Circuit Theory Electronic Engineering

Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering
EE10168
Circuit Theory
AUTHOR: DR F ROBINSON
FIRST YEAR
Semester 1
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CT EE10168 notes_2014
University of Bath
Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering
Circuit Theory, EE10168.
CT1 BASIC ELECTRIC CIRCUIT VARIABLES AND ELEMENTS

Dr F Robinson
Resources
For more detailed explanations, and many more worked examples, design information and tutorial exercises see
Chapters 1 and 2 of Engineering Circuit Analysis.
Key text: any edition of Engineering Circuit Analysis, Irwin, J. David, Publisher: Wiley.
Also, any edition of J. David Irwin, 'Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis', Wiley. There are many other circuit
theory, and introduction to circuit theory books in the library. Good idea to visit the library website and identify
e-books and where useful paper textbooks books are.
Equipment/software: access to the OrCAD software will be provided in the laboratory. You can find out how
to obtain your own free copy by visiting the EE10168 Moodle page.
CADENCE, OrCAD Capture for circuit schematic entry, mounted on laboratory PC.
CADENCE, OrCAD PSPICE for circuit analysis, mounted on laboratory PC.
Aims and objectives

Aims: The aim is to introduce basic DC circuit quantities, elements and circuit analysis. This involves studying:
1.
DC source and load circuits comprising current and voltage sources and resistors.
2.
Basic quantities (i.e. charge, current, voltage, power) and their sign and labelling conventions.
3.
Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws.
4.
Equivalent resistances for parallel and series resistor networks.
5.
Resistor circuits which give current and voltage division.
Objectives: At the end of this section you should be able to:

1.
Understand the characteristics of ideal DC source elements.
2.
Predict the values and directions of electrical quantities in basic DC circuits with resistive loads.
3.
Apply Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's law to the analysis of basic DC circuits.
4.
Calculate equivalent resistance for resistors connected in series and parallel networks.
5.
Analyse and design resistor circuits that produce current and voltage division.
6.
Enter and simulate a number of basic circuits in OrCAD/Capture and OrCAD/PSPICE
7. Voltage, current, power and energy

Electrical circuits comprise sources and loads connected together with low-resistance conductors, such as copper
wires.
+
I
V
Source
Load
Fig.1 Simple electrical circuit with voltage (V) and current (I) directions shown (+ and symbols indicate
voltage polarity more obviously than the arrows, but are generally omitted).
The electrical power source produces a voltage across its terminals. Charge at the upper terminal is at a higher
potential energy (higher potential, or higher voltage; they all mean the same) than the lower, as indicated
by the + and signs and the direction of the voltage arrows.
Connecting a load with wires provides a path for charge to flow between the positive and negative source terminal.
Electric current (I) is a measure of the amount of charge, Q, flowing past a point in the circuit in a given timeperiod t as expressed in Eq.1. An electric current is also considered to flow from the positive to the negative
source terminal in Fig.1.
I = Q / t
Quantity
Unit
(1)
I (current)
A (ampere)
Q (charge)
C (coulomb)
t (time)
s (second)
With the voltage and current directions shown in Fig.1, the source will be supplying power and the load will be
absorbing power. The quantity of power being supplied is given by Eq.2.
P=VI
(2)
Quantity
Unit
P (power)
W (watt)
V (voltage)
V (volt)
I (current)
A (ampere)
The power being absorbed by the load may be assumed to be equivalent to the source power since the power loss
in the conductors is usually negligibly small.
C
I
R
C
U
I
T
C
I
R
C
U
I
T
I
V
(a) Power supplied (reflected source from Fig.1)
(b) Power absorbed (load in Fig.1)
Fig.2 Circuit elements showing voltage and current orientations for power supply and power absorption.
4
Fig.2 shows the sign convention for power, i.e. when current enters the high-voltage side of an element, as in
Fig.2(b), power is absorbed; and when current leaves the high voltage side of an element, as in Fig.2(a), power is
supplied.
-V
-I
(a)
(b)
Fig.3 Diagrams showing equivalent current and voltage directions, or polarities.
Positive current flowing in one direction is equivalent to negative current flow in the opposite direction, as
shown in Fig.3 (a). The corresponding equivalent for voltage across an electrical device is shown in Fig.3 (b).
Example 1 Determine whether the elements in Fig.Ex1 are absorbing or supplying power, and how much.
I = 4A
C
I
R
C
U
I
T
C
I
R
C
U
I
T
I = -2 A
V = 2V
V = 2V
+
(a)
(b)
Fig.Ex1 Elements for analysis in Example 1.
Ex.1 solution: In Fig.Ex1 (a), I is effectively leaving the high-voltage side of the element and hence power is
being supplied. The value is given by P = V I = 2 4 = 8W.
In Fig.Ex1 (b), I appears to be leaving the high-voltage side of the element, but, because it is negative, it is in
fact reversed and entering. Hence power is being absorbed by the element. The value is P = V I = 2 2 = 4W.
Example 2 Calculate the values of power for all three elements of the circuits in Fig.Ex2, and state whether the
power is supplied or absorbed. Knowledge of the exact function of the elements or sources is not required.
[Ans: supplied 16 W; absorbed 12 W, 4 W]
6V
2A
1
8V
IS
VS
2A
2V
2A
Fig.Ex2 Circuits for analysis in Example 2.

5
8. Voltage and current sources

8.1 Voltage source
Electrical circuits are most commonly powered by voltage sources. Practical examples of voltage sources are
batteries, electrical generators, and laboratory DC power supplies.
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Fig.4 Symbols for (a,b) ideal voltage and (c,d) current sources.
The general symbol for an ideal voltage source is given in Fig.4 (a). The polarity of the output voltage is shown
within the circle. For batteries there is a separate symbol that is shown in Fig.4 (b).
The value of voltage-source output, V, is assumed to remain constant whatever the value and direction of current
through the source. It should be noted that the ideal voltage-source model can absorb current and hence power,
indefinitely, as well as supply current and power. However, care should be taken when using practical voltage
sources because their power absorption capability is often very limited.
8.2 Current source

Ideal current sources deliver a constant current, I, whatever the direction of voltage across the source. Commonly used symbols for an ideal current source are shown in Fig.4 (c) and 4 (d). The arrow indicates the direction of
current flow.
Current sources are generally implemented electronically using transistor circuits. Miniature constant-current
sources are very widely used within ICs (Integrated Circuits are microcircuits fabricated on a small piece
of silicon).
8.3 Conservation of energy

We generally assume that the conservation of energy law applies, i.e. the total power supplied by sources equals
the total power absorbed, or dissipated, by the load elements in a circuit.
Hence
POUT = PIN
9. Resistors and Ohm's law

9.1 Ohm's law
I=V/R
V=I R
V
V
V
Fig.5 Circuits to illustrate the use of Ohm's law.

An electrical source produces a voltage V across, or a current I, through a resistance R, as illustrated in Fig.5.
The relationship between V, I and R is given by Ohm's law (see Eq.3).
V=IR
(3)
Quantity
Unit
R (resistance)
(ohm)
6
V (voltage)
V (volt)
I (current)
A (ampere)
9.2 Resistor power dissipation

In Fig.5, the resistors are absorbing power of value
P=VI
(4)
Since V = I R, power may also be expressed in two other ways
P I 2R
(5a)
or
V2
R
(5b)
Example 3 (a) Calculate the circuit current in Fig.Ex3(a) and the voltage and resistance in Fig.Ex3(b). Sketch
the circuits and add all current and voltage directions to them with appropriate arrows. Calculate the value of
voltage at the top of each circuit relative to earth, i.e. 0V.
[Ans: (a) 6 mA, 12 V; (b) 20 V, 5 k, -20 V]
12 V
4 mA
P = 80 mW
2 k
Earth connection symbol
(a)
(b)
10. Circuit terms and annotations

10.1 Definitions of terms
1
I1
I2
I3
IS
R1
R4
I5
R5
R3
R2
I4
R6
VS
I6
Fig.6 Circuit used to define circuit terms with all five nodes numbered.
There are a number of terms, such as branch, node, and loop that describe features of electric circuits.
Strictly speaking a branch is a portion of the circuit containing only one element. Hence in moving between
points 1, 4 and 5 in Fig.6, two branches are crossed containing R3 and R6. The complete circuit contains eight
branches. However, in practice, branch is often used more loosely to describe a path, such as the R3-R6 path,
with the same current. Hence, Fig.6 has 7 different branch currents, but to a purest 8 branches with 1 element.
A node is the connection point of a number of branches. There are five nodes in Fig.6, which are labelled 1 to 5.
A loop comprises any closed path around the circuit. Special loops shown by A, B, C, and D in Fig.7(a) that do
not cut any branches are termed meshes. Less obvious loops, e.g. E, F, and G in Fig.7(b), are not meshes.
7
I2
I1
IS
I3
B
R1
R2
I1
IS
I3
I2
R1
R3
R2
R3
E
R4
I5
R5
R4
I4
I5
R6
VS
R6
VS
R5
I6
I4
I6
(b)
(a)
Fig.7 Circuit used to define circuit terms with seven, but not all, of the loops marked.
10.2 Branch annotations

With series-connected components, such as R3 and R6, the branch currents in both have the same value and direction; hence, only one current name and arrow need be placed on either resistor. However, if voltage values
were to be specified during analysis, separate voltage arrows would have to be added across both R3 and R6.
With parallel-connected branches, such as R1 and R2, the voltage across both is the same; hence, only one voltage name and arrow need be placed on either resistor during analysis. In this case, separate current names need
to be included.
The voltage across a branch containing a short-circuit is zero, since V I R 0 if R = 0; hence voltage labelling is unnecessary. The current through a branch containing an open-circuit is zero, since I V / R 0 if R
= ; hence current labelling is unnecessary.
11. Kirchhoff's laws

11.1 Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)
Kirchhoff's current law states that at any instant the algebraic sum of currents entering any node in a circuit is
zero. In short, at any instant I = 0.
When applying Kirchhoff's current law, if you assume that the algebraic sign of the currents entering a node is
positive, then you must make the sign of the current leaving a node negative.
Example 4 Calculate the source current in Fig.Ex4.
R1
R2
R3
10 mA
40mA
20mA
IT
Fig.Ex4 Circuit for analysis in Example 4.

Ex.4 solution: Applying KCL at the lower node and assuming that current flowing into the node is positive
gives
I R1+I R 2+I R3 -I T = 0
I T = I R1+I R 2+I R3 = 10m + 40m + 20m = 70mA

8
Example 5 Apply Kirchhoff's current law at the circuit nodes A to C to calculate the values of I2, I4 and I5 in
Fig.Ex5.
[Ans: 2 A, -1 A, 2 A]
I1 = 3A
A
I3 = 1A
I2
VS
B
I5
I4
D
I6 = 1A
11.2 Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

Kirchhoff's voltage law states that at any instant the algebraic sum of voltages around any loop in a circuit is
zero. In short, at any instant V = 0.
When applying Kirchhoff's voltage law, if you assume that the algebraic sign of a voltage pointing in the same
direction as you are travelling around a loop is positive, then you must make the sign of the voltages opposing
your direction of travel negative. This is illustrated in Example 6.
Example 6 Use Kirchhoff's voltage law to find VR3.

I
30V
VR1 = 18V
5V
R1
VR2 = 12V
R2
R3
15V
VR3
Ex.6 solution: The circuit comprises a single loop. Voltage arrows have been added to simplify writing the
KVL equation. A guess has to be made concerning the loop current (see I in circuit), and hence resistor voltage
(all must be the same), direction. If you guess wrongly you will simply get a negative answer, in which case
you reverse the current or voltage direction in your mind and leave the arrow as initially written.
Moving in a clockwise direction around the loop starting at the 30V source, voltages pointing in the direction of
travel are taken as +ve, and voltages opposing the direction of travel are taken as ve. Thus
30 VR1 + 5 - VR2 + 15 VR3 = 0
VR3 = 50 VR1 VR2 = 50 30 = 20 V
and therefore
Example 7 Derive two Kirchhoff voltage law equations for the two inner loops of the circuit shown in Fig.Ex7,
and use these to determine all the branch currents.
[Ans: -0.222 A, 1 A]
9
I2
I1
18
I1 + I2
18
16 V
10 V
12. Resistor's connected in series

12.1 Equivalent resistance
A number of resistors connected in series may be replaced by a single resistor with an equivalent resistance value, which draws the same value of current from a voltage source.
I
VR1
R1
VR2
R2
VR3
R3
Fig.8 Circuit with series-connected resistors.
The current flowing in Fig.8 is common to all resistors.

Applying KVL gives
V VR1 VR2 VR3 0
Using branch equations
VR1 I R1 ,
and substituting for all VRN
VR2 I R2
and
V I R1 I R2 I R3 0
VR3 I R3 .
V I R1 R2 R3 IRS
Hence, the three series-connected resistors may be replaced by a single resistance value RS, such that
RS R1 R2 R3
(7)
A generalised form of this equation is given in Eq.8 for any number, N, of series-connected resistors.
RS = R1 R2 R N
(8)
To check calculations, remember that the equivalent resistance value of any chain-network of resistors must have
a higher value than any of the connected resistors.
10
Example 8 Calculate IX in the circuit in Fig.Ex8. Use a KVL equation to evaluate the equivalent single-source
voltage if you cannot determine the value by inspection. Redraw the circuit with this single equivalent source.
[Ans: 1 mA]
I
9V
1.8 k
2.2 k
4.1 k
3V
12 V
6V
3.9 k
Fig.Ex8 Circuit for analysis in Example 8
12.2 Voltage division

When using series-connected resistors, it saves time to be able to express resistor volt-drops in terms of V and
the resistor values, without first calculating I.
I
VR1
R1
V
VR2
R2
Fig.9 Circuit to illustrate voltage division.
V
R1 R2
Circuit current
I =
Resistor volt drops
VR1 I R1 ,
Substituting for I gives
V R1
and
R1
V
R1 R2
VR2 I R2
(9),
and
V R2
R2
V
R1 R2
(10)
A similar form of equation is obtained with higher numbers of resistors in a chain network, e.g. with N resistors,
the voltage across one specific resistor in the series n = 1, 2, 3, .. N is obtained using
V Rn
Rn
V
R1 R2 R N
(11)
13. Resistors connected in parallel

13.1 Equivalent resistance
A number of resistors connected in parallel may be replaced by a single resistor with an equivalent resistance,
which draws the same value of current from a voltage source.
11
I
I1
V
I2
R1
IN
R2
RN
Fig.10 Circuit with parallel-connected resistors
The voltage drop across each of the resistors in Fig.10 is common and corresponds to the source value, V.
V
V
V
I I1 I 2 I N =

R1 R2
RN
Applying KCL at either node gives
since VR1 VR2 VRN V and I 1 R1 I 2 R2 I N R N V
In other words
I1 =
V
,
R1
I2 =
V
,
R2
IN =
V
RN
The N parallel resistors may be replaced by a single resistor, RP, such that
V
V
V
V
=

R P R1 R2
RN
hence
1
1
1
1
=

R P R1 R2
RN
(12)
To check calculations, remember that the equivalent resistance of any ladder-network of resistors must have a
lower value than any of the connected resistors.
For two parallel-connected resistors, the rearranged form of Eq.12 given by Eq.13 is often used, i.e.
1
1
1
=
RP R1 R2
RP =
R1R2
R2+R1
(13)
Example 9 Calculate equivalent resistance values for the ladder-networks given in Fig.Ex9. Use your calculator 1/X function.
[Ans: 1.895 ]
17
47
317
13.2 Current division

With parallel-connected resistors, it is the current that divides between the branches, rather than the voltage.
12
I
I1
V
I2
R1
R2
Fig.11 Circuit to illustrate current division.
When using parallel-connected resistors, it saves time to be able to express branch currents in terms of I and the
resistor values, without first calculating V.
The voltage drop across each of the resistors in Fig.11 is common and corresponds to the source value, V.
V I 1 R1
Therefore
(14)
V I 2 R2
and
(15)
V equals I RP , where RP is the equivalent circuit resistance, which for two parallel-connected resistors is obtained
1
1
using
.
Therefore, it follows that V I
(16)
RP
1 R1 1 R2
1 R1 1 R2
Equating Eq.14 and 15 to Eq.16
I 1 R1 I
Dividing by R1 and R2 gives
I1 I
1
1 R1 1 R2
1 R1
1 R1 1 R2
and
I 2 R2 I
(16)
and
1
1 R1 1 R2
I2 I
1 R2
1 R1 1 R2
(17)
We now have a current-division equation that is generally applicable with a number of resistors in a ladder network. With N resistors, the current in any one resistor of the ladder is obtained using Eq.18.
I Rn
1 Rn
I
1 R1 1 R2 1 R N
(18)
Example 10 An ammeter with a 10 mA full-scale range is to be used to measure current values between 0 and 1
A. If the ammeter has an internal resistance of 9.9 , determine the value of a suitable parallel resistor (see
Fig.Ex10), which will allow the ammeter to measure currents up to 1A. Note that resistors used in this way
to extend the current-measuring capability of ammeters are termed current shunts.
IM =1A
I1
I2 = 10 mA
R1
R2
current
shunt
ammeter
Fig.Ex10 Equivalent circuit of ammeter and current shunt in Example 10.

