"
Corpus Domini (Franceschini), 471, 474; (Haff-

Bolognetti, Giorgio, 315

Bombelli, Sebastiano, 493

ner), 474
Domenico,

Bonaventura,

'";

Bonarelli, Matteo, 543'

S.,

518*; (Carracci), 62; (Mastelletta),

95; (Spada), 94-5; (Tiarini), 92, 93

(ill.

37)

Giacomo Maggiore,

S. (Cesi), 518"
Girolamo ed Eustachio, SS., 537'

Bonazza, Giovanni, 57o'5-56

Lucia, S., 281, 282-3, 522*', 537'

di S.

St, 55

Bonavia (Bonaria), Carlo, 498, 579"'

Bonazza, Antonio, 570'''
Bonazza, Francesco, 570'"

Gregorio, S. (Carracci), 60

Madonna

517'"

92
Teatro Comunale, 391, 574'"
University (Tibaldi), 64
Zucchini, Casa (Angelini), 391

Luca, 370, 389-90

(ill.

265)

Bonechi, Matteo, 469, 573^''-*'

Bonifiazio, Francesco, 546'

Maria della Purificazione, S. (Passarotti), 512''

Maria della Vita, S., 291-2 (ill. 184), SA^^""'*^
Michele in Bosco, S. (Canuti), 548^-

Bonito, Giuseppe, 465, 495

Bonone, Carlo, 92, 95-6 (ill. 40)
Bonvicini, Pietro, 431, 565'"

Niccolo, S. (Carracci), 60

Bonvicino, .Ambrogio, 28, 30, 127, 508''

Bonzi, Pietro Paolo, 509", 533''-

Paolo, S., 122; (Algardi), 271-2

(ill.

167), 308,

536^'; (Carracci), 512"; (Cavedoni), 93; (Rolli),

549'"

Bordeaux, St Bruno (Bernini), 146

Borella, Carlo, 387, 557"'

Giacomo,

Petronio, S. (G. Rainaldi), 537'

Borella,

Philip Neri, Oratory of St, 390

Borelli, G., 391

557'''

BIBLOSARTE

(Spada), 94;

635

Borghese, Scipione, 33-7, 38, 79, 82, 84, 143, 144 5,

146, I4g (ill. 76), 167, i6y, 267-8, 517^'', 525", 535-'
Borghini, Raftaello, 21

Broeck, Hendrick van den,

Bronzino, .Angelo, 46, 73
Bruegcl, Jan, 43, 70, 509"'-

Borgianni, Orazio, 41,7^, 74

514'"

Brunelleschi, I'ilippo,

(ill.

25), 77, 107, log,

Brunelli, .Angiolo, 57

Borgo d'.Mc, Chiesa Parrocchialc, 565"'

Borgognonc, .Michel, sec Maglia, Michele
Borgomancro, S. Bartolomeo (.Morazzone), 5 19-'
Borremans, W illem, 571
Borromeo, St (iharles, 21, 25, 40, 41, 56, 75 (ill.
98, 103

(ill.

Borromeo,

47),

15,

205

(ill.

(ills.

17, 210, 295,

369

1'''

Brusasorci, Felice,

515"

Brussels

25),

120)

I'ederico, 42-3,98, 99, 116, 118, 121, 521-"

Fiamingo, .\rrigo

Brunclli, Francesco, 507''

Borromini, IVancesco, 112, 114, 115, 122, 138, 197-

229

see

14-38), 231, 235, 239, 242, 279, 282. 283,

286, 289, 291, 303, 328, 366, 369, 370, 372, 377, 392,

.Musce des Bcaux-.^rts (Baschenis), 351

(Guercino), 88

Musees Royaux
537"

d'.Art ci d'Histoire

(Duquesnoy

Private Collection

Brustolon, .-Kndrea, 453,

Bufalo, Paolo, 218

(ill.

(Duquesnoy),

version), 537**

570''"

395, 403, 404, 405, 408, 409, 412, 415, 422, 430, 431,
5'J
433, 521", 528>^' , 532^% 533'', 540", 562'*, 564^'-

Buonamici, G.

565"'

Buonarroti, .Michelangelo, the younger, 535--;

Borzone, Luciano, 105-6

Burlington, Lord, 558"-, 563^',

Giovan

Both, .\ndries,

Busca, .\ntonio, 550"-

t^zt,

Bushnell, John,

Giovanni Maria, 355

Bouchardon, Edme, 246, 567"'

Boucher, Fran(;ois, 465

Bussola, Dionigi, 134, 523"'

(ill.

576*''

Buzio, Ippolito, 30, 41, 127

296), 429

(ill.

Bracci, Pietro, 366, 436, 439-40, 443

297), 565''^
(ill.

310), 444 5

Buzzi, Elia Vincenzo, 448, 569"

Buzzi, Leiio, 116

544'\5^7""''
Cabianca, Francesco, 452, 570"' "
Caccia, Guglielmo, see .Moncalvo
Caccini, Giovanni, 132, 542''

Bracciano, Castle (Bernini), 150

Duke

of,

150

Bracciolini, Francesco, 252,

535"

Caffa, .Melchiorre, 307 8

Braconio, N'iccolo, 520^

Bramante,

Bravo, Cecco, 344, 348, 349

(ill.

(ills.

Cagnola, Luigi, 122

Cairo, Francesco del, 339, 340 (ill. 222), 350,
Calandrucci, Giacinto, 328, 467, 572"
Calcagnini, Carlo Leopoldo, 444 5 (ill 3'^)

232), 550"'

N'uovo, 117, 121-2, 522^'

Palazzo Gainbara (Seminario Vescovile), 558'^

Calderari, Ottone, 389, 558''

Palazzo Soncini, 558'^

Caligari, the,

Duomo

(ill.

196, 197), 316, 319,

Cagnacci, Guido, 342-3, 549"

Brescia

Pinacoteca (Ceruti), 494

**

448.543""

17, 120, 225, 292, 297, 541*'

Brambilla, 134
Brandi, Giacinto, 315, 328, 330, 547"
Bratislava Cathedral (Ferrata, Guidi), 568-"

Calderoni, .Matteo,

Callalo,

349)

549'''

570''"'

569"
Paolo, 570"

Callot, Jacques, 125, 346, 359, 478, 542'^'

Lorenzo .Martire, facade, 557'"

S. Maria .Maggiore (Fantoni), 448
Briano, Giacomo, 507"

Caltanisetta, cathedral (Borremans), 571

Brignole Sale, brothers, 392

Camassei, .Andrea, 141, 249, 321, 322, 330, 533"

Cambiaso. Luca, 104, 115, 353

S.

Brill,

alsn

Battista, 579"''

Busiri,

Bracciano,

st-f

5'i9"'

Giovanni

Bottiglieri, .Matteo, 456, 571"'^

(ill.312),

525"

.\ntonio, 474, 574*'

Burrini,

Bra, S. Chiara, 428

90), 167,

Burckhardt, Jacob, 573-'

578""

Boselli, Orfeo, 537'"*

Bottalla,

(ill.

Buontalenti, Bernardo, 125, 126 (ill. 62), 132, 232, 237,

253- 302, 359, 393< 409, 542"". 553'. 559""

518'''

Boschini, Marco, 250

Bosclli, Felice,

F., 558"'

Buonarelli, Costanza, 166

.Michelangelo

Bortoloni, Mattia, 476, 484, 577**"

Boschi, Fabrizio,

234);

Calvaert, Denis, 82, 94, 513"', 516''

Mattheus, 43, 326, 509^^

Brill, Paul, 27, 35, 43, 7^ 5^^^

Brizio, Francesco, 63,

497> 507"- 509'-

"",

Cambiaso, Orazio, 105

Camera

579'"

518"

ohscura, 579'

"''

Cametti, Bernardo, 436, 443-4

BIBLOSARTE

(''

3"

).

44'> 7.

5^'*

INDEX

636

Camilliani, Francesco, 134

Carlone, Diego, 569^^

Gammas, G., 397

Campagna, Girolamo, 450
Campana, Tommaso, 33

Carlone, Giovanni .Andrea, 354, 474, 551'", 559'^

Carlone, Giovanni Battista, 354, 551'"

Campi, Giulio and Antonio, 45

C!ampi, Pier Paolo, 447
Ganal, Fabio, 577"
Canal, Giovanni Battista, 503

Carloni, Taddeo, 134

Carmelite Order, 25, 137
Carneo, Antonio, 347, 550'*

Carloni, Carlo Innocenzo, 575^''

Caro, G. and F. de,

Canale, Antonio, see Canaietto

Canaletto, 461, 479, 501-3
also Bellotto,

(ill.

Bernardo

527"**

Carpi, Santuario del SS. Crocefisso, 554'

Carpioni, Giulio, 340, 346 (ill. 228), 347, 550'"
Carracci, Agostino, 57-8, 63, 68, 70-1, 82, 85, 92,
",518"
512^% 513-

Canepina, Mario da, 539-^

Canevari, Antonio,

559**'

Cangiani, Anselmo, 542"

Canini, Angelo,

548'''

Carracci, Annibale, 28, 33, 38-9, 39, 42, 43, 45, 57 ff.
(ills. 16, 18-23), 73, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 91,
98,

Canova, Antonio, 270, 443, 453, 570*

Cantarini, Simone, 342-3 (ill. 224), 549'''
Canuti,

Caroselli, .Angelo, 515'', 519'', 548'**

Carpegna, Palazzo Carpegna, 540**

Carpegna, Ambrogio, 227

Canali, Paolo, 292

Candiani,

543''

Caro, Lorenzo de, 572"

ubrr..
^^^
354), 57^124.

Domenico Maria,

328, 330, 333

343, 473, 474, 548"- '-,549"'
Capella, II, see Daggiii

(ill.

216), 334,

109, 130, 145, 247, 250, 259, 265, 327, 367, 465, 468,
469, 479, 494, 496, 497, 509^-, 512'" 5i6^\ 524^
Carracci, Antonio, 33, 508-*'
,

Carracci, Lodovico, 57-8, 60-3

(ill. 17), 81, 82, 83, 86,

88, 92, 93, 94, 96, 109, 173, 261, 266, 473, 512^'',

Capodimonte, palace, 393, 559*'

Cappelli, Cosimo, 523'^

5I6-^<',5^7^^5I8'>

Cappelli, Pietro, 498

Cappellino, G. D., 551**

Carracci 'academy', 58, 73, 78, 92, 267, 470, 512^

Carriera, Rosalba, 479, 493, 578""
Carrii, S. Maria dell' Assunta, 538", 564^^

Caprarola, S. Silvestro, 537^

Caracciolo, Giovanni Battista, 73, 92, 340, 356

(ill.

241), 358, 360, 551'', 552""

Cartari, Giulio, 317, 434, 545^'

Cartellaccio, see Castellaccio

Caraffa, Vincenzo, 138

Casale Monferrato

Caraglio, 133

Cathedral, vestibule, 562'*

Carattoli, Pietro, 556^*

S. Filippo, 562-^

Caravaggio, 24, 26, 28, 33, 34, 38, 39, 43, 45 ff, (ills. 1 1 15), 57, 63-4, 68-9, 71, 73 ff., 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 103,

Caserta, former Royal Palace, 372, 393, 395-8 (ills.

271-3), 559'*''" ; fountains and gardens, 456, 457
(ill. 322); (Persico), 571'''

355

104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 130, 266, 340-1, 347, 350,
ff., 362, 367,
433, 469, 490, 509, 510"' , 515'",

Casperia, S. Maria

5i7^-^552i

Cassana, Nicolo, 577"

Caravaggisti, 73 ffCarbone, Giovanni Bernardo, 352, 353

Carcani, Filippo, 316, 434, 435 (ill. 302), 436, 448,
545^", 566=

Nuova

207)

Cassani, Lorenzo, 554'

Castel Fusano, Chigi

villa, 232, 531'"; (Camassei),

249, 321; (Cortona), 249, 533'"; (Sacchi), 249, 262,

(ill.

247)

Castelgandolfo

Cardi, Ludovico, see Cigoli

papal palace, 185

Carducci,

S.

.^chille,

400

Ospizio di Carita, 430,

Tomaso

di Villanova,

181, 182, 422, 526'""^

Caricature, 71, 495, 513^'

Carignano, 561^

Giovanni

(ill.

533'"

Career! d'Invenziotie (Piranesi), 364-6

S.

(Sassoferrato), 322

176-8

Castellaccio, Santi, 534**

Battista, 565^-

Castellamonte, .Amedeo

di,

403, 407, 561'

Castellamonte, Carlo

Carlini, .Alberto, 579"^'

Castellazzo di Bollate,

Carlo Emanuele

Castelli,

Domenico, 458, 459

Castelli,

Domenico

Carlo Emanuele

74,

96, 97), 180,

544--; (Sacchi), 272

565*"''

Carlevarijs, Luca, 501, 553", 579'^^

I,

(ills.

(Cortese), 527''"; (Raggi),

403

II, 403, 406, 407

Carlone, Andrea, 551"'

di,

403, 561'

A'illa

Crivelli (Galliari), 575'''

(papal architect), 540'"

Castelli, Francesco, 120

BIBLOSARTE

637

Castelli,

Giovanni Domenico, 197

Castelio, Battista, 104

Casteilo, Bernardo, 28, 104, 352, 509^"

Castelio, Valerio, 341, 352-3 (ill. 237), 355, 359
Castellucci, Salvi, 550'''

Castiglione, Francesco, 354

Castiglione, Giovanni Benedetto, 104, 139, 325, 341,
35i< 352- 35.V4 (ill- 238), 355> SS'""

Castle

Howard

(A. Pellegrini), 482-3

Champaigne, Philippe de, 438

Chantelou, Sieur de, 157, 167, 171, 197
Chantilly (Domenichino), 310; (Poussin), 265
Chardin, J. B. S., 362, 496
Charles

Charles

II,

of England, 74, 167, 525'",

568^"

Emperor, 458
Charles VII, Emperor, 479

Charles III, King ot Spain, 486

Charles III of Naples, 393, 395

Castletown (Co. Kildare), 556^'

Charles Borromeo, St,

Casuistry, 138

Chateauneuf-sur-Loire, church (Guidi), 568^

Catania, 400, 401

Benedictine monastery, 401,

Cathedral, fac^ade, 401

see

Borromeo

Chatsworth (Juvarra), 563"

Chelsea Old Church (Raggi), 568-^
Cheyne, Lady Jane, 568-"'

560'"''

Chiesa Collegiata, 402

Chiari, Fabrizio, 548^^

Collegio Cutelli, 401

Chiari, Giuseppe, 467, 572'*

Palazzi: Biscari, 401;

Cerami (Borgianni), 514'";

Municipale, 401
S. Agata, 401

S. Placido,

Chiarini, .Marcantonio, 474, 574*'

Chiaruttini, Francesco, 474

Chieri

402

S.

Catanzaro (Fanzago), 319

Cateni, Giovanni Camillo, 568"

Andrea,

faijade,

S. Bernardino,

415

428-30

Chiesa, Silvestro, 551*"

Catullus, 137

Chigi, Agostino, 178

Cavallermaggiore, S. Croce (or S. Bernardino), 564'^

Chigi, Flavio, 178, 186

Cavallini, Francesco, 315, 316, 545^^'"'

Chigi, Mario, 178

Cavallino, Bernardo, 359 (ill. 244), 360,

Cavarozzi, Bartolomeo, 515''

Cavedoni, Giacomo, 92, 93-4

Cavrioli, Francesco, 452

(ill.

552""'"

Chioggia, cathedral, 299, 541'*

38), 342, 358, 518"

Celesti, .\ndrea, 349, 550'"*

Ciarpi, Baccio, 231, 322

Cifrondi, Antonio, 496

Benvenuto, 154
Cenni, Cosimo, 523"^

Cignani, Carlo, 343, 469, 470, 471, 473, 474, 476,

Cennini, Bartolomeo, 523"

Cento
Casa Provenzale (Guercino), 88
Museo Civico (Carracci), 60-2 (ill.

482, 572'", 573-"'

Cignani, Felice, Filippo, and Paolo, 573"'
Cignaroli, Giambettino, 484, 485
17), 512'*

43), loi, 103, 116, 120, 519-'"%

(ill.

342), 577"**

Cignaroli, \'ittorio .Amedeo, 478, 575'^

Cigoh, Lodovico, 28, 33, 34, 35, 55, 92, 97-8

(ill.

42),

104, 107, "09- i25> 5'8'*, 520', 523'-

549"

Cino, Giuseppe, 400

Cipper, Giacomo Francesco, 496

Ceresa, Carlo, 350, 493, 550'*'

\'illa Alari-Visconti, 558''

Cernusco,

Cerquozzi, xMichelangelo, 323

(ill.

Cipriani, Giovanni Battista, 573--

208), 546"

Giovan Domenico, 266, 321, 322, 547"'

Ceruti, Giacomo, 476, 493-4 (ill. 349), 496, 557'''"i
Cerrini,

5^898.107

Cesari, Giuseppe, see Arpino, Cavaliere d'

Cesena, .Madonna del Monte, staircase

"
Cesi, Bartolomeo, 518'
Cesi, Carlo, 546', 548'^
Sir William, 397

Cipriani, Sebastiano, 538'"

Circignani, Nicolo, see Pomarancio, Nicolo

Citta di Castelio, Matteo di, 40, 509*"
Cittadini family, 578""

Cervelli, Federico, 349

Chambers,

Marinetti

Ciampelli, .\gostino, 27, 97, 141, 247

5-'

Cellini,

(ill.

see

Christmas cribs, 456, 571'''

Ciaminghi, Francesco, 568'^

Celebrano, Francesco, 456

Cerano, 92, 98-9

Chiozzotto, U,

Christina of Sweden, 185, 554"

Cecil, John, 568-"

Celio, Gaspare, 34, 38, 51

Chimenti da Empoli, Jacopo, 97

hall,

Cividale, cathedral,

554'

557"

Civitavecchia, arsenal, 185

Claude Lorraine, 43, 70, 82, ^26, ^27, 497, 501, 534",
575'-^

Clement VIII,

23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 38, 40, 41

BIBLOSARTE

638

Clement I\, 443, 538'", 545^"

Clement \, 2i)0, 443, 544-''
Clement XI, i^i, 364, 375, 573''
Clement XII, 363, 364, 382, 395, 438, 442, 556^\ 566'
567"
Clement XIII, 364, 443
Clement XIV, 364

Correggio, 58, 60, 62, 69, 81, 85, 86, 88, 91, 93, 95, 96,
loi, 252, 258, 259, 276, 332, 334, 352, 355, 471, 479,

5i8'\536'"
'

Clemente, Stefano Maria, 450, 569^'

Clementi, Rutilio, 507"

(Reni), 84, 517*"

Corsini, Agostino, 567'"

Corsini, Filippo, 392
Corsini, Neri, 438, 439

(ill.

567"

305),

Cort, Giusto, see Corte

Corte, Josse de, 450-2

Museum

of Art (Magnasco), 477

Coccapani, Sigismondo, 518"*
Cleveland,

Corsham Court

(ill.

336)

(ills.

317, 318), 569'", 570*'

Corteranzo, S. Luigi Gonzaga, 565"

Cortese, Giacomo, 330

Coccorante, Leonardo, 498, 579"''

Codazzi, Viviano, 323 (ill. 208), 546"*, 552'"

Cortese, Guglielmo, 330, 467,

Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 187, 188, 189, 528"^

Cortona, Pietro da, 41, 138, 141, 142, 146, 173, 174,
178, 184, 188, 197, 199, 213-15, 225, 231-59 (ills.

Coli, Giovanni,
547;"; 548;^
Cellini, Filippo

^30,

^^4, 336

218), 349, 546',

(ill.

526''*,

527, 546', 572",

579"^

139-58), 261, 262, 263-6, 268, 274, 279, 280, 283,

and Ignazio, 450, 569"

286, 289, 291, 301, 305, 316, 321, 322, 324, 328, 330,

Cologne, cathedral (Fortini), 568"

334> 337, 339, 344, 345, 347, 354-5, 37, 380, 390, 399,

Colombo, Bartolomeo, 548'^

Colonna, Angelo Michele, ^43

403, 448, 462, 464, 467, 469, 470, 479, 487,

528""."5, 53031^ 531, rr,^ 535,,.^ 538.., 546.^

(ill.

225), 474, 476,

549", 551"^
Colonna, Marcantonio, 548^^

548", 560", 57I^ 572'5,

(ill.

337)

Museum of Art (Carpioni),

346 (ill. 228)

Comanini, Gregorio, 21
Cominelli, Andrea, 557^**
Commodi, Andrea, 231
Conca, Sebastiano, 382, 465-7

Giacomo

di,

(ill.

