The Future
100 years of liquid crystals at Merck
Merck’s researchers developed a
new generation of superfluorinat-
ed liquid crystals for the VA
technology, which enable ex-
tremely short switching times
of 16 milliseconds – and in the
latest devices of only 12 milli-
seconds.
New production plant
for liquid crystals
in Darmstadt –
inauguration in 2004
Thus display manufacturers are
now able, for the first time, to
mass-produce flat, energy-saving,
large LCD television screens. This
was so great a technological ad-
vance that, in November 2003,
Merck’s researchers received the
German Future Prize from the
President of the Federal Republic
of Germany.
The LCD television manufacturers
count on strong growth in the
coming years – a boom, which
will be comparable only to the
mobile telephone boom. In order
to guarantee delivery for liquid
crystals, Merck has invested 250
million euros in new production
facilities at the sites in Germany
(with a capacity of 100 tons per
year, capable of being increased
to 150 tons per year).
While the liquid crystals are pro-
duced predominantly in Germany,
the liquid crystal mixtures are
manufactured directly in the
proximity of the actual customers.
Thus Merck established a new
liquid crystal center in 2002 at
Poseung near Seoul, Korea, and
founded Merck Ltd. in Hong Kong,
which is responsible for the liquid
crystal business in Hong Kong
and China.
In 2004, now 100 years later,
Merck’s situation with its Liquid
Crystals division is ideal. In the
meantime, Merck has secured its
business with more than 2,500
patents for liquid crystals, their
mixtures, and display applica-
tions. With a market share of over
60%, Merck is the global leader
in the liquid crystal market; in
the area of TV applications, Merck
is currently even the dominant
supplier.
The way has been long and some-
times stony, but Merck has man-
aged to get there. This has been
due to its perseverance, compe-
tence, constant technological
leadership, courageous business
decisions, and thanks to many
people with their visions and
imperturbable faith in success, as
well as the close and trusting
cooperation with its customers
for many years.
Would you like to know more? You
will find detailed information
about the success story of liquid
crystals in the book “The history of
the future – 100 years of liquid
crystals at Merck”.
The Company
Pyramid at the main
entrance in Darmstadt
The roots of Merck KGaA reach
back into the 17th century. In
1668, the pharmacist Friedrich
Jacob Merck purchased the Engel-
Apotheke (“Angel Pharmacy”) in
Darmstadt; in 1816, Emanuel
Merck took it over; his scientific
work on highly effective alkaloids
laid the foundation for “large-
scale production” from 1827 on.
Arial view at Merck Darmstadt
From the beginnings in the phar-
macy laboratory evolved a phar-
maceutical-chemical factory.
Right from the outset, the guiding
principle was always the especial-
ly high purity of the preparations.
By intensive research work in the
area of pharmaceuticals and che-
micals, as well as by expansion
and increasing internationaliza-
tion, the economic success of
Merck grew rapidly.
Today Merck KGaA is a globally
operating group, which concen-
trates on pharmaceuticals, special-
ty chemicals, and laboratory pro-
ducts.
The guarantors of success for
Merck are in the year 2003 more
than 34,200 entrepreneurially
minded employees, who are
engaged in application-oriented
research and development, and
who are consistently responsive
to the desires and needs of their
customers.
The company headquarters is in
Darmstadt, Germany. A total of
204 companies operate for Merck
in 53 countries, and production
takes place at 62 locations in
28 countries. Merck KGaA gener-
ates sales of 7.2 billion euros
worldwide, to which the Liquid
Crystals division contributes far
more than 400 million euros.
Merck is the leading manufacturer
of LCD materials worldwide. By
the continuous further develop-
ment of customized liquid crystal
mixtures, Merck – together with
the display manufacturers –
makes tomorrow’s communica-
tion technologies possible.
The current development at Merck
is documented in the Annual Re-
ports and at www.merck.de.
Milestones
1888 The Austrian botanist Friedrich Reinitzer
discovered the liquid crystalline properties
of cholesteryl benzoate
1889 The German physicist Otto Lehmann
described their physical properties and
defines them as a new state of aggrega-
tion in his publication “On flowing
crystals”
1904 At the incentive of Otto Lehmann, Merck
offered the first liquid crystals for research
purposes in its price list “Substances
with liquid crystalline properties”
1966 Cholesteric liquid crystals were employed
as temperature indicators, in thermogra-
phy and medicine, later also in fashion
items and cosmetics
1968 Dynamic scattering (George Heilmeier
et. al., RCA, United States)
1968 Merck began research on nematic liquid
crystals
1971 The twisted nematic cell (TN cell) was
invented by Schadt and Helfrich (Swit-
zerland) and Fergason (United States)
1972 George Gray (University of Hull,
England) developed cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls: BDH Chemicals Ltd. (today
Merck) and Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.
marketed them
1976 Merck patented phenylcyclohexanes
(PCHs), biphenylcyclohexanes (BCHs)
and cyclohexylbiphenylcyclohexanes
(CBCs)
1979 Cyclohexylcyclohexanes (CCHs) intro-
duced by Merck
1980 Merck developed the “Viewing Independ-
ent Panel” (VIP display), the basis of all
active matrix flat panel LCDs
1980 Merck constructed an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystals in Atsugi, Japan
1985 The extensive liquid crystal patent port-
folios of Brown Boveri & Cie. (BBC) was
purchased by Merck
1989 Merck constructed an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystals in Seoul, Korea
1993 Joint venture between Merck and Balzers
for the production of ITO glass; construc-
tion of a fully automated coating plant
in Taiwan (since 1997, a wholly owned
Merck subsidiary: “Merck Display Tech-
nologies Ltd.”)
1995 Merck and Hitachi Ltd. cooperated in
the development of In Plane Switching
(IPS), a new technology for LCD monitors
based on a patent filed in 1990 by the
Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Solid-
State Physics in Freiburg, Germany. This
patent was acquired by Merck in 1994
1995 Merck sold its patents on ferroelectric
liquid crystals to Hoechst
1996 An applications laboratory for liquid
crystals constructed by Merck in Taiwan
1996 Merck took over the nematics business
of Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.
1997 Together with Fujitsu Ltd., Merck devel-
oped an LCD video monitor based on
Vertical Alignment (VA) technology
1998 The production capacity for ITO glass
was expanded in Taiwan
2002 Merck Ltd. was established in Hong Kong,
responsible for the liquid crystal business
in Hong Kong and China
2002 A third ITO coating line was installed
for color STN displays and OLEDs
2003 The German Future Prize was awarded
by the President of the Federal Republic
of Germany to Merck for the liquid
crystal technology that makes flat tele-
visions possible
2004 Inauguration of the new production plant
for liquid crystals in Darmstadt, with an
The history
initial annual capacity of 100 tons. The
investment totals approximately 250
million euros at the Darmstadt and Gerns-
of the future
heim locations
März 2004
Merck KGaA
Corporate Communications
E-Mail: history@merck.de
W 840.414
D-64271 Darmstadt
www.merck.de

Liquid Crystals
Unpolarized
White Light
TFT
Orientation Film
Orientation Film
ITO Layer
Color Filter
Structure of a TFT-
addressed TN cell, visit
www.liquidcrystals.merck.de
The topic of liquid crystals is one
of Merck’s greatest success sto-
ries. The development of liquid
crystals by Merck shows persua-
sively how a large economic suc-
cess can evolve from a pure re-
search topic: Today, liquid crystal
information displays enhance the
quality of people’s life worldwide.
Polarizer
Glass Substrate
ITO Layer
Liquid Crystal
Glass Substrate
Polarizer
The secret of mobile telephones,
flat PC monitors or super-flat TV
screens is based on liquid crystal
technology – that is, on the spe-
cial properties of specifically syn-
thesized molecules.
Only organic molecules which
typically are elongated and which
have a separation of electric
charges (dipole) within the mo-
lecule can be liquid crystalline.