Ex.10 solution Use the current division equation.
I2
1 R2
I
1 R1 1 R2 M
IM
R2
I2
I2
R1
R2
I M I2
R2
I2
R1
I2
1
R2
I M I2
Rearrange and put in the values.
R1
I2
R
I M I2 2
R1
10m
9.9
1 10m
= 0.1
13
1
R1
CT1 - Tutorial sheet

You should complete the example exercises within the previous text before attempting the tutorials. If you are having difficulty with the tutorials and need more practise or explanation, please study and
complete some of the more basic examples in the recommended book.
1.
Calculate the equivalent resistance between terminals A and B. Do this by redrawing the circuit several
times, and each time replace the pairs of resistors that are obviously connected in series or parallel by a single equivalent resistance, so that you gradually simplify the circuit to an equivalent resistance.
[Ans: 6 k]
5 k
8 k
3 k
10 k
10 k
15 k
3 k
(a)
5 k
13 k
5 k
A
2.
Calculate VX in the circuit below. Start by labelling currents and writing a Kirchhoffs-current-law (KCL)
equation and then express each current in terms of voltage difference divided by resistance.
[Ans: 0.797 V]
VX
330
1.2 k
-6 V
-3 V
680
820
12 V
3.
A bulb rated at 9 V, 5W is to be operated from a 12 V supply using a series-connected resistor. Using a

voltage division equation, determine the value of a series resistance that will allow the bulb to operate at its
rated values, and calculate the resistor power rating required.
[Ans: 5.4 , 1.667 W]
4.
Two devices, A and B, are to be operated from a single 12 V supply using the circuit shown. Determine
values for resistors RA and RB to enable the devices to be operated at their rated conditions of 4 V, 2 A for A
RA
and 5 V, 1.6 A for B.
[Ans: 1.5 , 12.5 ]
5.
12V
RB
Find IX in the adjacent circuit using a current division equation.
[Ans: 1.990 A]
IX
10 A
9
17
14
39
10
University of Bath
CT2 CIRCUIT THEOREMS AND BASIC OP-AMP CIRCUITS
Dr F Robinson
Resources
Aims and objectives

Aims: The aim is to introduce a number of linear circuit properties and theorems that assist in the description
and analysis of circuits, and to introduce basic op-amp configurations and their simulation. This involves the
study of:
Impact and modelling of the internal resistance of sources.
Thvenin's theorem and the procedure for its application in circuit analysis.
Derivation of the maximum power theorem.
Basic op-amp characteristics, basic op-amp circuits and the derivation of their gains.
Further computer-aided analysis of linear DC circuits.
Objectives: At the end you should be able to:
Apply a number of linear circuit properties and theorems in the analysis of example DC circuits.
Identify the basic characteristics of the op-amp.
Identify a number of basic op-amp circuits and derive their voltage gains.
Perform a DC Sweep analysis and model basic op-amp circuits in the OrCAD circuit simulator.
15
1. Source internal resistance

Practical voltage and current sources do not provide absolutely constant values of terminal voltage or current:
voltage-source terminal voltage decreases slightly as the current drawn by the connected circuit increases,
current-source terminal current decreases slightly as the voltage developed across the connected circuit
increases.
The effect may be taken into account by adding an internal source resistance to the ideal sources to create practical source models, as shown if Fig.1.
SOURCE
SOURCE
IL
VL
RS
VS
IL
VL
RS
IS
RL
(a)
RL
(b)
Fig.1 (a) Voltage- and (b) current-source equivalent circuits that reflect the fall in terminal values with increased
loading.
Terminal voltage and current are given for the sources by Eq.1 and 2, which show that:
as the voltage-source current increases the internal voltage drop ILRS increases (see Eq.1), and
as the current-source voltage increases a higher current VL /RS is diverted into the source resistance (see
Eq.2).
V L VS I L RS
I L IS
(1)
VL
RS
(2)
Fig.2 omitted.
2. Thvenin's theorem
Thvenin's theorem says that the effect of a complicated linear circuit on a particular circuit element can be analysed by replacing the circuit, other than the element under analysis, by an equivalent circuit comprising a voltage source with internal resistance, as shown in Fig.3.
R2
Thvenin equivalent circuit
VS
R3
RTH
VTH
RL
RL
R1
(b)
(a)
Fig.3 (a) A linear circuit and (b) its Thvenin equivalent circuit used to simplify analysis.
The following procedure is used to determine the values VTH and RTH, which have the same terminal characteristics as the original circuit. The procedure is illustrated using the circuit in Fig.3.
16
R2
R2
VS
VTH
R3
R3
VTH
RTH
RTH
VL
RL
R1
R1
(c)
(b)
(a)
Fig.4 Equivalent circuits to illustrate the step in deriving a Thvenin equivalent circuit.
1.
Remove the circuit element that you wish to find the current in, or voltage across, as shown in Fig.4(a).
2.
Calculate the voltage produced by the remaining circuit across the open-circuited terminals of the removed
element. The calculated voltage corresponds to VTH.
VTH
There is no voltage drop across R2 since its current is zero; therefore

3.
R3
VS .
R1 R3
Zero voltage and current sources and calculate the resistance RTH looking back into the open-circuited terminals, as shown in Fig.4(b).
Zeroed voltage sources approximate to short circuits, i.e. wire link with R = 0. Practical voltagesources have an internal resistance, RS, and this rather than R = 0 should be used if its value is known.
Zeroed current sources approximate to open circuits, i.e. cut wire with R = . Practical current-sources
have an internal resistance, RS, and this rather than R = 0 should be used if its value is known.
4.
The Thvenin equivalent circuit is then added to the removed element to calculate its operating conditions.
Using the Thvenin equivalent circuit
VTH
RTH R L
or
VL
RL
VTH
RTH R L
Example 1 Find VX in the circuit in Fig.Ex1 using Thvenin's theorem.

4
[Ans: 6.00 V]
VX
10V
8
8
8
3. Maximum power transfer theorem

It is important in some circumstances to know the maximum power that can be delivered to a load by practical
sources and circuits.
First, the circuit, if complicated, is simplified using Thvenin's theorem, so that it may be represented by a nonideal voltage source with an internal resistance, as shown in Fig.4.
2
The power delivered to the load is
VS
PL I R L
RL
RS R L
2
(3)
The value of power consumed by the load varies with load resistance, RL. To determine the value of RL that
maximises load power, PL must be differentiated with respect to RL and set to zero.
17
I
RS
VS
RL
Fig.5 Circuit used to investigate the conditions for maximum power delivery to a load.
Example 2 Perform the differentiation shown in the first line below to complete the proof.
dPL
1
2
VS
dR L
RS R L
d RL
d
1
RL
dR L
dR L R R
S
L
0
2

=0
VS
R R 2R
L
L
VS 2 S
0
R R 3
S
L
RS R L 0
R R
L
VS 2 S
0
R R 3
L
S
R L RS
Hence the value of Eq.3 is at a maximum and the maximum power transfer takes place when the load resistance
is equal to the source internal resistance. Setting RL to maximise PL is known as matching the load.
Example 3 Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in Fig.Ex3, and calculate the maximum power.
6V
[Ans; 2 k, 4.5mW]
2k
RL
2k
4. Dependent voltage source

The voltage and current sources used previously are termed independent sources because the voltage or current
produced is largely unaffected by what is happening in the connected circuit.
There is a family of sources known as dependent sources (or controlled sources), in which the output is determined by a voltage or current at a specified location in the circuit. Dependent sources are frequently used to
model the behaviour of transistor circuits. A diamond symbol is used for dependent sources (see Fig.6a).
The input terminals on the left represent the voltage that controls the dependent source on the right. Often the
input terminals are omitted and the voltage (or current) controlling a source, together with the source constant, A,
are simply included at the side of the diamond symbol, as in Fig.6(b).
18
c
i
r
c
u
i
t
+
+
VX
VOUT = A VX
A VX
(b)
(a)
Fig.6 (a) Ideal voltage dependent voltage source and (b) a simpler representation where VX is a voltage somewhere in the connected circuit.
The source constant, A in Fig.6, is a dimensionless quantity, in the case of voltage-dependent voltage sources,
and is termed the gain, or more fully, the voltage gain.
Gain
A=
VOUT
VX
If the gain is greater than one, then VOUT is a bigger, or amplified, version of VX.
There are electronics circuits whose behaviour approximates closely to voltage-dependent voltage sources
known as amplifiers, and it is the analysis of some basic amplifier configurations that will now be considered.
5. Operational amplifier
Amplifiers are complex circuits involving the use of numerous components including resistors, capacitors and
transistors. However, there is a low-power integrated-circuit type known as the operational amplifier, or opamp, which is very easy to configure and use to perform such functions as voltage amplification, scaling, addition, subtraction, and current-to-voltage conversion.
The op-amp has two input terminals [see Fig.7a], a non-inverting input (+) and an inverting input ():
A positive voltage applied to the (+) input with respect to the () input gives a positive amplifier output,
i.e. non inverted output.
A positive voltage applied to the () input with respect to the (+) input gives a negative amplifier output,
i.e. inverted output.
Typical op-amp gain is very high, A = 104106 V/V. Also, op-amp input resistance is so high, and output resistance relatively low, that we may assume with little error that: RI = , or open circuit, RO = 0 and A = .
+VS
VIN = (V+ - V-)
VO = A (V+ - V-)
V+
non-inverting input
inverting input
RO
+
-
RI
V-
-VS
0V
0V
(b)
(a)
Fig.7 operational amplifier, (a) op-amp symbol and (b) op-amp equivalent circuit.
Op-amp behaviour only approximates to a voltage-dependent voltage source when the input voltage is within a
limited range (i.e. the linear region) so as not to drive the output voltage above or below the +VS or VS supplyrail levels e.g. 12V. Once the output reaches either supply-rail level, further increases in VIN have little or no
effect on further increasing the output, as shown in Fig.8, and the op-amp is said to be saturated.
19
output
VO
saturation
+12V
linear region
input
VIN = V+ - V-
- 120V
+120V
-12V
saturation
Fig.8 Op-amp DC transfer characteristic with example voltage levels.
6. Inverting amplifier
One of the simplest op-amp circuits, which allow an input voltage to be scaled by a gain determined by the ratio
of two resistors, is shown in Fig.9.
+VS and VS power-supply connections are usually omitted from op-amp circuit diagrams when they are drawn
for the purpose of functional analysis. This minimises clutter in a schematic when the focus in on input and output connections.
Since the gain of the op-amp, A = VO / VE, is very high >105, a very small op-amp input voltage, here termed the
error voltage, is required between the op-amp inverting and non-inverting inputs to produce an output, e.g. for
VO = 12 V when A = 105, VE = 12/105 = 120 V or 0.12 mV.
VR2
R2
I2
VR1
R1
I1
VI
VO
VE
VI
(a)
VO
(b)
Fig.9 (a) Inverting amplifier configuration (b) annotated circuit for analysis.
Hence, for operation in the linear region, the voltage at node A in the circuit is approximately equal to the voltage at node B; in this case 0V.
The output voltage of the circuit may be determined as a function of the input voltage and the resistor values
using the KVL equations for loops X and Y.
Loop X
V I I 1 R1 V E 0
Loop Y
V E I 2 R2 VO 0
Assuming VE = 0
Applying KCL at node A
I1
VI VE
R1
I2
VO V E
R2
and
I 1 V I R1
I 2 VO R2
I 1 I 2 0 VI R1 + VO R2 0
20
Therefore
VO
R2
VI
R1
(4)
Thus, an input voltage may be inverted and scaled by the resistor ratio in the inverting op-amp configuration. If
R2 / R1 > 1, VI is amplified, and if R2 / R1 < 1 then VI is attenuated.
V
R
The voltage gain of the inverting amplifier is A O 2
VI
(5), and is consequently independent of the
R1
op-amp parameters A, RI and RO, which are sensitive to such factors as temperature, radiation, age, and vary between device manufacturers and production batches. Hence the amplifier-configuration gain is very stable and
predictable, provided relatively accurate and stable resistors are used.
Example 4 A thermal transducer gives an output of 10mV/C. Complete the design of the op-amp circuit in
Fig.Ex4, which is required to amplify the voltage level by 100 to drive an indicating meter. Calculate the effective input resistance of the amplifier configuration that the thermal transducer has to drive.
[Ans: R2 =100 k, RIN = 1k]
R2
R1
-1V/C
1k
10mV/C

The inverting amplifier is one of the simplest op-amp circuits to design and implement, but it does have two
characteristics which make it unattractive for some applications:
Relatively low input resistance, essentially determined by R1 alone, since the right side of R1 is almost 0V.
Hence any input voltage source has R1, effectively, connected directly in parallel with it.
A polarity inversion in going from input to output.
This problem may be eliminated by using an amplifier configuration with a very high input resistance such as the
non-inverting amplifier configuration.
7. Non-inverting amplifier
Since the input to the non-inverting amplifier configuration is connected directly to an op-amp input, which
draws negligible current, the input resistance is extremely high, up to 10 15 .
VI
+
VO
B
R2
R1
Fig.10 Non-inverting amplifier configuration.
R1
V
In Fig.10, the voltage at node B is V B
R1 R2 O
and the voltage at node A is

21
V A VI .
As previously noted, during operation in the linear region, the amplifier operates to force the voltage at node B to
be within Vs of the voltage at node A, and hence approximately equal to it.
R1
V VI
R1 R2 O
Therefore
VB V A
and
R R2
VO 1
VI
R1
VO 1
or
R2
V
R1 I
(7)
VO
R
(8)
1+ 2
VI
R1
Once again the input voltage is scaled by a factor determined by the external resistor values alone; and this time
the absence of a minus sign in the relationship indicates that the amplifier configuration is non-inverting.
A
Amplifier voltage gain
8. Voltage follower
The voltage follower, shown if Fig.11, is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier, in which R2 has been set
to zero, or a short-circuit, and R1 has been set to infinity, or an open-circuit. Putting these values in Eq.8 give an
amplifier voltage gain of one, so that VO = VI.
VI
VO
-
Fig.11 Voltage follower amplifier configuration.
This amplifier configuration is used to connect sources (e.g. transducers) or circuits with little current drive capability to relative low-resistance circuits, or loads, where voltage scaling is not required. The voltage follower
is therefore known as a buffer amplifier because it isolates high internal-resistance sources/circuits from the
effects of a circuit, or load, offering relative low resistance.

1.
Use Thvenin's theorem to find VA, VB and IC in the following circuits.
12V
10
2A
20
10V
VA
6
[Ans: 4.67 V, 5.25 V, 57.33mA]
40
VB
6
(a)
(b)
2. Calculate VO in the op-amp circuit shown below.
IC
30
15
(c)
[Ans: 13.33 V]
22
20k
VO
9k
40k
2V
1k
3.
A thermocouple is a two-wire element that produces a small voltage, which is proportional to temperature. A particular thermocouple, which generates a voltage of 6 mV/C, is to be used to activate a voltage-controlled switch with a 6 V trip threshold at the boiling point of water (i.e. 100C). Complete the
amplifier design shown below, so that the switch will be activated when the water boils. Assume the
thermocouple generates 0V at 0C.
[Ans: 198 k]
+
-
R2
thermocouple
R1 = 22k
4.
Knowing that the op-amp drives the voltage at A to be approximately equal the voltage at B in the circuit
below, specify the resistor currents for the op-amp circuit below in terms of the appropriate V and R, and
use a
KCL equation to show that the output voltage is given by VO
R2
V1 V2 .
R
Why is this op-amp circuit known as a summing amplifier? Sketch the circuit diagram for a three input
summing amplifier, and express the output voltage in terms of the input voltages V1, V2 and V3 and the
circuit resistances.
What value of input resistance do the voltage sources V1, V2 and V3, which are connected to the summing
amplifier inputs, see?
R2
R1 = R
V1
R3 = R
V2
VO
0V
23
University of Bath
CT3 CAPACITORS, INDUCTORS AND FIRST-ORDER CIRCUITS
Dr F Robinson
Resources
Aims and objectives

Aims: The aim is to examine the v-i relationships for the inductor and capacitor and to perform the transient
analysis of a number of RC and RL circuits. This involves:
Equations giving the v-i relationships, and quantifying the energy storage, of the capacitor and inductor.
Equivalent capacitances and inductances for parallel and series capacitor and inductor networks.
Transient analysis of a number of RC and RL circuits with and without zero initial conditions.
Effect of circuit components and conditions on the features of the exponential-decay function.
Objectives: At the end you should be able to:
Appreciate the significance of the capacitor and inductor v-i relationships.
Understand the origin, and apply, equations for reducing circuits comprising multiple Ls or Cs to a single equivalent component.
Derive the first-order differential equations for a number of RC and RL circuits.
Solve the first-order differential equations for a number of RC/RL circuits to get the complete response.
Appreciate the graphical form of the v and i response equations resulting from this transient analysis.
Simulate the transient response of a number of RC and RL circuits in OrCAD/PSPICE.
24
7. Capacitor
A capacitor comprises two conducting surfaces, or plates, separated by an insulating, or dielectric, material, as
illustrated in Fig.1. Capacitance is a measure of the ability of a parallel plate structure to store charge and hence
energy.
or
C
c
I
r
c
u
I
t
or A
d
Fig.1 Capacitor geometry and its electrical symbol.
When a voltage source is connected to a capacitor, a transient current flows and the capacitor is charged. The
charge stored is given by Eq.1.
Q CV
(1)
Quantity
Unit
Q (charge)
C (coulomb)
C (capacitance) V (voltage)
F (farad)
V (volt)
Eq.1 applies for the steady-state condition, which exists when the capacitor voltage has settled to a constant value and the transient current has decayed to zero. Capital letters are used to represent steady-state levels (as well
as DC quantities).
When the time-varying, transient currents and voltages that occur in capacitive (and inductive) circuits are being
considered, lower-case letters are generally used to represent these, as illustrated below. Textbooks may include
t in brackets, e.g. v(t), i(t), to spell out that a quantity is time varying. However, to minimise clutter in our analytical work we will generally use lower-case letters alone to imply time varying quantities.
DC or steady-state quantities
Corresponding time varying quantities
Q
q
I
i
V
v
P
p
W
w
With a time-varying voltage, the corresponding time-varying capacitor charge is
q Cv
(2)
In circuit analysis, it is the relationship between the capacitor voltage and current that is of interest, and this is
obtained using
dq
dt
(3)
Putting Eq.2 into Eq.3, and assuming a fixed value of capacitance, gives
dCv
dv
C
dt
dt
(4)
Eq.4 shows that current only flows through a capacitor when the voltage across it is changing. After a capacitor has charged to a steady-state level in a circuit, and its voltage is constant, its current is zero: the capacitor
behaves like an open-circuit to DC voltage.
25
Example 1 The voltage across a 5F capacitor has the waveform shown in Fig.Ex1. Sketch the corresponding
current waveform.
30V
20V
10V
0V
0s
2ms
4ms
6ms
8ms
10ms
12ms
Fig.Ex1 Capacitor voltage waveform, and v and i directions for Example 1.

Ex.1 solution Use i C
dv
v
to derive the current in the form i C
.
dt
t
v
24
5
t
6m
0 < t < 6 ms
iC
6 ms < t < 8 ms
i 5
t > 8 ms
iC
20 mA
24
60 mA
2m
d0
0 mA
dt
The current waveform may now be constructed as shown in Fig.Ex1Sol.

