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An Illustrative Example
V-A
Cruise Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
6
VI
Further Examples
VI-A
Single Link Manipulator . . . . . . . .
VI-B
Ball and Beam System . . . . . . . . .
8
8
9
VII
10
10
10
11
References
12
I. I NTRODUCTION
x i = xi+1
x n = f (xi,n ) + g(xi,n )(u + d)
C ONTENTS
I
Introduction
II
Key Concepts
III
2
2
3
3
IV
4
4
5
5
(1)
TABLE I
S IGN CONDITIONS FOR A SYMPTOTIC S TABILITY OF A S INGLE S TATE
S YSTEM x
x
-ve
+ve
x
+ve
-ve
xx
-ve
-ve
following characteristics:
1) It has a zero value when all the state variables have zero
values.
2) It always takes a positive value except when all the state
variables have zero values.
3) Its value would tend to infinity as the absolute values
of the states tend to infinity.
We can infer from the items in the above list that the Lyapunov
function has zero as its minimum possible value.
In order to prove a system stable, its first time derivative
must have a value that is either negative or zero. If its gradient
is negative, the Lyapunov function itself would tend to zero;
which in turn means that the state variables will tend to zero,
making the system asymptotically stable. If this gradient is
zero, the system would just be described as stable, with the
states maintaining their values. A positive gradient implies
that the state variables are increasing, thus implying unstable
behaviour.
Hence, a controller derived based on the gradient of the
Lyapunov function that is negative will make the system
asymptotically stable; it will drive the variables that make
up the Lyapunov function towards zero. Therefore all the
system states would ideally be used to construct the Lyapunov
function.
1) Norms: A norm is a function that maps a set of numbers
or variables to a positive number greater than or equal to zero;
It would only yield zero for a domain or input set of all zeros.
If the set is scaled, then the resulting norm is similarly scaled
by the absolute value of the scalar. Norms obey the triangle
inequality: the norm of a sum of input sets is less than or equal
to the sum of its norms. We can thus see that every Lyapunov
function is a norm, and norms could be made into Lyapunov
functions.
B. Asymptotic Stability Illustration
Table I refers to Figure 1. For asymptotic stability, the ball,
distance x from the fulcrum, should tend towards a position
above the fulcrum specified to be the equilibrium point. If
the ball is to the left of the fulcrum (negative side), it should
be moved to the right (with positive velocity). Also, if the
ball is to the right of the fulcrum (positive side), it should be
moved to the left (with negative velocity). It becomes clear
that the product of the position and velocity must be negative
if asymptotic stability is to be achieved.
In sliding mode control, the sliding mode is defined to be
the equilibrium point. And the sliding mode controller is what
drives the system states towards the sliding mode.
Fig. 1.
Ball on a see-saw
(2)
x(t)
= kx(t)
(3)
so that,
Equation (2) is an asymptotically stable path for x(t) with
k > 0 and initial value x(0). It is the solution to the differential
equation (3), which must therefore be a stable system.
Let us simply represent x(t) by x. If we multiply equation
(3) by x, it gives (4), which has a strictly negative right-handside for x 6= 0.
xx
= kx2
(4)
Also, define the gradient of a Lyapunov function V , as V =
xx.
Integrating it with respect to t gives
1 2
x
(5)
2
It is a Lyapunov function since V (x) > 0 for x 6= 0, and
V (0) = 0. Circularly, (3) is shown to be a stable system since
the time derivative V is less than zero.
V =
S = x1
(n2)
(t) + an1 x1
(t) + a1 x1 (t)
(6)
(7)
1
( sgn(S) h(x))
j(x)
(12)
derivative is V = S d|S|
dS , thus V = S sgn(S). For stability,
>0
(9)
(11)
We see from (11) and (12) that j(x) 6= 0. Put differently, j(x)
must be invertible.
The next subsection discusses how the size of may be determined: we consider the bounds of all the non-signum terms
of the controller (12), and any potential input disturbances.
1) Dealing with Input Disturbance: Matched disturbances
modify S (13), which then affects S. But if regardless of this,
S is driven to zero, we may then intuitively see why invariance
to input/matched disturbance exists as a characteristic of
sliding mode control.
Where the disturbance signal is unmatched, it means that
it affects a state directly, and outside of where a matching
controlled signal could be used to compensate for its effect.