These give rise to a physical char-
acteristic that is the basis for their
name: With such compounds, a
further state of aggregation exists
between the liquid and solid
states, namely the liquid crystal-
line state.
Thus, at first sight, liquid crystals
(in the nematic phase) behave
like a liquid that, however, has
physical properties resembling
some solids (anisotropy). Exactly
this combination of characteristics
is the formula for success of elec-
tro-optical display systems: liquid
crystal displays (LCDs).
LCDs are used in mobile tele-
phones, personal digital assistants
(PDAs), clocks, and electronic
games. In addition, liquid crystal
displays are to be found in note-
books, PC screens, and many in-
dustrial manufacturing control
units. Increasingly, they are re-
placing bulky cathode ray tubes
because of their characteristics
(lightweight, energy efficient and
radiation free). This is so not only
in the area of PC monitors but
also television sets.
The starting point for liquid crys-
tals was 116 years ago – and
Merck participated almost from
the outset – now for exactly
100 years.
|1888 –1935 |
Beginnings
During his investigations of plant
constituents the Austrian botanist
Friedrich Reinitzer encountered
a strange phenomenon: Choles-
teryl benzoate did not change at
145.5° C into a clear liquid, but
first into a cloudy fluid. And only
with further heating up to 178.5°C
did final transition to the clear
liquid occur. The substance had
two melting points!
Reinitzer could not let this prob-
lem rest. In March 1888, he
turned to the German physicist
Otto Lehmann. Only a year later,
in 1889, Otto Lehmann gathered
from this fact the revolutionary
concept that these “phenomena”
disclosed a new, not previously
described, state of matter. He
introduced the name “liquid
crystals”.
This was a sensation leading to
violent protests in the scientific
world, for this new state of matter
did not match prevailing scientific
knowledge. Up to this time it was
held that there are three physical
states of aggregation: solid, liquid
and gas – with clearly defined
transitions.
Chemical preparations
of Merck with liquid
crystalline properties
First of all, Gustav Tammann
railed against Lehmann, but also
other renowned scientists such
as Walter Nernst and Georg
Quincke.
To clarify the question regarding
the new state of “liquid crystals”,
Lehmannn turned to guidance
from the company E. Merck in
Darmstadt.
He asked Merck for support, be-
cause: “My work in the area of
liquid crystals […] also among
the experts in this field [remains]
misunderstood and unknown.
Nobody is able to procure the
necessary materials and instru-
ments”. Lehmann saw from the
1904 price list that Merck already
offered substances with liquid
crystalline properties in high pu-
rity: methylammonium, dimethyl-
ammonium and trimethylammo-
nium oleate or Acidum oleinicum
purissimum.
Merck immediately declared itself
willing to help Lehmann with the
comment: “The endeavor of my
company is always to support
scientific research in every pos-
sible way”.
Starting around the 1920s,
Lehmann’s liquid crystals were –
thanks to the highly pure
substances supplied by Merck –
accepted universally in the scien-
tific community.
Starting in the mid-1930s the
interest in liquid crystals slowly
lapsed. No possible technical ap-
plications were seen for liquid
crystals – and it was also scien-
tifically believed that all substan-
tial problems in this area had
been investigated. And so began
a rather long Sleeping Beauty
slumber for liquid crystals.
| 1960s |
Renaissance
At the end of 1966, Merck’s at-
tention was drawn back to the
topic of liquid crystals by a sci-
entific paper in which the Amer-
ican scientist James Fergason
discussed his ideas concerning
possible technical uses of liquid
crystals. Merck decided immedi-
ately to concern itself with this
again. Thus, at the end of 1966,
the renaissance of work on liquid
crystals at Merck began. The Sleep-
ing Beauty slumber had ended.
The impulses for the resumption
of the work in this area thus came
from the United States at the end
of the 1960s. Here various possi-
ble applications for cholesteric
liquid crystals were developed,
for analytical measuring technol-
ogy, for non-destructive materials
testing, and as a diagnostics tool.
Temperature profile of a
surface, visualized by cho-
lesteric liquid crystals
James Fergason of Westinghouse
Corp., Pittsburgh, and also George
Heilmeier at the Radio Corpora-
tion of America, were working
with their teams also on possible
applications of nematic liquid
crystals. In 1968, Heilmeier pre-
sented to the professional world
a liquid crystal display. That was
a genuine breakthrough, although
this display did need an operating
temperature of about 80° C.
The scientific community was
greatly impressed. Therefore, in
1968, Merck dispatched a chemist
to the “Second International Liq-
uid Crystal Conference” at Kent
State University, Kent, United
States. When he returned, he re-
ported that the liquid crystals
domain did not look like a losing
proposition from either a scientific
or a technical perspective.
Temperature distri-
bution in a column,
made visible by chol-
esteric liquid crystals
At this conference the dream of
the flat television, which one can
hang like a picture on the wall,
was born.
In parallel to research on choles-
teric liquid crystals, Merck also
investigated the area of nematic
liquid crystals. New nematics
were synthesized and examined
for technical applicability in dis-
plays.
By the end of the 1960s, already
six scientists at Merck were en-
gaged with liquid crystals. In
the 1969 Merck annual report,
liquid crystals were referred to
for the first time under their brand
name: Licristal®.
| 1970s |
Breakthrough
In the early 1970s, the main con-
cern of the liquid crystal chemists
was lowering the operating tem-
perature of liquid crystal displays.
The experts were searching for
new chemical substances with
liquid crystalline properties at
room temperature.
In 1969, Hans Kelker at Hoechst
in Frankfurt, Germany, synthe-
sized MBBA (p-methyloxybenzy-
lidene-p’-butyloxyaniline), which
was replaced in 1970 by symme-
trically substituted phenylbenzo-
ates (from the University of Halle,
Germany) and in 1971 also by
asymmetrically substituted phe-
nylbenzoates (the “Merck esters”).
In addition, Merck manufactured
azoxy compounds, which also
had more favorable properties
than MBBA did. The first com-
pound of this type, p-methoxy-
p’-n-butylazoxybenzene (“nema-
tic phase IV”), was presented
by Merck initially at ACHEMA
in 1970.
A real breakthrough came in
1971, when James Fergason, at
that time at Kent State University
in the United States, as well as
Martin Schadt and Werner Helf-
rich in Switzerland, almost simul-
taneously had developed a new
type of cell, the twisted nematic
cell (TN cell).
In 1973, George W. Gray, profes-
sor at the University of Hull, Great
Britain, published his works on
substituted cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls – substances, which
have a nematic phase stable at
room temperature and are parti-
cularly well suited for use in TN
cells. Professor Gray’s biphenyls
were marketed successfully by
BDH Chemicals Ltd. (British Drug
House) in Poole, Great Britain –
an enterprise that Merck had
bought slightly earlier (in 1972).
The breakthrough for Merck: In
1976, Dr. Rudolf Eidenschink suc-
ceeded in the synthesis of phe-
nylcyclohexanes (PCHs) and, in
1978, Eidenschink et al. filed a
Digital clock with “liquid
figures” constructed by
Merck in 1972
patent for the cyclohexylcyclo-
hexanes (CCHs). Both classes of
substances impressed by their
improved switching times, greater
stability, and better optical display
characteristics.
By the end of the 1970s, Merck
was well established in the do-
main of liquid crystals. The hard
won competence that Merck had
gained in chemical, physical and
applications technologies was
crucial here. Also with the licenses
for the cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls of the subsidiary BDH
Ltd. as well as with the patents
for PCHs and CCHs Merck had
the key compounds in its hand.
| 1980s |
Localization
In the 1980s, the electronic in-
dustry developed their displays
and technology ever faster, so
they always required new and
more effective liquid crystal mix-
tures. Due to their advantages –
low energy consumption, light
weight and freedom from radia-
tion – LCDs now displaced other
flat screen technologies such as
light emitting diodes (LED) or
vacuum fluorescence displays
(VFDs), and gradually also the
conventional cathode ray tube
displays.