40mA
20 mA
i - 60 mA
0 mA
-40mA
-80mA
0s
2ms
0 t 6 ms
6 ms t 8 ms
t 8 ms
4ms
6ms
8ms
10ms
12ms
Fig.Ex1Sol. Corresponding capacitor current waveform for Example 1.
When given the capacitor current as a function of time, the capacitor voltage may be determined by integrating
the current.
1
dv
i dt
Eq.4 can be written as
C
t
Integrating this gives
1
v v( 0 )
idt
C
(5)
The constant of integration in this case corresponds to v(0), i.e. the initial capacitor voltage at t = 0.
The energy stored in a capacitor is derived from the time-varying instantaneous power
26
pvi
dv
Energy, w vi dt v C dt C
dt
vt
v dv assuming v(0) = 0 gives
v 0
1
1
w C v2 C v2
2
0 2
(6)
8. Inductor
An inductor consists of a winding, which may have one of a number of forms, e.g. see Fig.2. Usually the winding either has an air core, or a core of ferromagnetic material to constrain the magnetic-flux path.
i
c
I
r
c
u
I
t
c
I
r
c
u
I
t
i
c
I
r
c
u
I
t
Fig.2 Inductor geometries and the inductor electrical symbol.
Eq.7 gives the v-i relationship for an inductor.
vL
di
dt
Quantity
Unit
(7)
L (inductance)
H (henry)
Eq.7 shows that an inductor voltage is only obtained when the current is changing. Hence pure inductors act as
DC short circuits and offer no impedance to DC current flow. In practice, they have a small winding resistance.
di
Eq.7 can be written as
1
v dt
L
The current may be expressed in terms of the voltage by integrating
i i( 0 )
1
L
v dt
(8)
The constant of integration in this case corresponds to i(0) which is the initial inductor current at t = 0.
pvi
The energy stored in an inductor is derived from the time-varying instantaneous power
t
di
Energy, w vi dt iL dt L
dt
it
i di
assuming i(0) = 0 gives
i( 0 )
1
1
w L i2 L i2
2
0 2
(9)
Example 2 The current in a 10 mH inductor varies as shown in Fig.Ex2. Sketch the corresponding inductor
voltage waveform. Calculate the maximum value of energy stored in the inductor and state when this occurs.
[Ans:
40mA
0 < t 3 ms
133.3 mV
66.67 mV 3 ms t 6 ms
v
0
6 ms t 9 ms
66.67 mV 9 ms t 12 ms
0
t 12 ms
30mA
20mA
wMAX = w(3ms) = 8 J ]
10mA
0A
0s
2ms
4ms
6ms
8ms
10ms
12ms
14ms
Fig.Ex2 Current waveform for use in example 2.

27
9. Capacitor and inductor combinations

9.1 Series-connected capacitors
v3
v2
v1
i
v
C2
C1
C3
v
CS
vN
CN
(b)
(a)
Fig.3 (a) N series-connected capacitors and (b) an equivalent circuit.
N series-connected capacitances may be replaced

by a single equivalent capacitance CS whose value is found using Eq.10; see Appendix A.
1
CS
1
1
1
1

C1 C2 C3
CN
(10)
Example 3 Calculate the equivalent capacitance for the circuit in Fig.Ex3 and the value of the steady-state voltage across each capacitor.
C1 = 3F
10V
C2 = 2F
C3 = 6F
1
CS
Ex.3 solution
1
1
1
1
1
1
C1 C2 C3
3 2 6
CS
1
1 F
1 3 1 3 1 6
When series-connected, the same current flows in each capacitor giving each capacitor the same charge.
Steady-state charge
From
Q = C V = 1 10 = 10 C
Q C1 V1 C2 V2 C3 V3
V1
it follows that
Q
Q
Q
, V2
, V3
C1
C2
C3
Putting in the values gives V1 = 3.333 V, V2 = 5.000 V and V3 = 1.667 V.

Example 4 Calculate the equivalent capacitance for the circuit in Fig.Ex4 and the value of steady-state voltage
across each capacitor.
[Ans: VC1 = 36 V, VC2 = 12 V]
C1
vC1
4F
48V
C2
vC2
12F

28
9.2 Parallel-connected capacitors

i
i1
i2
i3
iN
C1
C2
C3
CN
v
CP
(a)
(b)
Fig.4 (b) Equivalent circuit for (a) N parallel-connected capacitors.

N parallel-connected capacitances may be replaced by an equivalent capacitance CS whose
value is found using Eq.11; see Appendix B.
CP C1 C2 C3 CN
(11)
Example 5 Calculate the equivalent capacitance of the circuit in Fig.Ex5 by using the equations for parallel- and
series-connected capacitances to progressively simplify the circuit. Redraw the circuit after each simplification.
5F
[Ans: 1.317 F]
3F
6F
2F
6F
2F
7F
12F
9.3 Series-connected inductors

v2
v1
v3
L1
L2
L3
v
LS
vN
(a)
LN
(b)
Fig.5 (b) Equivalent circuit for (a) N series-connected inductors.

N series-connected inductances may be replaced
by an equivalent inductance LS whose value is
determined using Eq.11; see Appendix C.
LS L1 L2 L3 LN
(12)
9.4 Parallel-connected inductors

i
v
i
i1
i2
i3
iN
LN
L1
L2
LP
L3
(a)
(b)
Fig.6 Equivalent circuit for N parallel-connected capacitors.

29
N parallel-connected inductances may be replaced by an equivalent inductance LS whose

value is found using Eq.11; see Appendix D.
1
1
1
1
1

LP L2 L2 L3
LN
(13)
Example 6 Calculate the equivalent inductance of the circuit in Fig.Ex6 by using the equations for parallel- and
series-connected inductances to progressively simplify the circuit. Redraw the circuit after each simplification
[Ans: 6 mH]
1mH
4mH
12mH
2mH
3mH
4mH
2mH
10. Transient analysis of first order circuits

10.1 Capacitor charging and inductor magnetisation
Circuits containing a single storage element such as a capacitor or an inductor (and any number of resistors and
sources), as shown in Fig.7, are known as first-order circuits because the current or voltage behaviour is described by first-order differential equations.
As an example, consider the variation in capacitor voltage and inductor current in Fig.7(a) and 7(b), respectively,
when the switch is closed at t = 0. Zero initial conditions are assumed, i.e. in Fig.7(a) the capacitor is assumed to
be fully discharged [v(0) = 0] and in Fig.7(b) the inductor is assumed to be fully demagnetised [i(0) = 0] at t = 0
v
VS
VS
t=0
t=0
C
L
(a)
(b)
Fig.7 (a) RC-circuit and (b) RL-circuit.
The KVL loop equations for the circuits at t > 0 are
VS i R v 0
(14)
VS iR v 0
Since i C dv dt
Since
VS RC dv dt v 0
VS iR L di dt 0
V
dv
v
S
d t RC RC
(16)
(15)
v L di dt
V
di R
i S
dt L
L
(17)
Solutions to the first-order differential equations Eq.16 and 17 give the transient responses of the circuits to a
step change in voltage. The equations are solved by separating variables and then integrating: full working is
30
shown in the Appendices which you may care to briefly examine. An easier method of solution will be presented once the form of the results has been discussed. Hence, you can skip to page 11 on second reading.
dt
dv
RC VS v
Eq.16 becomes
Eq.17 becomes
dt
di
L/R VS /R i
i.e.
di
VS /R i
Each side may be integrated directly as shown for both circuits in Appendix E, to give Eqs. 18 and 19.
v VS VS e
RC
(18)
VS VS t L / R
e
R
R
(19)
The analysis may be continued as in Appendix E to obtain the capacitor current and inductor voltage given in
Eqs. 20 and 21.
i 0
VS t RC
e
R
v 0 VS e
(20)
L/R
(21)
Plotting the current and voltage response equations for the Fig.7 circuits shows the nature of the exponentialfunction variation (see Fig.8). The responses go through a transition period prior to settling down to easily predictable steady-state values of VS, VS /R or 0.
VS /R
VS VS
VS /R
(a)
(b)
Fig.8 Transient responses of the (a) RC and (b) RL circuits for a step change in input voltage.
It is deriving and interpreting the equations to describe the variation in current and voltage during the transition
period that constitutes transient analysis.
1.0
0.632
0.5
0
0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
Fig.9 Exponential decay showing the time constant.

The current and voltage transient-responses of first-order circuits follow direct (e.g. e
1 e
) exponential decays. The constant
) or inverted (e.g.
is called the time constant for the circuit and determines the rate
31
at which the exponential function decays. = RC for RC circuits (see Eqs.18 and 20) and
cuits (see Eqs.19 and 21), and has units of seconds.
=L/R
for RL cir-
It may be seen in Fig.9 that the function falls:
63.2% of its initial value in one time constant, i.e. from 1 to 0.368
below 5%, or 0.0498, in 3
below 1%, or 0.0067, in 5

A line tangential to the initial slope of an exponential function intersects the time axis at a value t = . Note that
the circuit response essentially reaches a steady state at the end of 5 i.e. v reaches VS and i reaches VS /R.
Example 7 a) For the circuit in Fig.Ex7, briefly explain to what voltage the capacitor will charge to a long time
after the switch is closed, if the initial capacitor voltage is (i) vC(0) = 0 V, (ii) vC(0) = 6 V, (iii) vC(0) = 16 V.
b) What will be the initial circuit current flowing at the instant of switch closure for the three vC(0) values given
in part a). All working should be clearly shown.
c) Show that the v and i response equation answers given below seem correct by evaluating i(0), vC(0), i(),
vC() and using simple DC circuit analysis at t = 0 and t = to check all the results, e.g. i(0) =[ 8 vC(0) ] / R.
d) Calculate how long the circuit current will take to reach (i) 5 % and (ii) 1 % of the initial value that flows at
the instant of switch closure.
[Ans: a) 8 V b) 2.222 mA, 0.556 mA, -2.222 mA c) d) 21.57 ms, 33.16 ms]
3.6k
8 t 7.2m
e
3.6k
t
v 8 1 e 7.2m
[i
8V
t=0
2F
A,
V]
10.1 Capacitor discharging and inductor demagnetisation

t=0
SW1
SW1
t=0
v
t=0
VS
t=0
VS
SW2
SW2
(a)
(b)
Fig.10 (a) RC-circuit and (b) RL-circuits used for the analysis of stored energy discharge.
In Fig.10(a), the capacitor has initial voltage, v(0) = VO, and in Fig.10(b), the inductor has initial current i(0) = IO
circulating prior to switch closure at t = 0, i.e. non-zero initial conditions.
The discharge v and i responses for RC circuits and demagnetisation v and i responses for RL circuits given in
Eqs 26 to 29 may also be obtained by direct integration as shown in Appendix F.
v 0 Vo e
RC
i 0 Ioe
(26)
32
L/ R
(27)
i 0
Vo t RC
e
R
v 0 Io R e
(28)
L/R
(29)
The minus sign indicates that the actual discharge current in Fig.10(a) and the demagnetisation voltage in
Fig.10(b) is in the opposite direction to that initially assumed.
The current and voltage responses given by Eq.26 and 28 for the Fig.10(a) circuit, and Eq.27 and 29 for the
Fig.10(b) circuit, are plotted in Fig.11 to show their exponential decays to zero during discharge.
IO
VO
v
0
v
(a)
-VO/R
1.0
2.0
(b)
3.0
4.0
t
5.0
-IOR
0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
Fig.11 Transient responses of the (a) RC and (b) RL circuits during stored-energy discharge.
11. Partitioning first-order response equations

The transient analysis of first-order (RL or RC circuits) and second-order (RLC) may be simplified to the point
of avoiding the need for direct integration by using a standard form of solution and simply working out coefficient values algebraically.
For example, the solution of the first-order differential equations giving the current and voltage responses of RC
and RL circuits is in the form of Eq.1 or Eq.2, i.e. the solution can be partitioned into two parts. [Equation renumbering started here]
t
i K1 K 2 e
v K1 K 2 e
(1)
(2)
11.1 Steady-state term

Mathematicians call the first part, K1, the particular integral. To engineers, it is the steady-state response of a
circuit: the value of current or voltage that i or v tends towards for a particular source, as t and the second
term dies away.
With constant or DC sources K1 is a constant: with a sinewave (or time-varying) source it is sinusoidal (time
varying). It is unaffected by initial condition values.
11.2 Transient term

t
Mathematicians call the second part, K 2 e , the complementary function. This is the transient part of the
response, which decays to zero, as t .
The transient part is only determined by circuit-element type, value, interconnection, and initial condition; and
not by the source characteristics
The fact that a response equation must satisfy a circuit's differential equation and initial conditions is used to
quickly determine the value K2.
33
Example 8 In Fig.Ex8, SW1 closes and SW2 opens at t = 0. Derive equations for the complete inductor current
and voltage responses. Note that the circuit has non-zero initial condition; the initial inductor current is IO.
SW1
t=0
vL
iL(0) = IO
t=0
VS
iL
SW2
Ex.8 solution Sketch the simplest possible equivalent circuit which is valid for t > 0, as shown in Fig.Ex9Sol.
iL
vL
VS
iL(0) = IO
L
Fig.Ex8Sol Equivalent circuit for t > 0.

Write down the general forms for the v and i responses and then set about determining the coefficient values.
t
i L K1 K 2 e
v L K1 K 2 e
(3)
(4)
11.3 Evaluation of steady-state term

After switch closure, the current changes from the initial-condition value, IO, to a new steady-state value of VS /R
as t . Hence K1 = VS /R, giving Eq.5. Think of the inductor behaving as a short circuit as t . Note that,
in contrast, a capacitor behaves as an open circuit as t .
After switch closure there is an initial inductor voltage transient, which decays to a new steady-state value of
zero as t . Hence K1 = 0 in Eq.4, giving Eq.6. This also follows if you think of an inductor behaving as a
short circuit as t .
iL
t
VS
K2 e
R
v L 0 K2 e
(5)
(6)
11.4 Evaluation of transient term

In this example, the time constant, , is L/R, which when substituted gives Eq.7 and 8.
iL
t
VS
K2 e L
R
v L K2 e
(7)
L R
(8)
K2 for both response equations is now determined from the initial condition, Eq.9.
iL(0) = IO
(9)
The corresponding initial inductor voltage, vL(0), is determined using the KLV loop equation Eq.10 for the circuit at t = 0.
34
VS i L 0R v L 0 0
v L 0 VS I O R
(10)
Eq.9 and 10 can now be equated to Eq.7 and 8, provided t is set to 0, as shown in Eq.11 and 12. Values for the
K2 constants are then found.
IO
0
VS
K2 e L
R
K2 I O
VS
R
(11)
VS I O R K 2 e L R
(13)
K 2 VS I O R
(12)
(14)
The K2 values given by Eq.13 and 14 are now substituted into Eq.7 and 8 to give the complete responses.
iL
VS
VS t L R
IO
e
R
R
v L VS I O R e
(15)
L R
(16)
Example 9 Show, using the previously explained method that the capacitor current and voltage responses for
the RC circuit shown in Fig.Ex9 are given by the following equations.
VS VO t RC
iC
e
v C VS VO VS e
SW1
RC
t=0
iC
vC
VS
vC(0) = VO
Example 10 Derive response equations for the capacitor current and voltage in circuit Fig.Ex10, and evaluate
the capacitor voltage and resistor current at t = 300 ms. The initial capacitor voltage is 4 V.
R = 2 k
iC
vC
C
100 F
Fig.Ex10 Circuit for analysis in example 10.
Ex.10 solution Write the general forms of response equations and set about determining the coefficient values.
t
i C K1 K 2 e
v C K1 K 2 e
35
Evaluation of steady-state terms

The capacitor will discharge from its initial condition, vC(0) = 4 V, to zero. Therefore, the new steady-state current and voltage as t will be zero, and can be substituted into the general response equations as below.
t
vC 0 K2 e
iC 0 K2 e
Evaluation of transient terms

In this example, the time constant, = R C = 2k 100 = 0.2 s which may now be added to the equations.
t
i C K2 e RC K2 e 0.2
v C K2 e RC K2 e 0.2
K2 for both response equations is now determined from the initial conditions.
The initial capacitor voltage is
vC(0) = 4 V.
The corresponding initial capacitor current, iC(0), is found using a KLV loop equation for the circuit at t = 0.
v C 0 i C 0 R 0
i C 0
v C 0
R
4
2 mA
2k
Values for K2 constants may now be found by equating the response equations with t = 0 to the initial values, i.e.
2m K 2 e
0.2
K2 2m
4 K 2 e 0.2
K2 4
The K2 values are now substituted to give the complete responses for t > 0, when the capacitor discharges.
t
i C 2m e 0.2
v C 4e 0.2
To calculate iC (300ms) and vC (300ms) simply put 300ms into the above equations.
i C 300ms 2m e
0.3
0.2
v C 300ms 4e
0.446 mA
0.3
0.2
0.893 V

1.
Having been closed for a long time, the switch is opened in the circuit below at t = 0 . Write the iC and
vC response equation in their general form for t > 0 and evaluate all the coefficients and constants.
t
[Ans: i C 50m e 10m ,

t
t
v C 5- 5 e 10m 5 1- e 10m ]
iC
IS
vC
50mA
t=0
100
36
100F
2.
The switch in the circuit below is closed until the inductor current reaches a steady-state. It is then
opened at t = 0. Derive response equations for the inductor current and voltage and evaluate the inductor current and voltage at t = 0.222 s.
[Ans: i L 0 1 A ,
iL 1 e
0.111 ,
t=0
12V
v L 18e 0.111 ,
R2
12
R1
6
i L 0.222 0135
.
A,
vL
iL
v L 0.222 2.436 V ]
2H
3.
Fig.Ex3 shows op-amp differentiator and integrator circuits which make use of the relationship between capacitor voltage and current, i.e. i = C dv/dt.
(a) Starting from a KCL equation for node A in Fig.Ex3(a), and by expanding the currents in terms of
dv1
component voltages, show that the output of the op-amp differentiator is given by v o RC
.
dt
(b) Starting from a KCL equation for node A of the op-amp integrator circuit in Fig.Ex3(b), and by ex1
panding the currents in terms of the component voltages, show that d v o
v dt and hence
RC 1
1
the output is given by v o
RC
iC
v1dt , assuming the capacitor voltage is initially zero.

0
iR
iR
-
vC
vI
iC
vC
vO
vI
vO
+
B
(b)
(a)
Fig.Ex3 (a) Differentiator and (b) integrator circuits for analysis in Example 3.
Appendices
These are available on the Moodle under Circuit Theory and should be understood
but you are not expected to memorise them.
37
Appendix A: Series-connected capacitors

v3
v2
v1
i
v
C2
C1
C3
v
CS
vN
CN
(b)
(a)
Fig.3 (a) N series-connected capacitors and (b) an equivalent circuit.
With N series-connected capacitors, the same current flows in all capacitors. Hence, each capacitor gains the
t
same charge in the same time period since
i dt
from
i dq dt
From q C v , it follows that
q C1 v1 C2 v2 C3 v3 CN v N
Capacitor voltages may be expressed as
v1 q C1 , v2 q C2 , v3 q C3 , v N q C N
The KVL loop equation for Fig.4(a) is
v v1 v2 v 3 v N
Expanding gives
v q C1 q C2 q C3 q C N
Therefore
1
1
1
1
vq

CN
C1 C2 C3
Hence N series-connected capacitances may be

replaced by a single equivalent capacitance CS
whose value is determined using Eq.10.
1
CS
1
1
1
1

C1 C2 C3
CN
(10)
Appendix B: Parallel-connected capacitors

i
v
i
i1
i2
i3
iN
C1
C2
C3
CN
v
CP
(a)
(b)
Fig.4 (b) Equivalent circuit for (a) N parallel-connected capacitors.