Cosimo
Cosimo
Cosimo

327), 476, 572"'''-

"*,

125, 126, 253

Grand Duke, 133

Grand Duke, 469,

III,

Conti, Francesco, 573-''

Courtois, Guillaume, see Cortese

Cozza, Francesco, 321, 330, 331

Crabeth, 78

Coppola, Giovanni Andrea, 358

Palazzo Albergoni, 558*"

Maria

della Croce, 541^^

Palazzo Dati, 391 (ills. 267, 268)

Palazzo Stanga, 371 (ill. 248), 554*
Crescenzi, Giovan Battista, 38, 43
Crespi, Daniele, 103-4 ('" 47)

557-^''

Crespi, Giovanni Battista, see Cerano

de, 372

Cordier, Nicolo, 30, 41, 127,

Crespi, Giuseppe Maria, 341, 461, 472

523''-

Cordova, mosque, dome, 412

473-4

Corfu (Corradini), 453

(ill-

Crespi, Luigi, 474, 574^-

Cornacchini, Agostino, 318, 436-8

(ill.

304), 446-7,

545^566",567'^'^

Cresti,

Domenico,

see

Passignano

Cornaro, Caterino, 570^'

Donato, 471-2
Cristiani, G. F., 372

Corradi, Pier .Antonio, 125, 559^^

Corradini, Antonio, 453 (ill. 319), 454, 456,

Croce, Baldassare, 33
Croce, Francesco, 558'^

571"^

(ill.

t,},],),

334), 481, 482, 491, 493, 494, 496, 503,

574", 576'"", 579'-"

Corenzio, Belisario, 356

214), 546-

Cremona

Conti, Stefano, 501

55, 57, bO, 63

(ill.

SS. Trinita, 554^

Contini, Giovanni Battista, 376, 522^", 555^^

Conventi, Giulio Cesare, 266

570

568^^

(Galgario), 492 (ill. 348)

Costanzi, Placido, 572"*

.S.

Cordemoy, Abbe

II,

Crema

127

82), 169, 171, 436, 458,

525-;'

Corbellini, Carlo, 521-',

I,

Costa di Mezzate, Conti Camozzi-Vertosa Collection

(ill.

Concetto, 169-70
Concord of Free Hill with the Gifts of Grace (Molina),
24

Constantine, 150-1, 155

Cosatti, Lelio, 556^"

Costa, Gianfrancesco, 474

Costa, Stefano, 524*-

575^'

Conforto, Giovan

SIT,-'

Cortona, S. Agostino (Cortona), 258

Columbia, University of Missouri (Bazzani), 478

Columbia, South Carolina,

527'<,
5^72..,

Creti,

Cronaca, 245

BIBLOSARTE

(ill.

332), 573", 574^-'"

<i39

Crosato, Giambattista, 476, 565"^,

575''-'

'"*

Dou, G., 537^Dresden

Cumiana, parish church, 565'Curradi, Raflaele, 302, 534""

.Albertinum

Curti, Girolamo, sfe l3entone

Curtoni, Domenico, 115, 521"*

.Maderno), i28(ill. 63)

Gallery (Carracci), 60; (Correggio), 58; (Dou),
537*-; (Poussin), 537"; (Serodine), sis'"

Daggiu, Francesco, 576**

Grosser Garten (Corradini), 571''

Damiani, Pietro, 519^"

Dandini, Pier, 550'''', 573'*-*
Dante, 55
Danti, Vincenzo, 134, 523'"
(Cafia),

543"

Delacroix, Eugene, 367

DeirArchtti'ttiira (Gioffredo), 399
Derizet, Antonio, 372, 377, 555^\ 556^"

Desargues, 413
Descartes, Rene, 69
Desenzano, parish church (Celesti), 349
'Desiderio, Monsii", 359-60, 552"-

Deza, Cardinal, 34
Diano, Giacinto, 572'
Dientzenhofer, Georg,

(Duquesnoy

Durazzo, Cardinal, 519"'

Diirer, .\lbrecht, 462, 489

Diisseldorf, .\kademie (Rusconi),

version), 537*';

Eclecticism, 58-60, 369

Einsiedeln, 422
Electa,

Joaquim

de,

486

Elsheimer, .Adam, 70, 75, 76, 497, 514'", 552'"

564^''

Directory (St Ignatius), 24

Emanuele
Emanuele

Discalced Trinitarians, 40
Diziani, Antonio, 497

Empoli, Collegiata (Cigoli), 98

Enrico, .Antonio d', see Tanzio

Diziani, Gaspare, 482, 576'"

Enrico, Giovanni

Do, Giovanni, 551"

Errard, Charles, 434

Domenichino,
(ill.

227),

sso''*'

80-2

29), 83, 85, 86, 92, 93, 105, 141, 247, 249, 250,

359,
5

(ill.

33, 34, 38, 39, 70, 78-9, 79, 80,

263, 267, 275, 310, 31

6-'*1

360,

367,

-*"'='"",

1.

433,

321, 322- 324, 33O' 357, 358,

465,

5175-,

509^^,

5I3-'-^

sis-"\

Filiberto, 403, 406

Filiberto .Amedeo, 562-^"

d',

519"

Escorial, 395
Escoubleau de Sourdis, Cardinal, 146

Este, .Alfonso d', 122

Este, cathedral (Corradini), 571"'

Eynde, Ferdinand van den, 275-6

(ill.

171)

518", 540^', 544'^ 552"',

3-*

Faberio, Lucio, 51
Fabriano, Gilio da, 21

571'

Dominici, Bernardo da, 362, 394

Dominicis, Carlo de, 377, 555^'

Fabriano
Cathedral (Gentileschi),

Donatello, 134, 145, 270

Donati, Nicolo, 122

514"^

S. Bencdetti (Gentileschi), 41

Donaueschingen (Foggini), 568^Donducci, Giovanni Andrea, see Mastelletta

Donzelli, Giuseppe, see Nuvolo
Dori, Alessandro,

567^

Edinburgh (Serodine), 77

211), 547'"

(ill.

Dionysius the Areopagite, 139

Dolci, Carlo, 344, 345

(S.

Duquesnoy, Jerome, 272

Durand, M., 372
Duranti, Faustino and Giorgio, 574^"

Dentone, 343

(Mieris), 537^-; (Rosa), 326

sn**;

Dujardin, Karel, 323

Duquesnoy, Francesco, 38, 172, 261, 265, 266, 267,
272-8 (ills. 168-74), 305, 308-9, 311-12, 433, 436,
5}4'\ 535'", 536''"

David, Jacques-Louis, 469

Degenhard, General, 568^'

Detroit, Institute of Art

version),

Staatl. Skulpturensammlung (Cx)rradini), 571"^

Dublin (Gentileschi), 74
Duca, Giacomo del, 313
Dufresnoy, Charles .Mphonse, 574**
Dughet, Caspar, 327, 330, 547-'"-', 575"

Dandini, Vincenzo, 550"^

Darmstadt

(Duquesnoy

Fabris, .Michele, 569'"', 570*^*^

Faccini, Pietro, 95
Faccio, .Antonio, 565'*

Falcone, Aniello, 325, 359, 360, 546'\ 552'"

556^'^

Dorigny, Louis, 479, 577"'

Dosio, Giovan Antonio, 125, 126, 127, 237, 300, 52o\

Fancelli,

Cosimo, ^16, 317

543', 545'"'

*',

(ill.

206), 533'", 539-\

553''

Fancelli, Francesco, 545'"

542""-""

Dossi, Dosso, 34, 95, 96

Dotti, Carlo Francesco, 370, 389-90

Fancelli,
(ill.

265), 556^"

Giacomo Antonio,

Fantoni, Andrea, 448

BIBLOSARTE

305, 316, 543', 545*"

640

INDEX

Fanzago, Cosimo, 127, 291,3020".

(ills.

193, 194), 305,

Fara San Martino, parish church (Tanzio), 103, 519^'

Farnese, Alessandro, 130, 131

(ill.

G.

B.,

Badia, 542"^
Baptistery, 237; (Ghiberti), 319

302; campanile, 301;

fa9ade projects, 300-1, 542^'

Cathedral,

452

Favoriti, Agostino, 566^

Felicita, S., 125

Vincenzo, 545^^

Ferdinand
Ferdinand

Grand Duke, 125, 126, 133,

II, Grand Duke, 253, 300
I,

Fernandi, Francesco,

Firenze, S., 392, 559'"; Cortona's project, 246

542""

Gaetano, S., 125, 301-2 (ill. 192), 542''^-^

Giovanni Evangelista, S., facade, 370

Imperiali

see

Ferrabosco, 29, 526'", 528'"'

Ferrara

Accademia

Lorenzo,
523^*;

S.,

Cappella dei Principi, 126

project

facade

Marco,

University, 122

Maria degli Angeli,

(ill.

Lorenzo

239), 356

(ill.

240),

Tommaso, 458
198, 199), 311,

Giovanni Domenico, 469-70

Ferri, Antonio Maria, 392, 559"
Ferretti,

Ferri, Giro, 217, 246, 328, 330, 345, 469, 5321^, 53339,
534'', 545'', 546', 548'',

75, 77, 92, 106-7 ('H- 49), 108, 347,

',

(ill.

(ill.

330)

549^';

(Cortona),

232,

246,

247,

253-6

(ills.

344

(ill.
(ill.

226); (Mitelh), 343 (ill. 225);

212); (Ruggieri), 542''"; (San

Giovanni), 344; (F. Susini), 132; (Tacca), 319;

314-15

(ill.

204), 318,

Riccardi, see Medici

Other secular buildings,

319, 535", 536'', 543'"

Finoglia, Paolo, 552""

Fhpart, Giuseppe, 578""

573"^*;

(Volterrano), 345

Finelli, Giuliano, 305, 306, 312,

571"

338)
Medici-Riccardi (Giordano), 469, 470
Nonfinito, 125

(Rosa), 327

Figura serpentinata, 145

J. B.,

Gherardini),

Covoni, 302
Marucelli-Fenzi, 302; (Ricci), 469, 479, 480

(Furini),

B., 507*

di,

(Gabbiani,

392;

154-6), 256-8, 469, 534"=" ; (Dolci), 345 (ill.

227); (Ferri), 345, 534'"'; (Foggini), 319, 545=';

520-*'

Domenico, 105-6, 352, 519^'

S. Domenico, chancel, 542^^

Giuseppe

(Ferri),

(Passardi), 392

Pitti,

348, 351, 354, 478, 503, 519-20'"

Fiamingo, Arrigo, 27

Fischer von Erlach,

573-''

Corsini, 392, 559'*; (Bonechi, Dandini), 573^*;

Cortona's designs for additions, 246, 301,

533^5 ff. (CigoH),
98; (Colonna), 343 (ill. 225),

573"

Ferroggio, G. B., 565"-

Fiore,

di S. Filippo, Chiesa, see Firenze, S.

Capponi, 392; decoration,

(ills.

Ferreri, Andrea, 569''*

Fiesole,

469

Stefano, S. (F. Tacca), 319

312, 316, 319, 434, 435, 436, 443, 447, 459, 533,
544>5-i,
-3624.25.28^
545"-*'>-^\
543'- 1\
566',
5682''.36 56^40

Fiasella,

314),

Palazzi

Ferrata, Ercole, 134, 307, 308-10

Fiammeri, G.

(ill.

Spirito, S., sacristy, 245; (G. Baratta), 568^'

Ferraro, Orazio, 458

Domenico,

(formerly, Gherardini),

Ognissanti, 125

Ferrari, Orazio de, 551**

Fetti,

S.

Nuova, Chiesa, fa9ade, 392-3

Nuova

de, 392, 559'', 575^^

Ferrari, Luca, 341

Ferraro,

42),

553'', 568^'; (Gabbiani), 553''; (Giordano),

474, 551", 559", 573''

Ferrari,

98 (Giambologna),

(ill.

97

470,471 (ill. 331)

Maria del Carmine, S. (Foggini), 447

Gaudenzio, 99, loi, 519'^''

Giovanni Andrea de, 352
354-5

S. (Cigoli), 97

542''^; (Poccetti),

Ferrari, Daniele, 507^

Ferrari, Gregorio de,

532";

523'"

558''''

Pinacoteca (Bonone), 95 (ill. 40), 96

S. Maria in Vado (Bonone), 96

Ferrari,

62),

(ill.

(Michelangelo),

(Meucci), 573-'; Old Sacristy, ii7;(Tacca), 133,

degli Intrepidi, theatre, 522''^

Palazzo Arcivescovile,

Ferrari,

dome, 210;

Croce, S. (Danti), 523"

Domenico, 576**

Fedeli,
Felici,

Annunziata, SS. (Foggini), 447, 568^'^-; (Volterrano), 345

67)

Farnese, Odoardo, 38, 63, 79

Farnese, Ranuccio, 68, 95, 130, 476, 513"
Fattoretto,

Florence

Churches

319, 393, 542'"'"

Accademia

galleries, collections

(Cigoli), 98; (Michelangelo), 543'

Annunziata, Piazza, fountains, 133 statue (Giambologna and Tacca), 523^;

419, 527*',

564''^'''

Artichokes, Fountain of the, 132

BIBLOSARTE

641

Florence conttnued
Bargello(Bandinelli), 523'"; (Bernini), 166 (ill. 90),

167
Biblioteca Laurenziana, 242

Fracanzano, Francesco, 325, 359, 552"^

Fracao, .Antonio, 292
Fragonard, Jean Honore, 354

Biblioteca Marucelliana (O. Leoni), 510*"

Biblioteca Riccardiana (Giordano), 469

Boboli Gardens (Giambologna), 319; (Lorenzi),

525"*; (Naccherino), 523'"; (Parigi), 125, 132;
8-"

Casino Mediceo, frescoes, 51

Contini Bonacossi Collection

(Bernini),

144;

(Gentileschi), 514''

(Silvani),

(ill.

Emperor, 560'"^

we Xavier

Camaldoli (Saraceni), 76

329); (Caravaggio), 46-8

(ill.

II,

Francis, St, 55
Francis Xavier, St,

Frascati

Petraia, Villa (Volterrano), 345, sso*"^

(ill.

Franceschini, Marcantonio, 470, 471, 474, 496, 573^'

Francis I d'Kste, 150. 152, 167, 318,525", 535-', sbS^-'

Frangipani, Nicolo, 511'^

300

Ojetti Collection (Algardi), 535-^

(Batoni), 468

Franca villa, Pietro, 132, 133, 319

Francis

Meridiana, Circolo della (Gherardini), 471

UflFizi

Francavilla Fontana, 399

Franceschini, Baldassare, see Volterrano

(Pieratti, Salvestrini), 132

33O
Museo deirOpera

Fountains, 26, 37-8, 167 9, 456

Fracanzano, .\lessandro, 359
Fracanzano, Cesare, 359, 552'*

11), 71, 510', 511'''; (Carracci), 71

(ill.

2t,)\

Cathedral, facjade, 376

Villas:

.\ldobrandini,

232; (Domenichino), 80,

(Foggini), 568^";

Falconieri,

(Maderno),

(.\.

Gentileschi), 357

(ill.

242);

12

Foggini, Giovanni Battista, 3 16, 3 19, ^92, 436, 438, 447

(ill.

314), 542"^ 553'^ s^s*-'

Foix Montoya, Pedro de,

380,

531^';

Mondragone, 36-7 (ill.

Muti (Cortona), 247,
Fratellini,

Giovanna, 573^'

Fonseca, Gabriele, 152, 313, 314 (ill. 203), 315

Fontana, Carlo, 180, 185, 195, 283, 284-5, 285-6, 299,

Frigimelica, Girolamo, 558'''

538u..3.i4..7^ 53^.3^

249, 250), 379, 380,

s^t\

540", 554'-",

528'"', 532-",

555^^.^',

559^

566''

Frisone, Battista, 534"'*

Fuga, Ferdinando, 369, 370, 377, 381

(ill. 256), 382,

383, 392, 393, 395, 527'^-'", 555^, 556^-, 559'"-"-

Fumiani, Giannantonio, 550*'

Furini, Francesco, 339-40, 344

564"
Fontana, Domenico, 26, 38, iii, 115, 126, 140, 189,
279, 304, 520-\

548", 572'^;
520", 531";

531", 533''; (Lanfranco),

Fremin, Rene,

392, 398, 401, 402, 414, 431,

(.Maderno), 520^;

frescoes,

517;"

46

(ills.

516^'';

9), 114, soS^*-,

Foligno, cathedral, baldacchino, 176

363. 369, 370, 371- 373-6

Belvedere; Belvedere,

see

(Cortona),246,533'';(Dou),537'-;(I'"accini),95;

(ill.

226), 345, 359

Fusali, Gaetano, 570"'

542"

Fontana, Francesco, 376, 530^^, 555"

Fontana, Giovanni, 38, 508", 520'

Gabbiani, Anton Domenico, 469, 553'*,

Gabbrielli, Camillo, 546'

Fontana, Girolamo, 376, 539"'

Fontana, Prospero, 513"'

Gaggini family, 458, 459

Gagliardi, Rosario, 401, 560'"*

Fontanesi, Francesco, 553"

Galanino, 518"

Fontebasso, Francesco, 479, 482, 576

Forabosco, Girolamo, 347, 495
Ford, Mrs Richard, Collection, formerly (Bernini),

Galatone, 399
Galeotti, Sebastiano, 470, 476, 573-"
Galgario, Fra Vittore del, 476, 492

348), 493,

Galiani, ^72

Forli

Palazzo Foschi (Bencovich), 482

Galilei, .\lessandro, 377,

Palazzo Reggiani, 554'

Galilei, Galileo. 97, 518'*

Pinacoteca (Carracci), 512"

Galizia, Fede, 509'"

382-3

(ill.

Gallena Giusliniani, 38

Fornovo, 182, 537'

Forte, Luca, 361, 552'-
Fortini, Giovacchino, 568^^'^'

Galletto, Giovanni, 432

Fossano

Galli,

SS. Trinita, 564^^

(ill.

578^

526^8

Cathedral, 565"-

573''--''

Galli, see Bibiena

Giovan

.Antonio, 5o8-^

515"

Galliari family, 575**

Gallina, Ludovico, 576<*, 578'*

BIBLOSARTE

258), S56^'''*'"

642

Gallipoli,

Genoa

399

Gambarini, Giuseppe, 495, 496

Gandolfi, Gaetano, 292, 474

Serra, 522'"

Spinola (Galeotti), 573^'

Gandolfi, Ubaldo, 474

Garbieri, Lorenzo, 63, 518"

Other secular

Garove, Michelangelo, 562'^ 563-'

352

332-4

(ill.

(ill.

Cairolo, Via, 392

Ferrari,

579'-''

Gastaidi, Girolamo, 317

Gaulli, Giovan Battista, 139, 174, 217, 311, 328, 329
213),

215), 337, 339, 351, 353, 366,

467, 469, 526^", 547^", 548'^\ 549^6^ 551", 57 1\

572'-

Duca Nicola

de. Collection (V. Castello),

(ill-

353

237)
Garibaldi, Via, see Strada

Nuova

Pammatone, Ospedale

392

di,

Private Collection (Assereto), 105

Scuole Pie

10, Piazza,

University, 123-5

Genoa

48), 106

(il's.

60, 61), 522'"''; (Biggi,

Parodi), 569'''

Genre-painting, 42

Churches

Ambrogio,

117; (Reni), 85

S.,

(ill.

33),

146-50,

519^"; (Rubens), 104

Annunziata, SS.,

ff., 346, 491

Gentile, Michele, 319
Gentileschi, Artemisia, 73, 357

ff.

(ill.

Gentileschi, Orazio, 35,41,73-4(111. 24), 77, 105, 109,

515I'
357, 508^" ^5i3>, 5145",

Filippo Neri, Oratorio di S., 392

George

Giacomo

Gerolanuova, Villa Negroboni (now

Gessi, Francesco, 63, 341, 518"

della

Marina, S. (Castiglione), 354

Maddalena, della (Galeotti, Natali), 573-'

Maria di Carignano, S., 521^^; (D. Carlone),
569^; (Parodi), 448; (F. Schiaffino), 569"
Maria della Cella, S. (Castiglione), 354
dei Servi, S. (Chiesa), 551**
della Vigna, S., 522^*
S. (Parodi),

Stefano, S. (Ferrari), 355, 356

(ill.

