Critical Perspectives on National Adaptation Programmes of Action

(NAPA) - Nepal Project Document

An Interpretation on the Politics of Climate Change Adaptation in LDCs 1

Abstract:
This paper explores the relationships between the impact of climate change and the
development trends in the least developed counties (LDCs). Climate change adaptation
projects, strategies, the trends of aid interventions, aid effectiveness, the trends of resilience
in the situation of transition economics is interpreted through political economy perspectives.
It assesses the politics of climate change adaptation in least developed countries. The power
relationship among the actors of climate change adaptation programmes in LDCs is analyzed
so as to explore its socio-economic and socio-political dimensions. This paper is based on the
theoretical framework of ‘critical perspectives on development theories and practices’
whereas ‘political economy of climate change governance, power relations and aid
effectiveness’ is the analytical framework.

Key words: Political economy, climate change, least developed countries.

JEL classification codes: P26, Q54, Q 56

1
The Critical Perspectives on Development Theories and Practices
& The Political Economy Perspectives on Governance, Aid Effectiveness and Power
Relations among Stakeholders of CC adaptation Regime

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A. Background

Adaptation to climate change has become an important policy priority in international

negotiations on climate change in recent years. It has become the major policy issue
especially amongst the Least Developed Countries (LDCs). The Least Developed Countries
(LDCs) represent the poorest and the weakest segment of the international community. LDCs
are also the most vulnerable to the adverse impacts of the climate change. In that sense it is
widely accepted that this segment has to step towards the most effective governance system
for the climate change adaptation for future. Addressing to the vulnerability context to the
adverse impact of climate change, LDCs are seriously engaged in the preparation of National
Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA). These initiatives will further lead to the
implementation of adaptation programmes in LDCs through the aid interventions to combat
climate change.

NAPA Nepal: An overview

Nepal is also preparing NAPA to propose adaptation programme plans to address climate
change up to 2010.2 Nepal being a Himalayan mountainous country in between two newly
emerged economic powers China and India, geographical diversity, fragile ecosystem etc has
to make the adaptation measures different from others. The snow covered mountains at the
northern boarder is said to be the water towers of Asia. 1 billion people are living using these
water resources. Being one of the LDCs, infrastructure and structural potential is also weak.
Other social systems and interactions are also traditional. In these years this nation has
started republican superstructure after 250 years of feudal monarchy. The centralized regime
is going to be federalized. Radical change is in demand on the socio-political system,
structure and changing agents even. Although NAPA agreement signed paper can be
regarded as a technical proposal but we shouldn’t exclude these social issues.

Nepal’s concern on the global climate change can be seen simply in water, land, forest,
biodiversity and livelihood of people. Although Nepal has historically low emissions of
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases from energy and industrial sources, its per capita
carbon emissions are high when the emissions from the conversion of forest in to agriculture
and other land use change are added in. In LDCs like Nepal, the program of GHG emissions
reduction and the adaptation to climate change should be integrated with other national and
sectoral development plans and programs for preservation of the environment. Initial national
communication (INC, 2004)3 for the UNFCC mentioned GHG mitigation options as follows;
a) Energy sector: by technology reformation, demand side management, renewable
energy use, fuel switching etc.

2
See details: NAPA project Document, Nepal, Available at:
http://www.undp.org.np/pdf/projectdocs/NAPA%20project%20document.pdf