The equivalent capacitance of N capacitors connected in parallel
is determined from the KCL node equation for Fig.4(a) which is
i i1 i2 i3 i N
Using i C dv dt and noting that parallelconnected capacitors all have the same voltage,
leads to
i C1 dv dt C2 dv dt C3 dv dt C N dv dt
Therefore
i = C1 C2 C3 C N dv dt
and the equivalent capacitance is
CP C1 C2 C3 CN
38
(11)
Hence, any number of N parallel-connected Cs may be replaced by a single capacitance given by Eq.11.
Appendix C: Series-connected inductors

v2
v1
v3
L1
L2
L3
v
LS
vN
(a)
LN
(b)
Fig.5 (b) Equivalent circuit for (a) N series-connected inductors.
The equivalent inductance of N series-connected inductances is determined using a KVL loop equation
v v1 v2 v 3 v N
Using v L di dt , and noting that series-connected inductors all carry the same current, leads to
v L1 di dt L2 di dt L3 di dt L N di dt
v L1 L2 L3 L N di dt
Therefore
and the equivalent inductance is
LS L1 L2 L3 LN
(12)
Hence any number of N series-connected Ls may be replaced by a single inductance given by Eq.12.
Appendix D: Parallel-connected inductors

i
v
i
i1
i2
i3
iN
LN
L1
L2
LP
L3
(a)
(b)
Fig.6 Equivalent circuit for N parallel-connected capacitors.

The KCL node equation for Fig.6 is i i1 i2 i3 i N
Since parallel-connected inductors all have the same voltage, it follows from i
1
LP
Hence the equivalent inductance is
1
v dt that
L
v dt L1 v dt L2 v dt L3 v dt
1
1
1
1
1
1

LP L2 L2 L3
LN
1
LN
v dt
(13)
Therefore any number of N parallel-connected inductors combine like parallel resistors, with the value of equivalent inductance LP being obtained from Eq.13.
39
Appendix E: Complete analysis of RC and RL circuits during charge

i
v
VS
VS
t=0
t=0
C
L
(a)
(b)
Fig.7 (a) RC-circuit and (b) RL-circuit.
VS i R v 0
VS iR v 0
(14)
(15)
Since i C dv dt
Since
VS RC dv dt v 0
VS iR L di dt 0
V
dv
v
S
d t RC RC
V
di R
i S
dt L
L
(16)
v L di dt
(17)
Solutions to the first-order differential equations Eq.16 and 17 give the transient responses of the circuits to a
step change in voltage. The equations are solved in the usual way by separating variables and then integrating.
dt
dv
RC VS v
Eq.16 becomes
Eq.17 becomes
dt
di
L/R VS /R i
i.e.
di
V
/R
S i
Each side may be integrated directly; the pattern of analysis is similar for both circuits.
t
dt
1
dv
RC
VS v
0
0
t
1 ln VS v
RC
v0
dt
1
di
L/R
VS /R i
0
t
1 ln VS /R i
L/R
i0
t
lnVS v lnVS
RC
t
V
V
ln S i ln S
R
R
L/ R
V v
t
ln S
RC
VS
V / R i
t
ln S
L/ R
VS / R
t
VS v
e RC
VS
v VS VS e
t
VS / R i
e L/ R
VS / R
RC
v VS 1 e RC
VS VS t L / R
e
R
R
(18)
VS
R
1 e L / R
(19)
By returning to equations Eq.14 and 15, the capacitor current and inductor voltage may now be found.
From Eq.14
VS v
R
From Eq.15
40
v VS iR
Substituting Eq.18 for v in the above gives
Substituting Eq.19 for i in the above gives
t
V
V
i S S 1 e RC
R
R
v VS VS 1 e L / R
VS t RC
e
R
v VS e
(20)
L/ R
(21)
Plotting the current and voltage response equations for the Fig.7 circuits shows the nature of the exponentialfunction variation (see Fig.8). The responses go through a transition period prior to settling down to easily predictable steady-state values of VS, VS /R or 0.
VS /R
VS VS
VS /R
(a)
(b)
Fig.8 Transient responses of the (a) RC and (b) RL circuits for a step change in input voltage.
Appendix F: Complete analysis of RC and RL circuits during discharge

t=0
SW1
SW1
t=0
v
t=0
VS
t=0
VS
SW2
SW2
(a)
(b)
Fig.10 (a) RC-circuit and (b) RL-circuits used for the analysis of stored energy discharge.
The discharge v and i responses for RC circuits and demagnetisation v and i responses for RL circuits may also
be obtained by direct integration.
In Fig.10(a), the capacitor has initial voltage, v(0) = VO, and in Fig.10(b), the inductor has initial current i(0) = IO
circulating prior to switch closure at t = 0.
v i R 0
v iR 0
(22)
v L di dt
Since i C dv dt
Since
v RC dv dt 0
L di dt iR 0
d v v
d t RC
(24)
(23)
d i R
i
dt
L
(25)
These differential equations are solved in the usual way by separating terms and then integrating. The pattern of
analysis is similar for both circuits.
41
Eq.26 becomes
dt
RC
Vo
1
dv
v
Eq.27 becomes
t
v
ln v
V
o
RC
Io
1
di
i
t
i
lni I
o
L/R
t
ln v lnVo
RC
v Vo e
dt
L/R
or
v
t
ln
RC
Vo
RC
t
ln i ln I o
L/ R
i Ioe
(26)
or
i
t
ln
L/ R
Io
L/ R
(27)
By using equations Eq.22 and 23, the corresponding capacitor current and inductor voltage may now be found.
i v R
From Eq.24
v iR
From Eq.25
Substituting for v and i gives
Vo t
e RC
R
v Io R e
(28)
L/ R
(29)
The minus sign indicates that the actual discharge current in Fig.10(a) and the demagnetisation voltage in
Fig.10(b) are in the opposite direction to that initially assumed.
Current and voltage responses for both circuits during stored-energy discharge are plotted in Fig.11.
IO
VO
v
0
v
(a)
-VO/R
1.0
2.0
(b)
3.0
4.0
t
5.0
-IOR
0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
Fig.11 Transient responses of the (a) RC and (b) RL circuits during stored-energy discharge.
The current and voltage responses given by Eq.26 and 28 for the Fig.10(a) circuit, and Eq.27 and 29 for the
Fig.10(b) circuit, are plotted in Fig.11 to show their exponential decays to zero during discharge.
42
University of Bath
CT4 Basic diode circuits
Dr F Robinson
Resources
There are many introduction to basic electronics books in the library. It is a good idea to visit the library website and identify e-books and where useful paper textbooks books are.
Aims and objectives

Aims: The aim of workpackage CT4 is to introduce the electrical characteristics of the rectifier and zener diode
and analyse a number of diode applications such as:
clipper circuits;
clamper circuits:
rectifier circuits;
zener diode voltage regulator.
Objectives: At the end of this workpackage you should be able to:
Appreciate the essential characteristics of rectifier and zener diodes;
Explain the operation and understand the purpose of half-wave and full-wave rectifier circuits;
Correctly size a smoothing capacitor to achieve a specific rectifier voltage-ripple specification;
Analyse and design zener-diode voltage regulator circuits.
43
1. Ideal diode VI characteristic

Diodes are two terminal electronic components (i.e. made from semiconductor) which conduct current easily
with very little volt drop in one direction but block or do not conduct in the other.
anode
cathode
Fig.1 Diode symbol and terminal names.
An ideal diode would have the V-I characteristic shown in Fig.2,

behaves as a closed mechanical switched when forward biased with a positive anode-cathode voltage,
behaves as an open mechanical switch when reverse biased with a negative anode cathode voltage.
ID
VD
VD =0
VD
ID
ID = 0
reverse biased diode
forward biased Diode
Fig.2 Idealised diode V-I characteristic.
2. Example applications
2.1 Rectifier
vS
vR
vR
vS
Fig.3 Rectifier circuits.

In the half-wave rectifier circuit, the diode only conducts and connects the input voltage to the output load
when the input voltage is positive. Thus, only the positive excursion of the input sinusoidal voltage appears
across the load resistor in Fig.3. Only the negative excursion of the input waveform would be output if the diode
were reversed.
44
2.2 Clipper circuit

20
V
|vIN| > |VS|

vOUT for |vIN| > |VS|
+VS
10
V
+VS
D1
vIN
D2
-10V
VS
0V
VIN & vOUT

for |vIN| < |VS|
0V
vOUT
vOUT for |vIN| > |VS|

|vIN| > |VS|
VS
-20V
0s
0.1ms
0.2ms
0.3ms
0.4ms
0.5ms
0.6ms
0.7ms
0.8ms
0.9ms
Fig.4 Clipper diodes applied to protect an op-amp input.

Clipper circuits employ diodes to clip away part of an input signal, or limit the input voltage range, without
distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.
In Fig.4, the input signal applied to the non-inverting input is limited to between VS to +VS. vIN is transmitted
unmodified to the non-inverting input until it rises above +VS, at which point D1 is forward biased, conducts and
clamps the op-amp input to approximately +VS, as illustrated by the Fig.4 waveforms. Diode D2 clamps the
non-inverting input to VS when the input signal falls below VS. The resistor is necessary to limit signal-source
current when vIN rises substantially above +VS or below VS and clipping action is underway.
Without the clipper diodes, op-amps and other integrated-circuit devices are usually destroyed by input voltages
rising above supply voltage levels.
2.3 Clamper circuit

40V
+2V
vOUT
30V
vIN
vOUT
20V
+V
V
10V
0V
-10V
-20V
2.0ms
vIN
2.1ms
2.2ms
2.3ms
2.4ms
2.5ms
2.6ms
V
2.7ms
2.8ms
2.9ms
3.0ms
Fig.5 Clamper circuit and waveforms.

A clamper circuit shifts a waveform so that it lies about a different DC voltage level without changing the appearance of the applied signal.
In Fig.5, the applied input waveform (broken) has positive and negative excursions with peak values of +V and
V. The clamper circuit gives the same shape of vIN waveform at its output, but shifts the waveform vertically
by effectively adding a DC level of +V to it; so that it now comprises approximately 2V amplitude pulses.
This occurs because the capacitor charges very quickly to approximately V when the input signal is first applied,
and is maintained charged at V. By Kirchhoffs voltage law the output voltage is then vOUT = vIN + V. Note that
if the magnitude of input waveform levels changes to a higher or lower value, the circuit adapts so that the output
waveform always appears as shown in Fig. 5.
45
1.0ms
This would be used in battery-powered equipment, for example, in which op-amps are operated with only a positive supply rail; and all AC signals are offset so that they lie between 0 and +VS
2.3 Voltage selector
D2
D1
Critical
Load
VBAT
VS
Fig.6 Diode voltage source selection to provide rapid battery backup.

Diodes may be used to connect the most positive (or most negative) voltage from a number of sources to a load.
In Fig.6, a battery is used to keep a crucially important load running in the event of failure of the main DC supply which is derived from the AC mains supply. In normal operation, V S is higher than VBAT; hence, D1 conducts, reverse biases D2, and energises the load.
In the event of an AC mains failure, the voltage level of VS collapses, D2 immediately forward biases, reverse
biases D1, and keeps the critical load energised. When mains AC power is restored, VS would be immediately
reconnected to the load and reverse bias D2.
A resistor may be connected in parallel with D2 to trickle charge the battery all the time that VS is live and maintain the battery fully charged and in a high state of readiness.
3. Practical diode
pn-junction diode
Practical diodes are most commonly fabricated using a

silicon pn-junction construction.
Anode
They exhibit a small forward voltage drop when conducting and a small leakage current of the level of As
when blocking.
p
n
The forward voltage drop varies with diode current

and voltage rating.
Cathode
Fig.7 Diode symbol and geometry.
ID
400mA
VD
ID
200mA
0A
-0.4V
-0.2V
0.0V
0.2V
0.4V
0.6V
0.8V
1.0V
VD
Fig.8 Variation in anode-cathode volt-drop with current for a practical 1A diode, i.e. 1N4001.
46
The forward, or conduction, volt drop of silicon diodes may be modelled using the equivalent circuit shown in
Fig.9. Vo is obtained from the x-axis intercept of a tangential projection as shown in Fig.8, and the dynamic
resistance term rD is obtained from the gradient of the tangential line. This model is necessary when circuits in
which the diode volt drop is not negligible relative to other circuit volt drops have to be analysed, and to check
that the power dissipation in a diode does not exceed the maximum rated value.
rD
VO
Fig.9 Equivalent circuit for diode.

Very often in circuit analysis, the small diode voltage drop is small relative to other circuit voltages and may be
neglected while doing an initial analysis of circuit function, as if an ideal diode were being used. This will be
done in the following analysis of rectifiers.
An alternative approximation in low-current analog circuits is to assume that the ohmic component of the diode
volt-drop is low and negligible and the diode volt drop is assumed constant at 0.7V irrespective of current.
Reverse breakdown
ID
BVBD
0
VD
0.7 V
VD
VD
ID
ID
VS
VS
reverse biased diode
forward biased Diode
Fig.10 Piecewise-linear approximation to a diode V-I characteristic showing reverse breakdown.
Diodes have a limited reverse-voltage blocking capability specified by their breakdown voltage. The diode will
begin to conduct in the reverse direction as illustrated in Fig.10 when the breakdown voltage is exceeded. The
reverse current rises rapidly with little increase in reverse voltage above BVBD; and the diode may be easily destroyed by the simultaneously high voltage and current which produces very high power dissipation in the body
of the diode. It is best to avoid reverse breakdown in ordinary diodes by choosing diodes with a suitably high
voltage rating, i.e. twice the maximum reverse-voltage experienced in normal circuit operation.
47
3. Half-wave rectifier
50V
vAC
vAC
0
V
vO
-50V
50V
vO
R
0V
SEL>>
-50V
100ms
105ms
110ms
115ms
120ms
125ms
130ms
135ms
140ms
Fig.11 Half-wave rectifier and input and output waveforms.

50V
vAC
0V
vAC
vO
vO
-50V
iC
50.0V
37.5V
R
25.0V
12.5V
0V100ms
vAC
iD
105ms
110ms
115ms
120ms
125ms
130ms
135ms
140ms
130ms
135ms
140ms
Fig.12 Capacitively-smoothed half-wave rectifier with input and output waveforms.

50V
vAC
0V
vAC
vO
-50V
iC
IO
50.0V
vO
37.5V
R
25.0V
vAC
12.5V
0V100ms
105ms
110ms
115ms
120ms
125ms
Fig.13 Waveform approximation used to develop an equation for capacitor sizing.
Diode rectifier circuits take the alternating mains voltage waveform, which is usually first transformed to a lower
level, and convert it into a relatively constant voltage for energising electronic circuits, which generally require
DC power.
48
The basic half-wave rectifier in Fig.11 gives an output voltage which is always positive and has a positive average value, but has too high a ripple content to be usable as a voltage source. However, this may be remedied by
adding a smoothing capacitor as shown in Fig.12. The bigger the value of this capacitor the smaller will be the
voltage ripple V.
The capacitor is charged by a short current pulse before the peak of each positive excursion of the AC source
sine-wave, vAC, as shown by iC in Fig.12. After the peak, vAC quickly falls below the capacitor voltage. Provided
the capacitor is large enough, such that the output-side RC time-constant is much bigger than the 20ms AC
source period, the capacitor will hold up the output voltage by discharging slowly into the effective load resistance.
A sizing equation may be developed for the capacitor by assuming that the load-resistor current is approximately
constant at IO causing the capacitor voltage fall to be linear as shown in Fig.13; and by assuming that this linear
fall extends over the entire AC mains period, T, i.e. 1/fLINE.
Using the equation for the capacitor
iC C
dvC
dt
(1)
Assuming a constant load-current and linear voltage fall,
IO C
V
t
(2)
V is the peak-to-peak voltage ripple and t is 1/fLINE
I O C V f LINE
Therefore
(3)
IO
V f LINE
(4)
Using Eq.4 should gives a safe value, i.e. it will be slightly too big and give less ripple than initially assumed.
Example 1 Assuming that a half-wave rectifier circuit is operating with an ideal diode and very low output
current such that the output voltage ripple is negligible, sketch the diode voltage waveform. Clearly show the
salient voltage levels on this waveform in terms of the peak AC input voltage level and DC output voltage VO.
4. Full-wave rectifier
D1
D3
D1
vS
D4
D2
vR
vS
D2
D3
(a)
D4
(b)
D1
D2
(c)
vR
vR
vS
vS
D4
D3
(c) Active circuit during the +ve excursion
(d)
(d) Active circuit during the -ve excursion

49
vS
vR
(d)
(c)
0
(c)
(f)
(e)
Fig.14 (a) (b) Full-wave rectifier circuit, (c) (d) active parts of the circuits operating during the positive and negative excursions of the AC source voltage, and (e) (f) the input and output waveforms for the rectifier.
The full-wave rectifier circuit (also termed a bridge rectifier) comprises four diodes as shown in Fig.14 (a) and
14(b). Although the circuit may either be drawn as in Fig.14(a) or 14(b), fewer mistakes are likely if the
Fig.14(b) method of drawing is used because all diodes are pointing in the same direction.
vR
vR
vS
|vS|
(a)
(b)
Fig.15 (a) Capacitively smoothed rectifier circuit and (b) its output waveform.
During the positive excursion of the input sine-wave, D1 and D4 are forward biased and effectively connect the
voltage source directly across the load resistor. D2 and D3 are reverse biased during this excursion and behave
like open circuits.
During the negative excursion of the input sine-wave, D2 and D3 are now forward biased and reverse the connection of the voltage source across the load resistor, so that the negative excursion appears to the load as a positive
excursion. D1 and D4 are reverse biased during this excursion and behave like open circuits.
The full-wave rectifier is widely used to convert AC voltages to DC. A relatively large capacitor may be added
as shown in Fig.15(a) to reduce the ripple content in the output voltage waveform. With a low level of voltage
ripple, the output DC level approximates to the peak value VM of the input sine-wave voltage, vS = VM sin t.
Additional electronic circuits are usually added after the capacitor to stabilise the output voltage in the presence
of change in the input AC amplitude and to reduce the voltage ripple to barely noticeable levels so that the output voltage approximates to a steady DC voltage.
Example 2 By comparing Figs. 12 and 13 with Fig.15(b), develop a capacitor sizing equation for the full-wave
rectifier.
Example 3 A 15 V, 0.8 A power supply is required with 5% maximum output voltage ripple. A 50 Hz AC
mains transformer with a 15V output winding is found in the laboratory. Calculate the minimum nominal value
of smoothing capacitance required if a capacitor with a tolerance of 20% is to be used.
50
Example 4 Diodes are commonly used to protect sensitive equipment from excessive over and under voltage as
illustrated in this example. Sketch the output voltage, vO, waveforms that are obtained in the circuits shown in
Fig.Ex1which are connected to an AC voltage source of vS = 20sin t. Assume that the diodes have a constant
volt drop of 0.7 V in the forward conduction state.
vO
vO
R
vS
vS
10 V
6V
10. Zener diode