240)

Gherardi, Antonio, 328, 376, 547-', 548^'

Gherardi, Filippo, 328, 330, 334, 336 (ill. 218), 349,
546', 547-^ 548"
Gherardini, Alessandro, 470, 471 (ill. 331), 573'"

Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 271, 319

Ghislandi, Giuseppe, see Galgario
Ghisleri,

392

Palazzi

Giovan

Battista, 567-"

Ghisolfi, Giovanni, 350, 498, 579'''

Giambologna, see Bologna, Giovanni

Giant order, use of, 186-7, 224

Balbi, Via Cairolo, 392

Balbi-Cattaneo, 559'"

Balbi-Groppallo (Ferrari), 355

Balbi-Senarega, 125

(ill.

239)

Giaquinto, Corrado, 465

Doria Tursi, 123

Gilardi, Pietro, 575^"

448

Durazzo-Pallavicini, 125

326), 476, 571^, 572",

Gibbs, James, 376

Giganti, Andrea, 401

Durazzo, 559'"; (Colonna), 551"^; (Rusconi, Schi-

(ill.

575-^'

Carrega-Cataldi, gallery, 392, 559''

Doria, fountain, 134

aflfino),

Feltrinelli), 558'^

Gherardini, Melchiorre, 519-"

Siro, S., 522^*

S.,

III, 555-0

Ghezzi, Giuseppe, 467, 495

Ghezzi, Pier Leone, 467, 495, 531', 578'""""

448

Pancratius, S., 569*"

Torpete,

242), 358, 359,

552'"'

522''*

Carlo, S. (Algardi, Parodi), 448

Cathedral (Barocci), 105

Marta,

(ill.

392

Strada Nuova, 123

Genazzano, Palazzo Colonna, 539^'

Gennaro, Benedetto, 573^^

Maria
Maria

(Strozzi),

235)
Balbi, Via, 123-5

Garzi, Luigi, 328, 467

Gaspari, Antonio, 541^*

(ill.

buildings, galleries, collections

Accademia Ligustica (Assereto), 106;

Gargiulo, Domenico, see Spadaro

Gaspari, Pietro,

continued

Rosso, 392, 522^**, 559''

Saluzzo, 559'"

Gallo, Francesco, 521-', 538', 564'^

Gilio,

Giovanni Andrea, 507'

Gimignani, Giacinto, 250, 266, 321, 322, 3^0, 467,

546;-

Giustiniani, see Granello

Gimignani, Lodovico, 467, 547-", 572'-

Granello, 559""
Lomellini, 522'"

Ginnasi, Domenico, 305, 314

Giocondo, Fra, 521-''

Pallavicini, 522'"

Gioffredo, Mario, 399

Reale, see

Durazzo

Gionima, .Antonio, 474

BIBLOSARTE

(>43

Giordano, I,uca, 250, 258, 266, 340, 347, 349, 357,

360, 462-4 (ill. 324), 469, 470 (ill. 330), 479, 482,

Guerra, Gaspare, 218

Guerra, Giovanni, 27

483, 484, 489, 493, 571-', 573-"-'

Giorgetti, Antonio, 317, 545'"'*^

Guglielmi, Gregorio, 572'"

Giorgetti, Gioseppe, 317, 545*^

GiiiJa Spiniuale (WoWnos), 138

Giorgione, 347

Guidi, Domenico, 307, 308, 312 13

Giosafatti,

Guerra, Giovan Battista, 509'"

Giuseppe and Lazzaro, 545^"

45^

3>7- 337. 434. 43'^. 443- 447.

(ill.

202), 316,

536-'' -",

Guidobono, Bartolomeo, 355, 476,

Gismondi, Paolo, 321

Guilelmi, Bernardo, 276

Gisolfi, Onofrio, 542'-

Guillain, Simon, 509*-

^5i)'\ 576'"

Guidotti, Paolo, 508^"

Giustiniani, Benedetto, 74
Giustiniani, V'incenzo, 38, 57, 79, 508*", 510*
Goethe, Wolfgang von, 401

Haffner, .\nton Maria, 474

Goya, Francisco de, 71, 491

Haffner, Enrico, 333 (ill. 216), 334, 474, 574"

Hague, The (Netscher), 537'-

Gramatica, Antiveduto, 45, 73, 510'

Grammichele, 401

Hartford,

Grande, .Antonio

Hals, Frans, 107

Wadsworth .Athenaeum (Caravaggio),

51

519^"

Heintz,

Grassi, Nicola, 476, 577''

Grassi, Orazio, 507'% 540"

Grassia, Francesco, 545*^

Heemskerck, .Marten van, 579'"

Henry IV of France, 23, 133, 536-", 553'
Hildebrandt, Johann Lucas von, 376

Gravina, 399
Gravina, Francesco Ferdinando, 401

Hogarth, William,

della,

J.,

Hisloria enlestasltca (Niccphorus), 171

7

496

Homer, 486

Graziani, Ercole, 472

Greca, Felice della, 539''*

Grechetto,

55,

1-"

del, 217, 289, S39-''-''

Granja, La, 563^"

Greca, Vincenzo

544-',

545"-*',566-, 568-""

Giotto, 55, 57, 301

Girardon, Francois, 456
Gisberti, Michele, 507"

Honthorst, Gerrit, 77, 78, 552""

Horace, 137, 263

288-9, 539'^"^

see Castiglione,

Houdon, Jean-.Antoine, 433

Giovanni Benedetto

Greco, Gennaro, see Mascacotta

Greenwich, Queen's House, formerly (Gentileschi),

Hypnerotomachia

Pw/;///;

(Colonna), 292-4, 579'"

Idea (Bellori), 327 (Zuccari), 39

Idea dell' Architettura L mversale (Sczmozzi), 115

74

Gregorini, Domenico, 377

Gregory XIII, z}, 27, 65, 438, 440-2

Gregory Xl\, 25
Gregory XV, 25, 78,

(ill.

308), 445

Ignatius of Loyola, St, 23, 24-5, 41, 56, 137, 139

Illusionism, 33, 174, 225, 250-2, 253, 332, 366, 486-7;

79, 146, 527"'

see also

Qtiadratura

138-9

Grignasco, Chiesa Parrocchiale, 565"'

Imagery, religious, 21

Grimaldi, Fra Francesco, 126-7, 509^', 523""

Imitatiun 0/ Christ (Kempis). 139

Grimaldi, Giovan Francesco, 327, 330, 540'", 545^",

Imparato, Gerolamo, 356

Imperiali, Francesco, 572"

547^', 548", 553'^

'Impressionism', \ enetian, 91

Groppelli, Giuseppe, Marino, and Paolo, 570"

Grossi, Giovanni Battista, 567"*

Innocent X, 137, 138, 140, 141, 143, 170, 185, 190,

212, 213, 217, 225, 256, 266, 269, 279, 527"', 535-'

Grottaferrata, abbey (Domenichino), 79

Guala, Pier Francesco, 575'"

Guarana, Jacopo, 577*^

Guardi, Francesco, 108, 367, 461, 478, 501, 503-5
(in.356),579'^58o'^^'^"
Guardi, Gianantonio, 108, 503-5 (ill. 355), 580'-''-"
Guarini, Guarino, 122, 227, 291, 403, 403 13

ff.,

(ills.

Innocent XI, 364, 366, 440 (ill. 307), 442

Innocent XII, 185, 375, 442 (ill. 309), 443
Islruzioni diverse (Vittone), 427,
Istriizinm element an (Vittone),
Italia,

Ittar,

Angelo, 400
Stefano, 402, 560'"*

274-83), 422, 424, 425, 427, 428, 430, 431, 547-',

554\ 55r\ 561'"

Jacopo da Empoli,

565""

Guarino, Francesco, 358, 552'"^

Guercino, 33, 63, 78-9, 80, 88-9
250, 261, 340, 360, 473,

see

Chimenti

Janssens, Jan, 78
(ill.

36), 96, 97, 101,

5^7"'^ 552'"' 573"

Jesuits, see Society of Jesus

John of the Cross,

St, 22, 25

BIBLOSARTE

432

432

INDEX

644

John V of Portugal, 414

Jolli,

Antonio, 579'

Lazzarini, Gregorio, 485, 550"*'

-"^

Lebrun, Charles, 171, 434,

Joseph

1,

566-',

577""

Leccc, 399, 560'"

Cathedral, 400

Jones, Inigo, 395

Jordaens, Jacob, 107-8

Chiesa del Rosario, 400

Madonna del Carmine, 400

414

Julius II, 21, 133

Prefettura,

Juvarra, Filippo, 319, 367, 369, 370, 372, 376, 377,

400

S. Agostino,

393, 401, 403, 413-24 ('Us- -284-92), 424, 425, 427,

428, 431, 527*'*', 555-", 561", 562'", 563^^^, 5655''-

S. Chiara,

400
400

S. Croce, fac^ade,

399-400
400

Kauflfmann, Angelica, 577"'

S. Matteo, facade,

Keil, Bernardo,

SS. Nicola e Cataldo, fa9ade, 400

Seminario, 400

495-6
Kempis, Thomas a, 139
K.imbolton Castle (A. Pellegrini), 482-3

Lecchi, Giacomo, 575'*

Klesl, Melchior, 568-"

Le

Kokorinov, A.

Lecurt, Giusto,

F.,

397

Clerc, Jean, 514'^

see

Corte

Le Geay, Jean Laurent,

Labacco, Antonio, 298, 541^"
Labisi, Paolo, 401

553''

Leghorn, see Livorno

Legnani, Stefano Maria, 575'"
Legnano, S. Magno, 52 1-'

Ladatte, Francesco, 450, 569^"

Laer, Pieter van, 77, 78 (ill. 28), 323, 515'*

Legros, Pierre, the younger, 139, 433

Lagomaggiore, Matteo, 392

La Grua, Laura, 401

447
Leningrad

Academy of Art, 397;

Lama, Giulia, 482, 576*''-*'

La Malgrange, chateau, 563''^
Lamberti, Bonaventura, 468

Lampi,

J. B.,

479

Lancret, Nicolas, 479, 496

Landscape-painting, 42 ff., 326-7, 497 flF.
Lanfranchi, Carlo Emanuele, 561 -, 563-'

Lanfranchi, Francesco, 282, 403, 561^

Lanfranco, Giovanni, 33, 34, 38, 63, 78-9, 80, 81,

85-8 (ills. 34, 35), 96, 97, 98, 141, 146, 247, 258, 261,
263, 321, 322, 328, 332, 337, 339, 357, 464, 508-',
5132', 5i633- 5175-- 5", 546^ 547-'-^', 57550
Langetti, Giambattista, 341, 347
Lantana, G. B., 1 17, 121

Lanzani, Andrea,

(ill.

229), 349, 550'-

575^''

Laocoon (Lessing), 577**

Lapi, Niccolo, 573-^-

Leopold

Le

I,

343

Lessing, G. E., 577**

Lestache, Pierre, 567'^

Leutner, A.,

564'"'

Leyden, Lucas van, 462

Liberi, Pietro, 347
Libraries, 227

Gian Pietro and Cesare, 575'^

Ligozzi, Jacopo, 97, 518'*"

Tommaso, 65

Lilio,

Andrea, 27

Lille,

Musee Wicar (Duquesnoy),

Andrea, 91, 518'

Lima, S. Domingo (Caffa), 307
Lingelbach, Johannes, 323

Valletta

Lint,

Hendrik Frans van, 579"'

Cathedral (Caravaggio), 510*; (Mazzuoli), 544^^

Liotard, Jean Etienne, 578'*

Museum

Lippi, Annibale de', 36

Lippi, Lorenzo, 344

(Caffa), 307 (ill. 197)

Giovanni (Preti), 361
Laxism, 138, 524'

Lazzari, Dionisio,

536^*

Lilli,

548^''

S.

536-'*

Pautre, Antoine, 527'"

54-6; (Juvarra), 419; (Tiepolo), 490

Lauri, Francesco, 265

La

511'''

Leoni, Leone, 291

Leoni, Ottavio, 510'*

Ligorio, Pirro, 36

Lastman, Pieter, 78
Lateran Council (1512), 21
Laugier, M.-A., 372
Lauri, Filippo,

(Caravaggio), 510',

Light, useof(Bernini), 157-61, 182, 183; (Caravaggio),

Lasagni, G. P., 99, 134

Lasso, Giulio, 560"'

Laureti,

300), 436,

Marble Palais, 527*^'

Leo XI, 269-70 (ill. 165), 308, 318, 440, 442,
Leonardo da Vinci, 48, 58, 69, 263, 423, 431
Leone, Andrea de, 359, 552'"

Ligari,

-*

(ill.

Lironi, Giuseppe, 567'''

542''*'''

BIBLOSARTE

8,

543'^

^45

Lisbon

Church and palace of the

Lucchesi, Mattco, 387, 557*"

Lucenti, Girolamo, 317, 543', 545*'*'

Patriarch, 563^''

Lighthouse, 563'^

Museum

National
S.

Maria

della

(Creti or Dufresnoy?), 574^*

Divina Providenza, 405-6

(ill.

276),

562"

Ludovisi, Bernardo, 436, 566', 567'"

Ludovisi, Lodovico, 266-7, 276-8,
sss'**

Ludovisi, Niccolo, 527"'

Ludwig,J.

Lissandrino, see Magnasco

monument

Livorno,

to

Ferdinand L 133, 523'^'"

579"'

andj.

P.,

563"

-Museo Civico (Scrodine), 77

Locatelli, Andrea, 498, 501,

(ill.

27), 515"'

Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection (Bernini),

Locatelli, Pietro, 546'

144;

(Caravaggio), 511'"

Lodoli, Carlo, 372, 554"Lomi, Aurelio, 104, 105

'"

Lurago, Rocco, 123, 522*"

Luti, Benedetto, 467, 470, 476, 498, 553", 572'"
Lys, Giovanni, 77,92, 106-7, 107-8 (ill. 50), 347, 351,
482,503, 5i9^

London
Bridgewater House (Carracci), 60,

Mahon

F.

Lugano

513-''

Collection (Carracci), 513-"; (Giordano),

470 (ill. 330); (Guercino), 88; (Lys), 108

Marlborough House (Gentileschi), 74

Maccaruzzi, Bernardo, 557"

Maderno, Carlo,

National Gallery (Bernini), 526^"; (Canaletto), 502

12), 511'";

354); (Caravaggio), 48, 49 (ill.

(Carracci), 69; (Domenichino), 80, 516^''; (Dou),
(ill.

537^-; (Giaquinto), 465 (ill. 326), 572'"

Somerset House, 397
Victoria and Albert .Museum (.\lgardi),
(.\prile),

315

(ill.

III

ff. (ills.

26, 28, 29, 33, 37, 40, 41,

10

52, 53), 118, 120, 130, 184, 190

195, 197, 283

539*, 540'"

(ill.

Maderno, Stefano,

179), 302,

30, 41,

382

128

(ill.

(ill.

257), 520'"

(ill.

^o6,

63), 305,

(ill.

51),

109),

52364..

535"-;

205); (Bernini), 145, 150, 168,

Madrid

Museo de

563"*

.Artilleria (Juvarra),

173), 537^';

Prado (.\lbani etc.), 5 15-'; (Bernini), 73 (Duquesnoy version), 537'''; (Gentileschi), 514"; (Rcni),

Whitehall Palace (Jones's designs), 395

Longhena, Baldassare, 115,290-1,292-300(1115. 185-

Royal Palace, 528'""; Juvarra's design, 414, 563"';

525'^ 568-"; (Duquesnoy), 277

(ill.

(Foggini), 568'"

Westminster

90), 301

541^1"

(ill.

.Maestri,
(ill.

9), 40,

Longhi, Martino (the vounger), 197, 242, 286-8

182), 538'-Longhi, Onorio, 288, 314, 539-^
Longhi, Pietro, 484, 493, 496 7
Lorenese, Carlo, see Mellin

(ill.

Giovan

Battista, see

Volpino

Maffei, Francesco, 341, 347-8

(ill.

230), 349, 479,

.Mafra

Cathedral, decoration, 567"

Palace (Juvarra's designs), 414, 563^

(ill.

Magatti, P. Antonio, 575^^

351), 578'""

Magenta, Giovanni, 115, 122

(ill.

59), 127, 281, 522^*

.Maggi, Paolo, 522*"

Lorenzetti, 152

Maggiotto, Francesco, 497

Lorenzi, Francesco, 577'^

.Maggiotto,

525'*'

Loreto, Santa Casa, tower, 395

Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Collection (Gentileschi),

Louis XIV, 143, 152, 167

(ill.

see

Fedeli

545"

.Maglia, .Michele, 312, 315, 316, 434, 544",

.Magnani, Giovan Battista, 122, 522*'

'",

*-'

Magnasco, Alessandro, 341, 353, 367, 473-4, 477

91), 169, 170

(ill.

94),

Lucatelli, see Locatelli

Lucca, Palazzo Pubblico, 414, 563^-

('"

576"- "
336), 478, 479, 494. 501. 503, 575'\
.Maille,

568'-

Loyola, Jesuit sanctuary, 299, 375, 554'*"

Lualdi, Michelangelo, 525-^

Luccherini, .Michele, 523"^

II,

.Magini, Carlo, 579""

566'

74,514"
Loth, Johan Karl, 347, 476
Lotto, Lorenzo, 45

525"

69),

(ill.

'

503- 550'"

115,288,509^''

171, 363,

(Tiepolo), 486, 577'

Statues: Philip IH, 523"-; Philip IV, 133

458, 523"'-

557^-\ 558''^ S(^4'\ 569""

Alessandro, 387, 493, 578"'

Longhi,
Longhi, .Martino (the elder), 26, 34, 36 7

85; (Titian), 276; (Velasquez), 523'"

.-Vbbey (Roubiliac), 525'^

191), 303, 366, 375, 386, 398, 412, 450,

Lorenzi, Stoldo,

Michel,

see .Maglia

Giovanni

Battista, 366, 436, 438, 439

"
442, 447, 567'Maisons Laffitte (Spada), 94
Malavisti, .Alessandro Neri, 542"

.Maini,

Malinconico, Nicola, 571^

BIBLOSARTE

(ill.

305),

646

INDEX

Malvasia, 3g, 71, g.v 94, 574'% 578"'

Mancini, Francesco, 467, 572"'

Manduria,

Maser, church, 180, 557''''

Massani, Giovanni Antonio, 38 9
Massari, Giorgio, 370, 385 (ill. 260), 386
387, 452, 54i^5575<-5-, 558''-

jigq

Manetti, Rutilio, 98, 518-'

Manfredi, Bartolomeo, 73, 74, 76, 77, 98, 513'
Mangone, Fabio, 116 (ill. 54), 117, 120, 521-"

Mannerism,

zz, 26, 27-8, 48, 53, 57, 91, 125, 126,

237, 239, 288, 289, 370, 453, 461

castle (A. Pellegrini), 483

Mannheim,

Manozzi, Giovanni,

iee

San Giovanni

512^ 518"

.Mastelletta, 92,

94

39), 95, 96, 473, 518''"'

(ill.

Tommaso,

558*''

Matteis, Paolo de, 571^

1

561"

17,

.Matteo da Castello, see Citta di Castello

Maulpcrtsch, Franz .\nton, 576""

Mantua

Mazarin, Cardinal, 288

Cathedral (Andreasi or Fetti), 107

Palazzo Ducale (Fetti), 107; (Mantegna), 252
S. Sebastiano, 244

Mazza, Camillo, 569''Mazza, Giuseppe, 449

(ill.

316), 450, 569^**

Mazzanti, Lodovico, 467, 572"

Marabitti, Ignazio, 459, 571""

Mazzoni, Sebastiano, 341, 347-8, 349

Maragliano, Anton Maria, 450

(ills.

219, 220), 363, 366, 436, 438, 461, 467, 469, 471, 483,

549^o.^--o, 55191,
566^ 572^",
484, 493, 548-'%
'"
573", 575"-

Mazzuoli, Giuseppe, 316, 319, 434-5

545^\ 566'

Marchetti, Giovan Battista and Antonio, 558'^

Marchionni, Carlo, 364, 377, 383,

Medici, Ferdinando de', 568^'

55638-^8, 567''

Marchionni, Filippo, 556*"

Medici, Giovanni de', 125, 126

(ill.

320), 570"'

Medrano, Giovanni x'Vntonio,

Mehus, Lieven, 550"'

Marcola, Giovan Battista, 576^"

Melk, 422

Marcola, Marco, 578'""

xMellin, Charles, 358, 55210^

Mari, Giovan Antonio, 308, 544''

Maria de' Medici, 553'

Memmo,

(ill.

Mariani, Camillo, 30, 41, 128, 129-30

Mariani, Giuseppe, 560"'

(ill.