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ibid

2
 b) Forestry sector: by afforestation and reforestation, expansion of protected area and
community forest
c) Agriculture sector: It is estimated that 80% of the population are based in the
agriculture, fertilizer use is a huge source of CH4 emission, changing Urea may be a
better measure
d) Other sectors: Natural forest sector, water resource sector, health sector
There is growing unanimity amongst scientists and politicians that human-induced climate
change is threatening human development, with poor communities in developing countries
the most at risk. Nepal’s geography makes it more vulnerable than most countries to the
negative impacts of climate change. Consistent rises in annual mean temperature (at twice the
global average rate), less frequent but more intense rainfall events, the increasing frequency
and intensity of floods, changes in the start and end of the monsoon, the growing threat from
glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), longer dry spells and drought events, and increasingly
strong storms have all been experienced in Nepal in the past decades. These trends not only
damage and cause the loss of human lives, livelihoods and property, but also threaten Nepal’s
development progress and put the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals at
risk. The effects of climate change in Nepal have far reaching consequences beyond its
borders. Nepal’s location in the headwaters of the Ganges Basin means that the impact of
increased and catastrophic flooding is already being felt by the 500 million inhabitants of the
basin to the south. The melting of glaciers is also reducing the store of water that these huge
populations rely on.
Importance of NAPA towards achieving the MDGs:
Climate change is likely to increase hunger and poverty (MDG 1) in developing countries
such as Nepal by reducing food production, by causing more natural disasters (to which the
poor tend to be most vulnerable) and by causing malaria, Kalajaar (MDG 6) to spread into
the hills. On the other hand forest conservation, the appropriate development of Nepal’s
water resources, and the development of other sources of clean energy could provide the
country with access to international carbon funds for financing new hydropower capacity and
other sources of clean energy.
So, NAPA must address the adaptation programs in the circumference of these contents. In
this chapter it is interesting to overview the agreement done by Nepal government and UNDP
to prepare this NAPA. Later on, this analysis would mention its idea to be included. It has
mentioned the brief descriptions of the agreement paper in the boxes. These arguments are
tried to be clarified on the basis of contemporary theories and practices.

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B. Content Analysis
I. Linking notion of Sustainable Development to Climate Change Adaptation
Regime and NAPA goals/objectives

Source: NAPA project Document, Nepal, Available at:

http://www.undp.org.np/pdf/projectdocs/NAPA%20project%20document.pdf

Sustainability is a word coined in front of development to mean it economic growth for all
people for some generations to come. Development was synonym for ‘economic progress’
till 1950s but the gap created by the industrialization in the social sector was creating
pressure to change it. After 1960s development added social issues and it changed the
meaning of development to be ‘economic progress with social upliftment of the people of
different geography in different status and condition’. In the decade of 80s it was found that
‘without addressing environment, development can’t go ahead for ever’ and in these days
development with social, economic and environmental endeavor is named as sustainable
development.

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 Classical Marxian Critique:
The first critique on the sustainable development explanations is as a ‘reactionist’ tool to obstacle the world
revolution. Classical Marxists see this sustainable development as problem of distribution created by the
capitalism. Pollution and degradation of the resources is due to the exploitation of human and natural resources
by the capitalist class practices.
Neo-Marxian critique:
The Neo-Marxist explanation blames sustainable development as an illusion to continue the distribution of the
wealth and power relation of the capitalist camps. The colonial interests are being continued in the name of this
sustainable development. According to them their discrimination and exploitation created this world of poor and
rich nations not only class division within the society.
Source: Adams W.M (1990). Environment and Sustainability in the Third World, Green Development, Routledge, London and New
York , ISBN 0-415-00443-8

Mainstream idea of the sustainable development

Environmental concern within the economic development was taken as the externality of
nature in economic calculations. The natural resources of the industrial nations were about to
finish in the earlier centuries and colonization was started by the industrial European nations.
Colonies had resources as well as a huge population to consume their products also.

Redclift: Meaning of sustainable development

The second critique is developed with the idea that these two contradictory words sustainability and development
are attached mechanically for only some years. This fitting can’t go long enough. This idea counts down the age of
sustainable development. It claims that sustainability of environment is impossible in economic growth and
equitable social development. Carrying capacity of the earth, environmental rights of all population and
consumerism, climate change and its impact etc are threatening the earth. Again developed nations aren’t ready to
reduce pressures on the earth.
Source: Redclift, M. (1992). "The Meaning of Sustainable Development." Geoforum Vol 23, N0.3, PP 395-403.
Steven Sanderson:
Post colonial states had exercised it very hopefully but the product is poverty induced environmental degradation
is dense in the region now. Public land in some European and china like countries didn’t continue because of the
lost efficiency. Then what? He suggested privatization, land reformation but not in single track agricultural but
with non agricultural methods like trainings, organizations like cooperatives, roads should go simultaneously.
In the conclusion he recommends to take in care of the global political and economic institutions and its
interference in the local level and prepare policies respecting local institutions, structures and their effects in the
products. In sort application of think globally act locally works in the land use change and environment friendly
productions.
Source: S. Sanderson (1993): Political-Economic Institutions, chapter 13 in ‘Changes in Land Use and Land Cover: A Global
Perspective Edited by WILLIAM B. MEYER and B. L. TURNER II, Cambridge University Press;
http://landscape.forest.wisc.edu/courses/readings/Sanderson.pdf