Zener diodes have relatively low, well-defined values of breakdown voltages in the range 2.7V to 100V.
The breakdown voltage is known as the zener voltage, VZ; and zener diodes are specially designed so that they
may be constantly operated in the reverse-bias breakdown mode.
ID
VZ
0 0.7 V
VD
Fig.16 Circuit and waveforms for analysing resistor power flow.
Zener diodes are generally used to give stable reference voltages or to act as voltage clippers. They may also be
used to produce low-current DC voltage sources.
Under forward bias, the zener diode behaves like an ordinary pn-junction diode with 0.7 V forward volt drop.
However, under reverse bias, once the breakdown voltage, VZ, is exceeded, the zener-diode voltage continues to
rise relatively slowly with increasing current, as illustrated in Fig.16.
An equivalent circuit comprising a voltage source, VZ, in series with a low-value resistor, rZ, is normally used to
model the effect of the zener diode in circuits, as shown in Fig.17.
ID
ID
rZ
VD
VD
I D
ID
VS
rZ
=
VZ
VD
VD
VZ
Fig.17 Circuit for testing zener diode, variation in VD and ID as VS is increased, and circuit model for zener diode.
51
VS = 12V
10.1 Overload indicator

The circuit in Fig.18 is used to indicate when a 12V voltage
source is being overloaded.
When VS is 12V, VS (VD + VZ) is applied across R which is

sized to allow 10mA or so to flow. This turns on the red
light-emitting diode (LED) to show that a circuit is switched
on and active.
If an unsafe heavy load (i.e. too low load resistance is connected to the circuit) the voltage rail will reduce and the LED
will dim and ultimately switch off as VS reduces to 10V.
A similar circuit with different component values may be
used to indicate the state of charge of a battery.
L
E
D
VD = 1.8V
DZ
VZ = 8.2V
0V
Fig.18 Overload indicator.
10.2 Thermal overload detector

VS
R
VS
IA
A1
VO
L
E
D
DZ
VTEMP
VZ
RT = k T
0V
Fig.19 Excessive temperature detecting circuit.
In Fig.19, RT is a thermistor with a positive temperature coefficient, i.e. it is a resistor whose value increases relatively linearly, and substantially with temperature. The thermistor is connected to the VS rail via an electronic
circuit that acts like a constant current source. This means that the thermistor voltage is only proportional to
temperature and not affected by changes in supply voltage level, i.e. VTEMP, is IA RT = IA k T, IA and k are constant, therefore VTEMP is directly proportional to temperature.
The zener diode voltage is chosen, such that VZ = IA k TMAX. Op-amp A1 is connected as a voltage comparator.
In normal operation, the thermistor temperature will be lower than TMAX, hence VTEMP will be lower than VZ and
the comparator output will be high at VS. When the thermistor temperature rises above TMAX, VTEMP will exceed
VZ and the comparator output will switch low to the negative rail, VS, and turn on the LED. The illuminated
LED will thus indicate when something is getting too hot.
10.32 Voltage regulator circuit

The zener diode circuit in Fig.20 may be connected to the output of a capacitively-smoothed diode-rectifier circuit to block the ripple and other amplitude variation due to AC supply tolerance, and produce a more stable output voltage, VO. The value of VO is determined by the zener-diode breakdown voltage VZ.
In such circuits, a value must be chosen for RS, as well as a power rating for DZ. Usually, when doing this a variation in effective load resistance, RL, must be taken into account as well as the variation in vIN.
52
RS
vIN
vIN
DZ
RL
VO
Fig.20 Zener diode in a voltage regulator circuit
Example 5 A zener diode voltage-regulator is used to maintain 20V across a load which varies between 200
and 1k. The input voltage varies between 30V and 50V. Determine a suitable value of R S and the minimum
zener-diode power rating required.
[Ans: RS = 100 to PZ = 5.6 W]
RS ?
IRS
IZ
IO
30 vIN 50V
200 RL 1k
VZ = 20V
PZ = ?
Example 5 solution strategy

1. Calculate the maximum and minimum current in RL.
2. With minimum input voltage, RS must supply IRL(MAX) . Hence RS now sized.
3. With maximum input voltage and maximum load resistance, what is the zener-diode current. This corresponds to the maximum zener diode current and determines the zener-diode power rating.
Example 6 Determine the maximum allowable range of load resistance that may be used with the following
zener diode voltage stabilisation circuit.
[Ans: RL(MAX) = 8.799k to RL(MIN) = 1.257k]
RS = 220 IRS
IZ
23.5V vIN 37V
VZ = 20V
IO
RL ?
PZ = 1.5W
53
Example 6 solution strategy

1. Calculate the maximum and minimum current in RS.
2. Calculate the maximum and minimum current that can flow in DZ.
3. Calculate the corresponding minimum allowable current in RL with vIN(MAX) and the maximum possible current
in RL with vIN(MIN) .
4. Use these values to calculate the maximum and minimum values of load resistance.

vD
1.
Sketch, correctly aligned, vS, vD and vR waveforms

for the half-wave rectifier circuit shown in Fig.
Ex1 which is connected to a sinusoidal AC voltage source.
vR
vS
Fig.Ex1 Circuit for analysis in Q1
D1
2. Sketch correctly aligned voltage-source and loadresistor waveforms for the circuit shown in Fig.Ex2,
assuming vS = VM sin t.
vS
Show how the circuit could be modified to give a relatively constant voltage across R. Sketch the resulting
waveform and briefly explain your answer.
vR
R
vS
Sketch the circuit for a diode bridge full-wave rectifier
and give one advantage and one disadvantage when it
is compared with the circuit in Fig.Ex2.
D2
3. A zener diode is used to reduce and stabilise the

voltage across a sensitive, variable load as shown in
Fig.Ex3.
R1 = 100
Calculate the maximum power dissipated in the zener

diode and RS. Assume that the dynamic resistance of
the zener diode, rZ, is negligible.
14 16 V
variable
input
voltage
[Ans: 500 mW, 360 mW]
VZ =10 V
RL = 333 1k

54
University of Bath
CT5 AC STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS
Dr F Robinson
Resources
Chapter 8 of Engineering Circuit Analysis.
Aims and objectives

Aims: CT5 introduces the steady-state analysis of AC circuits. This involves the study of:
AC source and load circuits comprising voltage sources, resistors, inductors and capacitors.
Phasor representation of sinusoidal quantities.
Complex number representation of phasor quantities.
Reactance and impedance of L and C elements and circuits.
Sketch phasor diagrams to represent the magnitude and phase of voltages and currents in a number of
circuits involving R, L and C elements and sinusoidal sources.
Describe phasor quantities in complex number form.
Calculate the reactance and impedance of circuits involving R, L and C elements.
Apply many of the circuit theorems practised in DC circuit analysis in AC circuit analysis.
Enter and simulate a number of AC circuits in OrCAD/Capture and OrCAD/PSPICE and perform ACSweep analysis.
55
7. Alternating current and voltage

In AC (alternating current) systems, currents and voltages vary in a periodic manner as shown in Fig.1.
(a)
(b)
Fig.1 Examples of alternating current waveforms.

Electrical power and information are both carried by AC waveforms and hence it is important to analyse how
they may be modified by electrical circuits.
We start by considering the response of circuits to sine waves since any complex periodic waveform can be resolved into a series of sine wave components, i.e. a Fourier series.
VM
v = VM sin ( t + )
(b)
(a)
Fig.2 General form of sinewave voltage and its mathematical representation.

A sinusoidally varying voltage may be expressed mathematically as
v V M sin t
(1)
Where VM is the maximum value of v, and frequency in Hz is related to the sinewave period, T in Fig.2(a), by
1
f
(2)
T
Multiplying the time axis in Fig.2(a) by [i.e.2 f (or 2 /T ), where f is the waveform frequency] converts the
time axis into a radian-angle axis, as shown in Fig.2(b), which is easier to use with trigonometric functions.
Angular frequency in rad/s is
2f
(3)
Angle in Eq.1 is known as the phase angle of the waveform. The phase angle gives the position of the start of
the sinewave relative to t = 0, and may be given in radians or degrees.
A positive phase angle [as shown in Fig.2(a) and (b)] implies that the start of the sine-wave voltage leads the
origin by an angle . A negative phase angle (e.g. -) implies the sinewave lags the origin by .
Example 1 Sketch the waveforms represented by the following mathematical equations. State whether the
waveforms are lagging or leading t = 0 and by what value of phase angle (in both radians and degrees). At
56
what value of t (in both radians and degrees) do the waveforms reach a maximum value and what is the maximum value.
v 10 sin t 45 V
(a)
(b)
i 350 sin t 3 A
[Ans: (a) /4, 45, 10 V (b) 5/6, 150, 350 A]
Although only the sine function has so far been used, the cosine function could also have been used. However,
when comparing sinusoidal functions of the same frequency to determine phase difference, it is necessary to express both functions as either sines or cosines. It should be noted that a cosine function is only a phase displaced
sine wave as expressed by Eq.4 which may be shown using sin (A B) = sin A cos B sin B cos A.
(4)
cos t sin t 2 and - cos t sin t 2
Example 2 Calculate the phase difference between v1 10 cos t V and v 2 10 sin t 3 V. Express
your answer in both radians and degrees.
[Ans: 5/6, 150]
8. Steady-state analysis of AC circuits

Consider the RLC circuit shown in Fig.3, which is connected to an AC voltage source. After an initial transient
when the source is first connected, the circuit response stabilises (after 3 ms in the Fig.3 waveform example)
and the steady-state current and voltage waveforms also become sinusoidal at the same frequency as the source.
i
R
vS
vR
vL
vC
1.0ms
0s
2.0ms
3.0ms
4.0ms
5.0ms
Fig.3 RLC circuit connected to a sinusoidal voltage source, and example of operation reaching a steady-state.
The amplitude and phase angle of voltage and current waveforms within the circuit will now be evaluated for
this steady-state condition.
The current is common to all components and may be expressed as i I M sin t where IM is the maximum, or
peak, value and is the angular frequency, i.e. = 2f. Component voltages may then be derived from the v-i
relationships for the R, L and C components.
For a resistor v iR and since

Therefore
IM R
vR
8.1 Resistor
i I M sin t
IM
t
v R I M R sin t
0
Hence, the resistor voltage is in phase (i.e. 0 phase

difference) with the resistor current, and vR reaches a
positive maximum at the same time as i as shown in
Fig.4.
This applies more generally for any resistor: we assume that the current and voltage are in phase for a
resistor.
Fig.4 Resistor voltage and current for circuit Fig.3.

57
8.2 Inductor
di
.
dt
For an inductor
v L
With i I M sin t
d
v L L I M sin t
dt
Therefore
Using Eq.4 gives
LIM
vL
IM
v L LI M cos t
v L LI M sin t 90
Hence the voltage across an inductor leads the current by 90, or /2. This applies for all inductors.
Inductor voltage and current waveforms are given in
Fig.5, which show that vL reaches a positive maximum 90 before i.
/2
3/2
Fig.5 Inductor voltage and current for circuit Fig.3.
8.2 Capacitor
For a capacitor
With i I M sin t
Therefore
vC
1
vC
C
1
i dt .
C
I M sin t dt
I
M cos t
C
vC
(See Appendix A for full working)
Using Eq.4 gives
vC
1
I sin t 90
C M
Hence the voltage across a capacitor lags the current

by 90, or /2. This applies for all capacitors. Capacitor voltage and current waveforms are given in
Fig.6, which shows that vC reaches a positive maximum 90 after i.
/2
3/2
vC
Fig.6 Capacitor voltage and current for circuit Fig.3.
The total voltage drop across all circuit elements in Fig.3

may be shown to correspond to the AC source voltage
from a KVL loop equation.
Substituting in the equations for
each of the component voltages
IM
C
IM
v S v R v L vC
v S I M R sin t LI M sin t 90
1
I sin t 90
C M
(5)
We have arrived at the total instantaneous voltage. However, this method of analysis is too cumbersome to deal
with other than simple circuits. The analysis of AC circuits may be considerably simplified if a geometric representation of sinewave currents and voltages termed a phasor is used.
9. Phasor representation of AC quantities

Sinusoidally varying quantities can be represented by a phasor, which is similar to a vector in that both the
length and direction of a phasor convey information about a quantity.
The length of phasors are drawn to scale; i.e. drawn so that they are proportional to current or voltage
magnitude (i.e. initially peak, but later RMS value).
The direction of a phasor is determined by the phase of a current or voltage relative to a reference phase
angle, e.g. if the phase angle is 30, then the phasor is drawn at an angle of 30 from a line taken as the
reference phase.
58
VL
VR
VC
I = I 0 and VR = VR 0
I = I 0 and VL = VL 90
I = I 0 and VC = VC -90
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig.7 Phasor diagrams representing v and i magnitudes and phases for (a) R, (b) L and (c) C in Fig.3
Phasor diagrams for the component voltages and current in the RLC circuit of Fig.3 are shown in Fig.7. Phasor
quantities are usually labelled by a bold capital letter, e.g. V and I, in textbooks. An alternative notation for written work is to underline the capital letters that represent phasor quantities, e.g. V and I; and this notation will be
used here.
The current magnitude and phase (represented by I and 0 in Fig.7) is the same since the components are all connected in series. For this reason, the current is taken as the reference phasor.
Component voltage-magnitude (represented by VR, VL and VC in Fig.7) and phase varies with the type of component and the component value.
I
R
VS
VR
VL
VL
VC
VS
VC
0
VR
(a)
(b)
Fig.8 (a) Series-connected RLC circuit and (b) the corresponding graphical vector addition of VR, VL, and VC to
give the resultant voltage VS which corresponds to the AC source voltage.
Kirchhoff's current and voltage law equations may be equally well implemented around circuit loops and at current nodes in AC circuits, as in DC circuits. However, current and voltage summation must be performed by
phasor (i.e. vector) addition, rather than simple arithmetic addition as in the case of DC circuits.
For example, a KVL loop equation for Fig.8(a) in phasor notation is
V S V R V L V C 0
Hence
V S V R V L V C
VS may be determined by the graphical vector addition of phasors drawn to scale, as shown in Fig.8(b).
In this example, the inductor voltage was assumed to be greater than the capacitor voltage, and hence the resultant phasor, VS, has a leading or positive phase angle, i.e. VS = VS S.
59
Example 3 The resistor and inductor voltages for the circuit in Fig.Ex2 are v R 30 sin t 30 V and
v L 40 sin t 120 V, respectively. Express the voltages in phasor notation, and, by sketching a phasor
diagram, determine the AC source voltage required to produce these voltages across the circuit elements. Express the source voltage in phasor notation and in the time-domain as a function of t.
I
VR
VS
VL

Ex.3 solution In phasor notation, VR = 30 30 V and VL = 40 120 V. A KVL loop equation gives
V S V R V L . Hence, VS is found by vector addition of the VR and VL phasors, as illustrated in Fig.Ex3Sol.
The VR voltage phasor is drawn first at an angle of 30 relative to a 0 phase reference line.
The VL phasor, which has a phase of 120 relative to the reference phase, is then added.
The resultant phasor VS is therefore found by joining the unconnected ends of the phasors.
VL
VS
120
30
VR
Fig.Ex3Sol (a) Individual phasors and (b) and phasor diagram to determine VS.
Since the phasor diagram comprises a right-angled triangle, the magnitude of VS is easily found using Pythagoras's theorem.
Also the phase S is obtained using
VS V R 2 V L 2
30 2 40 2 50 V
V
L
tan 1
V
R
tan 1 40 5313
.
30
Note that phase must be specified relative to the same phase reference as used for VR and VL.
Hence in phasor notation
VS = 50 (53.13+30) = 50 83.13 V
and as a time-domain function
v S 50 sin t 8313
. V
Example 4 The resistor and capacitor voltages for the circuit in Fig.Ex4 are v R 50 sin t 45 V and
60
v C 70 sin t 45 V, respectively. Express the voltages in phasor notation, and by sketching a phasor
diagram determine the AC source voltage required to produce these voltages across the circuit elements. Express the source voltage in phasor notation and as a function of t.
[Ans: VS = 86.02 -9.46 V, vS = 86.02sin ( t-9.46) V]
VR
VC
VS
10. Complex number representation of phasors

Phasors may be represented by complex numbers and shown on an Argand diagram as illustrated in Fig.9.
Imaginary
VS
VR
jVL
VL
VL
VR
Real
VC
VR
VC
-jVC
Fig.9 The phasors for the series-connected RLC circuit are shown on an Argand diagram.
It was previously shown in Eq 5 that the total voltage for the series-connected RLC circuit shown in Fig.9 is given by the sum of the instantaneous component voltages. Eq 5 is repeated below.
v S v R v L v C I M R sin t LI M sin t 90
I M sin t 90
The complex operator j may be used to represent the +90 phase displacement introduced by the inductor in going from current to voltage, and j may be used to represent the 90 phase displacement similarly introduced by
the capacitor in going from current to voltage.
Hence the inductor or capacitor voltages may be represented by +ve or ve imaginary numbers, and the resistor
voltage may be represented by a real value, as shown on the Argand diagram in Fig.9.
Once circuit quantities are expressed in the complex form, AC circuit analysis may be performed using complex
arithmetic, rather than graphical vector addition.
1
V S V R V L V C RI j LI j
I
In phasor notation Eq.5 is written as
(6)
C
Hence VS is simply found by grouping the real and complex terms and adding them together. Doing this for Eq.6
V S RI j LI
I
gives Eq.7, which is illustrated in Fig.10.

61
(7)
Imaginary
R
L
VS
VR
VS = VR + j (VL-VC)
VL
VS
j(VL-VC)
Real
VC
VR
Fig.10 The resultant phasor VS may be derived by adding the real and complex parts of VR, VL and VC.
Hence, assuming I has only a real value, when numerical values are put into the Eq.7, VS is defined by a real val-
V S V R jV I
ue, VR, and an imaginary value, VI, as in Eq.8
(8)
Phasor quantities may either be expressed in rectangular form like Eq.8, or in polar form like V V .
Rather than use the notation V V , it is more appropriate to use the alternative polar notation V V e j
j
when using complex arithmetic, since e = cos + j sin and the relationship between polar and rectangular
forms is more obvious. Fig.11 illustrates how to convert between rectangular and polar forms.
Rectangular form
Polar form
V V R jV I
V VR 2 VI 2
V R V cos
tan 1 V I V R
V V e j
V I V sin
Fig.11 Rectangular and polar forms of expression for phasor quantities and how to convert between them.
Example 5 Convert the polar-form voltages and currents in Fig.Ex5 into the rectangular form. By adding the
real and imaginary parts of the voltages or currents, calculate the AC source (a) voltage and (b) current that must
be applied to give these values. Express your answer both in rectangular and polar form.
j38.46
-j18.43
[Ans: (a) VS = 30 - j10 = 31.62e
V (b) IS = 5 - j4 = 6.403e
A]
VR = 30 e
IS
j0
IR = 5 e
j0
IL = 11 e -j90
VS
L
VL = 10 e
VC = 20 e
IC = 7 e
j90
j90
-j90
(b)
(a)
62
11. Impedance and reactance

The j operator gives the inductor and capacitor voltage phasor the correct orientation (i.e. phase) relative to the
current phasor, as shown on the Argand diagram in Fig.9.
1
Eq.6 for the Fig.9 series-connected RLC circuit can be re-written as

(9)
V S I R j L j
C
The terms R, j L, and j/ C add up to the total impedance of the RLC circuit. Impedance is used in AC circuit
analysis like resistance in DC circuit analysis.
Impedance is denoted by Z, has units of ohms, (), and is a complex quantity which generally has a real and
imaginary component, unless dealing with pure R, L or C components as shown in Fig.12.
Component
Reactance
--
XL = L
XC = 1/(C)
Impedance - rectangular form
Impedance - polar form
Z=R
Z R e j0 = R
Z = jL or jXL
Z L e j 90 or Z X L e j 90
Z = - j/(C) or - jXC
Z 1 C e j 90 or Z X C e j 90
Fig.12 Table of component impedances.