65), 523''^

302

559**'

Menescardi, Giustino, 577'^

Menghini, Nicolo, 306, 543'"
Mengozzi-Colonna, Girolamo, 474, 487, 577*''"

Mengs, Anton Raphael, 266, 270, 364, 462, 465, 468-9,

486,491,493, 572-1
Menicucci, Giovan Battista, 539-^

Marinali, Orazio, 452, 570^^

Marinetti, Antonio, 576^"

Merate, Villa Belgioioso (now Trivulzio),

Marino, SS. Rosario, 555^^

Marino, Cavaliere, 231, 531'

Merenda,

558'^'

Ippolito, 167, 526^^

Merisi, Michelangelo, see Caravaggio

Mariotti, Giambattista, 577*"

Merli, Carlo Giuseppe, 391, 558'^

Marot, Jean, 188, 529''

Marracci, Giovanni, 546'

Merlini, Lorenzo, 566",

Messina, Vincenzo

di,

568"

459

Messina

122

Domenico, 527*'

Church of the Padri Somaschi (Guarini's

Martinelli, Giovanni, 345

Maruscelli, Paolo, 222, 540^'

404-5

(ill.

54, 55,

Masaniello, 312, 360

(Caravaggio), 50, 51

5I0^5II-"

Orion Fountain, 134

Royal Palace, Juvarra's plans
1,

14, 522*"

design),

274), 412, 561"

Museo Nazionale

Masaccio, 57
Mascacotta, 498
Mascherino, Ottaviano, 65, 11

62),

301), 544'\

Mendrisio (Torriani), 549^^

Marieschi, Michele, 501, 503

Mariette, P. J., 368

Tommaso,

(ill.

Mellone, Carlo Francesco, 448

Andrea, 554''

Maria Carolina, Queen of Naples, 560"'Maria Theresa, Empress, 560'"-

Martinelli,

231), 473,

Mazzucchelli, Pier Francesco, see Morazzone

McSwiny, Owen, 573^^, 576"

Meda, Giuseppe, 120
Medici, Cosimo de', see Cosimo

Marcellini, Carlo, 542"-, 568^^-^*

Marchiori, Giovanni, 453-4

Marchis, Tommaso de, 290

(ill.

479,550""

Maratti, Carlo, 266, 321, 327, 330, 334, 337-9

Martelli,

261),

Masucci, .Agostino, 467, 572'''

Masuccio, Natale, 400
Mattel, Asdrubale and Ciriaco, 38
Mattel,

Mansart, Francois, 561"

Mansart, Jules Hardouin,
Mantegna, 252, 511"*

.Massari, Lucio,

(ill.

SS. .Annunziata, 404, 561*

BIBLOSARTE

for, 563^^

(ill.

14), 53,

647

Messina

cotitinued

Milan continued

S. Gregorio, 561"*

20- 1 522
(Caravaggio), 49 (C^ vallino),
359 (ill. 244); (Cerano), 99 (ill. 43), 101 ;(Cx)rtona),

Brera,

Theatine palace, 404

Meucci, \ incenzo, 573-'
Meyring, Heinrich, 557", 569'"
Michela, Costanzo, 565'-

"7,

258; (Gentilcschi), 514*; (Longhi), 497 (ill. 351);

(Mantegna), 511'"; (Morazzone), loi, 340 (ill.
221); (Procaccini),

Michelangelo, 22, 28, 54-5, 57, 63, 66, 68, 81

115,

'"'

r 1

1 ,

u 2,

133. 134, i43> '45i 154, 164, i75< "78, 186,

190, 203, 210, 217, 224, 237, 242, 253, 265, 289, 317,
382, 395, 422, 436, 446, 469, 489, 507", 513"', 520\

53i, 532--'-\534"-, 543'"

101

(ill.

103; (Rcni).

45).

517''; (Tiepolo), 485

Castello Sforzesco (Cairo), 340

(ill. 222) (Clerano),

99; (Cortona), 532-'; (Procaccini), 103

Cxjilegio Elvetico,

16

54), 121

(ill.

(ill.

Michetti, Niccolo, 572"'

Miel, Jan, 323, 548^^

Mieris, Frans van, 537*-

Museo deirOpcra (Cerano), 99

Ospedale Maggiore, 120, 521^"
Poldo Pezzoli, Museo (Guardi), 505

Migliori, Francesco, 482

Scala, La, 391

Milan

Milani,

Churches
Alessandro, S.,

Ambrogio,
Angelo,

16-18

55), 120, 521-^

(ill.

419
Oratory of (Gilardi), 575'"

Bernardino dei Morti,

Cathedral,

116,

S. (Ricci),

212;

472

Minneapolis Institute of

134;

fa9ade

Giuseppe

Miteli,

Mitelli, .Agostino,

395; (Cerano, Morazzone, Procaccini), 98-9,

116, 5i9-'';(Mangone, Ricchino), ii6;(Rusnati),

Mitelli,

447;(Volpino), 134
Certosa di Garegnano (Crespi), 104
Francesco di Paola, S., facade, 391

Lorenzo,

S.,

S.,

18-20

(ills.

56, 57), 292, 521-*"'

de, sto""

343 4

Mochi, Francesco, 30,

523'"'

(ill.

225), 474, 476,

549"

Giuseppe Maria, 496

128, 130-2

(ills.

66-8), 305, 306,

""

Modena
Galleria

Estense (Bernini),

(Carracci),

130;

(Bonone), 96;

512" (Duquesnoy ), 536"" (Gucrcino),

;

88; (Procaccini), 10

244

Marco, S. (Cerano), 99
Maria Podone, S., 116
Maria alia Porta, S., 120
Maria presso S. Satiro, S., 225
Nazaro e Celso, SS. (Procaccini), loi

Palazzo Ducale, 184, 291, 527'", 537', 541"

S. Bartolomeo, facade, 371 (Barbieri), 548*^
;

S. Biagio (Preti), 360,

S.

552""

Domenico, 558"'

Vincenzo, 404
Hall (Schedoni), 96
Modica, 401 S. Giorgio, 560"^
S.

Town

Pace, della (Tanzio), 103

Passione, della (Crespi), 103

(ill.

47), 104

Pietro Celestino, S., facade, 391

Vittore, S. (Crespi, xMoncalvo), 103 4

other churches, 522'"-

.^rts (.Mgardi), 536-^

Mirandolesi, 474

(Ricchino's design), 118; (\'anvitelli's design),

Giuseppe,

356)

Millini, .Mario, 535-'

479

decoration,

.-Kurelio,

(ill.

Milizia, Francesco, 372, 387

Millini, Giovanni Garzia, 267

S.,

S.,

58), 521^"

Fassati Collection (Procaccini), 103

^-

Mola, Giovan Battista, 540"

Mola, Pier Francesco, 80, ^23-4

(ill.

209), ^27, 3^0,

546'">',548'^

Annoni, 120

Molanus, 21, 30
Molina, Luis de, 24

Archinto (Tiepolo), 485

Casati-Dugna (Tiepolo), 485

Molinari, .\ntonio, 349, 350 (ill. 233), 481, 550"

Molinos, .Miguel de, 138, 337

Clerici (Tiepolo), 485, 577*^

Momper,

Cusani, 391
Durini, 120, 522**

Monaldi, Carlo, 442, 567'^

Moncalvo, 103, 519^^

Palazzi

Litta, 391,

5S3^ 554^ 558"

Marino, 121

Omenoni,

Josse de,

Mondo, Domenico,
Mondovi

572'

Chiesa della Misericordia, 564**

degli, 291

Spinola, 120

Duomo

Visconti, 120

see also

Other secular

509''-

hiiildings, galleries, collections

Ambrosiana, 116; (Caravaggio), 43, 511'^

Monnot,

S.

Uonato,

521-'",

564^*

Vicoforte and Villanova

Pietro Stefano, 366, 433, 436, 440

442, 553"> 566-\ 568-"

BIBLOSARTE

(ill.

307),

648

Monreale, cathedral, Cappella del Crocifisso, 400

Monrealese, see Novelli, Pietro

Naples
Churches

Montalto, Cardinal, 145

Montalto, villa, formerly (Bernini), 145, 168

Agostino

Montano, G.

Angelo a Nilo, S., tombs, 571''^

Annunziata, dell', 395, 398 9, 559"

B., 521-', 530^568''*

Montauti, Antonio,

Monte, Francesco Maria

Monte

del, 38, 45, 510'

Berico, Sanctuary, 557"'

S., 542'^

noy), 278

(ill.

174),

537^\ 543^;

(Duques-

(Finelli), 543';

(Lanfranco), 357

cathedral, 34, 538'"

Montecchio Maggiore,

Zecca,

Apostoli, SS., 127; (Borromini), 530''';

(Marinali), 570'*'

Montecassino, decoration, 447

Monte Compatri,

alia

.Agostino degli Scalzi, S., 127

Arcangelo

Villa Cordellina, 558"-

Ascensione

Segno,

S. (Vouet), 357, 551'""

a Chiaia, dell', 304, 542"^

Montelatici, Francesco, see Bravo

Carlo all'Arena,

Monti, Francesco, 472, 474, 574""

Monti, Francesco (of Brescia), 574^''''*

Carmine,

S.,

127

del, 127

Cathedral (Domenichino), 81-2, 357, 516^"; (Lanfranco), 357 Cappella del Tesoro, 1 27 (Fanzago),

Monticello di Fara, La Favorita, 557"

Monticiano, S. Agostino (Manetti), 98

319; (Finelli),

Montirone, Villa Lechi (C. Carloni and Lecchi),

575^''

543'^;

(Solimena), 393

Crocelle, delle, 559"^

Diego airOspedaletto,

Montorsoli, 134
Montreal, private collection (Canaletto), 501
Moor Park (Amigoni), 483

Domenico Maggiore, S. (Caravaggio),

Domenico Soriano, S. (Preti), 552""

Morandi, Giovanni Maria, 549^*^

Morari, Giovan Battista Maria, 565'^

Filippo Neri, S. (Reni), 55

Moratti, Francesco, 436, 447

Morazzone, 98-9, 99-101 (ill. 44), 339, 340
^78, 5 19^'. ^7.^^54951

Gerolamini, dei, 383

Gesii Nuovo, 117; (Fanzago), 319; (Lanfranco),
357; (Solimena), 571''

Donnaregina

(ill.

221),

Morelli, Lazzaro, 317,318, 434, 528'"', 543', 545"'

Moretti, Giuseppe, 503

''' '"'

Giacomo

Morlaiter,

Gian Maria, 453, 57o"'-^'

Morlaiter, Michelangelo, 557"", 577"

Giovanni

Moroni, Giovanni

Giuseppe degli Scalzi,

Giuseppe dei Vecchi a

Morosini, Francesco, 448

Mostaert,

Mozart,

see Pippi,

W.

(ill.

315)

Nicolo

Muttoni, Francesco, 389, 557*^

Muttoni, Pietro, see Vecchia

Muziano, Girolamo, 27-8, 43

Martino,

Mulier, Pieter, 575''

Munich
Alte Pinakothek (F. Guardi), 503
Graphische Sammlung (Cortona), 532-'
St Michael, 419

Mura, Francesco de, 393, 465, 476, 572", 575'^

Murgia, Francesco, 548^''
Musso, Nicolo, 515"
Muti, G. A. G., 443-4 (ill. 311)
Muttone, Giacomo, 558'^

S., 542'

S., 542'"

Battista, S., 543'^

S.,

304

S. Potito, S.,

303
Lorenzo, S., facade, 559*''; (Bolgi), 543'
Maria degli Angeli, S., 127

Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria
Maria

A., 505

1"*

degli Spagnuoli, S. (Naccherino), 523'''

Giorgio dei Genovesi,

Giorgio Maggiore,

493

358
52, 510*

(Sanfelice), 559*^

Moretto, 45

Battista,

S. (Caracciolo),

degli Angeli alle Croci, S., 542'"

di Costantinopoli, S., 127

Egiziaca, S., 303, 304

Maggiore, S., 542"'

Mater Domini,

S.

(ill.

194), 542*'

(Naccherino), 543'

dei Aliracoli, S., 543''

Monti, S., 542""

Nova, S. (Caracciolo), 358

dei
la

dei Pellegrini, S. (Naccherino), 134

della Pazienza, S. (Naccherino), 134
della Sanita, S., 117, 127
della Sapienza, S., 127, 304, 542''

succurre mis^ris,

S., 559**^

(Caracciolo),

358; (Dosio),
(Fanzago), 302, 303 (ill. 193), 319,
542"'; (Finoglia), 552""; (Giordano), 463 (ill.
S.,

127;

Mysticism, 139, 337

542""''';

Naccherino, Michelangelo, 128, 134, 305, 523''-*,

324); (Juvarra's altar projects), 414; (Lanfranco),

357; (Reni), 551"**; (Ribera), 552'"-; (Ruoppolo),
361 (ill. 246); (Stanzioni), 55-2""; (Vaccaro),

543-"'

Naldini, Paolo, 312, 317, 319, 366, 544-", 54S^^*^''"

Nancy, theatre, 574'"

571"; (Vouet), 551'""

BIBLOSARTE

649

Naples continued

Monte

Nebbia, Cesare, 27, 28, 507'"

della Misericordia, del, 543'^; (Caracci-

356 (ill. 241 ); (Caravaggio), 53, 54, 356, 510Nicola alia Carita, S., facjade, 393
olo),

Nunziatelle, delle, 393; (De Mura), 572"

Ospedaletto, dell" (Solimena), 393

Paolo Maggiore,

mena), 464

(ill.

126-7; (Finelli),

S.,

325), 571^"; (Stanzioni), 358

(ill.

PP. delle .Missioni, dei, 370, 527"^

Sebastiano, S., 127

SS. (Fanzago), 319; (Nac-

Pendino,

Teresa,

S.,

Monache,

S., 542"'*

Nicephorus, 171
Nicholas V, 567'"

(ill.

62), 301,

523",

542"-'

Nollekens, Joseph, 537*-

NoUi, G. B., 379

Nome,

.\nna, 304, 542'-

di, staircase,

Novara

394-5

Museo

della Misericordia, 543'

Reale, 126; (Stanzioni), 358

S.

in,

394

(ill.

Other secular buildings,

360

(Carracci),

41); (Spada). 94

Gennaro, 304;

Olivarez,

Duke, 133

Olivieri, Pietro Paolo,

512'-,

513-'';

40

Omodei, Cardinal, 539^'

Onofri, Crescenzio, 547-"

Oratory of St Philip Neri, 23

5-^
1

see

Orgiano,

Comune

di,

ilia

Orlandi, Stefano, 474

Oropa, sanctuary, 561'-

Nauclerio, Giambattista, 393, 559"

Orsini, Fulvio, 63, 512'-

Navona,

Orsolino, .\ndrea, 392

F., 555-"
Nazari, Bartolomeo, 479, 578""

4, 25,

40

Turchi

Orbetto,

Oria, 399
Orizzonte, 498

Maria, 401

Nappi, Francesco, 5
Nardo, 399
Natali, G. B., 573-'

S.

69,

Piazza Dante, 399

Teatro S. Carlo, 393, 559"'

Tommaso

Odazzi, Giovanni, 467, 547*'

Oliva, Gian Paolo, 137, 138

245); (Saraceni), 514'^ (Sche-

(ill.

(ill.

(Tanzio), 103

Nymphenburg (Amigoni), 483

Fontana Medina, 134

Foro Carolino, see Piazza Dante
Granary, 383, 393
Guglia di S. Domenico, 543"' di
deirimmacolata, 571"''

doni), 96

Nuvolo, Fra, 117, 127

Nuvolone, Carlo Francesco, 339, 350, 550"Nuvolone, Giuseppe, 350

galleries, collections

Albergo de" Poveri, 383, 393

Cavalry barracks, 399

(Preti),

loi

Novelli, Pietro, 340, 549"^"

Novello, Giovanni Battista, 557""

270), 559"'

.\cquedotto Carolino, 399

Museo Nazionale

Civico (Tanzio), 103

Gaudenzio (.Morazzone),

Novelli, Pier .\ntonio, 577''

269)

(ill.

Serra Cassano, 394

Via Foria,

359 60

.Andrea, 554^
Nolo, 401, 560'"^

Noiiveau Traite (Cordemoy), 372

Maddaloni, 304
Majo, Bartolomeo

Sanfelice, 394

Fran(;ois,

Nono,

Firrao, fac^ade, 542^'

Napoli,

507

of,

Nogari, Paris, 27

Fernandez, staircase, 559*^

Monte

Nicaea, Council

Nogari, Giuseppe, 476, 484, 493, 577"'

127

a Chiaia, S., 542""

Trinita delle

(Algardi), 535-'; (Caffa),

Nightingale, Lady Klizabeth, 525"

Palazzi

Donn'

.Museum

Nigetti, .\latteo, 125, 126

127

S.,

Spirito Santo, 399

Teresa

.Altman C^ollection (Dou), 537*-

Nieulandt, Willem van, 509'-

cherino), 134
al

Sir Isaac, 432

^'ork

Nice, S. Gaetano, 428, 565"*"

454-6(111. 321), 570"-, 571"*

Severo

507^

577"'

Sansevero de' Sangri, Cappella, decoration, 450,

Sosio,

26c),

544"; (Caravaggio), 510"; (Fctti), 107 (ill. 49)

Pierpont .Morgan Library (Tiepolo), 489 (ill. 345),

Reale, Cappella (Fanzago), 319

New

.Metropolitan

Pieta dei Turchini, della (Do), 551"'

Palma Giovane

Negri, Pietro, 347

Neri, St Philip, 22, 23, 25, 40, 41, 56,
Netscher, Caspar, 537'-

Newton,

543''; (Soli-

243), 532'""'

Severino

Negrctti, Jacopo, see

Orsoni, Gioseffo, 474

BIBLOSARTE

Fracanzan, 557"-

650

INDEX

Orta, Sacro

Monte (Morazzone),

Palladio, Andrea, 115, 116, 123, 175, 180, 182, 187,

10

Orvieto

1H8, 224, 225, 229, 232,

Cathedral (Cornacchini), 436 8

Museo deirOpera (Mochi), 130

Osuna, Duke

of,

(ill.

304)

(ill.

66), 132

Palma, Andrea,

357

2947,

297, 298, 299, 370,

382, 386-7, 387, 389, 412, 417, 420, 427, 431, 531
541'', 556^', 55-752. 54. 58. SX^ g^^HU
538''

Ottobeuren (.^migoni), 483

Palma Giovane, 106,

Palma Vecchio, 347

Ottoboni, Cardinal, 401, 414, 566"

Paltronieri, Pietro, see Mirandolesi

Ottonelli, 265

Pamphili, Camillo, 139, 181, 217, 268 (ill. 164)

Pamphili, Panfilo(.'),'268 (ill. 164), 535-^

Ottino, Pasquale, 5o8-\ 515'", 520'"

Ottoni, Lorenzo, 316, 435, 436, 447, 545^\ $66*, 567-5

519'"'

Nuvolone, Carlo Francesco

Oxford
Ashmolean Museum (Bernini), 526^**
Christ Church (Carracci), 71, 513^"

Pannini, Gian Paolo, 498, 499

Padovanino, 106, 347,

Paolini, Pietro, 519-'

Panfilo, see

',

(ill.

352), 501, 553",

Pannini, Giuseppe, 377, 556^', 567'*

519'"'

Paracca, Giovan Antonio, see Valsoldo

Padua
Palazzo Papafava, 557"

Parigi, Alfonso, 125, 132, 523'^

Santo, Cappella del Tesoro, 569^'; (de Corte),

570M
S.

Parigi, Giulio, 125, 132, 301, 359,

523", 54260

Paris

Maria del Pianto, 558"

Pagani, Paolo, 482,

Bibliotheque Nationale (Bernini), 171, 525-*

Fontaine de Grenelle, 246

576''''

Pagano, Francesco, 571"'

Henry IV,

Paggi, Giovanni Battista, 104, 105

Hotel Mazarin (Romanelli), 321

statue (destroyed), 133, 523''-

561"

Palazzotto, Giuseppe, 560^''"

Invalides, 117,

Paleotti, Gabriele, 21, 27,

Louvre, 395; Bernini's projects, 185, 187-9 ('l'108), 527**", 562'^, 563'"; Candiani's project,

345

Palermo
Churches

527***;

Cortona's project, 246, 527**, 533^^; Rai-

Agostino, S. (Serpotta), 459

Anna, S., fafade, 401, 560""

naldi's project, 527**, 533^^; (Caravaggio), 510'*;

Caterina aH'Olivella, Oratorio di S. (Serpotta), 459

Cita, Oratorio di S. (Serpotta), 458

(Cortona), 246, 258; (Dou), 537*-; (Gentileschi),

74, 514''; (Guercino), 88; (Michelangelo), 317;

Domenico,

(Raphael), 58; (Reni), 517^'; (Romanelli), 321;

S.,

(Carracci), 62, 69, 70, 513-*; (Champaigne), 438;

Oratorio del Rosario (Serpotta),

458-9 (ill- 323)

Francesco d'Assisi,

(Titian),
S. (Serpotta),

459

potta),

di S.