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 So, explorations towards new lands and resources of all kinds had liquidated the pressures of
the exploitation. But liberation of those colonized states synchronized them in small area and
the exploitation accelerated rapidly. Due to the wars they had to intensify the products. The
adverse impacts of the “development” started to show their reaction. The pesticides used in
agriculture, population explosion, landslides of the degraded land, disease outburst, water
and food crisis, deforestation etc made individuals to think alternatives of the development
processes and products. In the same time industrialization has crossed to some third world
countries also.
Eco-Feminist critique:
Eco-feminist suggests having equity tools to achieve the sustainable development. Their argument is
the patriarchal practices are responsible for the discrimination of the nature, women and
underprivileged class. The reproductive nature of women and nature are being exploited by these
economic theories to achieve growth, efficiency. It is impossible to sustain in this way, and
sustainability should be seen in the gender relations too. If same neo classical economy continues with
liberalization, sustainability won’t be achieved.
Source: Harcourt, Wendy (Ed.). 1994. Feminist Perspectives on Sustainable Development: Shifting Knowledge Boundaries. Zed
Books with Society for International Development
Greens and Gandhians and others critique:
In the environmental issues Gandhian and Greens blame the consumerism, urbanization, industrialization. In
sustainable development they seek a space for environmental ethics. Deep ecologists blame on over- population
and over exploitation of the natural resources. Sustainability faces obstacle due to population and pollution. This
is Neo-Malthusian explanation also. Natural science ecologists see problem in the over-population and in the
solution is in conservation process. They see solutions on the engineering ways, management of fragile
ecosystems as the component of sustainable development
Source: Adams W.M (1990), Environment and Sustainability in the Third World, Green Development, Routledge, London and New
York , ISBN 0-415-00443-8
Post- modern critique:
Another critique is very new and states the sustainable development as the continuation of the similar discourse
theory of the conventional explanations. This idea is led by post modern scientists like Laxman Yapa. According
to his idea poverty is seen as economic problem. If so, it must have economic solutions. According classical
economics or Marxian or sustainable development theories poverty can be solved by economic growth but
economic growth needs scarcity and that objective scarcity is defined as poverty. So whenever we see poverty as
material scarcity it will never be solved. So, what else? Yapa claims in his article “can post modern discourse
theory help alleviate poverty, yes!” that poverty is socially constructed in the third world due to the former
malpractices of development. The poverty sector is netted in technical, social, ecological, cultural, political and
academia as the nodes of a nexus. So these elements have created poverty as a discursive natured. The dominant
traditional discourse can’t address the poverty sector because they try inside but poverty is created outside, it
disempowers the poor, creates scarcity and misleads the people having good will. So, a new definition and
practices of development is required because a conceptual triangle of economic, social and environmental nodes
defined by the sustainable discourse theory is not achievable.
Source: Yapa L. (1995), Can Postmodern Discourse Theory Help Alleviate Poverty? Yes!

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 II. NAPA Nepal document

a) Real situation is ‘not analyzed’ in situation analysis

Although the first section, part I is titled situation analysis it starts link of Nepal with the
UNFCCC but lacks on social situation analysis. Nepal is in the process to formulate new
constitution by the constitutional assembly for restructuring the regime, devolution of power
through federality. So this nation is facing transitional phase after armed struggle. The
document mentioned post conflict outcomes but does not entered whether the conflict was
social, political or beyond these? Obviously it was socio-economic conflict. The demands
were for social justice, complete democracy, equality and economic well being etc. In this
paragraph it has to reflect a scenario of Federal Republic of Nepal and consequences on the
natural resources, environmental rights of the people, distribution of resources to address
population and poverty related issues etc. So the changing context of Nepal was an
opportunity for the formulation of NAPA, but looks it has lost the chance.

Situation analysis should cover economic and social structures, geo-strategic position, natural resource
endowment, demographic shifts, climate change and technological progress. These are the Structures,
which should be defined as the long-term contextual factors. Generally, these are not readily influenced,
either because of the time scale needed, or because they are determined outside the country.
The situation of institutional settings and their capabilities should be mapped within the situation analysis. It
should clarify the relationships and coverage of formal rules and informal power relations. Confusion and
tensions existed between formal rules and informal power relations can make social and political situation
unpredictable and prone to conflict. This can be reflected in the analysis of institutions, which can be formal
in the sense of constitutional rules and codified laws, or informal in the sense of political, social and cultural
norms. In settings where formal institutions (e.g. the rule of law, elections, separation of powers) are weakly
embedded and enforced, informal norms often explain how things really get done. In Situation analysis it is
also important to map the relative influences of Agents, including internal actors such as political leaders,
civil servants, political parties, business associations, trade unions, NGOs, CBOs etc., and external actors
such as foreign governments, regional organizations, donors and multinational corporations.

