Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
1 INTRODUCTION
Many types of mineral deposit form by weathering. For discussion in this
chapter we have selected bauxite, nickel laterite and kolin; we also describe
supergene manganese and the supergene enrichment of sulphides. These mineral
deposits are among the most important ores formed by weathering and supergene
enrichment is one of the best understood aspects of weathering. The selections were
made to illustrate the several different chemical processes taking place during
wcathering.
Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of rocks by physical and chemical
processes, both of which may be aided by organic activity. The fractionation of the
rock occurs in response to changes in environmental conditions since the rock was
formed. The products of weathering are materials more nearly in equilibrium with
their environment than those from which they are derived. For example, the minerals
of igneous rocks, formed at high temperatures in the absence of abundant water, are
unstable in the cooler, wet conditions at the earth's surface, the minerals of these
igneous rocks are altered to low-temperature water-bearing phases or dissolved and
removed. Physical weathering disaggregates the rock creating large surface areas and
greater access by fluids. This increases the susceptibility to chemical weathering.
Chemical weathering usually is in two stages, alkaline then acid.: The behaviour of
the different elements within thesilicate minerals is differentially affected by
changesin pH. During the alkaline stage K, Na, Ca may be removed and the
remaining rock material may be relatively enriched in Fe, Si and Al. When conditions
become acid the hydroxides of aluminium and iron can migrate to a limited extent.
Rose et al. (1979) list the major processes of chemical weathering as
hydration, hydrolysis, oxidation and solution. The earliest evidence of rock
weathering is oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+ and removal of Na, Ca and Mg in solution
(Dennen and Anderson, 1962). Na is particularly mobile during weathering but
release of K into solution is restricted by its adsorption on to kaolinite.
continues to accumulate. Bauxite, some of the World's china clay deposits and
nickeliferous laterites are examples of this second type.
KAOLIN DEPOSITS
Kaolinite is the chief economic mineral of the recondite group of clay
minerals. Its basic structure two-layer lattice, a gibbsite sheet and a silica tetrahedral
sheet; kaolinite, does not expand with decreasing water content, one of the
characteristics which distinguishes it from the smectite group. Its crystal structure is
generally resistant to attack by most corrosive fluids, making kaolinite inert, not
readily reacting with media in which it is placed; this is an important commercial
property of china clay. Commercial-quality china clay is used in the paper industry, in
china manufacture, for ceramics and refactories. Diverse other markets exist
including the paint and rubber industries. In the paper industry china clay is used to
fill the interstices of the pulp fibres and as a surface coating to produce a smooth,
bright, often glossy finish. As this represents one of the major markets for the product
the brightness of the clay is a very important criterion when a kaolin depositis being
evaluated. China clay lacks sufficient plasticity and grecn strength to make some
ceramic products. Ball clay, a variety of kaolin having plasticity and high-strength
characteristics, is commonly added to china clay to improve workability. (Fig 7.12).
7.4.1 Genesis of kaolin deposits
The hydrous aluminosilicate, kaolinite, is formed from the destruction of
aluminium silicates, principally feldspars. The feldspar lattices are wrecked by ionic
solution, hydration and hydrolysis. K, Na and Ca are extracted and reaction of the Al
and Si with OH results in formation of kaolinite. The conversion of orthoclase to
kaolinite may be illustrated as follows:
4KAISi3O8 + 2CO3 + 4H2O 2K2CO3 + Al4 Si4 O10 (OH)8 + 8SiO2
The annual World production of kaolin is about 18 million tonnes. In 1982 the
USA had about 40% of the market and the UK about 16% (Industrial Minerals,
1983). These two countries dominate the high-value paper-coating clay market. The
largest single producer world-wide is English China Clays (ECC) whose British
operations are centred in south-west England. Their total production amounted to 2.9
million tonnes in 1981. Some 50% of the china clay produced is used for paper filling
while 30% goes for paper coating. Ceramics accounts for another 15% while the
remainder is used for a wide variety of products. The trend in usage seems to indicate
an increase in the paper-coating clay production compared to the filler usage.