(Caravaggio), 510**; (Ser-

458

Orsola, S. (Serpotta), 458

Ospedale dei Sacerdoti, dell' (Serpotta), 458
Pieta, della, facade,

Sainte-Anne-la-Royale, 405 (ill. 275), 561

Val-de-Grace,baldacchino, 176, 526'*;domedesign,

561"
Parma
Cathedral (Correggio), 62
Gallery (Correggio),

400

Salvatore, S., 400

536^^'

(Schedoni), 96 (Spada),
;

94, 95

Stimmate, delle (Serpotta), 458

S., facade, 400

Teresa della Kalsa,

Palazzo del Giardino (Carracci), 68

Palazzo del Municipio, 522^'
S. Alessandro, 522^'

Secular buildings
Arsenal, 400

Antonio (Bibiena), 554^

Maria dell'Annunziata, 182; (G. Rainaldi), 537'
S. Maria del Quartiere, 122, 522'Teatro Farnese, 123
S.

Bonagia, Palazzo, staircase, 401

Museo Nazionale

(Raggi), 544-"^'''

Gesii, decoration, 507"

Lorenzo, Oratorio

48

Notre-Dame

(Serpotta), 458

Pretoria, Piazza, fountain, 134

S.

Quattro Canti, 400, 560"^

Santa Croce, Palazzo (formerly, Giaquinto), 572'"

Parmigianino, 103, 348,

Statue of Charles H, 458

Parodi, Filippo,

Parodi,

Domenico,

5i8"'\

537^^

575^''

Palestrina, see Praeneste

..^36, 448 (ill. 315), 450, 569'"-, 570"

Partanna, church (V. di Messina), 459

Paliano, Palazzo Colonna, 539-"*

Pasinelli,

Palladino, see Zabarclli

Pasqualino, 496

Lorenzo, 343, 471, 474, 549^*

BIBLOSARTE

651

Passalacqua, Pietro, 377, 556^'

Passante, Bartolomeo, 551**'

Piamontini, Giuseppe, 568"' **

Pianca, Giuseppe .\ntonio, 576"

Passardi, Giovanni, 392

Plane,

Passariano, Villa Manin, 389, 558"*

Passarotti, Bartolommeo, 512", 513^"

Piazzetta,

Giovanni Battista,
Giuseppe, 467
Passignano, Domenico, 27,
Passeri,

Giovan .Maria dellc, 575"

Giovanni Battista, 340, 349, 461, 462, 474,
481-2 (ill. 339), 483. 485, 494, 503, 575^ 576'*,
578'""

174, 231, 266, 325

Passeri,

28, ^3, ^4, 35, 97, 98, 141,

5o8-',55i'"

Picchiati,

Bartolomeo, 542'-"

Picchiati,

Francesco .Antonio, 542"

Pompeo, 401,
Domenico, t,2

Picherali,

Patronage, 28

ff.,

140-2, 363, 524'"

Pieratti,

Paul

III, 24, 157, 164, 364

Paul IV, 23, 25
Paul V, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28-33

43, 56, 128, 138, 146, 148

(ill.

538", 560'"^

Piermarini, Giuseppe, 391, 558'*

Pieroni, .Messandro, 126 (ill. 62)
(ill-

3). 34. 40,

41

42.

75), 520"

Paulus Diaconus, 261

Pietrasanta, Federico, 558'

Pigneto, Villa del, 2^2 4

(ills.

Pavia
Certosa, decoration, i34;(Cerano),99;(Crespi), 104

Pignoni, Simone, 345, 550"'

Pimentel, Cardinal, 308, 544"

Palazzo Mezzabarba, 371, 527*', 553'

Pincellotti,

S.
S.

Marco, fai^ade, 554'

Maria di Canepanova, 297,

521-'',

541^'

Bartolomeo, 567'<'"

Pio, .\ngelo, 569^"

Piola,

Domenico, 474

Domenico, 354-5, 450, 474,

Piola, Paolo

Pellegrini, Antonio, 479, 482-3, 483, 576"''^

Girolamo,

Piombino Dese,

Pellegrini, Ignazio, 559*"

Pippi, Nicolo, 27

Penna, Cesare, 400

'Pensionante del Saraceni', 514'^

Piranesi,

\'illa

Giovanni

553"'''

554-

Cabianca

see

551"-, 573-",

Pisa, 301

Cornaro (Bortoloni), 577""

Battista,

364-6

(ill.

247), 383, 498,

556'"
,

S. Stefano dei Cavalieri, 125

Peranda, Sante, 519^"

Pistoia, S. .Maria degli .Angeli (formerly,

Permoser, Balthasar, 317, 542"'

Peroni, Giuseppe, 310-11, 536-', 543'

Popolare) (Gherardini), 470

Pitochetto, II, see Ceruti

Perrier, Francois, 517'"

Pittoni, Francesco,

Persico, Paolo, 57

it's

Perspectiva pictorum

et

architectnrum (Pozzo), 366

S.

Giovanni

575'',

macchia, 341

Pillura di tocco, 341, 462, 503, 505

Pius IV, 21, 25

Angelo, baldacchino, 176

Peruzzi, Baldassare, 36, 65,

483
Battista, 462, 474, 476, 483, 484,

ST?'-"''-'

Pittiira di

Palazzo Antinori (or Gallenga Stuart), 556^"

14,

206

Pescocostanzo, Collegiata (Tanzio), 103, 519^'

Pius V, 23, 25
Pius IX, 529"

Pessina, G. B., 120

Pizzocaro, Antonio, 387, 557"'

Peterzano, Simone, 45, 510Petondi, Gregorio, 392

Placila philosnphica (Guarini), 405

Petrarch, 579'"

Planzoni, Filippo, 524"-

Petrini,

Giuseppe Antonio,

Phelypeaux de
Philip

IV of Spain, 133

Planteri,

575'",

576''''

Louis, 568-"

la Vrilliere,
(ill.

69), 317, 458, 527"

V of Spain, 393, 414

Philip Neri, St, see Neri
G.

B.,

390

(ill.

Giacomo

Poggio

Battista,

del, 571^

Caiano (Gabbiani), 573"

Polazzo, Francesco, 482

Polidoro da Caravaggio, 518'", 524', 533"

(Lanfranco), 86

Statues of .'Messandro and Ranuccio Farnese, 130,

(ill.

Giuseppe and Giovan

569^^

Puettcs (.Aristotle), 535"

266)

Cathedral (Gucrcino, Morazzone), loi

131

564''^

Poccetti, Bernardino, 27, 97

Piacenza

Museum

Gian Giacomo,

Pliny, 43
Plura, Carlo

Po,

Philip

Piacentini,

now Univer-

sita

Pittoni,

Perugia

575"

575''''

Piola, Pellegro (Pellegrino), 551""

Pellegrini, Carlo, 141, 173

Penso, Francesco,

140), 2^9, 242,

Pini, Francesco, 563^-

Pavona, Francesco, 578""

Pedrini,

1^9,

246,289,531""

Polignac, Cardinal, 498

67)

BIBLOSARTE

450,

652

INDEX

Pomarancio, Nicolo, 27, 34, 38;

Roncalli,

see also

Cristoforo

Quadrio, Giuseppe, 120, 522^', 553^

Pompei, Alessandro, 558"'

Domenico, 448

Qiiaglio, Giulio,

Ponsonelli,
Ponsonelli,

Quadrio, Giovan Battista, 558'^

Quadrio, Girolamo, 521-"

Giacomo Antonio, 448

573"

Qiiaini, Luigi, 573-"

Pontecorvo, S. Maria dclle Pcriclitanti,

Qiiarantini,

T,()ji

Bernardo Maria, 558"

Quarini, Mario, 565"-

Pontormo, y7
Ponzio, P'laminio, 26, 29, 30

(ill.

37-8 (ill. 10), HI, 507'",

Ponzone, Matteo, 519^"
Popoli, Giacinto de, 552""
35,

2), 33,

508^

34-5

(ills.

6, 7),

520'

Qucirolo, Francesco, ^66, 448 50, 454 6

567'"

Quentin de la Tour, Maurice,

Querini, Antonio Maria, 122

Poppelmann, M. D., 376

(ill.

321),

578'"'

Quietism, 138, 337

Pordenone, 93, 99
Porpora, Paolo, 361, 552'-"
Porta,

Giacomo

Porta,

Guglielmo

Racconigi

della, 26, 40, 41, 206, 210, 289, 529'

Castle, Guarini's designs,

S.

164

della, 127, 157,

Giovanni,

562"

564''^

Possevino, Antonio, 21

Raggi, Antonio, 182, 205

Poussin, Claude, 566'

200, 201), 316, 317, 319, 366, 392, 435, 436,

448, 459, 533^ 543', 544''-''-"", 545'"-^', 568'"
Raggi, Giovanni, 577'^^

Poussin, Nicolas, 43,63,68,69, 70, 141, 171, 172, 173,

250, 259, 261, 263, 265, 266, 267, 272, 278, 322, 325,

Ragusa, 401

Pozzo, Andrea, 140, 328, 334, 335 (ill. 217), 366, 419,
507^ 524'^ 548, 553", 564^\ 566% 575^"
Pozzo, Cassiano del, 231, 246, 247, 272, 325, 531",
Pozzo, Jacopo Antonio, 557'-

S.

560'"''

Giuseppe, 560'"*

Raguzzini, Filippo, 370, 377, 379-80

Rainaldi, Carlo,

(ill.

253), 393,

Temple, 232, 246, 532'*

289, 291, 52o5, 522*', 527^

(ill.

128),

279-86

(ill.

128), 225, 279, 281,

537>'-'"

Raineri, F. M., see Schivenoglia

Mary of Altotting, 405-6

Rana, Andrea, 430-1,

565''''"'

Rancate, Zijst Collection (Serodine), 77

Raphael, 27,34, 57, 58,63, 65, 68, 80,81, 82,83,84, 178,

Prato, 301

Bacchino fountain, 319

delle Carceri, 178

231, 252, 259, 261, 263, 265, 270, 275, 321, 324, 462,

Francesco Maria, 372, 389

(ill.

264),

Preti, Mattia, 139, 322, 328, 330, 341, 357,

558"
360-1

(ill.

552"'-

465, 468, 469, 489, 507", 513^", 5I6^^ 567-', 57I^

572'"

Ravenna
Palazzo Baronio (now Rasponi Bonanzi),

Pinacoteca (Bravo), 349

Procaccini, Camillo, 10

Procaccini, Giulio Cesare, 92, 98 9, 101-3

(ill.

45),

5i9'-i'^J'3o

S.

Maria

S. Vitale,

in Porto,

(ill.

558''''

232), 550"'

554*

292

Recchi, Giovan Paolo and Giovan Antonio, 574'"

Provaglia, Bartolomeo, 291

Puget, Pierre, 317, 447, 448,

Puglieschi, Antonio, 573-*

213-18

Rainaldi, Girolamo, 213-14

Prague
Czernin Palace, 528"-"

245),464,S48^,
Probabilism, 138

197,

(ills.

S. Rosalia (Cametti), 567-'

Madonna

in,

175-81), 315, 328, 370, 375, 390, 399, 527S088,

533'\537'-^"-, 545'",564'^-''

Praeneste (Palestrina)

104,

Cathedral,

555", 556^" -^ 567^^

537''

Preti,

310-12

Raggi, Maria, 150, 160, 167

327, 340, 347, 354, 497, 534''''', 535", 537''

Pozzi, Stefano, 467

St

120), 307, 308,

(ill.

(ills.

545-*"

Pynas, Jan Symonsz., 78

Pyramid, use on tombs, 444

Recco, Giacomo, 361, 552'-"

Recco, Giovan Battista, 361
Recco, Giuseppe, 361, 362, 5521^
Redi, Tomaso, 573--

Reggio Emilia, Madonna della Ghiara, 122-3

Quadratura, 33, 65-6, 88, 174, 250-2, 292, 334, 343-4,
366, 474-6, 487, 498
Quadri, Bernardino, 562"
Qiiadri nporlali, 66, 80, 88, 263

Regnier, Nicolas, 108, 515", 520^"

Reiff, Peter Paul, 566"

Rembrandt,
579"'

54, 77, 78, 346, 354, 462, 489, 490, 496,

Quadrio, Carlo Giulio, 555"

BIBLOSARTE

653

Reni, Guido, 32

(ill.

4), ^i, 34, 35, 63,

78-9, 79, 80, 82,

31-3), 92, 93, 105, 146, 265, 269, 322, 334,

337- 339< 34 1 -3 ('Hs. 223, 224), 344, 359, 360, 47 1 , 496,
5i5^\ 516^ 517"-'', 5i8, 519-'^ 524\ 549''-"-'\

83-s

(ills.

55i 572", 573"

Rome
Churches
Adriano, S. (Longhi), 288, 539"

Agnese

in Piazza

Navona,

S.,

141, 212, 213

18

127-9), 279, 280, 303, 328, 420, 420-1,

529--", 564^'; (Bernini), 529-"; (Caffa), 307,

(ills.

Renieri, Niccolo, see Regnier

Resani, Arcangelo, 578""

543"; (Ferrata), 308 10

Reschi, Pandolfo, 579"'

(Ferri), 217. 328; (Gaulli), 217. 328; (Grande),

Retti,

Leonardo, 309

199), 310, 312, 316,

(ill.

544-%

545'"

Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 326, 577"*

Rhetoric, 140,

524""

(ills.

198,

199),

539-"; (Raggi), 310- 1 1 (ill. 200)

Agostino, S., 395; (.Abbatini), 173; (Bergondi),
308; (Bernini), 174, 526''; (Caffa), 307, 308;

(Caravaggio), 5 10"; (Ferrata), 543'\ 544'''; (Lan-

Rhetoric (.\ristotle), 140

franco), 80, 86, 516", 517'"'; convent of

Rho (Morazzone),

manelli), 308

loi

Ribera, Jusepe de, 340, 356-7, 358, 360, 462, 55

1'"*'^',

552"'-'"'

Riccardi, Gabrielc, 400

Ricchino, Francesco Maria, 115, 116,

18-21

(ills.

56-8), 290, 292, 52I-'*"', 554^

46

19

338), 482, 483, 484, 498, 500

130);

444

.\ndrea

al

Quirinale, S., 141, 160, 176, 181 4

(ills.

544"
Andrea della

182,

(ill.

353), 503,

469, 470, 476, 478, 479-8

1 ,

(ill.

(Bracci),

3i2);(Cozza), 546-

(ill.

Valle, S., 40, 41, 507'", 509'"; (P.

Bernini), 129

Ricci, Sebastiano, 349,

78, 79), 545^'

"

Giovan Battista, 27, 28-9

Marco, 476, 478, 479, 498-501

576", 579'-"

(ill.

(ills.

102-5), '88, 195, 242, 280, 289, 303, 328, i,~o,

527'" " ; (Cortese), 527" ; (Legros), 1 39 (Raggi),

522*''

Ricchino, Gian Domenico,

Ricci,

delle Fratte, S., 40, 212, 218

(Bernini), 151

Ricchi, Pietro, 550"'

(Ro-

Anastasia, S., ^70; facade, 540''; (Aprile, Ferrata),

316
Andrea

Ricca, Antonio, 392

Ricci,

543'^

(ill.

353), 503, 573",

576"^-

(ill.

64); (Borromini), 197;

in, 400;

35), 88, 321, 328, 517'*"; (.Maderno),

Ricciolini, Niccolo,

(Preti), T,22,

372
Richardson, Jonathan, 367

(Do-

menichino), 81,83, 275, 516'" "';(Fontana), 375,

538'^ (Grimaldi), 127; (Lantranco). 81, 87 (ill.
328; (Raggi), 310; (Rainaldi), 279,

"'^

Richter, Johan, 579'--

283 (ill. 179),' 400, 538'"Angeli Custodi, SS. (Rainaldi), 538"'

Rieti, cathedral (Bernini), 526^^

Antonio

Rigaud, Hyacinthe, 575"

.ApoUinare, S., design by Fuga, 383; fa9ade, 538'

Riminaldi, Orazio, 519-'

Apostoli, SS., 376; (Gaulli). 328; (Odazzi), 547*"

Bernardo alle Terme, S., 40; (Fancelli), 545*";

Riva di Chieri, church, 430

Riviera, Egidio della, 27

de' Portoghesi, S., 539-'

(Mariani), 129 30

(ill.

65)

Biagio in Campitelli, S., 373

Bibiana, S., 174-5 (>" 95). '84. 526"'; (Bernini),

Rivoli, castle, 563^"

Robert, Hubert, 456, 498

Robilant, Fihppo di, 565'-

145-6

(ill.

73), 154, 169, 274; (Ciampclli), 247;

Rocaille, 372

(Cortona), 175, 231, 247, 248

Rocca, Michele, 467

533'"

Roccatagliata, Nicolo, 450,

569-'''

Roccatagliata, Sebastiano, 569^''

'Rococo,

Italian',

Carlo ai Catinari, S., 40, 4

7, 52 '\ (Gherardi),
376, 555-'; (Gimignani), 322; (Lanfranco), 328;
1

(Preti),

371-2

Rodi, Faustino, 554^

Rodrigues dos Santos, Manoel, 377, 555"

Carlo

al

539"

Romano, Gaspare, 458

Rombouts, Theodoor, 78

548"

Corso,

(Rainaldi), 286; (Sacchi), 534^

S., 40, 41, 288, 539--

150), 399, 533^*,

(ill.

RoUi, Giuseppe, 549'"

266, 308, 321, 322, 546\

552"'

(Brandi),

328; (Cavallini), 316; (Cortona), 232, 237, 245

Rodriguez, .^lonso, 515''

Romanelli, Giovanni Francesco, 80, 141, 142, 173,

151), 249, 262,

(ill.

Carlo

alle

539-^

Quattro F'ontanc,

(C

Fancelli), 316,

S. earlier

Borromini's church, 198 206

(ills.

church, 40;

115 20), 212,

218, 219, 222, 235, 288, 395. 404, 405, 528'" ,

529-^ 530'", 532-'", 562'" ; (Borgianni), 41, 75 (ill.
25); (Cerrini). 322

Caterina della Ruota, S., facade, 538'

BIBLOSARTE

INDEX

654

Rome: Clhurchcs mminuccl

Caterina da
(Bracci),

Rome: Churches
Monte Magnanapoli,

Siena a

544'^

307-8

(Cafta),

196),

(ill.

S.

543",

544'^ '^ (Finelli). 543"; (Garzi), 328

Cecilia, S., 40; (Conca),

466

(ill.

327), 467, 572"*;

523"

(P'uga), 377; (S. .Vladerno), 128,

Girolamo

cimliiiucJ

della

Carita,

(Borromini),

S.

530^';

(Castelli), 540''

Girolamo
Giuseppe
Giuseppe

dei Schiavoni, S., 26

Capo

Case, S., 40

le

dei Falegnami, S. (.Maratti), 337

Magno, S. (Costanzi), 572'"; (Domeni-

Celso e Giuliano, SS., 377, 555^'

S., 292, 528*

Gregorio

Crisogono,

34; (Reni), 79, 83; (Soria), 34 (ill. 5)

Ignazio, S., 40, 41, 540"; Domenichino's project,

Costanza,

chino), 79, 80; (Lanfranco), 85 (N. Pomarancio),

;

40

S.,

Croce in Gerusalemme, S., 377

Croce dei Lucchesi, S. (Coli, Gherardi), 547-"

Domenico e Sisto, SS.

(Canuti), 328, 333 (ill. 216),

334; (Greca), 288-9, 539"'; (Raggi), 544-; (Turriani), 289, 539-''

Francesca Romana,

S.,

261
Ivo della Sapienza, S., 206-12

40

S., facade, 540^^

(Bernini), 152,

(Bernini), 313-14; (Cortona), 245, 533^''

(Gaulli), 139, 174, 311, 328, 329

(ill.

213), 332-3

215), 366, 547-^ 548''-; (Maglia, Naldini),

312, 544-^ (Raggi), 310, 311-12

544^5. (Retti), 312

Gesu

(ill.