Source: Country Level Analysis, DFID’s Drivers of Change (DoC) approach for Political Economy Analysis
(Political Economy Analysis: How to Note, DFID practice paper, July 2009)

b) More technical, as traditional

Projects of Nepal are always blamed having more technical isolated from the ground reality.
Demographic diversity in Nepal is the most significant figure. Central and single attempts
can’t handle the reality. Development process also needs the continuation of the earlier
practices which these types of multilateral or bilateral attempts loose. These types of
outsider’s attempts of development loose the continuation of the local people’s assimilation
and attempts on development. So the huge probability of mobilization of the local resources
is lacked and this NAPA has continued the tradition.

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The situation has suggested that comprehensive approaches should be adopted to formulate the programmes
of Action. The chain of benefit distribution, the situation of the accessibility and the context of livelihoods
should be effectively addressed. Where livelihoods analysis can address the socioeconomic and political
situation supporting political economy analysis ¥, particularly where it seeks to link the local level to the
meso (sub-national) and macro (national and international) levels.
This should identify the power relations, governance structures and exchange relationships within Climate
Change Adaptation Regime.

Such approaches should be focused on cross-sectoral relationships, and should take into account the totality
of economic, political, social and cultural factors affecting people’s lives and livelihoods, from the local up
to the national and international levels. It thus has the potential to complement or be combined with more
traditional trends of programmes and projects development.

¥ Political economy analysis is concerned with the interaction of political and economic processes in a
society: the distribution of power and wealth between different groups and individuals, and the processes
that create, sustain and transform these relationships over time.

Source: Overseas Development Institute, London, 2003; Power, livelihoods and conflict: case studies in political economy analysis
for humanitarian action, Edited by Sarah Collinson, HPG (H U M A N I T A R I A N P O L I C Y G R O U P), Report 13

Suggested Framework for Situation analysis, Source: AN ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING THE
POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SECTORS AND POLICY ARENAS, Joy Moncrieffe and Cecilia Luttrell, Overseas Development
Institute, 2005; http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2989.pdf

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 c) Question of stewardship, ownership

Source: NAPA project Document, Nepal, Available at:

http://www.undp.org.np/pdf/projectdocs/NAPA%20project%20document.pdf

Active participation of the stakeholders in all levels is the one of the important indicators of a
successful project. Consensus, one of the governance principle and democratic practice as
well, lacked projects’ life can not be as long as expected. It should be started from the very
earlier steps of the planning process. The key strategy (see, in box) is only to make
stakeholders participate in the steps of implementation process, not in planning or evaluation
process. If so, the ownership of the project becomes vacuumed. It has not mentioned
participation of the popular forces (Political parties, civil societies, CBOs and different
“organic” groups and marginalized segments) during the preparation of the concept paper or
proposal. No political party has commitment on it. A project handled by the technocrats
won’t win stewardship among the people. Evaluation and monitoring also won’t be effective
when it isolates concerned people from the total process.

To enhance the stewardship and ownership of the broad categories of stakeholders towards planning the
programmes of action and its implementation, following questions should be addressed;

Who are the stakeholders?

What are the formal/informal roles and mandates of different actors?
What is the operational mechanism of central, regional and local authorities?
What is the balance between private and public ownership?
What is the mechanism of financing and aid allocation?
What are the interests of stakeholders?
How is the benefits distributed?
What are the possibilities of unintended consequences like corruptions, rent-seeking behavior etc.?
What are the remedial and reform strategies?
What are the strategies for managing and resolving conflict situation?
Who will be responsible for monitoring and evaluation?
Who are the decision makers?
What will be the long term goal {future situation (win-win or win-loose, or loose-loose?? Among the
stakeholders) from the development of programmes of action?