Dr. Scheuble, head of
central analytical labo-
ratory of physics with
Dr. Fries, head of central
analytical laboratory,
Dr. Allan, EM Industries
and Mr. Kawamoto,
Merck Japan
More and more demands were
placed on Merck by its customers.
Consequently, Merck intensified
its own efforts and expanded its
research team, while also entering
into numerous co-operations –
some of which still exist today –
with universities and research
institutes. Merck also licensed or
acquired patents of other liquid
crystal manufacturers, such as,
for example, in 1985 the complete
patent portfolio on liquid crystals
from Brown Boveri & Cie. (BBC),
Baden, Switzerland.
A concentration process was also
now underway, with a clear sep-
aration between major liquid
crystal manufacturers and major
display producers. Several thou-
sand inconvenient kilometers lay
between them since the ones were
in Europe and the others in Asia.
That was not a good basis for a
close cooperation.
Therefore, already in 1980, Merck
established an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystal mixtures
in Atsugi, Japan.
In the 1980s, within the Merck
Group, E. Merck in Darmstadt,
Germany, and BDH Ltd., Great
Britain, were involved with re-
search, development and produc-
tion of liquid crystals, while tech-
nical applications laboratories
were located in Atsugi, Japan, as
well as briefly also in Hawthorne,
United States. As the Korean dis-
play industry became ever larger
and more important, Merck also
reacted there immediately and
early: Already in 1989, Merck
opened an applications laboratory
for liquid crystal mixtures locally:
in Seoul, Korea.
In 1984, the liquid crystal activ-
ities at Merck were all combined
within one unit. Already in 1988,
the Industrial Chemicals division
generated sales of 218 million
Swiss francs – more than 20%
coming from liquid crystals.
First LCD
“television“,
in black and
white and in
color
| 1990s |
Success
Plant for coating of
display glass for TN-
and STN-Displays
The 1990s still had some record
sales figures to offer yet: In 1994,
Merck’s liquid crystals passed the
then deemed unattainable sales
milestone of 100 million deutsch-
marks. In 1997, the boom in note-
books and mobile telephones
brought an increase in sales of
around 65%. In 1999, Merck re-
corded a sales increase of 60%
due to the global boom in the
communication industry as well
as the boom in mobile telephones
furnished with STN displays.
Merck changed in the 1990s from In 1996, Merck opened a new
the pure liquid crystal supplier applications laboratory for liquid
to the supplier of components for crystal mixtures in Taiwan.
the display industry also (vertical
integration). In 1997, Merck and Fujitsu Ltd.
jointly developed an LCD video
In 1993, Merck and Balzers Hold- monitor based on Vertical Align-
ing Zürich, Switzerland, agreed ment (VA) technology, which is
upon a 50/50 joint venture, for used to produce particularly large
cooperation in the production displays as, for example, monitors
and sale of transparent conductive for Computer Aided Design (CAD)
layers (ITO glass). In 1997, Merck or television screens. The 1999
took over Balzers’ share, so that annual report stated: “Merck, with
ITO glass production now became a share of approximately 60%,
a 100% Merck subsidiary. “Merck is market leader in the area of
Display Technologies, Ltd., MDT” liquid crystals”.
concentrated its business in Tai-
wan, where a second production
line went into operation already
in 1998.
In 1995, Merck cooperated with
Hitachi Ltd. in the development
of a new kind of display technol-
ogy that substantially improves
the readability of liquid crystal
displays. A patent for this so-
called In Plane Switching (IPS)
had already been filed in 1990
by the Fraunhofer Institute for
Applied Solid-State Physics in
Freiburg, Germany. Merck ac- Liquid crystal
quired this patent in 1994. production
In 1995, Merck sold its patents
on ferroelectric liquid crystals
to Hoechst, Frankfurt, Germany.
In 1996, Merck took over the
nematics business from Hoff-
mann-La Roche, Switzerland.

Liquid Crystals
Unpolarized
White Light
TFT
Orientation Film
Orientation Film
ITO Layer
Color Filter
Structure of a TFT-
addressed TN cell, visit
www.liquidcrystals.merck.de
The topic of liquid crystals is one
of Merck’s greatest success sto-
ries. The development of liquid
crystals by Merck shows persua-
sively how a large economic suc-
cess can evolve from a pure re-
search topic: Today, liquid crystal
information displays enhance the
quality of people’s life worldwide.
Polarizer
Glass Substrate
ITO Layer
Liquid Crystal
Glass Substrate
Polarizer
The secret of mobile telephones,
flat PC monitors or super-flat TV
screens is based on liquid crystal
technology – that is, on the spe-
cial properties of specifically syn-
thesized molecules.
Only organic molecules which
typically are elongated and which
have a separation of electric
charges (dipole) within the mo-
lecule can be liquid crystalline.
These give rise to a physical char-
acteristic that is the basis for their
name: With such compounds, a
further state of aggregation exists
between the liquid and solid
states, namely the liquid crystal-
line state.
Thus, at first sight, liquid crystals
(in the nematic phase) behave
like a liquid that, however, has
physical properties resembling
some solids (anisotropy). Exactly
this combination of characteristics
is the formula for success of elec-
tro-optical display systems: liquid
crystal displays (LCDs).
LCDs are used in mobile tele-
phones, personal digital assistants
(PDAs), clocks, and electronic
games. In addition, liquid crystal
displays are to be found in note-
books, PC screens, and many in-
dustrial manufacturing control
units. Increasingly, they are re-
placing bulky cathode ray tubes
because of their characteristics
(lightweight, energy efficient and
radiation free). This is so not only
in the area of PC monitors but
also television sets.
The starting point for liquid crys-
tals was 116 years ago – and
Merck participated almost from
the outset – now for exactly
100 years.
|1888 –1935 |
Beginnings
During his investigations of plant
constituents the Austrian botanist
Friedrich Reinitzer encountered
a strange phenomenon: Choles-
teryl benzoate did not change at
145.5° C into a clear liquid, but
first into a cloudy fluid. And only
with further heating up to 178.5°C
did final transition to the clear
liquid occur. The substance had
two melting points!
Reinitzer could not let this prob-
lem rest. In March 1888, he
turned to the German physicist
Otto Lehmann. Only a year later,
in 1889, Otto Lehmann gathered
from this fact the revolutionary
concept that these “phenomena”
disclosed a new, not previously
described, state of matter. He
introduced the name “liquid
crystals”.
This was a sensation leading to
violent protests in the scientific
world, for this new state of matter
did not match prevailing scientific
knowledge. Up to this time it was
held that there are three physical
states of aggregation: solid, liquid
and gas – with clearly defined
transitions.
Chemical preparations
of Merck with liquid
crystalline properties
First of all, Gustav Tammann
railed against Lehmann, but also
other renowned scientists such
as Walter Nernst and Georg
Quincke.
To clarify the question regarding
the new state of “liquid crystals”,
Lehmannn turned to guidance
from the company E. Merck in
Darmstadt.
He asked Merck for support, be-
cause: “My work in the area of
liquid crystals […] also among
the experts in this field [remains]
misunderstood and unknown.
Nobody is able to procure the
necessary materials and instru-
ments”. Lehmann saw from the
1904 price list that Merck already
offered substances with liquid
crystalline properties in high pu-
rity: methylammonium, dimethyl-
ammonium and trimethylammo-
nium oleate or Acidum oleinicum
purissimum.
Merck immediately declared itself
willing to help Lehmann with the
comment: “The endeavor of my
company is always to support
scientific research in every pos-
sible way”.
Starting around the 1920s,
Lehmann’s liquid crystals were –
thanks to the highly pure
substances supplied by Merck –
accepted universally in the scien-
tific community.