201), 366,

S. (Bernini),

167, 444,

Badalocchio,

538'^

Sangallo's project,

S.,

541^";

fafade, 377, 555^-;

(Borromini), 530^^;

(Cortona), 530^^. (Raggi), 310

Giovanni

Lucina, S. (Bernini), 152, 313-14

(ill.

(Stanzioni), 552'"^

Lorenzo in Miranda, S. (Cortona), 258-9

Lorenzo fuori le Mura, S. (Duquesnoy), 276, 537^'
Lucia

S. (Finelli),

314-15, 544^-

in Selci, S. (Borromini), 530''

52-3 (ill. 15), 55, 55-6, 86, 510",

511^-; (Domenichino), 79, 80-1 (ill. 29), 247,
311, 516-8

gio), 45, 49, 50,

al Corso, S., fa(pade, 373-5 (ill. 249), 383,

399, 402, 554'\ 555'' ; (Algardi), 535-^ (Cametti),
;

443-4 (ill. 311)

Maria degli Angeh,

Corsini,

decoration,

382;

438,

S.,

395; (Houdon), 433;

Cappella

567",

568^';

212-13

Algardi), 536-"* (Borromini),

126), 392, 529'"''^-*; (Camassei),

(i'l-

(Carcani), 435

(Finelli),

(ill.

302), 566'^; (Duca), 313;

(ill. 204); (Galilei), 377; (Gimi(Longhi), 314; (S. Maderno), 523*'';

314

gnani), 321

(Maini), 438, 439 (ill. 305), 442, 567'^; (Maratti),

32 1 366, 553" 566" (Monaldi), 442 (Montauti),
568^'; (Rossi), 289, 539-"'; (Rusconi), 436, 437
,

303), 447, 566**; (Sacchi), 321; (Valle), 275,

438-9 (ill. 306); (Volterra), 212

Giovanni in Oleo, S., 530'^

171),

277

(ill.

S.

(Duquesnoy), 275-6

(ill.

172), 278, 537^'; (Saraceni), 76

in Araceli, S. (Bernini), 150; (Maglia),

316;

(Rainaldi), 286

facade, 363, 377, 382-3 (ill. 258), 556';

facade (Juvarra's project), 563^'; frescoes, 26;

Santori Chapel, 40

Maria dell'Anima,
Maria

Fonte, S. (Sacchi), 263

in Laterano, S., 40, 122;

in

Giovanni

(ill.

in

203); (Rainaldi), 286, 538"'; (Saraceni), 41-2, 76;

(Romanelli), 322

Giovanni dei Fiorentini,

525'\

Marcello
S. (Albani,

Lanfranco), 78-9, 51 5-'

Giovanni Calibita, S., facade project (Longhi),

S. (Bernini), 167, 444,

Luigi de' Francesi, S. (.\rpino), 507"; (Caravag527''';

(Buzio), 127

Giacomo alia Lungarna,

525", 526
Giacomo degli Spagnuoli,

Lorenzo

Lucia dei Ginnasi,

e Maria, 315; decoration, 315-16, 316, 328,

5U"-^\ 571"; (Rainaldi), 286, 315

Giacomodegli Incurabili, S., 183, 280, 520-,

321

Damaso,

in

121-5), 218,

(ills.

565"

564'",

526^-^ (Cortona), 235

Gesii, 40, 41; altar of St Ignatius, 435-6, 553",

(ill.

219, 328, 529'"

Lorenzo

155(111.81)

Gallicano, S., 377

566^

575'"; (Rusconi), 436; (Valle), 438

Isidore, S., fa9ade, 376; (Bernini), 526^' ; (Sacchi),

Eligio dei Orefici, S., 178

Francesco a Ripa,

540^'; (Algardi), 536-^ (Legros), 433 (ill. 300),

438; (Pozzo), 140, 328, 334, 335 (ill. 217), 548^',

Maria

in Campitelli, S.,

279-83

328, 375, 390, 399, 537'''

Maria
Maria

in

Campo Marzo,

della

(ills.

175-8), 288,

564"

S., 289, 539^'

Concezione,

S.,

decoration,

322;

(Cortona), 258-9

Maria in Cosmedin, S. (Maratti), 366, 553"'

Maria Liberatrice, S., 40
Maria di Loreto, S. (Duquesnoy), 272-5 (ills. 168,
169), 536-"'^'^; (Finelli), 543^; (S. Maderno),
523'''

Maria Maddalena,

S., facade,

377, 380, 402, 555";

(G. .\mato), 400; (Monaldi), 567'^

Maria Maggiore,

S., apse,

project), 286, 527**";

29-33

(ills-

286; apse (Bernini's

Chapel of Paul

\',

26, 27, 28,

2-4), 79, 85, 98, 127-8,

143, 286,

BIBLOSARTE

Rome Churches
;

508'"

-';

Rome Churches

continued
27, 2g, 33, 127, 286,

525"; fa(;ade, 377, 383; sacristy, frescoes, 508-";

Sforza Chapel, 289; (Algardi), 267; (Arpino), 32
(ill.4),

33; (P. Bernini), 128, i43;(Carcani), 566';

(Cigoli),

T,],,

q8; (Fancelli, Ferrata), 545^"; (Guidi),

443; (Lanfranco), 85; (Lucenti), 317;

(S.

Ma-

demo), 523"^; (Rainaldi), 286, 538'"; (Reni), 32

79; (Valsoldo), 27, 127
Maria sopra Minerva, S., decoration, 40, 41
(Bernini), 144, 150, i6o;(Bianchi),567-';(Bracci),
(ill.

4), 33,

439, 443 (ill. 310), 567-'; (Carcani), 566' ; (Celio),

34; (Cordier), 127; (Ferrata), 308, 544'"; (S.

Maderno),

523'"*;

continued

Chapel ofSixtus V,

(Marchionni), 567-'; (Mari),

-Maria in Via Lata, S., 232, 244 5

280, 530", 533J" *'; (Fancelli).

148. 149),

(ills.

316

Maria

della Vittoria, S., 34, 40,

173; (Bernini), 150, 154

161,

in;

157 60

3,

(.Abbatini),

174, 308, 315, 328, 419, 525""

169,

Martina e Luca, SS., 141,

41

i(>9,

213

15, 232,

390, 532-""

306
Martino

560";

(Fancelli), 316; (Nlcnghini),

.Monti,

ai

S.

(Dughct),

(Grimaldi), 547-'; (Naldini),

Mercedari,

Chiesa della

Casa Gencralizia dci

283 6

(ills.

180, 181), 375,

Maria
Maria

di
di

538'-

Maria

(Maratti), 339

(ill.

220) (Teodoli),
;

Maria deU'Orto,

S.

(Baglione),

sss-^"

(Lan-

della .Morte, S., facade, 370, 383;

franco), 86
Maria della Neve, S., facade, 555-Maria dell'Orazione e Morte, S., 377,

243

(ill.

514";

(Calan-

Maria del Popolo,

544" (Bernini),

Cappella (Guidi), 312-13

Pieta,

(ill.

Nereo and
Niccolo

Nicolo

.Achilleo, SS., 40, 509*"

Carcere, S., 40
da Tolentino, S.,
in

536"^^\

540^';

(.Mgardi),

40;

(Baratta),

308,

536-^

308,

(C^oli,

(Ferrata),

533^";

316,

Nome

536'*;

533'",

308,

(Ferri), 533^"; (Guidi), 308, 536-'

(Raggi),

533"

di .Maria, SS., 377, 555'^

Orazione

see .Maria in Vallicella, S.

e .Morte,

Orazione e .Morte,

Chiesa delP,

see .Maria dell'

S.

Pantaleo, S. (Gherardi), 328

Mura,

Paolo fuori

le

Peter's

altarpieces,

S. (Lanfranco, destroyed),

S. (Algardi), 267, 314, 535-',

151, 152-4

(Caravaggio), 49, 50

(ill.

(ill.

80),

526", 568-';

13), 53, 55, 510";

racci), 68-9(ill. 21), 79;(Ferrata),

(Car-

544"~;(Fontana),

375 (Ghisleri), 567-" (Guidi), 312; (Lorenzetti),

152; (Raggi), 544"; (Raphael), 567-'; (Tacconi),
;

St,

508"";

28,

baldacchino

(Bernini), 141, 143, 144, 155, 161, 162

172,

174,

(Borromini),

(G.

.\.

197;

F'ancelli),

(Duquesnoy),

(ill.

86),

526*""";

175-6, 272, 305, 525-',

536**;

272,

316; (Finelli), 536"; baptismal

chapel (Fontana), 375 (Trevisani), 572"" Benediction Loggia (Lanfranco), 517** Cappella del

79; (Valsoldo), 313

.Maria del Priorato, S., 556^''

Maria
Maria
Maria

di

Nuova, Chiesa,
241-2 (ill.
147), 244, 528, 532-*-, 538^

(Albani), 79; (Fancelli), 316, 545^"; (Ferrata),

545^"; (S. Maderno), 523-^

Monte

li),

527*^, 555^"

della Pace, S., 141, 184, 188, 232,

146),

26),

Gherardi), 547-"; (Cortona), 245, 533'"; (Fancel-

drucci), 328

Maria

(ill.

'4"

202); (Rossi), 289, 540'-'

Monserrato, S. (Bernini), 146

Monte Santo, S., 283-6 (ills. 180, 181),

'^

547-";

327,

544-''

(Raguzzini), 567-'; (Rainaldi), 538'"

S.,

235-

142-5), 244, 245, 253, 280, 283, 288, 328,

(ills.

Padri (Borgianni), 75; (Saraceni), 76

538'- '^ (Lucenti), 317; (Raggi), 310

*';

(Cerrini), 547-"

308; (Pincellotti), 567-'; (Raggi), 308, 544--;

Maria de' Miracoli,

84, 85),

(ills.

in Publicolis, S., 539^"

Sacramento (Bernini), 152, 160-1; (Lucenti),

della Quercia, S., fac^ade, 556^^

545^*; cathedra (Bernini), 141, 144, 151, 155, 160,

della Scala, S., 40; (Slodtz, Valle), 438;

Maria dei Sette Dolori,

S.,

219

161-4
525-"

(Stanzioni, formerly), 552'"'

(ill.

131), 221, 235,

(ills.

-';

(Raggi),

87, 88),

169,

170,

174, 308,

311,

(Ferrata), 544'"; (Morclli), 318, 434;

544"

(Retti), 544-"

clock-tower, former

(Ferrabosco), 29, 528""; decoration, 141, 305,

Maria del Suffragio, S., 40

Maria in Trastevere, S., 40; (Domenichino),
(Gherardi), 376
in Trivio, S. (Gherardi), 328

Maria
Maria

in Vallicella, S., 23, 40, 41, 509^"

269; (Cortona), 232, 256 8

(ill.

382 (ill.
257), 383; (Rainaldi's project), 537'; nave (.Maderno), 28, 112; pilasters (Raggi), 310; portico
(Bernini's project), 286; (Bonvicino, .Maderno,
III, 112, 175, 190 3

(Algardi),

157), 328,

547-"; (Fancelli), 316; (Reni), 269

Maria
Maria

dome, 299,
541"; (Arpino), 28; (Fontana), 376; (Ncbbia,
Roncalli), 507" facade (.Maderno), 28, 29 (ill. ),
543-, 566^; designs for, 117, 520'';

516^"";

534",

28-9;

(ills.

109,

reliefs (Algardi),

10), 198,

270

(ill.

166),

delle Vergini, S. (Gimignani), 547"'

Ricci),

in Via, S., fa9ade, 538'"

272, 308, 536-*; (Bernini), 150; (Guidi), 536-";

BIBLOSARTE

656

INDEX

Rome: Churches

Rome: (Churches

conlimifd

sacristy, ss^)*";

Ouvarra's project), 563''

(Algardi), 268 9 (Bernini), 144, 146, 147

(ill.

154, 155

statues
74),

82), 160, 167, 169, 171, 275, 306,

(ill.

317, 525-'"; (L. Bernini), 543-; (Bolgi), 305,

305

f)

(ill.

ig5);(Cornacchini),436;(Duquesnoy),

266, 272, 275

170), 306, 536^"; (Mochi), 130-

(ill.

306; (Slodtz), 446

2,

(Algardi), 266,

269-70

tombs

568-"*;

(ill.

313),

(ill.

165), 308, 318, 442,

536-'", 567-'; (Bernini), 141, 144, 150, 156

83), 157, r64, 165

(ill.

89), 171, 172, 269, 270,

(ill.

525i"'\ 526^^"-,
308, 434, 440, 442, 443, 521'-,
527"', 566', 567-- (Canova), 443, 567-* ; (Ferrata),
;

443;(Fontana), 554"';(Lucenti), 545^';(Monnot),

440

307), 442,

(ill.

(della Porta),

157,

567'^ (Morelli), 318, 434;

164; (Retti), 544-"; (Rossi),

440; (Rusconi), 440-2 (ill. 308), 445, 567-'^;

(Speranza), 305 ( Valle), 442 (ill. 309), 443, 567^2
towers, 112, 190, 198, 520", 528""', 537\ 538^^,
;

543-

\ atican, see Palazzi

272. 308, 318, 442,

(ills.

165, 166),

567-'; (Arpino), 28;

(Bernini), 141, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147

150, 151, 152, 154, 155

(ill.

82), 156

(ill.

(ill.

74),

83), 157,

160, 160-1, i6i-4(ills. 86-8), i65(ill. 89), 167,169,

170, 171, 172,174, 175-6, iSgfF.

(ills,

no, in), 269,

270, 272, 275, 305, 306, 308, 311, 434, 436, 440,
442,443,52I'-,525"''*-l-'-'^^526^^^5.52fr..62^

S2t\ 566', 567-305-6

305,

(ill.

(L. Bernini), 305, 543- ; (Bolgi),

(Bonvicino), 28; (Bor-

195);

219, 227; (Borromini's), 219 22

235,

530"

*';

(Pellegrini),

Secular Buildings,

Silvestro in Capite, S. (Brandi), 328 ; (Morazzone),

99
Silvestro

Quirinale, S. (.\lgardi), 267

al

Stefano Rotondo, S. (Pomarancio), 27

Sudario,

S., 538"'

no

S., 26, 40,

(ill.

Maderno), 305; (Maglia),

257), 383, 52o5; (S.

566';

(.Marchionni),

198, 382

109),

556^*;

(Menghini),

306;

(Mochi), 130-2, 306; (Monnot), 440 (ill. 307),

442, 567'"; (.Morelli), 318, 434; (Nebbia), 507'^;
(Ottoni), 566^; (della Porta), 157, 164; (Raggi),

310,

544--;

(Ricci),

(Rainaldi),

537^

28-9; (Roncalli),

(Rusconi), 440-2

(ill.

566'; (Slodtz), 446

507''';

(Rossi), 440;

308), 445, 567-"-'

(ill.

544^";

(Retti),

(Sale),

313), 568-'*; (Speranza),

305; (Trevisani), 572""; (Valle), 442

(ill.

309),

443. 567"
Philip Neri, Oratory of St, 212, 221, 222-5 ('"s.
36fr
134, 135), 227, 229, 239, 404, 530^5.

Pietro e Marcellino, SS., 377

Pietro in Montorio, S. (.Abbatini), 173; (Baratta),
160,

306; (Bernini),

150,

160,

269,

526""-;

in,

51),

120, 130,

Trinita de' Pellegrini, SS., 40, 522*"; facade, 377

Trinita in Via Condotti, SS., 377, 555^'; faipade,

538"

Venanzio, S. (Rainaldi),

538''

Vincenzo ed Anastasio, SS., fa9ade, 242, 287

182), 288, 538'^"

(ill.

539^'

Fountains
Acetosa, Acqua, 540^'
Barcaccia, 525-''

'Ponte Sisto, di\ 508^'

(ill.

(ill.

$20'

536"; (Fontana), 375, 376, 554'^ (Guidi), 536^*;

(Lanfranco), 517'"; (Lucenti), 545^'; (Maderno),
111-12, 190-3

162);

(ill.

(Finelli), 543^

Moro,

i),

0//;fr

.cc

le Mura, S., 34, 35 (ills. 6, 7), 40,

508"'; (Fontana), 375; (Giorgetti), 317

305, 316; (Ferrabosco), 29, 526'*,

528""; (Ferrata), 308, 443, 544"*; (Finelli), 305,

(ill.

Sebastiano luori

Felice,

28-9

132, 133),

(ills.

73 collcgio,

etc.

romini), 197, 203, 528-; (Canova), 443, 567^'';

(Cornacchini), 436, 566"; (Duquesnoy), 266,
272, 274, 273 (ill. 170), 305, 306, 536''-'"; (G. A.
Fancelli),

Pudenziana, S., 40
Quattro Coronati, SS., 40; (San Giovanni), 344
Sabina, S. (Sassoferrato), 322
Salvatore in Lauro, S., 522''"

Susanna,

Artists: (.\lgardi), 266, 268-71

536-^ff

Kiiilintied

(Romanelii), 173; (Sale), 566'

Prasscdc, S. (.\rpino), 507"; (Bernini), 144
Propaganda Fide, church (Bernini's), 182, 184,

Acqua, 38
Four Rivers, 150, 168-9

(ill.

93),

169-70,306,400,

525-"-\544--, 566'
del, 168, 544^'

Paola, Acqua, 37-8

10), 508^'

(ill.

Trevi, 246, 363, 377, 380, 381

40, 556-'5, 567>

Triton, 168

(ill.

(ill.

255), 382,

439-

92), 525'"*

and Collections
Borghese Gallery (Albani), 517^"; (Bernini), 144-5

Galleries

(ills.

71, 72), 146, 148

152, 167, 173, 267-8,

(ill.

524\

75), 149 (ill. 76), 150,

526^"-^' (Caravaggio),
;

510"*, 511^^-'; (Carracci), 71; (Domenichino),

82, 516*'

Capitoline

see also Villa

Museum

Borghese

(Palazzo dei Conservatori)

(Algardi), 269, 536-'' ; (Bernini),

vaggio),

51 1-";

(Cortona),

50, 526^' (Cara;

249-50

(Guercino), 89; (Reni), 341

(ill.

(ill.

152);

223); see also

Palazzi

Coppi, Casa (Caravaggio), 50

(Caravaggio),
Doria-Pamphili
Gallery

54,

22), 513-'';

(Lan-

Sii'"-^-"; (Carracci), 70
franco), 80

BIBLOSARTE

(ill.

657

Rome:

Galleries and Collections continued

Gabinetto Nazionale delle Stampe (Cortona),
533*'

Mercedari, Convento dei (Borgianni), 75

Nazionale, Galleria (Cortona copy), 534''
(ill.

Pala/.zi,

28). sis"*; (Serodinc),

works

(I.aer),

in other, see Palazzi

208)

Petriano,

Museo

Roma, Museo

(Dughet), 327; (Badalocchio, Domenichino, Guercino, Lanfranco), 80, 516"'" ;

(Mola, Romanelli), 80

D'.^ste-Bonaparte, 289. 290

Doria-Pamphili

77

Pallavicini Collection (Ccrquozzi, Codazzi), 323

(ill.

Palazzi continued

Corsini, 377, 383

Costaguti

Incisa della Rocchetta Collection (Bernini), 526^"

78

Rome;

(.Algardi),

in, see Palazzi

18-20), 109, 130, 145, 247, 250, 512'-", 524^;

(Domenichino), 38, 78, 512'^", 513-', 515-";

in, see Villas

Palazzi

(Lanfranco), 38, 85-6, 88, 513-' (Salviati),

Gaetani-Ruspoli, 539-'; (Perrier), 517^
;

.\lmagia, see Gaetani-Ruspoli

289 go, 540"; (Carlone), 551'"; (Maratti

.\ltieri,

etc.),

Banco

330, 334, 337, 338

Barberini, 112
227,

520*'^'^,

14

549"

2iq), 467,

534"-'

Giustiniani, 508'"

Grillo (Rainaldi), 538'"

Lante (Romanelli), 321, 548^'

52, 53), 140, 141, 187-8,

(ills.

532'";

(ill.

527'*''

di S. Spirito, del,

156),

(ill.

Farnese, 26, 34, 112, 186, 187, 188, 189, 369;

(Badalocchio), 5 3-' (C^rracci), 42, 57, 63 ff. (ills.

Vallicelliana, Biblioteca (.\lgardi), 536-'*

works

164), 535^';

(Ameli), 377; (Dughet), 327; (Grande), 289.

539-; (Valvassori), 371, 377, 380 (ill. 254), 382.
553'

530", 53'"

q8
S. Luca, .\ccademia di (Cortona), 531*

Villas,

183), 540^*
(ill.

Falconieri (Borromini), 212, 225, 226

(Pellegrini), 173

di (Cigoli),

Vatican, works

(ill.