For inductors and capacitors the L and 1/C terms constitute a quantity termed reactance, denoted by X, and
since = 2f the reactance is frequency dependent.
XL = L = inductive reactance, which increases with increasing frequency.

XC = 1/(C) = capacitive reactance, which decreases with increasing frequency.
Eq.9 for the series RLC circuit can be simplified as follows.
V S I R j L j
C
Since XL = L and XC = 1/C
V S I R j X L X C
(10)
(11)
Assuming the inductive reactance, XL, is greater than the capacitive reactance, XC, XL XC results in a single
positive reactance X, as in Eq.12.
V S I R jX
(12)
VS I Z
or
(13)
Hence in any AC circuit, V and I are related by Eq.13; the impedance Z is analogous to the resistance in DC circuits, and Eq.11 is effectively an AC circuit Ohm's Law.
Resistance, R, is the real part of the impedance, and reactance, X, is the imaginary part and may be +ve or ve
depending on whether circuit inductance or capacitance is dominant.
Rectangular form
Polar form
Z R jX
R Z cos
X Z sin
Z R2 X 2
tan 1 X R
Z Z e j
Fig.13 Rectangular and polar forms of expression of phasor quantities and how to convert between them.
63
Impedance may be expressed in rectangular form or polar form as shown in Fig.13. Fig.13 illustrates how to
convert between forms.
The equivalent value, ZS for N series-connected
impedances is obtained using Eq.12.
The equivalent value, ZP for N parallel-connected

impedances is obtained using Eq.13.
Z S Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Z N
(12)
1
1
1
1
1

ZP
Z1 Z 2 Z 3
ZN
(13)
The circuit rules and theorems previously practised with DC circuits, e.g. Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's KCL and
KVL laws, Thevenin's theorem, source transformation, etc may also be applied in the analysis of AC circuits
operating in the steady-state. However phasor quantities and complex arithmetic must be used in the derivation
and manipulation of equations.
Example 6 Calculate the impedance of the circuit shown in Fig.Ex6 when it is used at 50Hz.
R1
50
R2
75
ZEQ
EQ
L
0.318 H
C
159 F
Ex.6 solution ZEQ is found by first finding the impedance of each branch, and
then using the equation for two parallel impedances that is developed in
Fig.Ex6Sol.
Z 1 R1 + j 2 f L 50 + j 2 50 0.318 = 50 + j 99.90
Since Z1 and Z2 will be multiplied and added it is useful to have them in both
rectangular and polar form.
Using the conversion rules in Fig.13
Z 2 R2 - j
Z2
Z 1 1117
. e j 63.41
1
1
75 - j
= 75 - j20.02 = 77.63e - j14.95
2 f C
2 50 159
Z Z 2 1117
. e j 63.41 77.63e j14.95
Z EQ 1
Z1 Z 2
50 j 99.90 75 j 20.02
Z EQ
Z1
86713
. e j 48.46 86713
. e j 48.46
58.47e j15.88
125 j 79.88
148.3e j 32.58
64
1
1
1
ZP
Z1 Z 2
ZP
Z1 Z 2
Z1 Z 2
Fig.Ex6Sol
Example 7 Calculate the impedance of the circuits shown in Fig.Ex7 at a frequency of 50Hz. Express your
answer in both rectangular and polar form.
. e j 38.15 ], (b) Z EQ 7.149e j 26.68 6.388 j 3.210 ]

[Ans: (a) Z EQ 8 j 6.283 1017
8
200 F
ZEQ
ZEQ
20 mH
(a)
(b)
12. Analysing AC circuits using impedance

The steady-state currents and voltages in AC circuits comprising resistors, capacitors and inductors may now be
found at any operating frequency by using an impedance calculation as illustrated in the following example.
Example 8 Calculate the current IS and voltage VC in Fig.Ex8 if the voltage source frequency is 50 Hz.
IS
50
VS =240 e-j10
V
VC
0.318 H
159 F
Ex.8 solution To find IS, the equivalent impedance of the RLC circuit is found
first and then IS is determined using IS = VS / ZEQ. VS is then easily determined as
shown in Fig.Ex8Sol.
IS
Z EQ Z R+Z L // Z C where Z R 50 50 e j 0 ,
Z L jX L = j 2 f L j 2 50 0.318 = j 99.90 99.90 e j 90 and
ZR
VC
Z C jX C j
1
1
j
= j20.02 = 20.02 e - j90
2 f C
2 50 159
ZL // ZC
Z L // Z C is best calculated as follows, using polar form on the numerator and

rectangular form on the denominator.
Z L // Z C
1 ZL
j 90
Z L ZC
1
99.90e
20.02e
1 Z C
Z L ZC
j 99.90 j 20.02
j 90
65
V C Z L / /ZC I S
Fig.Ex8Sol.
Z L // Z C
99.90 20.02 e
j 99.90 20.02
j 9090
2000 e j 0
79.88 e
j 90
25.04 e j 90 0 j 25.04
Z EQ 50 j 25.04
VS
4.292 e j16.60 A
IS
and
V C I S Z L / / Z C 4.292 e j16.60 2504

. e j 90 = 107.5 e j 73.4 V
Z EQ
240 e j10
Hence
55.92 e
j 26.60
Example 9 Calculate the current IS and voltages VC and VR in circuit Fig.Ex9. The frequency of the AC voltage
source is 50Hz.
[Ans: I S 2.189e
j 35.72
A , V C 21.91e j 54.28 V , V R 218.9e j 35.72 V ]

IS
VC
318 F
VS = 220 ej30 V
VR
100
Appendix A
vC ( t )
From page 4
dvC
vC ( 0 )
1
I M sin t dt
C 0
vC t vC 0
vC t
IM
cos t 0 t I M 1 cos t
C
C
IM
I
M cos t vC 0
C C
In practical circuits, the DC (or constant, time-invariant) terms in the capacitor voltage equation, such as
IM
C
and vC 0 , quickly die away. The analysis may be simplified by assuming that any DC terms in vC t are initially zeroed; i.e. by making the initial capacitor voltage vC 0
Therefore
vC t
I
IM
, such that the M term is cancelled.
C
C
IM
1
cos t
I M sin t 90
C
C
Fig.6 Shows the capacitor voltage lagging the current by 90 as shown by the mathematical analysis.
66

1.
Calculate the equivalent impedance of the circuit in Fig.Ex1 at 100 Hz. Express your answer in both rectanj53.34
]
[Ans: Z EQ 2.402 j 3.228 4.024e
8 mH
gular and polar forms.
ZEQ
3.75
318 F
Fig.Ex1 Circuit for analysis in exercise 1.
2.
An impedance of 2 + j6 is connected in series with two parallel-connected impedances of 10 + j4 and

j 0
12 j8 . Calculate the supply current IS when the circuit is connected to a V S 200e V source.
[Ans: I S 18.76e
3.
j 33
A]
Calculate the value of C in Fig.Ex3, which results in a purely real current being drawn from the 60 Hz AC
source. [Clue to solution: calculate I1 and put into rectangular form as I1 = I1REAL - j I1IMAGINARY.
Then, solve for of XC, knowing that VS /(-jXC ) = j I2IMAGINARY, which must equal -1 j I1IMAGINARY for
the cancellation of imaginary current terms. From the value of XC, C may be found.]
IS
[Ans: 431 F]
I2
I1
3
V S 10e j 0 V
C
10 mH
Fig.Ex3 Circuit for analysis in Exercise 3.
4.
[Ans: V O 6.243e
Find VO in the circuit in Fig.Ex4.
j 21.34
V]
j1
VO
-j2
V S 20e j 60 V

67
University of Bath
CT6 FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND RESONANT CIRCUITS
Dr F Robinson
Resources
Aims and objectives

Aims: CT6 is to introduces basic filter frequency-responses and resonant-circuit analysis. This involves:
Basic low- and high-pass RC-filter circuits.
Basic series and parallel resonant circuits.
Transfer function derivation and the use of frequency response graphs.
Derivation and meaning of filter and resonant circuit terms and characteristic quantities.

Derive transfer functions for a number of basic first- and second-order filter circuits, and understand
their frequency dependent behaviour.
Understand the conditions and behaviour of quantities in basic series- and parallel-RLC circuits at resonance, and appreciate the affect of quality factor on the behaviour of the circuits.
Plot the gain and phase responses for a number of circuits using transfer-function equations.
Calculate a number of quantities which characterise the behaviour of filters and resonant circuits and
appreciate the significance of these and a number of other terms relating to filters and resonant circuits.
68
7. Frequency response of AC circuits

The AC circuits examined so far have been energised from constant-frequency AC sources. However, many
circuits in practical electrical and electronic systems process signals which vary over a range of frequencies, or
comprise numerous frequency components.
The characteristics of AC circuits containing inductors and capacitors vary with frequency because the reactance,
and hence the impedance, of these components vary with frequency. The variation in reactance is evident from
Eqs. 1 and 2 and Fig.1 below.
When the frequency is zero (i.e. DC conditions), the reactance of an inductor is zero (i.e. a short circuit, see
Fig.1a) and the reactance of a capacitor is infinite (i.e. an open circuit, see Fig.1b). As f and hence are increased, inductive reactance increases in proportion with f and capacitive reactance decreases in inverse proportion with f, as shown in Fig.1.
At very high frequencies, inductors may be assumed to approximate to open-circuits and capacitors to shortcircuits.
Capacitive reactance
Inductive reactance
Z L jX L L 2 f L
Z C jX C
(1)
|ZL|
1
1
C 2 f C
(2)
|ZC|
, f
(a)
, f
(b)
Fig.1 Variation of (a) inductive and (b) capacitive reactances with frequency.
7.1 Basic low-pass and high-pass filter circuits

Filter circuits are an example of circuits that are designed to operate over a range of frequencies. Filters pass
with little change input signals within a selected frequency range, and attenuate (or block) the signals at frequencies outside the chosen range.
Basic low-pass and high-pass filter circuits are shown in Fig.2. The term low-pass is used because circuit
Fig.2a passes low-frequency signals but attenuates high-frequency signal content. In contrast, the high-pass filter in Fig.2b passes high-frequency signals but attenuates low frequency signal content.
The filter output must be connected to a relatively high-impedance load (e.g. an op-amp circuit) otherwise the
characteristics of the filter will be changed, and not be determined only by a filters R and C component values.
VI
VO
VI
VO
(a)
(b)
Fig.2 Basic (a) low-pass and (b) high-pass filters.
69
The filter magnitude and phase responses are plotted below. The horizontal axis may be shown in ( ) rad/s, (f)
Hz. or be expressed in terms of a characteristic frequency as illustrated in Fig.3.
Gain
Gain
1.0
1.0
passband
passband
0.707
0.707
0.5
0.5
stopband
stopband
(a)
0
0.01C
(b)
0
0.1C
10C
0.01C
100C
Phase
0.1C
10C
100C
Phase
90
-45
45
-90
0.01C
0.1C
(c)
(d)
10C
100C
0.01C
0.1C
10C
100C
Fig.3 (a, c) Low-pass and (b, c) high-pass filter frequency responses, comprising gain and phase plots.
To gain insight into the origin of the general characteristics of the filter circuits, it is helpful to first consider the
filters as acting as AC voltage divider circuits with the capacitor branch acting as a frequency dependent impedance (ZC = XC) in series with a fixed-value impedance (ZR = R). By noting the variation in capacitive reactance
with frequency given in Fig.1b, the following trends may then be deduced.
1.
At low frequencies XC >> R, so very little of VI

will be dropped across R, VO VI, and VO / VI 1.
1.
At low frequencies XC >> R, so most of VI will be

dropped across XC , VO << VI and VO / VI 0.
2.
At low frequencies, the current phase-angle will

be largely set by XC, and so the current will lead VI
by 90. VO must lag the current by 90 and so
the phase angle between VO and VI will be 0.
2.
At low frequencies the current phase-angle will be

largely set by XC, and so the current will lead VI
by 90. Since VO is taken across R, VO must also
lead VI by 90.
3.
At high frequencies, XC << R, most of VI will be

dropped across R and so VO << VI and VO /VI 0.
3.
At high frequencies, XC << R, most of VI will be

dropped across R and so VO VI and VO / VI 1.
4.
At high frequencies, the current phase-angle will

be largely set by R, and so the current will be approximately in phase with VI. VO must lag the current by 90 and so VO must also lag VI by 90.
4.
At high frequencies, the current phase-angle will

be largely set by R, and so the current will be approximately in phase with VI. The phase angle between VO and VI will therefore be 0.
To investigate and quantify more exactly how a filter circuit modifies signals, a relationship between the input
and output quantities must be determined as a function of frequency. The relationship is termed the transfer
70
function. The transfer functions for the low- and high-pass filter are given as Eqs 2 to 5 below, and the gain (or
magnitude ratio) and phase terms of these are separated in Eqs. 6 to 9.
Transfer functions may then be used to plot the gain response and a phase response as shown in Fig.3. These
show the magnitude and phase change that a circuit will produce over a range of frequencies, and together are
generally referred to as a circuit's frequency response.
Transfer function
VO
VI
Gain
V OUT
V IN
VC
VI
Transfer function
(2)
- jX C
1 j C
1
R-jX C R 1 j C 1 j RC
(4)
VO
VI
1 RC
(6)
Gain
(8)
Phase
Phase tan 1 RC
VO
VI
V OUT
VR
V IN
(3)
VI
j RC
R
R
R-jX C R 1 j C 1 j RC
VO
VI
RC
1 RC
(5)
(7)
2
90 tan 1 RC
(9)
By making reference to the transfer-function equations Eqs 2 to 9, the characteristics of the filters may now be
discussed in more detail.
1.
Eqs.4, 6 and 8 show that, at low frequencies when

0, VO / VI 1 and 0.
1.
Eqs.5, 7 and 9 show that, at low frequencies when

0, VO / VI CR 0 and 90.
2.
At high frequencies, , VO / VI 1/ CR
0 and -90.
2.
At high frequencies, , VO / VI CR /
CR = 1 and 0.
3.
The passband of the low-pass filter, i.e. the frequency range over which signals pass through the
circuit with relatively little attenuation, is considered to lie from = 0 to an upper cutoff frequency, = C (see Fig.3a). Signals with frequencies above the cut-off frequency, which lie in
the stop-band, are considered to be blocked (or rejected), since they rapidly become more heavily
attenuated the further they lie above C.
3.
The pass-band of the high-pass filter is considered

to lie above a lower cut-off frequency from =
C to infinite (ideally) frequency (see Fig.3b).
Signals with frequencies below the upper cut-off
frequency, which lie in the stop-band, are considered to be blocked (or rejected), since they rapidly
become more heavily attenuated the lower they lie
below C.
4.
Example 1 AC signals of varying frequency are input to the circuit in Fig.Ex1 and the output is taken as a current, IO, in the resistive load. Show that the IO / VI transfer function is given by the equation below, calculate
the gain and phase response values at = {0, R/L, }, and explain whether the RL circuit will behave as a highpass or low-pass filter.
[Ans: G = {1/R, 1/(R2), 0} = {0, -45, -90}, low-pass
filter]
VI
IO
VI
IO
1
1
R 1 j L R

71
The filter cut-off frequencies are also termed half-power frequencies because they correspond to the frequency
value where the power of the output signal is reduced to half the power of the input signal. The half-power
points are obtained by assuming that the input and output signals are delivered to equal input and output resistances.
VO
VO 2 R VO 2 1
1
Since power is proportional to V2, a cut-off frequency is found where
.
2 or where
2
VI
2
VI R VI
2
For the low-pass filter
At C
VO
VI
VO
VI
1
1 RC
1 C RC
At C
(10)
Solving for C in Eq.10 gives the half-power frequency as

or
C
fC
1
RC
2 RC
(rad/s)
VO
VI
RC
1 RC 2
C RC 2 1
2
2
1 C RC
(11)
Solving for C in Eq.11 gives the same equation for

the half-power frequency as obtained for the low-
(12)
pass filter C
(Hz)
VO
VI
For the high-pass filter
(13)
1
RC
(rad/s) or f C
1
(Hz)
2 RC
The width of a filter's (or any circuit's) pass-band is given by the bandwidth (BW), which has units of rad/s or
Hz.
The bandwidth of a low-pass filter is equal to its cut-off frequency, i.e. BW = C 0 = C; whereas the bandwidth of the high-pass filter is infinite (ideally) since the pass-band extends to infinity.
Other circuits, such as bandpass and bandstop (or notch) filters, have both upper ( C2) and a lower ( C1) cutoff frequencies and therefore their bandwidth is given by the difference between the two, i.e. BW = C2 C1.
Example 2 Derive an equation for the VO/VI transfer function of the low-pass filter shown in Fig.Ex.2, and determine the cut-off frequency and bandwidth of the circuit in terms of R1, R2 and C.
If R2 = 39 k and C = 10 nF, calculate the value of R1 required to set the filter's cut-off frequency to 2 kHz.
R1
VO
VI
R2
[Ans:
VO
VI
R2
1
R1 R2 1 j RP C
where RP = R1 // R2 ,
1
C
,
RPC
R1 =10 k ]
7.2 Bode diagram

When frequency response plots use logarithmic scales for the frequency variable and dB for the gain, they are
normally referred to as Bode diagrams. Logarithmic scales are used to compress the data range because the
ranges of interest often span several orders of magnitude, i.e. several decades. Any range whose end values are
in a 10:1 ratio is called a decade, e.g. a 10 Hz to 100 Hz range spans one decade whereas a 10 Hz to 10 kHz
range spans three decades.
In Bode diagrams, the magnitude-ratio, or gain, is usually first expressed in decibels (dB), which is defined as
20 log10 VO /VI , and plotted against frequency on semi-log paper with a linear vertical scale.
72
The decibel originally came from the definition of power ratios in bels
P
Ratio in bels log10 OUT
PIN
The decibel is more commonly used which is 10 times the ratio of bels
P
Ratio in dB 10 log 10 OUT
PIN
When the input and output powers are delivered to equal input and
output resistance, R, then the ratio may be expressed as
Ratio in dB 10 log 10
V
Ratio in dB 20 log 10 O
VI
Squaring the argument of the log function is the same as

multiplying the function by 2; hence
VO 2 R
VI 2 R
(14)
It has now become common practice to use Eq.14 to express gain (or magnitude-ratio) logarithmically in dB
when plotting graphs, since this gives gain plots which may be approximated by straight-line segments.
Example 3 Complete the following table by replacing the ' -' with either ordinary-number or dB gain values.
G
100,
G(dB) ,
,
20,
1,
,
1/2, ,
,
-20,
0.01,
,
0.001, 10N,
,
,
10-N, (0.1 1000 = 100)