(c) Mineralogy
Kaolin deposits that have been formed by chemical weathering_may have
halloysite, siderite, pyrite and limonite as accessory minerals. The kaolinite that
occurs as the pallid zone in bauxite profiles may be associated with one of the bauxite
minerals. Resistate minerals may also be present. Kaolinization associated with
igneous rocks gives jrise to deposits of kaolinite plus one or more of the essential
minerals of the igneous rock. In the south west of England china clay deposits contain
quartz, feldspar, mica and relict tourmaline. Such deposits do not have much limonite,
siderite or pyrite.
(d) Host rock lithology
Residual deposits of kaolin result from the chemical weathering of feldsparrich rocks, particularly granites and other aluminous rocks. At present production of
good-quality china clay from the pallidzones beneath bauxite layers is not very
significant.
exists in the Gabbin granite and the deepest weathering and zones of best rheology
appear to follow this trend. A typical section shows the recognizably weathered
granite overlain by a coloured sandy clay which underlies the ore-grade kaolin. The
kaolin deposit maybe 35 m thick with an average of 11 m. The thickness of kaolin
seems to follow the topography but there may be some fault control (Walker, 1978).
Overlying the kaolin is a varying thickness of silcrete and sandstones. The
distribution of the various ore-grade clays along onesection is shown in Fig. 7.13.
7.4.5 Sedimentary kaolin
Deposits in South Carolina and Georgia, - About 90% of the kaolin
production of the USA is from sedimentary deposits in South Carolina and Georgia.
The production is based on two centres, one extending from Macon to Wrens in
Georgia, and the other near Augusta, Georgia, and Aiken, South Carolina. Here the
kaolin is in lenses within the Upper Cretaceous to Middle Eocene formations. These
lenses occur, apparently at random, throughout a thickness of more than 50 m of the
formation and may have lengths of several kilometres. The thickness of these lenses
ranges up to 12 m and all contain some detrital sand and mica. Disseminated pyrite is
present in the kaolin under thick cover and as the outcrop is approached the oxidation
of pyrite gives a random yellow stain to the kaolin which affects the grade of clay
produced. It is generally agreed that the source of these kaolinitic sediments lay in
crystalline rocks to the north-west but the presence of the lenses in otherwise coarse,
cross-bedded sands has been the topic of much debate. Initially it was assumed the
crystalline rocks were deeply weathered and the kaolinite was formed in situ and then
washed into the areas where they now occur. On this hypothesis the lenses of
kaolinite are difficult to explain. Kesler (1952) explained the presence of the lenses
by transport of detritus from the crystalline rocks. Weathering offeldspars into
kaolinite occurred within the delta sands, the kaolinite being later washed selectively
to cut off stream segments or ponds (analogous to the settling ponds used in china
salinity fluids, with temperatures less than 170C, were responsible for the
kaolinization. The volume of available fluids accounts for the very large size of the
deposits. Highest quality, in terms of brightness and particle size, is related to the
lithionite granite which was deficient in iron-rich biotite.
Bray and Spooner (1983) have examined the evidence for and against a
weathering origin for these leposits. They observed that no vertical profile
development is presentin the south-west of England deposits and the depth of
kaolinization (as much as 250 m) is significantly greater than the 3550 m
thicknesses which are typical of complete chemical weathering profiles. Furthermore
the Ks Ar age for the secondary muscovites in the deposits indicates that kaolinization
occurred at the time of the sheeted quartztourmaline : cassiterite + wolframite
mineralization in the region (267 million years). Bray and Spooner conclude that the
evidence suggests a single-stage hydrothermal process.
The deposits lie on eroded cupolas of an extensive Hercynian granite
batholith, and although five of the six main cupolas have some kaolinization which
has been commercially exploited, the main mass of china clay is located in the
lithionite granite of the St. Austell area (Fig. 27.14). The clay deposits often occur as
funnel shapes opening upwards and extending as deep as 250 m. The funnel-shaped
deposits may occur in zones, or alternatively the kaolinized zones may form
elongated troughs sometimes dipping at high angles into the ground (Fig. 7.15). This
dip may result in unkaolinized granite overlying kaolinized granite. Such shapes
make evaluation difficult, as does the occurrence of core stones' where unkaolinized
granite apparently overlies kaolinized rock. Laterally kaolinized material may pass
into unkaolinized granite over very short distances.