268

(Bernini),

184,

(formerly,

Bernini), 526^"'; (Borromini), 197, 198

(ill.

114),

521'^ (Cortona), 232, 234-5 (iH- HO, 235> 237,

250-3 (ill. 153), 253, 321, 532'*'^^, 534""";

Lateran, 26, 140

Ludovisi, see Montecitorio

Madama,

540'"

Mancini-Salviati

Mattei

di

al

Corso, 538""

Giove, 112, 302, 515-', 520'

'-,

521'^;

(formerly, Cortona), 258 (ill. 158), 259; (.\laderno), 112-14, 520'*" ; (Menghini), 306; (Ro-

(Albani), 79, 82, 516*^ (Bonzi), 533^-; (Celio),

manelli), 321, 548^'

80, 5i6-";(Nappi), 515-'

(Sacchi), 263, 264

(ill.

161),

515-'; (Cortona), 247, 531", 533'*-; (Lanfranco),

Millini-Cagiati, 290

534'
Barberini

alli

Giubbonari, 531^'

Montecitorio, i85-6(ill. 106), 188,

Bigazzini, 540^^

Borghese, 34, 140, 508^', 522**; fountains, 545^";

(Domenichino), 82, 516+^; (Fancelli), 545^,
553'- ; (Grimaldi), 545^", 547-', 553' ' ; (Maderno),

52i>-;(Rainaldi),

Capitoline Palaces and

Pamphili, 141, 225, 279, 289, 291; Borromini's

project, 530", 531^"^; (Cortona), 225, i^^z, 256 8,
etc.),

330, 331

(ill.

214); (F. Rosa),

547''

Museum,

175, 186 7, 203,

221, 224, 283, 364, 382, 531^", 538"; Juvarra's

plans, 414; see also Galleries and Collections

376

Quirinal, 28, 33; decoration, 33, 141, 142, 508^^" ;

(Albani), 82; (Bernini), 184, 527""; (Fuga), 383;

(Lanfranco), 80, 85, 517'*"; (Mola

(ill.

etc.),

323-4

209), 330, 546'-, 548^"; (Pannini), 499

(ill.

352);(Reni),79,82,83

Carpegna, 227, 531*", 562''

Cavallerini a via dei Barbieri (Gimignani), 546^

Rondanini, 556'"

Cenci-Bolognetti, 383, 527'*'

Chigi, 289, 539^^; Cortona's design, 188, 246,

Rospigliosi-Pallavicini, 34 5,
80, 84 (ill. 32), 88, 549^"

508'^ (Reni), 35, 79,

Ruspoli, see Gaetani-Ruspoli

528"^

Chigi-Odescalchi, 140, 185, 186-7

(iH-

'O?)' 395.

52785-7

Colonna (Coli-Gherardi), 330, 334, 336

548**;

"^( Fon-

375
Naro (.\. Gherardi), 548^'

330; (Cozza

538^545

Caetani, see Gaetani-Ruspoli

Carolis, de, 290,

527"*'

tana),

(Dughet),

327;

(G.

(ill.

Fontana),

218),

539-';

(Grande), 289; (.Mancini, Michetti), 572'"

Conservatori, dei, see Capitoline

Consulta, della, 377, 381

559"'

(ill.

Museum

256), 382, 383, 555'',

S. Luigi de' Francesi, 555-'

Santacroce (Grimaldi), 547-'

Sanseverino (Giaquinto), 465 (ill. 326), 572'"

Sciarra (formerly, Caravaggio), 510"
Senatorio, 527'*"

Spada (Borromini), 225, 531^' (Duquesnoy), 537*''

;

Spagna,

di, 531^'

Vatican

(Brill),

(Grande), 539-"

27,

BIBLOSARTE

507"; Belvedere, 232, 399;

658

Rome:

Rome: Other Secular

Palazzi coiilitmcd

Borghi, 375; Cortile S. Damaso, fountain (Algardi), 536-^; Galleria Lapidaria, 364; Library,

frescoes,

26; (Bernini),

191

(ill.

no); Logge

(Raphael) 65, 80, 252, 513"'; Museum of Early

Christian Antiquities, 364; Pinacoteca (Caravaggio), 4c), 50, 53, 510", 511'";

(Domenichino), 82;

(Poussin), 173; (Reni), 83, 517^'

159, 160), 534'; Sala

(ills.

(Sacchi), 261

Clementina

3
(Alberti),

65 Sala della Contessa Matilda (Romanelli), 42

;

Sala delle

Dame (Reni),

544--; Sala delle

79; Sala Ducale (Raggi),

Nozze Aldobrandini

Scala Regia, 150

i,

(Reni), 79;

155, 160, 169, 171, 192

Ill), 193, 528'", 544-"; Sistine

(ill.

Chapel (Michel-

Buildings, etc. continued

Rospigliosi, Loggctta (Baglione), 514'; (Cigoli),

see Galleries

and

Collections:

Roma, Museo

di

S. Spirito, Hospital of, 185, 527**'

Sicpe,

Tempio di, 529"

House of (.Arpino), 507"

'Sixtus V,

Spanish
^79

Stairs, 288, 363, 372, 377,

(ill.

2S2),

SS"?"''.

378

(ill.

251),

556^'; Juvarra's project,

Strada Felice, 26, 114

Teatro Alibcrti, 574^'

Tcatro Argentina, SSS"**
Trajan's Column,

533'''

Villas

Albani, 364, 377, 383, 556^*; (Mengs), 5722'

angelo), 513^", 534'-

Venezia (Caffa), 543'-

Borghese, 35-6 (ill. 8), 112, 114; (Bernini), 143;

(Lanfranco), 86-8 (ill. 34), 5 1755. s.
Doria-Pamphili, 370, 534"'*, 540^'; Borromini's

Verospi (Albani), 80, 82, 516'^

Piazzas

(Du-

Barberini, see Fountains: Triton

project for, 531^'; (.Algardi), 536-\ 544-';

Colonna, 539-*

quesnoy), 537^^ (Grimaldi), 547-' (Raggi), 544-'

Navona,

see

Fountains Four Rivers and Moro, del

:

Popolo, del, 26, 141, 283-6

(ills.

Quirinale, Bernini's project, 527**"

Patrizi (Pannini),

379-80 (ill. 253)

S. Maria Maggiore, 26
S. Maria sopra Minerva, Elephant carrying the
S. Ignazio, 370, 377,

Obelisk, 170, 544'*

(ill.

12,

13),

Fontana's project, 375-6

250); Rainaldi's project, 537^; (Maderno),

37; (MoreUi), 318

Other Secular Buildings,

Rome, Sack

498

of, 2

Roncalli, Cristoforo, 28, 38, 507''"', 515^'

Rondanini, Paolo, 535-'

Rondinelli, Francesco, 253

StPeter's, 29(ill. 0,37, 141, 189-96(1115.

242, 246, 286, 528"" "

Farnesina, 36, 65, 114; (Raphael), 63, 80

Medici, 36, 112, 232

180, 181)

Rondinini, Natale, 312

Roomer, Caspar,

553''^

Roos, Jan, 104, 354

Rosa, Cristoforo, 549^'
Rosa, Francesco, 347, 547^^
Rosa, Giovanni, see Roos

etc.

Biblioteca Alessandrina, 227

Biblioteca Angelica, 227

Rosa, Pacecco de, 358, 360, 551'"

Cancelleria, theatre, 414, 563^'

Rosa, Salvator, 43, 323, 325-7 (ills. 211, 212), 327,

341, 360, 364, 478, 497, 498, 501, 546''^^, 579"5

Carceri Nuovi, 289

Collegio

Romano

(Sacchi), 534-

Rosa, Stefano, 549"

Rosati, Rosato, 117, 122, 521''

Colosseum, Fontana's plan

for,

Corso, 379
Credito Italiano, Corso,

Palazzo Verospi

376

Rosis, G. de, 507''

see

Ludovisi, Casino (Guercino), 88, 89

(ill.

Matteo, 98, 344, 347

Rossi, Angelo de', 436, 440, 448, 566''

Rosselli,

36);

(formerly, Titian), 534'''

Pantheon, 237, 369, 387, 422; Bernini's project

for, 180, 527"'

555"
Giovan Francesco,

539;'"",

Pedacchia, Via della, Cortona's house, 246, 533^Pius IV, Casino of, 36

Rossi,

Ponte Molle, statues, 132 (ill. 68)

Ponte S. Angelo, angels, 151 2, 154, 171-2, 316525J\ 544'"--, 545-"
17 (ill. 206), 524\
Porta del Popolo, 283, 284 (Bernini), 185; (Mochi),
132
Propaganda Fide, Collegio di, 184, 212, 227-9

Rossi, Pasquale, see Pasqualino

(ills.

'"

Domenico, 386, 452, 556^", 557'Rossi, Giovan Antonio de', 286 8, 289-90

Rossi,

543'^

Rossi, Mattia de', 189, 528"",

540"

Rossi, Vincenzo de', 134

Rosso, G., 562'"

Rosso, Zanobi Filippo del, 392-3
Rossone, Pietro Giorgio, 522^'
Rotari, Pietro, 484, 578'""

Roubiliac, Louis Franc^ois, 525'^

137, 138)

Ripetta, Port of the, 289, 377, 379

Rovere, Francesco Maria

BIBLOSARTE

della,

392

(ill.

183),

^59

Rubens, Sir

P. P., 56, 68, 74, 78, qi, 103, 104, 105,

107, 108, 253, 276, 278, 352, 352 3, 354, 462, 478,
1"'
489, 509^-^,523'", 537^\ 55

Rubertini, Zambattista, 292

Rubini, 129
Ruer, Thomas,

569'*", 570*-' ^*

Sanmicheli, Micheic, 115, 299, 541"

San Pier d'Arena, Palazzo C^rpanetto

(Strozzi). 106

Sanquirico, Paolo, 127

Sansovino, Jacopo, 1 15, 188, 299, 450.
454
Santafede, Fabrizio, 356

Santa Giustina, parish church (Le Clerc), 514"

Santa Maria di Sala, Villa Farsetii, 554"'

Ruggeri, Giovanni, 391, 558"

Ruggieri, Fcrdinando, 392

Santarelli,

Odoardo, 267, 5^5-'

Ruggieri, Giovan Battista, 38

Ruggieri, Giuseppe, 542""

Santcn, Jan van, sir \'asanzio

Santoni, 144, 524-'

Rughesi, Fausto, 40, 509^''

fl,, 579'"

Santorio, Giulio .Antonio, 314 15 (ill. 204)

Saraceni, C^rlo, ^i, 41 2, 73,
74, 75 6 (ill. 26), 77,
107, 109, 358, 514^"", 519*"

Ruins, 364, 497

Ruoppolo, Giovan
578""

Battista,

^61

(ill.

246),

55V"'

Rusconi, Camillo, 316, 436, 437 (ill. 30^), 4:58, 440-2

(ill.
308), 445, 447, 448, 545^^ 566\ 576'^-"^',
569^"

Rusconi, Giuseppe, 438, 450, 567"

Rusnati, Giuseppe, 316, 438, 447, 566"

Saragossa, cathedral, dome, 562''; (Coniini),

376
Sardi, Giuseppe (Roman architect),
377, 555", 556"
Sardi, Giuseppe (Venetian architect), 386,
452, 538"
Sarto, Andrea del, 97
Sartorio,

M. and

Sarzana, see

Rustici, Francesco, 5 18-'

Sassi,

P. G.,

558"

F'iasella

Ludovico Rusconi, 556*"

Sassoferrato, 73, 266, 321, 322

Sabbioneta, S. Maria .\ssunta, chapel, 554^

Sacchetti, Giovanni Battista, 528'"", 563"', 564^''

Savelli, Elena,

Sacchetti, Giulio, 232, 532'-

Savelli, Giulio, 178

Sacchetti, Marcello, 231, 232, 249, 531^, 532'-, 534'"

Savigliano

Sacchi, Andrea, 138, 140, 141, 173, 249, 250, 261-6

(ills.

159-61), 267, 268, 270, 272, 274, 321, 322, 323,

330, 334. 340, 360,

552'",

4fty-

524". 533"', 540", 546",

572'''

Savoldo, 45

8^'*

(ill.

262), ^88

Siena per angola, 366, 574*'

Stenography, 297-8, 376, 398

107), 377, 380, 381

(ill.

255),

382, 395, 556'', 567'*

Samarra, great mosque, 210

Sammartino, Giuseppe, 456, 571''^

San Benigno, abbey church, baldacchino, 176
Sanctis, Francesco de, 377, 378

(ill.

251), 379

(ill.

Sanfelice, Ferdinando, 370,

393-5

(ills.

252),

269, 270),

541^"

41),

Schildersbent, 323
Schivenoglia, Francesco .Maria, 576'"'

Schor, Cristoforo, 330, 539'', 566'

Schor, Egidio, 547"
Schor, Giovan Paolo, 330, 334, 539-', 545"'> 547".
566'

Sangallo, Giuliano da, 178, 245

San Germano \ ercellese, church, 565'^

San Giovanni, Giovanni da, 344-5, 550""''^

Schulenburg, Marshal von der, 453, 570""

Schwerin, .Museum (Bernini), 158 (ill. 84)

Sangro, Raimondo

Scorza, Sinibaldo, 354

454

(ill.

Schleissheim (.Amigoni), 483

Schbnfeld, Johann Hcinrich, 552'"

559""
527"'',

Schedoni, Bartolommeo, 86, 92, 9^, 95, 96

517". 5'8"'^
Schiaffino, Bernardo, 448, 450
Schiaffino, Francesco, 448, 450, 569^'

Sandrart, J. von, 38, 534'"

del,

(ill.

263), 557""

Scandellari, Filippo, 569'"'

Cosimo, 132, 534""

Sangallo, Antonio da,

526*

Scarsellino, 95, 517*', 518''

509''

(ill.

Siri (Bernini),

Scalfarotto, Giovanni .\ntonio, ^87

Recoletas

Lodovico, 523"'

Salvi, Nicola, 186

564'*^

S. .Maria dell'Assunta, 564*'

Scamozzi, Vincenzo, 115, 12^, 299, ^70, ^86, ^87,

521"- '\ 557"'

Salimbeni, Ventura, 27, 91, 98, 104, 51

Salvestrini,

Chiesa della Pieta,

Cappella

(FineUi), 543-^

Salvetti,

313

Misericordia (Borgianni), 75

Sale, Niccolo, 543', 566'

Tommaso,

207), 345

Savona

Giovan Camillo, 469, 573-^

Saint-Denis, Bourbon Chapel, 561"
Saint-Maximin, church (Algardi), 568-"
Salamanca, Church of the Agustinas
Sagrestani,

Salini,

(ill.

Sassuolo, Ducal Palace, 541'"

BIBLOSARTE

66o

INDEX

Segaloni, Matteo, 542"'

Spello, S. Lorenzo, baldacchino, 176

Scghcrs, Gerard, 78, 57c)"*

Spcranza, Stefano, 305

Spinazzi, Innocenzo, 447

Seiter, Daniel, 476, 574^"

G. Antonio, 387
Sementi, Giovan Giacomo, 341
Senago, Villa Borromeo d'Adda (Cerano), 519^^
Selva,

Serlio, Sebastiano,

Spinelli,

Town

Stanzioni,

Massimo, 340,

358-9

Stati, Cristoforo, 30, 127, 523'''

Shaftesbury, Lord, 571'

Still-life painting,

Siena
50

(ill.

77),

-2,

526", 544"*

(Caffa), 319, 543'^; (Ferrata), 319, 543'^ 544"*;

(Raggi), 319, 544'--

Gallery (Manetti), 98
S. Martino (Mazzuoli), 434
Silva, Francesco, 523*'
Silvani,

42 flF., 350, 511'^, 578""

Stockholm, Royal Palace, 528'""
Stomer, Matthias, 552""
Stone, Nicholas, 317
Stra

Villa Pisani,

389

(ill.

264), 558^-% (Tiepolo), 389,

486
(ill.

192),

Silvani, Pier Francesco, 392, 559'''

Inc.,

Museum

of Art (Romanelli),

Stradanus, 43
Strambino, Chiesa del Rosario, 431
Strassengel, church, high altar, 564''^
Strozzi, Bernardo, 77, 92, 105, 106, 107, 109, 332,

347. 348, 351-2

546'

(ills.

235, 236), 355, 482, 503, 5

Studius, 43

Sinatra, Vincenzo, 401

Stupinigi, Castle, 414, 415-16

Sirani, Elisabetta, 341

423-4

Giovanni Andrea, 341

ff.,

39, 41,

313), 568-"

Smith, Joseph, Consul, 502, 578"",

Snyders, Franz, 104, 354

579'"'*

(ill.

286),

Suger, Abbot, 55
Superga, 420-2 (ills. 289, 290), 424, S2-j''\ 564^"^''-;
(Cametti, Cornacchini), 446; (Conca), 575^'
Susini, Antonio, 132

Society of Jesus, 23-5, 27, 40, 137, 138, 139, 227, 363,

509

Susini, Francesco, 132, 523'"

Sustermans, Justus, 345-6

Syracuse

Solari, Pietro, 571""

Soldani, Massimiliano, 447, 568^-'^^

Sole, Gian Gioseffo dal, 471, 479, 573"^'

Cathedral, facade, 401, 538'

^-,

Palazzo Beneventano, 560'"^

575'^

Solimena, Francesco, 357, 366, 393, 399, 462-5

(ill.

325), 469, 476, 483, 493, 571^-', 578'""

Giovan

285), 417

Subleyras, Pierre, 468

379
(ill.

Soria,

(ill.

292), 425, 428, 563^"-"-, 5755^; (Crosato),

'Style Sixtus

Slodtz, Michelangelo, 433, 438, 446

Smiriglio, Mariano, 400, 560'^

507^''-'-,

(ill.

476; (Valeriani), 575'^

V, 26 ff.

Siscara, Matteo, 571'

Sixtus V, 2^, 25, 26

19^9' '",

551H4.H.

Simonetta, Carlo, 447

Simonini, Francesco, 578'"^

Sirani,

360,

243),

Villa 'La Barbariga', 554'

301), 435

(ill.

Gherardo, 125, 291, 300-1, 301-2

Simon, Norton,

(ill.

552'"s.io^

Hall (Borgianni), 75

70)

Stamford, St Martin (Monnot), 568-"

Stondratc, Cardinal, 40

Cathedral (Bernini),

(ill.

Spranger, Bartholomeus, 99
Squinch, use of, 212, 430

Serodine, Giovanni, 73, 76-7 (ill. 27), 515"'

Serpotta, Giacomo, 454, 458 9 (ill. 323)
Serpotta, Procopio, 459

Sezze Romano,

Battista, 551'"

Spoleto, cathedral, 370; (Bernini), 136

529"

15, 203, 528",

Giovan

Spiritual Exercises (St Ignatius), 24-5, 56, 139

Battista, 34

(ill.

5),

Palazzo Comunale, 400, 560""

S. Lucia (Caravaggio), 50, 53,

510**

521'''

Spada, Leonello, 92, 94-5, 96, 518"'

Tacca, Ferdinando, 319, 523'""

Tacca, Pietro, 132-3 (ill. 69), 305, 319, 458, 523'"'
Tacconi, Innocenzo, 79, 515--

Spada family,

Tadolini, Francesco, 391, 558"'*

Sorri, Pietro, 104, 105

Sorrisi,

Giovanni Maria,

Spadarino,

534"**

530'''

Tagliafichi, Andrea, 125, 392

see Galli

Spadaro, Micco, 323, 359, 360, 501, 552^^^

Spagnuolo, see Crespi, G. M.
Spalato, 244
Specchi, Alessandro, 289, 290, 376-7, 379, 555-^-"

Tagliapietra, .^Ivise and Carlo, 570-^''

Talman, John, 533^''
Tanzio da Varallo, loi, 102 (ill. 46),

Tarsia, Antonio,

5'7o'-'^''^''

BIBLOSARTE

103, 519^'"^

66

Tassi, Agostino, ^^, ^s, 4^, 80, 88, 125, ^27, 497,

5o8---'>-^\509^\5i6"\547-

Torri, Giuseppe .Antonio, 558'^

Torriani, Francesco, 549'*

Tassi, Giambattisia, 330

Torrigiani, Ottavio, 520"'

Tasso, 486

Toulouse,
Trapani

Taurine brothers, 507"

Tavarone, Lazzaro, 104

397

Jesuit College and church, 400

Museum

Tavella, Carlo Antonio, 575^'

Tavigliano, Ignazio, 564*^-

'^

(Serpotta), 458

Trattalo della Pittura (Agucchi), 39, 509*-'; (Cortona),

265, 535"

Temanza, Tomaso, 387, 557^

Tempesta, Antonio, 35, 43, 128, 508^*
Tcmplum Vaticanum (F"ontana), 376
Teodoli, Girolamo, 377, 555-*
Tcrbrugghen, Hendrik, 78

Traversi, Gaspare, 494 5

Travi, Antonio, 551""

Tremignon,

350), 578""

(ill.