Source: AN ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SECTORS AND
POLICY ARENAS, Joy Moncrieffe and Cecilia Luttrell, Overseas Development Institute, 2005
http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2989.pdf

9
 D) Shadowed by the stereotyping, traditional ideas
Nepal’s political division was to continue the feudal power relations of the king or the local
elites. It has no meaning for either economic development or environmental development.
The NAPA followed the same again. Experts have reservation on the three eco-regions also.
Trans-Himalayan region has different geographical, social and cultural variations. NAPA
has entertained the same stereotypic division which has no meaning in the adaptation
programs on the GCC. It would be better if it had planned on the basis of watershed regions
or eco-regions. Then discussions which are going on would be more specific and operational.

E) Budgetary management: always belief crisis

The signed agreement has submitted a budget sheet for the allocation of US$ 1,325000.00.
Most of the fund goes to the structural arrangements, salaries and allowances in the different
names. Within them also a huge amount goes to some international experts (e.g., US$
315,000 for two staff for 1.5 years), so fund returns in the same direction from which it has
come.4 Some structures are mentioned there as NIM5 for management arrangements, which
gives no meaning and sense to the stakeholders. So, the information and ideas created here
come from their knowledge not from the experiences of the grass root people living in the
vulnerable regions. The adverse impacts of the climate change are scattered in the remote,
poor, illiterate and underprivileged groups. So, digging the truth form such sections needs
allocation of the budget in the same regions but project will move around the center and new
elites. Those elites are questioned always to be biased to the needy groups.

What support for aid is likely to exist inside donors for such future directions?

Foreign policy goals centre on combating immediate disturbances, such as conflicts, emergencies
and global environmental threats like climate change. The difficulty in pursuing these goals
suggests that a collective action problem is the basic barrier to sustainable aid. Benefits of aid are so
dispersed that donor political interests are hard to marshal.
How to overcome the collective action problem is complicated, to say the least; paths to doing so
will vary according to the political system of various donors and the assets available to mobilize
populations within their existing national creeds.

Donors have four motivations for sustaining aid. These provide opportunities in various donors for
mobilizing support, domestically and transnationally. These are: (i) the pursuit of global public
goods, (ii) economic development benefits for donors, (iii) domestic special interests and (iv)
increased willingness of recipients to accept conditionality.

Development - economic, social, and sustainable - without an effective state is impossible (World
Bank 1997a, as in Hopkins)

Source: POLITICAL ECONOMY OF FOREIGN AID, Raymond F. Hopkins; available at:

www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/rhopkin1/research/PolEconFA.pdf

4
See details: NAPA project Document, Nepal, Available at:
http://www.undp.org.np/pdf/projectdocs/NAPA%20project%20document.pdf

5
NIM as abbreviation is not clear itself, there is no full form of NIM throughout the document.

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F) Escaped from the own issue of CF
Nepal’s issue after Bali Mandate is REDD, because CDM of Kyoto Protocol is not sufficient
to address our efforts done in the reduction of carbon emission. Community forestry is
Nepal’s endeavor among the third world nations. It is our strong arguments to claim carbon
dollar. Our NAPA is silent in this issue. If we get that fund it can also be mobilized in the
adaptation programs of the vulnerable sectors. The project focuses on the donations living
our rights due to our own contribution in the global level. This time is to prepare strategies
to struggle for our rights after 2012, post KP. In this regard, the current document has not
mentioned the right based advocacy approach for the compensation strategies of CC regime.
Project documents concerned with the Aid, Policy, and Growth should focus on the aid effectiveness at
first. Distinct study on right based aid is the first requirement while talking about the Climate Change
Adaptation Programmes of Action in LDCs.

(The third-generation work in aid, policy and growth recognizes that development is a complex process
with interactions between economic and non-economic variables. The past decade has seen enormous
changes in the world economic environment and the economic systems in place in many countries.
Using past performance as an indicator of future performance is especially dubious in this environment,
given the existing limited understanding of the interplay between aid, macroeconomic policy and
political economy variables. In sum, the unresolved issue in assessing aid effectiveness is not whether
aid works, but how and whether we can make the different kinds of aid instruments at hand work better
in varying country circumstances.)

Source: AID EFFECTIVENESS DISPUTED, by Henrik Hansen and Finn Tarp, Available at:

http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/economics/credit/research/papers/cp.99.10.pdf

As an essence, in the name of NAPA, a document will be prepared. In this process, ‘experts’
from Kathmandu, international community and some well known universities, technocrats,
civil societies will participate , share some data, some workshops, seminars will be
organized. A group of elites having same interests will be gathered in the different names of
stakeholders. They will prepare national adaptation plan of action as the donors suggest.
They won’t have sufficient discussion and exclude different voices, use “data” weapon
(license is also within their access not others because they are products of the same elites and
interests) to dominate others idea. They will prepare such a document in which they will have
a safer role to entertain for some years.