Starting in the mid-1930s the
interest in liquid crystals slowly
lapsed. No possible technical ap-
plications were seen for liquid
crystals – and it was also scien-
tifically believed that all substan-
tial problems in this area had
been investigated. And so began
a rather long Sleeping Beauty
slumber for liquid crystals.
| 1960s |
Renaissance
At the end of 1966, Merck’s at-
tention was drawn back to the
topic of liquid crystals by a sci-
entific paper in which the Amer-
ican scientist James Fergason
discussed his ideas concerning
possible technical uses of liquid
crystals. Merck decided immedi-
ately to concern itself with this
again. Thus, at the end of 1966,
the renaissance of work on liquid
crystals at Merck began. The Sleep-
ing Beauty slumber had ended.
The impulses for the resumption
of the work in this area thus came
from the United States at the end
of the 1960s. Here various possi-
ble applications for cholesteric
liquid crystals were developed,
for analytical measuring technol-
ogy, for non-destructive materials
testing, and as a diagnostics tool.
Temperature profile of a
surface, visualized by cho-
lesteric liquid crystals
James Fergason of Westinghouse
Corp., Pittsburgh, and also George
Heilmeier at the Radio Corpora-
tion of America, were working
with their teams also on possible
applications of nematic liquid
crystals. In 1968, Heilmeier pre-
sented to the professional world
a liquid crystal display. That was
a genuine breakthrough, although
this display did need an operating
temperature of about 80° C.
The scientific community was
greatly impressed. Therefore, in
1968, Merck dispatched a chemist
to the “Second International Liq-
uid Crystal Conference” at Kent
State University, Kent, United
States. When he returned, he re-
ported that the liquid crystals
domain did not look like a losing
proposition from either a scientific
or a technical perspective.
Temperature distri-
bution in a column,
made visible by chol-
esteric liquid crystals
At this conference the dream of
the flat television, which one can
hang like a picture on the wall,
was born.
In parallel to research on choles-
teric liquid crystals, Merck also
investigated the area of nematic
liquid crystals. New nematics
were synthesized and examined
for technical applicability in dis-
plays.
By the end of the 1960s, already
six scientists at Merck were en-
gaged with liquid crystals. In
the 1969 Merck annual report,
liquid crystals were referred to
for the first time under their brand
name: Licristal®.
| 1970s |
Breakthrough
In the early 1970s, the main con-
cern of the liquid crystal chemists
was lowering the operating tem-
perature of liquid crystal displays.
The experts were searching for
new chemical substances with
liquid crystalline properties at
room temperature.
In 1969, Hans Kelker at Hoechst
in Frankfurt, Germany, synthe-
sized MBBA (p-methyloxybenzy-
lidene-p’-butyloxyaniline), which
was replaced in 1970 by symme-
trically substituted phenylbenzo-
ates (from the University of Halle,
Germany) and in 1971 also by
asymmetrically substituted phe-
nylbenzoates (the “Merck esters”).
In addition, Merck manufactured
azoxy compounds, which also
had more favorable properties
than MBBA did. The first com-
pound of this type, p-methoxy-
p’-n-butylazoxybenzene (“nema-
tic phase IV”), was presented
by Merck initially at ACHEMA
in 1970.
A real breakthrough came in
1971, when James Fergason, at
that time at Kent State University
in the United States, as well as
Martin Schadt and Werner Helf-
rich in Switzerland, almost simul-
taneously had developed a new
type of cell, the twisted nematic
cell (TN cell).
In 1973, George W. Gray, profes-
sor at the University of Hull, Great
Britain, published his works on
substituted cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls – substances, which
have a nematic phase stable at
room temperature and are parti-
cularly well suited for use in TN
cells. Professor Gray’s biphenyls
were marketed successfully by
BDH Chemicals Ltd. (British Drug
House) in Poole, Great Britain –
an enterprise that Merck had
bought slightly earlier (in 1972).
The breakthrough for Merck: In
1976, Dr. Rudolf Eidenschink suc-
ceeded in the synthesis of phe-
nylcyclohexanes (PCHs) and, in
1978, Eidenschink et al. filed a
Digital clock with “liquid
figures” constructed by
Merck in 1972
patent for the cyclohexylcyclo-
hexanes (CCHs). Both classes of
substances impressed by their
improved switching times, greater
stability, and better optical display
characteristics.
By the end of the 1970s, Merck
was well established in the do-
main of liquid crystals. The hard
won competence that Merck had
gained in chemical, physical and
applications technologies was
crucial here. Also with the licenses
for the cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls of the subsidiary BDH
Ltd. as well as with the patents
for PCHs and CCHs Merck had
the key compounds in its hand.
| 1980s |
Localization
In the 1980s, the electronic in-
dustry developed their displays
and technology ever faster, so
they always required new and
more effective liquid crystal mix-
tures. Due to their advantages –
low energy consumption, light
weight and freedom from radia-
tion – LCDs now displaced other
flat screen technologies such as
light emitting diodes (LED) or
vacuum fluorescence displays
(VFDs), and gradually also the
conventional cathode ray tube
displays.
Dr. Scheuble, head of
central analytical labo-
ratory of physics with
Dr. Fries, head of central
analytical laboratory,
Dr. Allan, EM Industries
and Mr. Kawamoto,
Merck Japan
More and more demands were
placed on Merck by its customers.
Consequently, Merck intensified
its own efforts and expanded its
research team, while also entering
into numerous co-operations –
some of which still exist today –
with universities and research
institutes. Merck also licensed or
acquired patents of other liquid
crystal manufacturers, such as,
for example, in 1985 the complete
patent portfolio on liquid crystals
from Brown Boveri & Cie. (BBC),
Baden, Switzerland.
A concentration process was also
now underway, with a clear sep-
aration between major liquid
crystal manufacturers and major
display producers. Several thou-
sand inconvenient kilometers lay
between them since the ones were
in Europe and the others in Asia.
That was not a good basis for a
close cooperation.
Therefore, already in 1980, Merck
established an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystal mixtures
in Atsugi, Japan.
In the 1980s, within the Merck
Group, E. Merck in Darmstadt,
Germany, and BDH Ltd., Great
Britain, were involved with re-
search, development and produc-
tion of liquid crystals, while tech-
nical applications laboratories
were located in Atsugi, Japan, as
well as briefly also in Hawthorne,
United States. As the Korean dis-
play industry became ever larger
and more important, Merck also
reacted there immediately and
early: Already in 1989, Merck
opened an applications laboratory
for liquid crystal mixtures locally:
in Seoul, Korea.
In 1984, the liquid crystal activ-
ities at Merck were all combined
within one unit. Already in 1988,
the Industrial Chemicals division
generated sales of 218 million
Swiss francs – more than 20%
coming from liquid crystals.
First LCD
“television“,
in black and
white and in
color
| 1990s |
Success
Plant for coating of
display glass for TN-
and STN-Displays
The 1990s still had some record
sales figures to offer yet: In 1994,
Merck’s liquid crystals passed the
then deemed unattainable sales
milestone of 100 million deutsch-
marks. In 1997, the boom in note-
books and mobile telephones
brought an increase in sales of
around 65%. In 1999, Merck re-
corded a sales increase of 60%
due to the global boom in the
communication industry as well
as the boom in mobile telephones
furnished with STN displays.
Merck changed in the 1990s from In 1996, Merck opened a new
the pure liquid crystal supplier applications laboratory for liquid
to the supplier of components for crystal mixtures in Taiwan.
the display industry also (vertical
integration). In 1997, Merck and Fujitsu Ltd.
jointly developed an LCD video
In 1993, Merck and Balzers Hold- monitor based on Vertical Align-
ing Zürich, Switzerland, agreed ment (VA) technology, which is
upon a 50/50 joint venture, for used to produce particularly large
cooperation in the production displays as, for example, monitors
and sale of transparent conductive for Computer Aided Design (CAD)
layers (ITO glass). In 1997, Merck or television screens. The 1999
took over Balzers’ share, so that annual report stated: “Merck, with
ITO glass production now became a share of approximately 60%,
a 100% Merck subsidiary. “Merck is market leader in the area of
Display Technologies, Ltd., MDT” liquid crystals”.
concentrated its business in Tai-
wan, where a second production
line went into operation already
in 1998.