.Alessandro, 386, 452, 557*'"''

Trent, cathedral, baldacchino, 176

Trent, Council ot, 21 3, 34, 137

Teresa, St, 25, 41, 157, 169, 171

Termessus, 244
Tesi,

C^apitole,

Trevisani, .\ngelo, 484

Trevisani, Francesco, 467, 478, 572"*
Treviso, 369

Mauro, 574*"

Tessin, N., 528'""

Testa, Pietro, 323, 324-5
Testi, Fulvio, 536^-'

210), 327, 546"' '\

(ill.

547-

Trissino, Villa Trissino,

558"

Tristano, G., 507"

Theatres, 123, 3^)4-6, 476

Theodoli, see Teodoli

Tronchi, Bartolomeo, 507"

Theodon, G.

Turbini, .Antonio and Gaspare, 558"*

Tubertini, Giuseppe, 541'"

B., 433, 436, 566*

Thomism, 24
Tibaldi,

578""

Trezzi, .Aurelio, 118

Theatine Order, 40, 137

Turchi, .Alessandro,

Tiarini, Alessandro, 92-3

"*,

37), 96,

(ill.

518""

Domenico, 122

t,22,

5o8-\ 515'", 520'"

Turin
Churches

Tibaldi, Pellegrino, 64, 99, 115, 117, 134

Ticciati, Girolamo, 568''

Carmine, 416 19

Tiepolo, Giambattista, 341, 354, 366, 367, 389, 461,

343-6), 493, 497,

Cathedral, Juvarra's projects, 423 (ill. 291), 428;

Cappella della SS. Sindone,4o6 io(ills. 277 80),

347), 577**'

Chierici Rcgolari, Collegio dei, church, 565''

474, 479, 481, 482, 484-91

(ills-

Tiepolo, Lorenzo,

562'-"

577"'''''

503, 550', 553", 576'",

Tiepolo, Gian Domenico, 491

(ill.

(ills.

287, 288), 423, 424, 427,

428, 564*^

-^

Consolata, La, 406, 562'"; (Alberoni),

577'*"

Timanthes ofSikyon, 577*"

Corpus Domini, 125-6

Tineili, Tiberio, 520^'

Cristina, S., fa(;ade, 414, 415, 555-'

Tintoretto,

Domenico,

Croce,

106, 519''"

Tintoretto, Jacopo, 52, 54, 62, 75, 91, 98, 106, 107,

S., 563^'*

Filippo N'eri, S. (Guarini), 406, 562'*; (^luvarra),

416-17,564"

348, 360, 505

Lorenzo,

S.,

406, 410

Titian, 34, 45, 48, 53, 54, 60, 60-2, 69, 91, 106, 107,
250, 276-8, 462, 489, 505, 5345^ 537'^

Lucento,

di,

561'

Tito, Santi di, 97, 130

Maurizio e Lazzaro, SS., 561-

Tirali,

Andrea, 370, 384

(ill.

259), 386-7, 452, 557''

12

.Maria di Piazza, S., 430

(ills.

(ill.

281

3),

562-'"

298)

.Michele, S., 431

Tivoli

Hadrian's Villa, Piazza d'Oro, 203, 529" Scrapcum,

;

Pelagia, S., 565'Raffaello, S.,

210

Rocco,

Villa d'Este, 507'"

Spirito Santo, 565"-

Torelli, Felice, 573-*^

Giacomo,

Teresa, S. (Giaquinto), 575"

541'**

Toronto, R. Ontario

Museum

(Cortona), 533''

Torreggiani, .\lfonso, 122, 389, 390 i, 554'

Torretti, Giuseppe, see Bernardi, Giuseppe
549''^

Trinita, SS., 206

Venaria Reale, 420, 563^", 564*"; (Conca), 575"

Torre, Pietro .Andrea, 524--

Torri, Flaminio,

564"

S., 282, 561-'

Salvario in Via Nizza, S., 561'

Todeschini, see Cipper

Torelli,

565'*^

Visitazione, 561-

Palazzi
Barolo, 563-"'

BIBLOSARTE

662

Turin

INDEX

Vaga, Picrino

cnntinui'd

Belgrano, 563*"

del, 534"-

Birago, see Valle, della

Valadier, Giuseppe, 26, 383

Valentin, 73, 76, 77, 98, 141, 5i4\

C-araglio, 565'-

Valeriani,

Carignano, 227, 406,

562''''"'

Valeriani, Giuseppe, 575*''

Citta, di, 561-

Valeriano, Giuseppe, S.

Curia Maxima,

della, 561'

Madama,

see

17, 521-''

Valle, Filippo della, 275, 366, 436,

Ormea,

442

d'

372, 414, 415

Martini di Cigala,

Ormea,

J.,

Valesio, 554'"

Graneri, 563-"

Guarene,

515"

Domenico, 575^*

d', 527"',

see

(ill.

284), 563^^'^'

(ill.

309), 443, 459, 567'^-

Valletta, see

La

15-

(ill.

Valletta

Vallinotto, Sanctuary,

563^"

561'; (Alfieri), 565'-; (Beaumont), 478,

575"; (Crosato), 476, 575'^; (Conca), 5755';

Valperga, Maurizio, 563-"

(Mura), 465, 5755'

di Covasolo, 563*"

Valtrini, Alessandro, 167, 526^'

330,548^'-'^

Valsoldo, 27, 30, 41, 127, 313

Richa

564-''''

Valvassori, Gabriele, 370, 371, 377, 380

(ill.

254), 382,

"'

Valle, della, 563^"

Other Secular Buildings,

etc.

Accademia Filarmonica,

see

Palazzo Caraglio

Castello Sforzesco (Cairo), 549''

390,393, 556""
Van Dyck, Sir Anthony, 74, 104, 105, 332, 340, 346,
352, 353, 354, 478, 514", 535", 552""

Castello del Valentino, 561^

Vanloo, Charles Andre (Carlo .\ndrea), 476,

Vanloo, G. B., 575'"

Collegio dei Nobili, 406

Corso Valdocco, 414

Vanni, Francesco, 28, 91, 98, 104, 518^, 546'

Vanni, Raffaello, 546'

Hospital of S. Giovanni, 561'

Piazza

Emanuele

Filiberto,

Piazza S. Carlo, 403

Pinacoteca ( Albani), 82

(ill.

575^"-^''

Vannini, Ottavio, 344

Vanvitelli, Carlo, 456, 559**

414

30), 83

472 (ill. T,T,i,)\ (Gentileschi), 74

Replanning, 403, 561^

(G.

(ill.

M. Crespi),

VanvitelH, Luigi, 186, 369, 370, 372, 391, 392, 393,

395 9 (ills. 271-3), 456, 457 (ill. 322), 527", 556^*,

559"'"

24)

see also Wittel,

Caspar van

Varallo

Via del Carmine, 414

Via Milano, 414

Pinacoteca (Tanzio), 102

(ill.

46), 103

Sacro Monte (Morazzone), 100

Via Roma, 403

Villa Regina (Crosato), 476; (Giaquinto), 575"

(ill.

44), loi

Varese
Lizza-Bassi Collection (Gentileschi), 514^

Sacro Monte, 121, 522^"; (Bussola),

Turriani, Nicola, 289, 539-'

Turriani, Orazio, 539-^

razzone), loi
S. Vittore

Udine

523**';

(Mo-

(Silva), 523*'

(Morazzone), loi

Varotari, Alessandro, see Padovanino

Archiepiscopal Palace (Tiepolo), 485, 490

Cappella Manin (Torretti), 570""

Vasanzio, Giovanni, 34-7

Giacomo (Corradini), 453, 570''-'

Urban VIII, 25, 41, 112, 136 (ill. 70),
S.

137, 138, 139,

140, 141, 141-2, 143, 144, 146, 150, 156

172, 190, 252-3, 269, 270, 311, 526^'

(ill.

83), 157,

Urbino, 28
Utrecht, Peace
Vaccarini,

(ills.

6-9),

114, 508^"'^',

531''

Cathedral (Corradini), 571"^; (Tiepolo), 485, 490

Chiesa della Purita (Tiepolo), 486

Vasari, Giorgio, 367

Vassallo,

Anton Maria, 354

Vecchia, Pietro della, 347, 550*'

Vedute di Roma (Piranesi), 364

Velasquez, 78, 105, 173, 352, 495, 523'*

Velletri, Palazzo Ginetti, staircase hall, 539-'

393

see Turin
Vendramin, Francesco, 569^"

Battista, 401-2, 560'"^

Veneroni, Gianantonio, 371, 527*", 553^

Venice

Venaria Reale,
of,

Giovan

Vaccaro, Andrea, 359, 552'"**

Vaccaro, Domenico Antonio, 393, 395, 456, 543"',
559*',

306),

424-8 (ills. 293-5), 565'" ^'"**

Valmontone, Palazzo Doria-Pamphili, decoration,

Belgrano

Reale,

Saluzzo-Paesana,

438-9

'-;^

571"

Vaccaro, Lorenzo, 366, 571"

Churches

Andrea

della Zirada, S. (Corte), 570''

AngeloRaffaelle, deir(Guardi), 50^, 504

580'^"

BIBLOSARTE

(ill.

355),

663

\ en ice continued

Venice continued

Benedetto, S. (Mazzoni), 348

Clemente

alPIsola, S. (Cortc),

452

Ducale, 256; (Le Clerc-Saraceni), 514"; (Veronese), 252

318)

(ill.

Frari (Longhena), 557*'

Geremia, S., 521-", 557'*

Gesuati, dei, 385

(Tiepolo), 485

(ill.

Foscarini, stuccoes,

260), 387, 452, 453, 570'*";

Gesuiti, dei, 386, 557'-; favade, 452, 557''-;

Pozzo), 557^-; (Torretti), 570'"

Giorgio Maggiore,
ghena), 300, 301

S..

(ill.

2^5, 387,

541

^';

A.

(J.

191), 398, 558""; (S. Ricci),

479
Giovanni Evangelista, S., 557''
Giovanni e Paolo, SS., Cappella del Rosario, 453,
570'"; (Mazza). 449 (ill. 316), 450; (Piazzetta),
481 (Tirali), 386, 452, 557'", 570"
Lazzaro dei .Mendicanti, S. (Bushnell, Corte),
;

569-^"

Marco, S., 299

Maria del Carmine, S. (Corradini), 453 (ill. 319)
Maria della Fava, S. (Piazzetta), 481 (ill. 339)
Maria del Giglio, S., facade, 452
Maria .Maddalena, S., 387
Maria della Salute, S., 292-9 (ills. 185-9), 375,
387, 398, 541^-", 547-^ 554'\ 559"", 564''; exterior decoration, 452; (Corte), 450-2 (ill. 317),
570''

Maria

(Giordano), 349

538" (.Meyring), 569*" (Pozzo),

485, 485-6, 577*^'
Marziale, S. (S. Ricci), 479
;

Moise,
557*'

S.,
;

facade, 386, 452,

557"

fac^ade,

S.,

(Tiepolo),

(Meyring),

384

(ill.

259),

557*''; (Lvs),

386-7; Palladio's project, ^87,

(ill.

564^''

(Roccatagliata), 569^-

Nicolo da Tolentino,

108

5o);(Parodi),448(ill. 315)

Ospedaletto,

dell',

299,

Pieta, della (Tiepolo),

II,

(ill.

190), 541'"

nari),

350

(ill.

233); (Tiepolo), 486

Vendramin, stuccoes, 554"

Other secular huildings.
.\ccademia

galleries, collections

(Cignaroli),

485 (ill. 342), 577'"*;

(Mazzoni), 349 (ill. 231); (Piazzetta), 482, 576"
Brass Collection (Traversi), 495 (ill. 350)
Carmini, Scuola dei (Tiepolo), 485
Cini Foundation (Zanetti), 578""
Correr, .Museo (Corradini), 570"'
Library, 188

Ospedaletto (Tiepolo), 485

Querini Stampalia Gallery (Frangipani), 511'^
Venier, Casino, stuccoes, 554"
Venturoli, .\ngelo, 558'*
Vercelli
563-"*

Padri Gesuiti, 564**

S. Chiara, 565"'

Vermeer, Jan, 78
Vermexio, Giovanni, 400,
Verona

560'""

Museo di Castelvecchio (MafFei), 348

Museo Civico (Bassetti), 520^'

(ill.

Palazzo Canossa (Tiepolo), 486

Gran Guardia,

Maria di Campagna, 541*'

Teatro Filarmonico, 574''

486

225, 295, 297, 298, 387, 417, 420

Veronese, Paolo, 27, 34, 58, 60, 62, 91, 93, 96, 98, 99,
106, 250, 252, 258,

u^'

Wh

^S", ^60, 462, 479, 484,

480
(ill.

263),

Verrocchio, 319
Versailles, 395, 398, 415, 456; (Bernini),

557^"
Stae, S., facade, 452-3, 557^-,

570";

(Piazzetta),

(ill.

S., facade,

386

Zaccaria, S. (Balestra), 484

Zitelle, delle,

(ill.

7,

557"

341)

299
Corner della Regina, 386
1

5,

328), 572'"

dcIT, 557"'
S., 427,

561"

Nicola da Tolentino, Oratory of S. (.Maflei), 348

Barbarigo, stuccoes, 554"

Contarini dagli Scrigni,

(ill.

Churches

Gaetano,

Palazzt

167

Vicenza

.\raceli,

299

152,

91), 169, 171 ;(Girardon), 456;(Guidi), 434, 566-

Vetralla, S. .Andrea (Bencfial), 468

481
Vidal (Vitale),

230)

S.

Rocco, S. (Marchiori), 454 (ill. 320)

Simeone e Giuda, SS., ^87 (ill. 262), 388

Corner,

Maderno), 128

Rezzonico, 299 300, 541"'"; stuccoes, 554"; (F.

Guardi), 503; (Langctti), 347 (ill. 229); (Moli-

Palazzo della

541''''

Pietro di Castello, S. (Fabris, Longhena), 569^"

Redentore,

d' (S.

Cathedral (Garove),

degli Scalzi, S., 299, 541''; facade, 452,

;

Oro, Ca

Pesaro, 299 300

(Lon-

554"

Giustinian-Lolin, 54 1"
Grassi-Stucky, 386 (ill. 261), 387, 557'Labia, 557''"; (Tiepolo). 486, 487

15, 521'"

Zitelle,

Oratorio delle (Maffei), 348

Palazzi
Barbieri-Piovene, 557"'

Piovini-Beltrame, 557*'

BIBLOSARTE

664

V'icenza lonlimwd

Volpino, 134

Forto-Cx)llconi, 224

Volterra, 301

Repeta, 558"-

Volterra, Daniele da, 212

Valmarana, 187, 53 1''*

Other secular buildings
Basilica,

Volterra, Francesco da,

Loggia del Capitano, 188,

polo), 491 (ill. 347)

Vicoforte di Mondovi, Sanctuary, 564'^

(Bortoloni),

476
Vienna

Wael, Cornelius de, 104

Waldsassen, Stittskirchc,

(ill.

172),

278

572"

Jesuit church (Pozzo), 548^', 564^'

(Caravaggio),

510'*;

(Chimenti), 97; (Dou), 537^-; (Gentileschi), 74,

514"; (Guercino), 88; (Lanfranco), 86, 517^^;
(Parmigianino), 537^^

Liechtenstein Palace,

527'*'

Caspar van, 395, 498, 501, 579'"*"^

Wood, John, the younger, 399

Worms, Heylshof Collection Werff),
(

537^'

Wren, Sir Christopher, 382

Wurzburg, Residenz (Tiepolo), 486, 487, 577"'
'X,

Monsu', 579'"

Xavier, St Francis, 25, 41

of, 527*'

Van Beuningen

142

(Pozzo), 548''^

Opera House, 574^"

Prince Eugen, Palace

of,

Wiener Neustadt, cathedral (Bernini), 568^''

Winckelmann, J. J., 266, 364, 468, 469, 572^'
Windsor Castle (Bernini copy), 525"'; (Fontana),
Wittel,

Museum

(Ricci),

500 ('" 35.1)

Watteau, .\ntoine, 479, 496
VVeingarten, 422
Werft, Adriaen van der, 537^^

555'"

Karlskirche, 564''

Kunsthistorisches

564^''

Washington, National Gallery (Bernini), 146;

Westphalia, Peace
(Guglielmi),

Albertina (Borromini), 199; (Fischer von Erlach),

564"; (M. Longhi), 538''; (Rainaldi), 279

Coll. (Strozzi), 352

(ill.

Zabarelli, .\driano, 546'

236)
Viggiii, Silla da, 30, 33, 127

Zaccagni, Bernardino, 522^'

Vignali, Jacopo, 344

Zacchia, Laudivio, 267-8

Vignola, 37, 400, 508", 555^*

Zais, Giuseppe, 501

Villanova di Mondovi, S. Croce, 430, 431

Villa Pasquali, church,

(ill.

(ill.

299),

Zanchi, .\ntonio, 347, 349, 467

Zanchi, Francesco, 557'"
Zanetti, Antonio Maria, the elder, 578'"'

554-''

Venetian, 389
Villaverla, Villa Ghellini dalFOlmo, 557"'

Tommaso,

Villas,

Zanoli,

Virgil, 486, 525'*,

Zarabatta, Francesco, 447

Zianigo, Tiepolo's house, 389
Ziborghi, Giovanni, 558"'

537

Visentini, Antonio, 579'-^

Zola, Giuseppe, 574'"*

de, 543'^

Zola Predosa, Villa Albergati-Theodoli (Colonna,

Vitale, .\lessandro, 91

Vitelleschi,

539"^

Zimbalo, Giuseppe, 400

Vismara, Gaspare, 99, 134

Giuseppe

163), 535-'-^

Zamboni, Orazio, 535'^

Villadeati, Castello, 246, 533^'

Vita,

183, 280, 520-

Vryburch, Andricn, 275-6, 277

531^"*

Teatro Olimpico, 225, 299

Villa Valmarana (G.B. Tiepolo), 486, 487 (ill. 343),
487-g, 490 (ill. 346), 491, 577"'" (G. D. Tie-

Vierhouten,

1,

(Maftei), 348; (Marinali), 570^^

Proti, Istituto dei, 557"'

Academy

Vouet, Simon, 78, 105, 141, 357, 515'", 519^"

Vranx, Sebastian, 509''-

225

Biblioteca Bertoliana, 389

Museum

Volterrano, 344, 345

Muzio, 138

Alboresi), 549'"

Zompini, Gaetano, 482, 576""

Vitruvius, 386, 422

Vittone, Bernardo, 370, 372, 403, 404, 424-32
293-9), 556'", 5'>4'''""
Vittoria, Alessandro, 128, 129, 450, 453,

Amedeo H,

454

(ills.

Zuccarelli, Francesco, 478, 501

Zuccari, Federigo, 27, 28, 39

Zucchi, .Antonio, 577^^

355, 403, 414, 446, 364^"

Vittozzi, .Ascanio, 115, 125, 206, 403, 561', 564'^

Zugno, Francesco, 577''^

Zumbo, Gaetano Giulio, 571"'

Viviani, Antonio, 27, 91

Zurbaran, 97, 104

Vliete, Gillis van den, see Riviera

Zurich, private collection (Lys), 108

Vittorio

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

BIBLOSARTE

The

Pelican History of Art

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Art and Architecture in Italy 1600-1750

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From the dark, monumental canvases of Caravaggio and the more traditional
work of the Carracci, painting, during this period, seemed to leap a century to the
prodigious ceilings and frescoes of Tiepolo and leave little impression. To these
masters Professor Wittkower does full justice, just as he describes the progress
of the arts in every centre between Venice and Sicily in each of the three periods
into which his book falls. But the heart of this splendid volume lies in the fields of
architecture and sculpture during the exhilarating years of Roman High Baroque,
when Bernini, Borromini, and Cortona were all at work under a series of enlight-

ened popes.
The cover, designed by Gerald Cinamon, shows a

da
Gran

detail of the fresco of 1633-9 by Pietro

Cortona representing the Glorification of the Reign of Urban

Salone of the Palazzo Barberini, Rome (photo Scala)

Vill

BIBLOSARTE

on the ceiling

uf the