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 Strategies to be adopted
NAPA is in the documentation process. It is hoped that after submission of NAPA to
UNFCCC, Nepal will start to get technical and financial cooperation from various donor
agencies as specified in the document. It will be the main stream program for years for the
adaptation processes of adverse impacts of climate change. It should be a genuine document
and every related person should be responsible for this task, because it should not be a
technical general document or we can easily review it if problem come. It will guide all the
programs, funds, procedures etc. For this purpose, some key statements are proposed here to
revise the core document.
Strategic analysis on the document should focus on;
1. The wider historical, socio-economic and cultural environment of Nepal, including the political
process of the reconstruction of the fragile state (Present context).
2. The immediate pressures coming from the groups and interests who influence on the decisions of
implementation process.
3. The processes, both formal and informal, through which decisions are made.
4. the continuing discourses of the political processes of the country which determines the future
plans and projections

Source: The Politics of Development Framework, (Political Economy Analysis: How to Note, DFID practice paper, July 2009)

a) Participation of the prioritized stakeholders in the planning process

It is clear that this preparatory process is going to be more technical, it can be corrected by
the broad participations of the political, social sectors, indigenous community, conflict
affected etc. Technical sector is important in the organization process of the outcomes as
required. If we can guarantee that the document is prepared by the broad participation, it will
be worthy and other steps of the programs also can be hoped simplified to implement.

b) Redefine the situation analysis

The situation analysis is to be redefined. We have to project what will be the adaptation
program’s efficiency when our nation is restructured. The political division remained is
difficult to solve the environment related problems. For example, if we have to deal with
GLOFs, they are divided in two districts because our old division is based on the mountains
and rivers. In the devolution process it will be different so, new division in federality has to
be addressed with broad participation of the stakeholders.

Analysis should focus further at;

Regional economic and political arrangements., Relations and/or conflict with neighboring countries,
Situation of trade , Migration flows and remittances from overseas, Role of donors, Drivers of good
governance including global media, international human rights norms, Multistakeholders initiative etc.

Source: International Drivers of Change; Political Economy Analysis: How to Note, DFID practice paper, July
2009

12
 Broad discussion should be welcomed
While the process the information, agenda of discussion, finding etc should be disclosed by
the electronic, popular media etc. This makes open environment for discussion, ownership
will be enlarged. It creates positive stewardship later on.

Further agenda of discussion among the concerned stakeholders from every sphere of the society can be
guided with the key domains and questions presented in the framework suggested by: World Bank Problem
Driven Governance and Political Economy; as shown below. The key tasks are;
(i) Identifying the problem, opportunity or vulnerability to be addressed,
(ii) Mapping out the institutional and governance arrangements and weaknesses, and
(iii) Drilling down to the political economy drivers, both to identify obstacles to progressive change
and to understand where a ‘drive’ for positive change could emerge from.

Source: PROBLEM-DRIVEN GOVERNANCE AND POLITICAL ECONOMY ANALYSIS, GOOD PRACTICE FRAMEWORK,
SEPTEMBER 2009 by WORLD BANK; available at:
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTPUBLICSECTORANDGOVERNANCE/Resources/PGPEbook121509.pdf?&resourceurlna
me=PGPEbook121509.pdf

c) Justification of the salary, cost etc should be made transparent

The cost of the projects looks to be tilted in the salary and service sectors. It is most
controversial issue related to international sectors assistance. Logics should be cleared. Why
a government officer has to be paid more in the projects. What is the logic behind it? Other
nations have started tender bidding for the human resources, why not in Nepal. Efficient
persons with competitive cost should be hired. All the costs should be justifiable. This time is
to advocate transparency; some parliamentary or civil society’s public auditing system can be
established for such cooperation sectors.
d) Justification of the international human/ and material resources
This is another controversial issue, what is the logic behind hiring specified foreign experts?
Logic behind it should be cleared. Human and material resources should be recruited in the
reference of efficiency. There may be national sensitivity or interest which is required to be
mentioned.