In 1995, Merck cooperated with
Hitachi Ltd. in the development
of a new kind of display technol-
ogy that substantially improves
the readability of liquid crystal
displays. A patent for this so-
called In Plane Switching (IPS)
had already been filed in 1990
by the Fraunhofer Institute for
Applied Solid-State Physics in
Freiburg, Germany. Merck ac- Liquid crystal
quired this patent in 1994. production
In 1995, Merck sold its patents
on ferroelectric liquid crystals
to Hoechst, Frankfurt, Germany.
In 1996, Merck took over the
nematics business from Hoff-
mann-La Roche, Switzerland.

Liquid Crystals
Unpolarized
White Light
TFT
Orientation Film
Orientation Film
ITO Layer
Color Filter
Structure of a TFT-
addressed TN cell, visit
www.liquidcrystals.merck.de
The topic of liquid crystals is one
of Merck’s greatest success sto-
ries. The development of liquid
crystals by Merck shows persua-
sively how a large economic suc-
cess can evolve from a pure re-
search topic: Today, liquid crystal
information displays enhance the
quality of people’s life worldwide.
Polarizer
Glass Substrate
ITO Layer
Liquid Crystal
Glass Substrate
Polarizer
The secret of mobile telephones,
flat PC monitors or super-flat TV
screens is based on liquid crystal
technology – that is, on the spe-
cial properties of specifically syn-
thesized molecules.
Only organic molecules which
typically are elongated and which
have a separation of electric
charges (dipole) within the mo-
lecule can be liquid crystalline.
These give rise to a physical char-
acteristic that is the basis for their
name: With such compounds, a
further state of aggregation exists
between the liquid and solid
states, namely the liquid crystal-
line state.
Thus, at first sight, liquid crystals
(in the nematic phase) behave
like a liquid that, however, has
physical properties resembling
some solids (anisotropy). Exactly
this combination of characteristics
is the formula for success of elec-
tro-optical display systems: liquid
crystal displays (LCDs).
LCDs are used in mobile tele-
phones, personal digital assistants
(PDAs), clocks, and electronic
games. In addition, liquid crystal
displays are to be found in note-
books, PC screens, and many in-
dustrial manufacturing control
units. Increasingly, they are re-
placing bulky cathode ray tubes
because of their characteristics
(lightweight, energy efficient and
radiation free). This is so not only
in the area of PC monitors but
also television sets.
The starting point for liquid crys-
tals was 116 years ago – and
Merck participated almost from
the outset – now for exactly
100 years.
|1888 –1935 |
Beginnings
During his investigations of plant
constituents the Austrian botanist
Friedrich Reinitzer encountered
a strange phenomenon: Choles-
teryl benzoate did not change at
145.5° C into a clear liquid, but
first into a cloudy fluid. And only
with further heating up to 178.5°C
did final transition to the clear
liquid occur. The substance had
two melting points!
Reinitzer could not let this prob-
lem rest. In March 1888, he
turned to the German physicist
Otto Lehmann. Only a year later,
in 1889, Otto Lehmann gathered
from this fact the revolutionary
concept that these “phenomena”
disclosed a new, not previously
described, state of matter. He
introduced the name “liquid
crystals”.
This was a sensation leading to
violent protests in the scientific
world, for this new state of matter
did not match prevailing scientific
knowledge. Up to this time it was
held that there are three physical
states of aggregation: solid, liquid
and gas – with clearly defined
transitions.
Chemical preparations
of Merck with liquid
crystalline properties
First of all, Gustav Tammann
railed against Lehmann, but also
other renowned scientists such
as Walter Nernst and Georg
Quincke.
To clarify the question regarding
the new state of “liquid crystals”,
Lehmannn turned to guidance
from the company E. Merck in
Darmstadt.
He asked Merck for support, be-
cause: “My work in the area of
liquid crystals […] also among
the experts in this field [remains]
misunderstood and unknown.
Nobody is able to procure the
necessary materials and instru-
ments”. Lehmann saw from the
1904 price list that Merck already
offered substances with liquid
crystalline properties in high pu-
rity: methylammonium, dimethyl-
ammonium and trimethylammo-
nium oleate or Acidum oleinicum
purissimum.
Merck immediately declared itself
willing to help Lehmann with the
comment: “The endeavor of my
company is always to support
scientific research in every pos-
sible way”.
Starting around the 1920s,
Lehmann’s liquid crystals were –
thanks to the highly pure
substances supplied by Merck –
accepted universally in the scien-
tific community.
Starting in the mid-1930s the
interest in liquid crystals slowly
lapsed. No possible technical ap-
plications were seen for liquid
crystals – and it was also scien-
tifically believed that all substan-
tial problems in this area had
been investigated. And so began
a rather long Sleeping Beauty
slumber for liquid crystals.
| 1960s |
Renaissance
At the end of 1966, Merck’s at-
tention was drawn back to the
topic of liquid crystals by a sci-
entific paper in which the Amer-
ican scientist James Fergason
discussed his ideas concerning
possible technical uses of liquid
crystals. Merck decided immedi-
ately to concern itself with this
again. Thus, at the end of 1966,
the renaissance of work on liquid
crystals at Merck began. The Sleep-
ing Beauty slumber had ended.
The impulses for the resumption
of the work in this area thus came
from the United States at the end
of the 1960s. Here various possi-
ble applications for cholesteric
liquid crystals were developed,
for analytical measuring technol-
ogy, for non-destructive materials
testing, and as a diagnostics tool.
Temperature profile of a
surface, visualized by cho-
lesteric liquid crystals
James Fergason of Westinghouse
Corp., Pittsburgh, and also George
Heilmeier at the Radio Corpora-
tion of America, were working
with their teams also on possible
applications of nematic liquid
crystals. In 1968, Heilmeier pre-
sented to the professional world
a liquid crystal display. That was
a genuine breakthrough, although
this display did need an operating
temperature of about 80° C.
The scientific community was
greatly impressed. Therefore, in
1968, Merck dispatched a chemist
to the “Second International Liq-
uid Crystal Conference” at Kent
State University, Kent, United
States. When he returned, he re-
ported that the liquid crystals
domain did not look like a losing
proposition from either a scientific
or a technical perspective.
Temperature distri-
bution in a column,
made visible by chol-
esteric liquid crystals
At this conference the dream of
the flat television, which one can
hang like a picture on the wall,
was born.
In parallel to research on choles-
teric liquid crystals, Merck also
investigated the area of nematic
liquid crystals. New nematics
were synthesized and examined
for technical applicability in dis-
plays.
By the end of the 1960s, already
six scientists at Merck were en-
gaged with liquid crystals. In
the 1969 Merck annual report,
liquid crystals were referred to
for the first time under their brand
name: Licristal®.
| 1970s |
Breakthrough
In the early 1970s, the main con-
cern of the liquid crystal chemists
was lowering the operating tem-
perature of liquid crystal displays.
The experts were searching for
new chemical substances with
liquid crystalline properties at
room temperature.
In 1969, Hans Kelker at Hoechst
in Frankfurt, Germany, synthe-
sized MBBA (p-methyloxybenzy-
lidene-p’-butyloxyaniline), which
was replaced in 1970 by symme-
trically substituted phenylbenzo-
ates (from the University of Halle,
Germany) and in 1971 also by
asymmetrically substituted phe-
nylbenzoates (the “Merck esters”).