-20N, (-20 + = 40)
Two circuits are connected as shown in Fig.Ex3 (i.e. connected in cascade). If the gain and phase response of
the first circuit is 17dB, 60 at 2 kHz, and the second is 57 dB, 45 at 2 kHz, what is the overall gain and phase
response of composite circuit at 2 kHz? What is the ordinary-number value of overall gain?
VOA
VIA
VIB
VOB
[Ans: 40, 10, 0, -3, 0.1,

-40, -60, 20N, 60.
GB
GA
40 dB, 105, 100]
Low-pass filter
High-pass filter
/ C
VO /VI
VO /VI
(dB)
Phase
()
/ C
VO /VI
VO /VI
(dB)
Phase
()
0.01
1.0
-0.6
0.01
0.01
-40
89.4
0.1
0.995
-5.7
0.1
0.0995
-20
84.3
0.707
-3
-45
0.707
-3
45
10
0.0995
-20
-84.3
10
0.995
5.7
100
0.01
-40
-89.4
100
1.0
0.6
Fig.4 Gain and phase values for low-pass and high-pass filter frequency-responses.
Low- and high-pass filter responses are plotted as Bode diagrams in Fig.5. Values used to produce these are
given in the tables in Fig.4 and were obtained using Eqs. 6, 7, 8 and 9.
Notice that on the gain response in Fig.5a and 5b the low-frequency and high-frequency asymptotes intersect at
the half-power frequency, C.
The low-pass filter gain response continues to fall to the right at a constant rate of 20dB/decade as the upper
frequency range is extended on a Bode diagram. Similarly, the high-pass filter gain response continues to fall to
the left at a rate of 20dB/decade as the lower frequency range is extended and 0.001, etc are added to the logarithmic frequency scale.
73
Notice that most of the 90 phase-response change occurs over two decades, one decade either side of C; and
that the phase response is 45 at the cut-off frequency, C. Just like the gain response, the phase response may
also be approximated by straight-line segments as shown in Fig5c and 5d.
0dB
Gain
0dB
1.0
Gain
0.1 -20dB
-20dB
-40dB
0.01C
1.0
0.1C
10C
0.1
0.01 -40dB
100C
0.01C
0.1C
(a)
(b)
90
Phase
Phase
-45
45
-90
0.01C
0
0.01C
0.1C
0.01
100C
10C
10C
100C
0.1C
10C
100C
(d)
(c)
Fig.5 Low-pass and high-pass filter frequency responses comprising gain and phase plots.
8. Resonant circuits
Lightly-damped series- or parallel-connected RLC circuits are termed resonant circuits and are widely used in
communication circuits, such as radio, telephone, and electronic systems, to select a desired signal frequency
while rejecting unwanted signal frequencies: a process referred to as tuning.
Resonance occurs in RLC circuits at the frequency at which the input AC current and voltage are in phase, and
hence at the frequency at which the input impedance of the circuit is purely resistive. For the basic Fig.6 circuits, this occurs at the undamped natural-frequency, i.e. O 1 LC .
I
C
VI
VI
(a)
(b)
Fig.6 Basic (a) series and (b) parallel resonant circuits.
74
|Z|
L
R
|Y|
|Z |
1
C
R
0
(a)
1
R
(b)
Fig.7 Variation in resonant-circuit, and individual-element, impedance Z (or admittance) Y with frequency.
Z R j L j
R j L
(15)
The series-resonant circuit impedance Z (see

Eq.15) varies with frequency as shown in Fig.7a.
At the resonant frequency, O, the inductive and
capacitive reactances cancel. Circuit impedance is
then purely resistive, at a minimum value of Z = R,
and consequently the magnitude of circuit current
is at a maximum of VI / R.
Below resonance, < O, the impedance becomes
higher because the capacitive reactance, XC, rapidly
increases and is no longer completely cancelled by
the inductive reactance, XL. Above resonance, >
O, XL increases above XC and is no longer completely cancelled.
Hence either side of O, circuit impedance rises and
the magnitude of circuit current falls.
Y G j C j
G j C
(16)
Admittance is the inverse of impedance (Y =1/Z) just

like conductance is the inverse of resistance (G =1/R).
Both have units of Siemens (S = 1/).
The parallel-resonant circuit admittance, Y, which has
the same form as the series-resonant circuit impedance
(see Eq.16), varies with frequency as shown in Fig.7b.
At the resonant frequency, O, the inductive- and capacitive-reactance effects cancel. Circuit admittance is then
purely conductive, and at a minimum value of Y = G
=1/R. If circuit admittance is at a minimum, then the
corresponding circuit impedance will be at a maximum,
of value, R, and consequently, circuit current magnitude
will be at a minimum of VI /R.
Below resonance, < O, the inductive reactance, XL,
falls below the capacitive reactance, XC and above resonance XC falls below XL.
Hence either side of resonance there is a finite value of
reactance in parallel with the resistance, which is given
by Eq.17 and which reduces circuit impedance below R.
Therefore, the magnitude of circuit current rises.
jX
jX L jX C
Z L ZC
X L XC
j
Z L ZC
jX L jX C
XC X L
(17)
8.1 Phasor diagram representation of resonance

Phasor diagrams are given for the resonant circuits in Fig.8 to show how voltage and current magnitudes and
phases differ in the vicinity of resonance.
In the series resonant circuit, the current is common to all circuit elements and is used as the reference phasor;
whereas in the parallel resonant circuit the voltage is common and is used.
75
At resonance the capacitive and inductive voltage (series) and current (parallel) phasors are of equal magnitude
but 180 out of phase and hence entirely cancel each other, resulting in the circuit current being determined by
circuit resistance alone.
At operating frequencies other than O, either the capacitive or inductive component of voltage (series) or current (parallel) dominates and introduces a reactive term into circuit impedance. Hence the circuit no longer appears purely resistive and a phase difference is introduced between the input current and voltage.
< O
= O
> O
VL
VL
VL
< O
VR
VR = VI
VR
VC
IG
IL
VC
VI
VI
VC
VI
IG = I
IG
IC
IC
IC
VI
> O
= O
IL
IL
(b)
(a)
Fig.8 Phasor diagrams for the (a) series- and (b) parallel-resonant circuits operating about resonance.
8.2 Quality factor

Quality factor, Q, is used to quantify the ratio of energy stored to energy dissipated over a resonant cycle in RLC
circuits, and is another measure of the degree of damping in a circuit. In fact, Q is reciprocally and simply related to circuit damping. Hence if Q is high circuit damping is low and vice versa.
Eq.18 gives a general definition of quality factor Q, which is given without derivation in this workpackage.
reactive power
real power
(18)
Since I is common to the circuit element in the series

RLC circuit, Eq.18 may be written as
I2XL
(19) or
I2R
I 2 XC
I2R
Since V is common to the circuit element in the parallel

RLC circuit, Eq.18 may be written as
(20)
V2 XL
(21)
V2 R
or
V 2 XC
V2 R
(22)
Eq.20 arises because XC = XL at resonance.
Eq.22 arises because XC = XL at resonance.
Cancelling I in Eqs. 19 and 20 and expanding XL and

XC terms allows the equation for Q to be written as
Cancelling V in Eqs. 21 and 22 and expanding XL and

XC terms allows the equation for Q to be written as
o L
or
Substituting
o CR
(23)
into either forms of Eq.23 gives
o L
Substituting
1
R
L
C
o CR
(24)
into either forms of Eq.24 gives
LC
LC
Q
or
Q R
(25)
76
C
L
(26)
VI
Quality factor Q also quantifies the level of voltage or current amplification in resonant circuits. At resonance
the reactive element voltage (series RLC) or current (parallel RLC) in resonant circuits is determined by Q rather
than reactive element impedance and is shown below to be Q times the input level.
I2XL
2
I R
IX L
IR
or Q =
IX C
IR
(28)
Since VL = I XL , VC = I XC and VR = I R, Eq.28 may

be written as
V
Q L
VR
V
or Q = C
VR
V2 XL
V
V XL
V R
or Q =
V XC
V R
(29)
Since IL = V / XL, IC = V / XC and IR = V / R, Eq.29 may

be written as
I
Q L
IR
(30)
Since VR = VI at resonance, VL = VC = Q VI at resonance.
I
or Q = C
IR
(31)
Since IR = II at resonance, IL = IC = Q II at resonance.
Example 4 Calculate I, VR, VL, VC and Q for the series-resonant circuit shown in Fig.Ex4 when the circuit is
operating in resonance. Show that under this condition VL= VC = Q VR = QVS, and briefly explain why.
VL
VR
I
[Ans: I = 5 e
j0
A,
VR = 10 e
j0
V,
j90
V,
j90
V,
VC
2
VS = 10 e
j0
25 mH
VL = 250 e
10 F
VC = 250 e
Q = 25.]
8.3 Frequency selectivity of resonant circuits

The relationship between Q, bandwidth and shape of frequency response may be illustrated using a basic seriesresonant bandpass filter shown in Fig.9.
Gain
Phase
Q = 10
90
1.0
Phase
VO
VI
R
1/2
C1
0.5
BW
C2
Gain
0
0.8O
-90
1.3O
Fig.9 Basic series-resonant bandpass filter and its frequency response.

The response has the form of a bandpass filter because the gain response has a narrow passband between upper
and lower cut-off frequencies, and above and below the passband the gain response rapidly falls away. As previously noted with the basic RC filters, the cut-off frequencies correspond to the half-power frequencies and are
therefore derived by evaluating the frequency at which the gain is 1 2 times its pass band value.
77
The transfer function for the series-resonant bandpass filter is given by Eq.32. This may be confirmed to be a
bandpass-filter transfer function by setting = {0 1/(LC), } and evaluating the corresponding magnitude variation of the gain, ie.VO/VI = {0, 1, 0}, which rises from zero to a maximum and then falls back to zero.
VO
VI
VR
VI
IR
IZ
R
1
R jX L j
XC
1
1
L
1 j
CR
R
(32)
BW=
o
Q
(rad/s)
fo
( Hz)
Q
(33)
The bandwidth of basic series- and parallel-resonant filters is simply given by dividing the resonant frequency by
the circuit Q, as shown in Eq.33. Hence the higher the filter Q, the lower the bandwidth and the more selective
the filter response. The proof for this is available in the advanced section of the notes and may be omitted in
basic and standard work.
1.0
It may be shown (see recommended textbook that
1/2
0.5
o 2 = C1 C 2
BW20
Q=5
or
BW10
Q = 10
o = C1 C 2
BW5
Hence, O lies halfway between the upper

and lower cut-off frequencies C2 and
C1, on a logarithmic frequency axis.
Q = 20
0.8O
1.3O
Fig.10 Gain responses for series-resonant band pass filter.

The gain and phase responses of the band pass filter, at different Q values, are plotted in Fig.10. These show that
the rate of fall-off in gain response also increases with Q. Hence higher-Q filters are more effective at rejecting
signals at unwanted frequencies outside the filter bandwidth, since the transition region between the passband
and stopband becomes steeper; ideally step transition regions are desirable but difficult to achieve in practice.
Example 5 Calculate IR, IL, IC, IS and Q for the parallel-resonant circuit in Fig.Ex5 when the circuit is operating
in resonance. Show that under this condition IL = IC = Q IR = Q IS, and briefly explain why.
IS
IC
IR
VS = 100 e
j0
j0
A,
j90
A,
j90
A,
[Ans: IR = 0.1 e
IL
IL = 10 e
IC = 10 e
V
100 F
1 k
10 mH
j0
IS = 0.1 e A,
Q = 100.]

Example 6 A series-resonant circuit comprises R =2 , L = 40 mH, and C = 100 F. Determine the bandwidth
of the circuit about the resonant frequency.
[Ans: 50 rad/s or 7.958 Hz]
Example 7 A series-resonant has the following properties R = 2 , O = 4000 rad/s, and the BW = 100 rad/s.
Determine the values of L and C.
[Ans: 20 mH, 3.125 F]
78

1. (a) Calculate the cut-off frequencies of the high-pass and low-pass filter in Fig.Ex1a and 1b, and sketch Bode
diagrams to show gain and phase responses for the filters (i.e. linear-segment approximations of gain and phase
graphs). Clearly mark passband gain and cut-off frequency values on diagrams.
(b) The two filters are connected in cascade as shown in Fig.Ex1c to make a bandpass filter. Calculate the
bandwidth of the filter by assuming that the low-pass filter produces negligible loading effect on the
high-pass filter.
(c) Sketch a Bode diagram of the gain and phase response of the composite filter. Clearly mark pass-band gain
and cut-off frequency values on your diagrams.[Ans: 6.25 krad/s, 625 krad/s, 619 krad/s]
VIHP 100 nF
VOHP
VILP
16 k
VOLP
1.6 k
16 k
VOLP
1.6 k
0.1 nF
(a)
100 nF
VIHP
0.1 nF
(c)
(b)
Fig.Ex1 Circuits for analysis in Exercise 1.
2.
Calculate L and R values for the series-resonant bandpass filter circuit shown in Fig.Ex2, so that the circuit operates with O = 1000 rad/s and has a bandwidth of 100 rad/s.
[Ans: 50 mH, 5 ]
L
20 F
VO
VI
R

3.
Calculate the magnitude of VO and hence the gain for the circuit in Fig.Ex3 when VI is at the resonant
frequency. Explain how VO and hence the circuit gain will vary either side of the resonant frequency at
< O and > O and hence explain whether the circuit may be used as a low-pass, high-pass, bandpass,
or bandstop filter.
100
VO
VI
[Ans: 0 V, 0]
1 F
1H
Fig.Ex3 Circuit for analysis in Exercise 3

4.
A parallel resonant circuit has the following parameters: R = 6 k, BW = 100 rad/s and Q = 120. Determine the values of L, C and O .
[Ans: 4.1666 mH, 1.667 F, 12 krad/s]
79
University of Bath
CT7 STEADY-STATE POWER ANALYSIS
Dr F Robinson 10 Dec. 14
Resources
Aims and objectives

Aims: The aim of workpackage CT7 is to introduce the steady-state power analysis of AC circuits. This involves the study of:
Average power-flow in AC circuits involving R, L, and C elements.
Effective or RMS values of AC waveforms.
Power factor of AC circuits.
Apparent and reactive power, and together with average power, their formation into a power triangle.

Appreciate the origin and meaning of RMS value, and derive RMS values of a number of waveforms.
Calculate the average power flow in a number of AC circuits containing R, L and C elements.
Appreciate the difference between apparent power and average power and the involvement of power
factor in relating them.
Appreciate the relationship between apparent, average and reactive powers and calculate these quantities in a number of AC-circuit examples.
Appreciate how to construct a power triangle and calculate its dimensions for a number of AC-circuit
examples.
80
7. Average power
In AC circuits, the instantaneous power, p, which is found by multiplying the v and i waveforms together, is not
equal to a constant value, P, as in DC circuits, but varies sinusoidally as shown in Fig.1.
Most often, we are interested in the average power because it is this that produces a useful output effect such
sound in the case of an audio amplifier, heat in the case of a microwave oven, or mechanical power (torque x
speed) in the case of an electric motor.
Also, in the analysis of AC systems, there are other power parameters, such as apparent power, reactive power, and power factor, which must also be considered.
To begin an analysis of the various power terms, the average power flow in R, L and C elements that arises when
they are connected to an AC voltage-source will first be considered.
7.1 Power flow in a resistor
i
v
R
Fig.1 Circuit and waveforms for analysing resistor power flow.
The instantaneous power produced in a resistor connected to an AC source (Fig.1a) is given by Eq.1.
p = vi
(1)
Using the sinusoidal waveforms in Fig.1, the instantaneous power is
Re-writing Eq.2 using
sin 2
1
1 cos 2
2
gives
p V M sin t I M sin t V M I M sin 2 t
VM I M
1 cos 2 t
2
(2)
(3)
Eq.3 shows that the power absorbed by a resistor has a steady average component,
VM I M
, and a component
2
VM I M
cos 2 t . The oscillating, or alternating, power term has
2
a zero average value, since the average of any unbiased sinusoidal function is zero over an integer number of
cycles.
VM I M
VM I M
P
Therefore the average power is

(4)
2
2 2
that oscillates at twice the supply frequency,
Since VM = IM R and IM =VM / R,

P may also be written as
VM
P
2
IM
1
R

R 2
81
(5)
VM
2 and I M
2 correspond to the RMS (root mean square) values of the sinusoidal voltage and current
waveforms.
These are found by taking the square-root of the mean (i.e. average), of the square of the current, or voltage as
below.
T
1
2
it d t
T 0
I I RMS
1
2
vt d t
T 0
V VRMS
Therefore, average (or useful) power is evaluated by first calculating the RMS value, and then using this value as
if it were a constant DC value, as shown in Eq.6.
P may also be written as
V2
I 2R
R
(6)
7.2 Domestic AC mains supply.

The AC supply voltage and current levels are normally specified in terms of RMS values. For example, the UK
household mains 50 Hz AC supply voltage is nominally 230 V10%: the same as in other European Union countries. This is an RMS voltage; the peak mains voltage is 230 2 = 325 V.
Note that it is likely that the AC supply voltage available in the UK is still at the old UK value of 240 V, and
some continental European countries still have mains voltages at their old value of 220 V. However, both of
these values are within 230 V 10% which corresponds to a range of 207 V < VMAINS < 253 V. Any equipment
intended to work off the European AC mains supply must therefore be designed to work over this range.
Also 5, 10, and 13 A fuses and plugs for AC mains use are rated to carry 5, 10, and 13 A RMS continuously.
The peak currents they can carry are 5 2 = 7.1 A, 10 2 = 14.1 A and 13 2= 18.4 A, respectively.
7.3 Evaluating RMS values of waveforms.