13
‘This is the tragedy in which the West already spent $2.3 trillion on foreign aid over the last 5 decades
and still had not managed to get 12-cent medicines to children to prevent half of all malaria deaths.
The West spent $2.3 trillion and still had not managed to get $4 bed nets to poor families. The West
spent $2.3 trillion and still had not managed to get $3 to each new mother to prevent 5 million child
deaths’.
Economist William Easterly (2006) - online magazine Cato Unbound, Available at:
http://www.cato-unbound.org/2006/04/03/william-easterly/why-doesnt-aid-work/

e) Distribution of the service and information centers all over the nation
Nearly our Kathmandu centered cascading practice remained in the institution and structures
of development are blamed as one of the causes of backwardness. All the bilateral and
multilateral assisting organizations are also agreed on it. But they are also following the same
as we did earlier. What are the logics to continue such practices? We are talking about the
GLOFs and snow melting related data developed in the middle hills. NAPA must discard
these practices. Saving funds from useless dissipation to unnecessary sectors, information
center can be established in proper place where we get quality data.

g) Clearance is required in the outcomes (page one)

We are preparing NAPA for climate change. It must make clear on the targeted sector and
outputs. In the signed paper the area selected is written “the conflict affected area”. It is
murky. Which area in Nepal is conflict affected area particularly? Which conflict? Socially
constructed or natural disaster created conflict? NAPA must have some limitations; it must
choose the projects which are due to climate change. All conflicts are not climate change
related. Then we have to be far from populist jargons. In TYIP6 conflict affected area, people
are in priority. It does not mean that we have to keep every thing in the same periphery.

Source: NAPA project Document, Nepal, Available at:

http://www.undp.org.np/pdf/projectdocs/NAPA%20project%20document.pdf

We know the climate changed vulnerabilities are denser in the Himalayan regions. It is due to
the specialties remained over there other than in the mid-hilly regions. Maoist conflict was
scattered in the western mid-hilly regions, first. Terai has another conflict which spread later
on. Terai is also vulnerable due to floods and depositions caused by the land slides of the
hills. Then, how NAPA benefits can be distributed in the western mid-hills leaving
mountainous and Terai regions, saying that they are conflict affected area?

6
Three Years Interim Plan (TYIP) is current national development plan of Nepal Government.

14
Conclusion
NAPA is in the preparation phase. The document which has been reviewed is just
strategically prepared document which can be modified during operational phase. In the
operational stage if we include agreed, authentic and dynamic concepts remained in the
ground, then it can be made more valuable and meaningful document. The venture of right
based aid and its effectiveness are the major points to be focused while preparing plans and
programmes of action. It should assure the equity in the distribution of the benefits and
address the effectiveness of the aid for the climate change adaptation programmes/projects in
Nepal. The project documents, plans, strategies and actions should be guided with broader
vision and perspectives to address the multilayered issues of socioeconomic and political
situation of the state. The implementation programmes should be guided with the principles
of good governance so as to ensure the accountability of the responsible structures,
institutions and agents in the climate change adaptation regime in LDCs. The ongoing
venture of climate change adaptation should closely look at the modality and conditionality
of the aid and hence should specify it. Similarly the CC adaptation regime among the LDCs
should focus on the context of vulnerability of LDCs towards the adverse impacts of Climate
Change while each national program should ensure the participation and access of the
communities and individuals concerned with it. The relationships, responsibilities and
authorities of all the stakeholders of the global climate change regime should be well
mentioned. It is really difficult for the people of LDCs to entertain the continuation of
colonial power relations in each and every development interventions. Critically, this is the
sign of paradigm shift in Development.

Authors:

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Mr. Laxman K. Sharma (Environment Education and Sustainable Development –
EESD/ Kathmandu University)
8
Mr. Sundar K Sharma (Human and Natural Resources Studies-HNRS/ Kathmandu
University)

7
Adopted content analysis of NAPA through critical perspectives on development theories and practices
8
Adopted Political Economy perspectives in content analysis

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Abbreviations:

CBOs: Community Based Organizations

CC: Climate Change
CDM: Clean Development Mechanism
DFID: Department for International Development
DoC: Drivers of Change
GCC: Global Climate Change
GHG: Green House Gas
ODI: Overseas Development Institute
INC: Initial National Communication
KP: Kyoto Protocol
LDCs: Least Developed Countries
NAPA: National Adaptation Programmes of Action
NGOs: Non-Governmental Organizations
REDD: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
SD: Sustainable Development
TYIP: Three Year Interim Plan
UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

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