In addition, Merck manufactured
azoxy compounds, which also
had more favorable properties
than MBBA did. The first com-
pound of this type, p-methoxy-
p’-n-butylazoxybenzene (“nema-
tic phase IV”), was presented
by Merck initially at ACHEMA
in 1970.
A real breakthrough came in
1971, when James Fergason, at
that time at Kent State University
in the United States, as well as
Martin Schadt and Werner Helf-
rich in Switzerland, almost simul-
taneously had developed a new
type of cell, the twisted nematic
cell (TN cell).
In 1973, George W. Gray, profes-
sor at the University of Hull, Great
Britain, published his works on
substituted cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls – substances, which
have a nematic phase stable at
room temperature and are parti-
cularly well suited for use in TN
cells. Professor Gray’s biphenyls
were marketed successfully by
BDH Chemicals Ltd. (British Drug
House) in Poole, Great Britain –
an enterprise that Merck had
bought slightly earlier (in 1972).
The breakthrough for Merck: In
1976, Dr. Rudolf Eidenschink suc-
ceeded in the synthesis of phe-
nylcyclohexanes (PCHs) and, in
1978, Eidenschink et al. filed a
Digital clock with “liquid
figures” constructed by
Merck in 1972
patent for the cyclohexylcyclo-
hexanes (CCHs). Both classes of
substances impressed by their
improved switching times, greater
stability, and better optical display
characteristics.
By the end of the 1970s, Merck
was well established in the do-
main of liquid crystals. The hard
won competence that Merck had
gained in chemical, physical and
applications technologies was
crucial here. Also with the licenses
for the cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls of the subsidiary BDH
Ltd. as well as with the patents
for PCHs and CCHs Merck had
the key compounds in its hand.
| 1980s |
Localization
In the 1980s, the electronic in-
dustry developed their displays
and technology ever faster, so
they always required new and
more effective liquid crystal mix-
tures. Due to their advantages –
low energy consumption, light
weight and freedom from radia-
tion – LCDs now displaced other
flat screen technologies such as
light emitting diodes (LED) or
vacuum fluorescence displays
(VFDs), and gradually also the
conventional cathode ray tube
displays.
Dr. Scheuble, head of
central analytical labo-
ratory of physics with
Dr. Fries, head of central
analytical laboratory,
Dr. Allan, EM Industries
and Mr. Kawamoto,
Merck Japan
More and more demands were
placed on Merck by its customers.
Consequently, Merck intensified
its own efforts and expanded its
research team, while also entering
into numerous co-operations –
some of which still exist today –
with universities and research
institutes. Merck also licensed or
acquired patents of other liquid
crystal manufacturers, such as,
for example, in 1985 the complete
patent portfolio on liquid crystals
from Brown Boveri & Cie. (BBC),
Baden, Switzerland.
A concentration process was also
now underway, with a clear sep-
aration between major liquid
crystal manufacturers and major
display producers. Several thou-
sand inconvenient kilometers lay
between them since the ones were
in Europe and the others in Asia.
That was not a good basis for a
close cooperation.
Therefore, already in 1980, Merck
established an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystal mixtures
in Atsugi, Japan.
In the 1980s, within the Merck
Group, E. Merck in Darmstadt,
Germany, and BDH Ltd., Great
Britain, were involved with re-
search, development and produc-
tion of liquid crystals, while tech-
nical applications laboratories
were located in Atsugi, Japan, as
well as briefly also in Hawthorne,
United States. As the Korean dis-
play industry became ever larger
and more important, Merck also
reacted there immediately and
early: Already in 1989, Merck
opened an applications laboratory
for liquid crystal mixtures locally:
in Seoul, Korea.
In 1984, the liquid crystal activ-
ities at Merck were all combined
within one unit. Already in 1988,
the Industrial Chemicals division
generated sales of 218 million
Swiss francs – more than 20%
coming from liquid crystals.
First LCD
“television“,
in black and
white and in
color
| 1990s |
Success
Plant for coating of
display glass for TN-
and STN-Displays
The 1990s still had some record
sales figures to offer yet: In 1994,
Merck’s liquid crystals passed the
then deemed unattainable sales
milestone of 100 million deutsch-
marks. In 1997, the boom in note-
books and mobile telephones
brought an increase in sales of
around 65%. In 1999, Merck re-
corded a sales increase of 60%
due to the global boom in the
communication industry as well
as the boom in mobile telephones
furnished with STN displays.
Merck changed in the 1990s from In 1996, Merck opened a new
the pure liquid crystal supplier applications laboratory for liquid
to the supplier of components for crystal mixtures in Taiwan.
the display industry also (vertical
integration). In 1997, Merck and Fujitsu Ltd.
jointly developed an LCD video
In 1993, Merck and Balzers Hold- monitor based on Vertical Align-
ing Zürich, Switzerland, agreed ment (VA) technology, which is
upon a 50/50 joint venture, for used to produce particularly large
cooperation in the production displays as, for example, monitors
and sale of transparent conductive for Computer Aided Design (CAD)
layers (ITO glass). In 1997, Merck or television screens. The 1999
took over Balzers’ share, so that annual report stated: “Merck, with
ITO glass production now became a share of approximately 60%,
a 100% Merck subsidiary. “Merck is market leader in the area of
Display Technologies, Ltd., MDT” liquid crystals”.
concentrated its business in Tai-
wan, where a second production
line went into operation already
in 1998.
In 1995, Merck cooperated with
Hitachi Ltd. in the development
of a new kind of display technol-
ogy that substantially improves
the readability of liquid crystal
displays. A patent for this so-
called In Plane Switching (IPS)
had already been filed in 1990
by the Fraunhofer Institute for
Applied Solid-State Physics in
Freiburg, Germany. Merck ac- Liquid crystal
quired this patent in 1994. production
In 1995, Merck sold its patents
on ferroelectric liquid crystals
to Hoechst, Frankfurt, Germany.
In 1996, Merck took over the
nematics business from Hoff-
mann-La Roche, Switzerland.

Liquid Crystals
Unpolarized
White Light
TFT
Orientation Film
Orientation Film
ITO Layer
Color Filter
Structure of a TFT-
addressed TN cell, visit
www.liquidcrystals.merck.de
The topic of liquid crystals is one
of Merck’s greatest success sto-
ries. The development of liquid
crystals by Merck shows persua-
sively how a large economic suc-
cess can evolve from a pure re-
search topic: Today, liquid crystal
information displays enhance the
quality of people’s life worldwide.
Polarizer
Glass Substrate
ITO Layer
Liquid Crystal
Glass Substrate
Polarizer
The secret of mobile telephones,
flat PC monitors or super-flat TV
screens is based on liquid crystal
technology – that is, on the spe-
cial properties of specifically syn-
thesized molecules.
Only organic molecules which
typically are elongated and which
have a separation of electric
charges (dipole) within the mo-
lecule can be liquid crystalline.
These give rise to a physical char-
acteristic that is the basis for their
name: With such compounds, a
further state of aggregation exists
between the liquid and solid
states, namely the liquid crystal-
line state.
Thus, at first sight, liquid crystals
(in the nematic phase) behave
like a liquid that, however, has
physical properties resembling
some solids (anisotropy). Exactly
this combination of characteristics
is the formula for success of elec-
tro-optical display systems: liquid
crystal displays (LCDs).
LCDs are used in mobile tele-
phones, personal digital assistants
(PDAs), clocks, and electronic
games. In addition, liquid crystal
displays are to be found in note-
books, PC screens, and many in-
dustrial manufacturing control
units. Increasingly, they are re-
placing bulky cathode ray tubes
because of their characteristics
(lightweight, energy efficient and
radiation free). This is so not only
in the area of PC monitors but
also television sets.