It may thus be seen as implicit in the variable processed by
the system; so that when S = 0, their effect on the subject
variables remain.
Considering input disturbance d, we can rewrite equation
(11) as
S = h(x) + j(x)u + d
(13)
Combine (12) and (13) to yield
S = sgn(S) + d
(14)
S = sgn(S) ( sgn(S)d)
(15)
1
( sgn(S))
j(x)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
And if = 1, we get what is akin to classic proportional control. (The sliding mode for the classic proportional controller
occurs when the error signal equals zero.) Therefore, we can
infer that the power-rate reaching law is a generalised view
of proportional control. By this, we also see that proportional
control, in the classic PID controller formulation, deals with
disturbances acting through the input channel.
We can now rewrite the -reachability condition as
S = (S) sgn(S)
(22)
(25)
From (26), we see that in its essence, it combines the powerrate reaching law with an integral term in the sign of the
switching function; thus mimicking the structure of the PI
controller. It would be exactly like the classic PI controller
with a varying proportional gain (k|S|1 ) if w = ki |S|
(ki > 0 the integral gain). The ability of the integral term
to accumulate its input may thus lend it a greater robustness
to disturbance signals.
Given the preceding discussion on reaching laws, its corresponding reaching law may chosen to be
Z
S = k|S| sgn(S) w sgn(S)
(27)
Multiplying (27) by S gives
S S = k|S|+1 S
Z
w sgn(S)
(28)
R
This means that S w sgn(S) 0, for (28) to represent
a Lyapunov stable system at S = 0 and an asymptotically
+1
stable
st
u 2 = {wsgn(S)
if |ust |>usat
if |ust |usat
4pM (w + p)
p
,w>
,
3
m (w p)
m
and 0 < 0.5. Observe that a limit usat is placed on the
with parameters determined via k 2
V. A N I LLUSTRATIVE E XAMPLE
In this section, we simulate the phenomenon of chattering
[10] when the classic sliding mode controller is used. And
we show graphically that for controllers using reaching laws
like (21) e.g., (23)-(25), chattering is minimal or non-existent.
Also, we present PI control from the perspective of sliding
mode control, highlight its relationship to the super-twisting
law, and thus suggest a modification to the classic PI controller
for improved disturbance rejection.
Generally, we attempt to show how the control signal affects
the trajectory of the switching surface, and vice versa, by
viewing the locus of the error signal for a simple first-order
system.
A. Cruise Control
We use a simple first order cruise control system for a car
in fourth gear [11] for the illustrations. The reference speed
is r = 25m/s, u is the controller, and the state variable that
represents its velocity is y. Choosing e = y r, the system
model becomes
e = 0.0142e + 1.38u
(30)
g = 9.81m/s2
(31)
(32)
Fig. 3.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
(33)
Even though the system is not in the form (1), we can still
chose the switching function to be S = x4 + px3 + qx2 + mx1
and assess its suitability for the purpose. If S is driven to zero,
we get
x4 = px3 qx2 mx1
so that the resulting dynamics is the nonlinear third order
system
x 1 = x2
x 2 = k14 x1 x24 kg4 sin(x3 )
x 3 = px3 q x1 mx1
= x2
= k14 x1 x24 kg4 sin(x3 )
= x4
= mx21+k1 [k2 u (2mx1 x2 + k3 )x4
1
(mgx1 + L2 M g)cos(x3 )] + d
(35)
10
Fig. 10. A PI-Sliding mode control of a ball and beam system with a
simulated disturbance input of 2 Volts. (k = 7, Ti = 0.2, = 0.75)
Fig. 11.
A PI-Sliding mode control of a ball and beam system with
unmatched disturbance signal. (k = 7, Ti = 0.2, = 0.75)
11
12
PID control may be extrapolated from it, that is has utility for
both linear and nonlinear systems, and that it can in almost
similar ways be applied like PID control, there is a case
for its use (or increased use) in first/introductory courses in
controls. It may also used as a lead in for related advanced
concepts/coverage/topics in control like feedback linearisation,
and Lie derivatives. The content of this article serves towards
these objectives.
Finally, it is likely the case that there is already literature
related to an application area you might be interested in. The
literature on the subject is large, as a cursory search on the
internet might show. This introduction is like the proverbial
tip of the iceberg.
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