For non-sinusoidal periodic functions, the RMS values are obtained using Eqs.14 and 15. Capital letters without
an RMS subscript, e.g. V and I, are used to denote RMS values.
1
2
it d t
T 0
I I RMS
1
2
vt d t
T 0
V VRMS
(14)
(15)
For sinusoidal or trigonometric functions, it is better to convert the time axis to an angular axis by multiplying by
then equations given in Eqs. 14a and 15b may be used to simplify integration. See example in Appendix.
1
2
i t 2 d t
(14b)
1
2
v t dt
2
(15b)
For example for a sine-wave current this would be

For example for a sine-wave current this would be
1
2
sin t d t
2
82
1
2
sin t d t
2
Example 1 Calculate the RMS value of the voltage waveform in Fig.Ex1, and hence the power it would produce
when applied to a 2 resistor.
v(t) (V)
4
t (s)
-4
Fig.Ex1 Voltage waveform for analysis in Example 1.
Ex.1 solution The waveform is periodic with a period of 3s, and may be described mathematically as
4t
0 t 1s
v 1 t 2s
0
2 t 3s 4t 8
Using this in Eq.15 gives
1
T
v t d t
1
3
1
1
4t 2 dt
3
0
0 dt
2
8 4t 2 dt
16t 3
64t 2
16t 3
64t
2
3
3 0
2
16 27 - 8
1 16
64 3 2 - 32 9 - 4 +
3 3
3
1 16
16 19
.
189
. V
64 32 5
3556
3 3
3
Example 2 Derive from first principles the RMS values of the three voltage waveforms shown in Fig.Ex2. Notice that the v3 waveform is the sum of the v1 and v2 waveforms. Show that the RMS value of v3, i.e. V3, may
also be found by putting V1 and V2 into the RMS summation formula given below.
v1 (V)
2
0
t (s)
-2
v2 (V)
2
t (s)
v3 (V)
4
t (s)
Fig.Ex2 Voltage waveform for analysis in Example 2.

83
VRMS VRMS 2 V RMS 2 V RMS 2
Ans: V1 = 2 V, V2 = 2 V, V3 = 2.828 V]
Example 3 Derive from first principles the RMS value of the current waveform shown in Fig.Ex3, which comprises only the positive excursions of a sine-wave, and calculate the power it would deliver, when applied to a 10
resistor. How much more power would be delivered to the resistor if the missing negative excursions were
added to the Fig.Ex3 current waveform to give a complete sine wave?
[Ans: 5A, 250 W, 2 times, 500 W]
10A
Fig.Ex3 Current waveform for analysis in Example 3.
8. Power flow in an inductor
i
v
L
Fig.3 Circuit and waveforms for analysing inductor power flow.
The AC current in an inductor lags the voltage by 90 as shown in Fig.3. Hence the instantaneous inductor
power is given by
p V M sin t I M sin t 90 V M I M sin t sin t 90
(16)
Eq.16 can be rewritten using
sin sin 90 sin cos
to give
1
1
sin sin sin 2
2
2
VM I M
sin 2 t VI sin 2 t
2
(17)
Eq.17 shows that the average power flow in an inductor is zero (ideally), and this is confirmed by the instantaneous power waveform in Fig.3, which has equal-area positive and negative excursions. Zero average power re84
sults because all the energy that is stored in the inductor when the instantaneous power waveform is positive is
returned to the source during the negative instantaneous power excursion which has the same area as the positive
excursion. It should be noted that the area under the excursions of the instantaneous power waveform corret
sponds to energy, since energy, w
pdt .
0
9. Power flow in a capacitor
i
v
C
Fig.4 Circuit and waveforms for analysing capacitor power flow.
The AC current in a capacitor leads the voltage by 90 as shown in Fig.4. Hence the instantaneous capacitor
power is given by
p V M sin t I M sin t 90 V M I M sin t sin t 90
Rewriting Eq.18 using
sin sin 90 sin cos
gives
(18)
1
1
sin sin sin 2
2
2
VM I M
sin 2 t VI sin 2 t
2
(19)
Eq.19 and Fig.4 show that the average power flow in a capacitor, as in the inductor, is also zero (ideally). With
the voltage and current directions as shown in the circuits in Figs.3 and 4, a positive instantaneous power means
that power is flowing from the source to the element, and a negative power means that power is being returned to
the source (recall the sign convention for power which was discussed back in CT1).
10. Power in circuits with resistance and reactance
i
v
c
i
r
c
u
i
t
Fig.5 Circuit and waveforms for analysing power flow generally.

85
The AC circuit in Fig.5 contains resistive and reactive elements and draws current at some phase-angle relative
to the voltage. Therefore, the instantaneous current and voltage are v V M sin t and i I M sin t .
p V M sin t I M sin t V M I M sin t sin t
The instantaneous power is

Eq.20 may be rewritten using
sin sin
to give
1
cos cos
2
(20)
VM I M
VM I M
cos
cos 2 t
2
2
(21)
The second term in the power equation involving cos t has an average value of zero, and hence the average
VM I M
cos
2
power flow in the circuit is
or in terms of RMS values
P V I cos
(22)
This equation for the average power is quite general; it gives the correct value for any circuit comprising R, L
and C values, or for circuits only comprising one R, L or C element. For example, for purely reactive loads,
will be either 90 or 90, in which case cos = 0 which gives zero average power. This we know to be true
from the previous analysis of power flow in the inductor and capacitor.
11. Power factor

In the power equation above, the term cos is known as the power factor. When the current lags the voltage (as
in Fig.5) it is known as a lagging power-factor.
Other power-factor conditions are:
I leading V leading power-factor,

V and I in phase as in Fig.1 unity power-factor (UPF).
Notice that for values of between 90 and +90 the power flow will be positive, and so will be in the direction
implied by the voltage and current directions in the circuit of Fig.5. For all other values of , power flow will be
negative, and will be in the opposite direction to that implied by the circuit voltage and current directions.
Example 4 Calculate the total power delivered by the voltage source in the circuit shown in Fig.Ex4, and calculate the power dissipated by each of the resistors. Note that, from this point onwards, RMS values will be used
j45
to specify currents and voltages, i.e. VS = 12e
V is generally understood by practising engineers to
mean v S 2 12 sin t + 45 V , unless otherwise stated.
R2 = 2
R1 = 4
V S 12e j 45 V
XC = -j1

Ex.4 solution Find the equivalent impedance, the source current, and then use P V I cos to find the power.
Let the impedances of the circuit branches be Z1 (for R1) and Z2 (for R2 and C).
Therefore
Z 1 4 + j 0 = 4e j 0
86
and
Z 1 2 - j1 = 2.236e j 26.57
Equivalent circuit impedance
Z EQ
Z 1 Z 2 4e j 0 2.236e j 26.57
Z1 Z 2
4 2 j1
which simplifies to
Z EQ
8.944e j 26.57
1.470e j17.11
6.083e j 9.462
Therefore, circuit current is
VS
Z EQ
12e j 45
1470
. e j17.11
8163
. e j 62.11 A
Average power supplied by the source is P V I cos , where is the phase difference between the voltage and
current, with the voltage phasor being taken as the reference phasor.
Hence the average power delivered is
PS 12 8163
. cos 45-62.11
9362
. W
The power in R1 is found by noting that
V R1 V S 12e j 45 V
So
I R1
Then using
PR1 VR1 I cos = 12 3 cos 45-45 36 W
Alternatively
V 2 12 2
PR1 S
36 W
R
4
Average power in R2 is found from
PIN = POUT PS = PR1 + PR2 ,
Hence power dissipation in R2 is
PR2 = PS PR1 = 93.62 36 = 57.62 W
V S 12 j 45
e
3e j 45 A
R
4
since PC = 0.
Example 5 Find the average power delivered by the voltage source and dissipated by each resistor in Fig.Ex5.
[Ans: PS = 28.80 W,
PR1 = 14.40 W,
PR2 = 14.40 W ]
R2 = 2
V S 12e j 60 V
R1 = 4
XC = -j4
12. Power triangle derivation

Figure 6 shows phasor diagrams of voltage and current for leading and lagging power-factor cases. The corresponding power diagrams are obtained by resolving the current phasor I into components along, and at right angles to, the voltage phasor V. The current phasor components are then multiplied by V to give
P = VI cos
Q = VI sin
S = VI
the power in watts (W),

the reactive power in volt-amps-reactive (VAr),
the apparent power in volt-amps (VA).
The AC average power, P = VI cos with units of watt (W), forms the base of a right-angled triangle called the
power triangle, as illustrated in Fig.6.
87
The hypotenuse of the triangle, S = VI with units of volt-amp (VA), is called the apparent power, and is denoted by S.
The term apparent is used because, by analogy with DC circuits, this is the power that is apparently available.
However, in AC circuits, a phase difference between V and I gives rise to a reduction factor, which is the power
factor, cos .
The perpendicular of the power triangle in Fig.6, Q = VI sin with units of volt-amp-reactive (VAr), is called
the reactive power, and is denoted by Q. This quantity is associated with the energy continuously stored and
released by the reactive elements in an AC circuit (i.e. by the inductors and capacitors).
I
leading
power-factor
S = VI
I sin
Q = VI sin
I cos
I cos
P = VI cos
V
Q = VI sin
I sin
lagging
power-factor
P=VI cos
S = VI
I
Fig.6 Power diagrams for leading and lagging power-factor conditions.
Example 6 A circuit takes 12 kW at 104.3 A from a 230 V supply. Calculate the power factor and reactive
power input.
[Ans: 0.5, 20.77 kVAr]
In power systems, it is usually found that there is a large lagging reactive component of power, which is due to
industrial machinery, transformers etc.
There is a cost penalty associated with taking power at a poor lagging power factor. The reason for this is that
most of the components in a power system have costs in proportion to the IRMSVRMS product or apparent power.
For example, cable, switchgear, fuses, etc are rated to carry a particular RMS current and must comprise insulation to withstand a particular RMS voltage, not for a particular power flow. It frequently pays to improve the
power-factor of a load to avoid these cost penalties, e.g. by connecting capacitors in parallel with an inductive
load; a process called power-factor correction.
Example 7 The voltage across, and current in, a given circuit are (200 + j30) V and (5 j2) A. Calculate the
apparent power, average power, and reactive power, and sketch a power triangle.
Ex.7 solution It is helpful to convert V and I into polar form and sketch a phasor diagram.
V 200 + j30 = 202.2e j 8.53 V
V
8.53
.
I 5 - j2 = 5.385e j 2180
A
0
21.80
88
Apparent power S V I = 202.2 5385

.
1.089 kVA
Average power
P V I cos = 202.2 5385

.
cos 853
. +21.80
0.940 kW
Reactive power
Q V I sin = 202.2 5385

.
sin 853
. +21.80
0.550 kVAr lagging
P
0
A power triangle may now be constructed

by taking the component of current in phase
with the voltage as the power 0 reference, as
illustrated in Fig.7.
30.33
Q
S
Example 8 An inductance of 20 mH is connected in series with a 12 resistor and then connected to a 25 V,

100 Hz, AC voltage source. Calculate the voltage-source current and its phase angle relative to the source voltage. Also calculate the apparent, reactive and average power and construct a power triangle for the circuit.
[Ans: 1.44 A, 46.3 lag, 36.0 VA, 26 VAr lagging, 24.8 W]
12. Complex power

All power components, and whether they are being supplied or absorbed, may be evaluating simultaneously using a quantity called complex power.
When evaluating complex power, circuit element V and I directions should be assigned as in Fig.7 such that they
satisfy the passive sign convention, i.e. obtaining a +ve real or reactive (imaginary) power means that an element is absorbing that power (termed a power loss), whereas a ve real or reactive (imaginary) power means the
element is supplying real or reactive power.
I
C
I
R
C
U
I
T
V
Ze jz
C
I
R
C
U
I
T
Fig.7 Preferred V and I directions to facilitate power flow understanding.
Complex power is defined as
S V I *
(23)
In Eq. 23, I* denotes the complex conjugate of I, i.e. if I Ie
For a series R and L load i.e. inductive load,

the impedance has a positive angle,
j Z
I R jIQ then I * Ie j Z I R jIQ .
For a series R and C load i.e. capacitive load, the

impedance has a negative angle,
Z Ze j Z .
Z Ze j Z .
j0
If V Ve
then current lags the voltage and
j0
If V Ve
then current leads the voltage and is
89
is in the form I
V Ve j 0
Ie j Z .
Z Ze j Z
j0
Therefore S V I * Ve Ie
or S VIe
j Z
in the form I
( j Z )
V
Ve j 0
j Ie j Z .
Z Ze Z
j0
Therefore S V I * Ve Ie
or S VIe
, which is in the form
j Z
j Z
, which is in the form
S Se j Z P jQ where both real power,
S Se j Z P jQ where the real power, P, is
P, and reactive power, Q, are +ve, and hence

absorbed or consumed.
+ve and consumed but the reactive power, Q, is

now ve, and hence supplied.
This convention is chosen so that inductive loads have a positive (i.e. absorbed) reactive power. Thus inductive
loads are thought of as consuming var (unit of reactive power), whereas capacitors have a negative reactive power and are thought of as supplying var.
Example 9 An industrial load requires 40 kW at 0.84 pf lagging. The load voltage is 2200 V rms at 50 Hz.
The transmission-line impedance is 0.1 + j0.25 . Determine the real and reactive power losses in the line and
the real and reactive power required at the input to the transmission line.
[Ans: PLINE = 4.687 kW, QLINE = 11.72kVAr, PS = 44.69 kW, QS = 37.56 kVAr]
Example 10 The source in Fig. Ex10 supplies 40 kW at a power factor of 0.9 lagging. The real and reactive
losses of the transmission-line feeder are 1.6 kW and 2.1 kVAr, respectively. Find the real and reactive power
absorbed by the load and the load voltage.
[Ans: VL = 416.9 1.62 V, PL = 38.4 kW, QL = 17.27 kVAr]

I
jX
VL
I
Load
VI =4400 V rms
(b)

1.
Calculate I1, I2, I3, and IS in the circuit shown in Fig.Ex2 and hence determine the apparent, S, and average,
P, power delivered by the AC, 11 kHz, voltage source. How may the reactive power, Q, be found directly
from the apparent and reactive power?
[Ans: 4.04 A, 47.7 lag,
7.66 A, 50.3 lead,
IS
4 A 0,
12.0
A,
14.1
lead,
I3
I2
I1
1.44
kVA,
1.39
kW,
20
10
0.35 kVAr leading]
VS = 120 e
j0
30
V
0.318 mH
1.2 F

90
2.
An industrial load consumes 88 kW at a power factor of 0.707 lagging from a 480 V RMS power outlet. A
technician sizes the fuse for the load by assuming that P = V I and hence finds that the fuse keeps blowing.
He therefore seeks advice from the chief engineer. What fuse rating should she advise him to use (round up
to the nearest 100 A), and how might she best explain the problem to the technician? Express the factor by
which the technician's fuse rating must be increased (assuming no rounding) to correctly protect the equipment.
[Ans: 300 A 1.415]
3.
An industrial load consumes 100 kW at a power factor of 0.707 lagging. The 50 Hz AC voltage at the load
is VS = 480e j0 V. The transmission-line (i.e. total cable) resistance between the power-company transformer and the load is 0.1 . Determine the power saving that would be obtained (i.e. reduction in cable power
loss) if the power factor were changed to 0.94 lagging by connecting power-factor correction capacitors
across the load.
[Ans: 3.77 kW]
Appendix
More complete derivation of average power due to sinusoidal waveforms.
The effective value of an AC voltage or current waveform is that DC current or voltage which would produce the
same average power in a resistor. This is best appreciated by finding the effective value of a sine wave current
waveform.
A DC current of I gives the adjacent power loss, and
the equation for power produced by an AC current or
voltage in this form is to be put in this form.
P I 2R
1
P
T
An AC current IM sin t gives average power loss
To simplify the integration, Eq.7 is multiplied by
which simplifies to
1
T
1
2
1
pdt
T
sin t R dt
2
I M sin t
R d t
I M sin t
R d t
I is found by equating Eqs. 6 and 10
1
I 2R
2
Similarly for a periodic voltage
1
2
1
2
(9)
1
2
P
I M sin t d t R
2
(8)
This may be written as
Therefore
(7)
I
0
2
sin t d t R
sin t d t
2
(10)
(11)
RMS value
(12)
2
sin t d t RMS value
(13)
From Eqs.12 and 13, it is confirmed that the effective value of an AC waveform is found by taking the squareroot of the mean (i.e. average), of the square of the current, or voltage. In short, the effective value of periodic
current and voltage AC waveforms corresponds to the root-mean-square value.
91
92

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CT1 BASIC ELECTRIC CIRCUIT VARIABLES AND ELEMENTS

Aims and objectives

Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws.

Equivalent resistances for parallel and series resistor networks.

Resistor circuits which give current and voltage division.

Objectives: At the end of this section you should be able to:

Understand the characteristics of ideal DC source elements.

Enter and simulate a number of basic circuits in OrCAD/Capture and OrCAD/PSPICE

7. Voltage, current, power and energy

(a) Power supplied (reflected source from Fig.1)

(b) Power absorbed (load in Fig.1)

Fig.3 Diagrams showing equivalent current and voltage directions, or polarities.

Fig.Ex2 Circuits for analysis in Example 2.

8. Voltage and current sources

8.2 Current source

8.3 Conservation of energy

9. Resistors and Ohm's law

Fig.5 Circuits to illustrate the use of Ohm's law.

9.2 Resistor power dissipation

Since V = I R, power may also be expressed in two other ways

Earth connection symbol

10. Circuit terms and annotations

10.2 Branch annotations

11. Kirchhoff's laws

Fig.Ex4 Circuit for analysis in Example 4.

I T = I R1+I R 2+I R3 = 10m + 40m + 20m = 70mA

Fig.Ex5 Circuit for analysis in Example 5.

11.2 Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

Example 6 Use Kirchhoff's voltage law to find VR3.

Fig.Ex6 Circuit for analysis in Example 6.

VR3 = 50 VR1 VR2 = 50 30 = 20 V

Fig.Ex7 Circuit for analysis in Example 7.

12. Resistor's connected in series

Fig.8 Circuit with series-connected resistors.

The current flowing in Fig.8 is common to all resistors.

V VR1 VR2 VR3 0

Using branch equations

and substituting for all VRN

Fig.Ex8 Circuit for analysis in Example 8

12.2 Voltage division

Fig.9 Circuit to illustrate voltage division.

Resistor volt drops

Substituting for I gives

13. Resistors connected in parallel

Fig.10 Circuit with parallel-connected resistors

Applying KCL at either node gives

since VR1 VR2 VRN V and I 1 R1 I 2 R2 I N R N V

Fig.Ex9 Circuits for analysis in Example 9.

13.2 Current division

Fig.11 Circuit to illustrate current division.

Dividing by R1 and R2 gives

Fig.Ex10 Equivalent circuit of ammeter and current shunt in Example 10.

Rearrange and put in the values.

CT1 - Tutorial sheet

A bulb rated at 9 V, 5W is to be operated from a 12 V supply using a series-connected resistor. Using a

Find IX in the adjacent circuit using a current division equation.

Aims and objectives

1. Source internal resistance

Thvenin equivalent circuit

There is no voltage drop across R2 since its current is zero; therefore

Using the Thvenin equivalent circuit

Example 1 Find VX in the circuit in Fig.Ex1 using Thvenin's theorem.