The starting point for liquid crys-
tals was 116 years ago – and
Merck participated almost from
the outset – now for exactly
100 years.
|1888 –1935 |
Beginnings
During his investigations of plant
constituents the Austrian botanist
Friedrich Reinitzer encountered
a strange phenomenon: Choles-
teryl benzoate did not change at
145.5° C into a clear liquid, but
first into a cloudy fluid. And only
with further heating up to 178.5°C
did final transition to the clear
liquid occur. The substance had
two melting points!
Reinitzer could not let this prob-
lem rest. In March 1888, he
turned to the German physicist
Otto Lehmann. Only a year later,
in 1889, Otto Lehmann gathered
from this fact the revolutionary
concept that these “phenomena”
disclosed a new, not previously
described, state of matter. He
introduced the name “liquid
crystals”.
This was a sensation leading to
violent protests in the scientific
world, for this new state of matter
did not match prevailing scientific
knowledge. Up to this time it was
held that there are three physical
states of aggregation: solid, liquid
and gas – with clearly defined
transitions.
Chemical preparations
of Merck with liquid
crystalline properties
First of all, Gustav Tammann
railed against Lehmann, but also
other renowned scientists such
as Walter Nernst and Georg
Quincke.
To clarify the question regarding
the new state of “liquid crystals”,
Lehmannn turned to guidance
from the company E. Merck in
Darmstadt.
He asked Merck for support, be-
cause: “My work in the area of
liquid crystals […] also among
the experts in this field [remains]
misunderstood and unknown.
Nobody is able to procure the
necessary materials and instru-
ments”. Lehmann saw from the
1904 price list that Merck already
offered substances with liquid
crystalline properties in high pu-
rity: methylammonium, dimethyl-
ammonium and trimethylammo-
nium oleate or Acidum oleinicum
purissimum.
Merck immediately declared itself
willing to help Lehmann with the
comment: “The endeavor of my
company is always to support
scientific research in every pos-
sible way”.
Starting around the 1920s,
Lehmann’s liquid crystals were –
thanks to the highly pure
substances supplied by Merck –
accepted universally in the scien-
tific community.
Starting in the mid-1930s the
interest in liquid crystals slowly
lapsed. No possible technical ap-
plications were seen for liquid
crystals – and it was also scien-
tifically believed that all substan-
tial problems in this area had
been investigated. And so began
a rather long Sleeping Beauty
slumber for liquid crystals.
| 1960s |
Renaissance
At the end of 1966, Merck’s at-
tention was drawn back to the
topic of liquid crystals by a sci-
entific paper in which the Amer-
ican scientist James Fergason
discussed his ideas concerning
possible technical uses of liquid
crystals. Merck decided immedi-
ately to concern itself with this
again. Thus, at the end of 1966,
the renaissance of work on liquid
crystals at Merck began. The Sleep-
ing Beauty slumber had ended.
The impulses for the resumption
of the work in this area thus came
from the United States at the end
of the 1960s. Here various possi-
ble applications for cholesteric
liquid crystals were developed,
for analytical measuring technol-
ogy, for non-destructive materials
testing, and as a diagnostics tool.
Temperature profile of a
surface, visualized by cho-
lesteric liquid crystals
James Fergason of Westinghouse
Corp., Pittsburgh, and also George
Heilmeier at the Radio Corpora-
tion of America, were working
with their teams also on possible
applications of nematic liquid
crystals. In 1968, Heilmeier pre-
sented to the professional world
a liquid crystal display. That was
a genuine breakthrough, although
this display did need an operating
temperature of about 80° C.
The scientific community was
greatly impressed. Therefore, in
1968, Merck dispatched a chemist
to the “Second International Liq-
uid Crystal Conference” at Kent
State University, Kent, United
States. When he returned, he re-
ported that the liquid crystals
domain did not look like a losing
proposition from either a scientific
or a technical perspective.
Temperature distri-
bution in a column,
made visible by chol-
esteric liquid crystals
At this conference the dream of
the flat television, which one can
hang like a picture on the wall,
was born.
In parallel to research on choles-
teric liquid crystals, Merck also
investigated the area of nematic
liquid crystals. New nematics
were synthesized and examined
for technical applicability in dis-
plays.
By the end of the 1960s, already
six scientists at Merck were en-
gaged with liquid crystals. In
the 1969 Merck annual report,
liquid crystals were referred to
for the first time under their brand
name: Licristal®.
| 1970s |
Breakthrough
In the early 1970s, the main con-
cern of the liquid crystal chemists
was lowering the operating tem-
perature of liquid crystal displays.
The experts were searching for
new chemical substances with
liquid crystalline properties at
room temperature.
In 1969, Hans Kelker at Hoechst
in Frankfurt, Germany, synthe-
sized MBBA (p-methyloxybenzy-
lidene-p’-butyloxyaniline), which
was replaced in 1970 by symme-
trically substituted phenylbenzo-
ates (from the University of Halle,
Germany) and in 1971 also by
asymmetrically substituted phe-
nylbenzoates (the “Merck esters”).
In addition, Merck manufactured
azoxy compounds, which also
had more favorable properties
than MBBA did. The first com-
pound of this type, p-methoxy-
p’-n-butylazoxybenzene (“nema-
tic phase IV”), was presented
by Merck initially at ACHEMA
in 1970.
A real breakthrough came in
1971, when James Fergason, at
that time at Kent State University
in the United States, as well as
Martin Schadt and Werner Helf-
rich in Switzerland, almost simul-
taneously had developed a new
type of cell, the twisted nematic
cell (TN cell).
In 1973, George W. Gray, profes-
sor at the University of Hull, Great
Britain, published his works on
substituted cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls – substances, which
have a nematic phase stable at
room temperature and are parti-
cularly well suited for use in TN
cells. Professor Gray’s biphenyls
were marketed successfully by
BDH Chemicals Ltd. (British Drug
House) in Poole, Great Britain –
an enterprise that Merck had
bought slightly earlier (in 1972).
The breakthrough for Merck: In
1976, Dr. Rudolf Eidenschink suc-
ceeded in the synthesis of phe-
nylcyclohexanes (PCHs) and, in
1978, Eidenschink et al. filed a
Digital clock with “liquid
figures” constructed by
Merck in 1972
patent for the cyclohexylcyclo-
hexanes (CCHs). Both classes of
substances impressed by their
improved switching times, greater
stability, and better optical display
characteristics.
By the end of the 1970s, Merck
was well established in the do-
main of liquid crystals. The hard
won competence that Merck had
gained in chemical, physical and
applications technologies was
crucial here. Also with the licenses
for the cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls of the subsidiary BDH
Ltd. as well as with the patents
for PCHs and CCHs Merck had
the key compounds in its hand.
| 1980s |
Localization
In the 1980s, the electronic in-
dustry developed their displays
and technology ever faster, so
they always required new and
more effective liquid crystal mix-
tures. Due to their advantages –
low energy consumption, light
weight and freedom from radia-
tion – LCDs now displaced other
flat screen technologies such as
light emitting diodes (LED) or
vacuum fluorescence displays
(VFDs), and gradually also the
conventional cathode ray tube
displays.
Dr. Scheuble, head of
central analytical labo-
ratory of physics with
Dr. Fries, head of central
analytical laboratory,
Dr. Allan, EM Industries
and Mr. Kawamoto,
Merck Japan
More and more demands were
placed on Merck by its customers.
Consequently, Merck intensified
its own efforts and expanded its
research team, while also entering
into numerous co-operations –
some of which still exist today –
with universities and research
institutes. Merck also licensed or
acquired patents of other liquid
crystal manufacturers, such as,
for example, in 1985 the complete
patent portfolio on liquid crystals
from Brown Boveri & Cie. (BBC),
Baden, Switzerland.
A concentration process was also
now underway, with a clear sep-
aration between major liquid
crystal manufacturers and major
display producers. Several thou-
sand inconvenient kilometers lay
between them since the ones were
in Europe and the others in Asia.
That was not a good basis for a
close cooperation.
Therefore, already in 1980, Merck
established an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystal mixtures
in Atsugi, Japan.
In the 1980s, within the Merck
Group, E. Merck in Darmstadt,
Germany, and BDH Ltd., Great
Britain, were involved with re-
search, development and produc-
tion of liquid crystals, while tech-
nical applications laboratories
were located in Atsugi, Japan, as
well as briefly also in Hawthorne,
United States. As the Korean dis-
play industry became ever larger
and more important, Merck also
reacted there immediately and
early: Already in 1989, Merck
opened an applications laboratory
for liquid crystal mixtures locally:
in Seoul, Korea.
In 1984, the liquid crystal activ-
ities at Merck were all combined
within one unit. Already in 1988,
the Industrial Chemicals division
generated sales of 218 million
Swiss francs – more than 20%
coming from liquid crystals.
First LCD
“television“,
in black and
white and in
color
| 1990s |
Success
Plant for coating of
display glass for TN-
and STN-Displays
The 1990s still had some record
sales figures to offer yet: In 1994,
Merck’s liquid crystals passed the
then deemed unattainable sales
milestone of 100 million deutsch-
marks. In 1997, the boom in note-
books and mobile telephones
brought an increase in sales of
around 65%. In 1999, Merck re-
corded a sales increase of 60%
due to the global boom in the
communication industry as well
as the boom in mobile telephones
furnished with STN displays.
Merck changed in the 1990s from In 1996, Merck opened a new
the pure liquid crystal supplier applications laboratory for liquid
to the supplier of components for crystal mixtures in Taiwan.
the display industry also (vertical
integration). In 1997, Merck and Fujitsu Ltd.
jointly developed an LCD video
In 1993, Merck and Balzers Hold- monitor based on Vertical Align-
ing Zürich, Switzerland, agreed ment (VA) technology, which is
upon a 50/50 joint venture, for used to produce particularly large
cooperation in the production displays as, for example, monitors
and sale of transparent conductive for Computer Aided Design (CAD)
layers (ITO glass). In 1997, Merck or television screens. The 1999
took over Balzers’ share, so that annual report stated: “Merck, with
ITO glass production now became a share of approximately 60%,
a 100% Merck subsidiary. “Merck is market leader in the area of
Display Technologies, Ltd., MDT” liquid crystals”.
concentrated its business in Tai-
wan, where a second production
line went into operation already
in 1998.
In 1995, Merck cooperated with
Hitachi Ltd. in the development
of a new kind of display technol-
ogy that substantially improves
the readability of liquid crystal
displays. A patent for this so-
called In Plane Switching (IPS)
had already been filed in 1990
by the Fraunhofer Institute for
Applied Solid-State Physics in
Freiburg, Germany. Merck ac- Liquid crystal
quired this patent in 1994. production
In 1995, Merck sold its patents
on ferroelectric liquid crystals
to Hoechst, Frankfurt, Germany.
In 1996, Merck took over the
nematics business from Hoff-
mann-La Roche, Switzerland.

Liquid Crystals
Unpolarized
White Light
TFT
Orientation Film
Orientation Film
ITO Layer
Color Filter
Structure of a TFT-
addressed TN cell, visit
www.liquidcrystals.merck.de
The topic of liquid crystals is one
of Merck’s greatest success sto-
ries. The development of liquid
crystals by Merck shows persua-
sively how a large economic suc-
cess can evolve from a pure re-
search topic: Today, liquid crystal
information displays enhance the
quality of people’s life worldwide.
Polarizer
Glass Substrate
ITO Layer
Liquid Crystal
Glass Substrate
Polarizer
The secret of mobile telephones,
flat PC monitors or super-flat TV
screens is based on liquid crystal
technology – that is, on the spe-
cial properties of specifically syn-
thesized molecules.
Only organic molecules which
typically are elongated and which
have a separation of electric
charges (dipole) within the mo-
lecule can be liquid crystalline.
These give rise to a physical char-
acteristic that is the basis for their
name: With such compounds, a
further state of aggregation exists
between the liquid and solid
states, namely the liquid crystal-
line state.
Thus, at first sight, liquid crystals
(in the nematic phase) behave
like a liquid that, however, has
physical properties resembling
some solids (anisotropy). Exactly
this combination of characteristics
is the formula for success of elec-
tro-optical display systems: liquid
crystal displays (LCDs).
LCDs are used in mobile tele-
phones, personal digital assistants
(PDAs), clocks, and electronic
games. In addition, liquid crystal
displays are to be found in note-
books, PC screens, and many in-
dustrial manufacturing control
units. Increasingly, they are re-
placing bulky cathode ray tubes
because of their characteristics
(lightweight, energy efficient and
radiation free). This is so not only
in the area of PC monitors but
also television sets.
The starting point for liquid crys-
tals was 116 years ago – and
Merck participated almost from
the outset – now for exactly
100 years.
|1888 –1935 |
Beginnings
During his investigations of plant
constituents the Austrian botanist
Friedrich Reinitzer encountered
a strange phenomenon: Choles-
teryl benzoate did not change at
145.5° C into a clear liquid, but
first into a cloudy fluid. And only
with further heating up to 178.5°C
did final transition to the clear
liquid occur. The substance had
two melting points!
Reinitzer could not let this prob-
lem rest. In March 1888, he
turned to the German physicist
Otto Lehmann. Only a year later,
in 1889, Otto Lehmann gathered
from this fact the revolutionary
concept that these “phenomena”
disclosed a new, not previously
described, state of matter. He
introduced the name “liquid
crystals”.
This was a sensation leading to
violent protests in the scientific
world, for this new state of matter
did not match prevailing scientific
knowledge. Up to this time it was
held that there are three physical
states of aggregation: solid, liquid
and gas – with clearly defined
transitions.
Chemical preparations
of Merck with liquid
crystalline properties
First of all, Gustav Tammann
railed against Lehmann, but also
other renowned scientists such
as Walter Nernst and Georg
Quincke.
To clarify the question regarding
the new state of “liquid crystals”,
Lehmannn turned to guidance
from the company E. Merck in
Darmstadt.
He asked Merck for support, be-
cause: “My work in the area of
liquid crystals […] also among
the experts in this field [remains]
misunderstood and unknown.
Nobody is able to procure the
necessary materials and instru-
ments”. Lehmann saw from the
1904 price list that Merck already
offered substances with liquid
crystalline properties in high pu-
rity: methylammonium, dimethyl-
ammonium and trimethylammo-
nium oleate or Acidum oleinicum
purissimum.
Merck immediately declared itself
willing to help Lehmann with the
comment: “The endeavor of my
company is always to support
scientific research in every pos-
sible way”.
Starting around the 1920s,
Lehmann’s liquid crystals were –
thanks to the highly pure
substances supplied by Merck –
accepted universally in the scien-
tific community.
Starting in the mid-1930s the
interest in liquid crystals slowly
lapsed. No possible technical ap-
plications were seen for liquid
crystals – and it was also scien-
tifically believed that all substan-
tial problems in this area had
been investigated. And so began
a rather long Sleeping Beauty
slumber for liquid crystals.
| 1960s |
Renaissance
At the end of 1966, Merck’s at-
tention was drawn back to the
topic of liquid crystals by a sci-
entific paper in which the Amer-
ican scientist James Fergason
discussed his ideas concerning
possible technical uses of liquid
crystals. Merck decided immedi-
ately to concern itself with this
again. Thus, at the end of 1966,
the renaissance of work on liquid
crystals at Merck began. The Sleep-
ing Beauty slumber had ended.
The impulses for the resumption
of the work in this area thus came
from the United States at the end
of the 1960s. Here various possi-
ble applications for cholesteric
liquid crystals were developed,
for analytical measuring technol-
ogy, for non-destructive materials
testing, and as a diagnostics tool.
Temperature profile of a
surface, visualized by cho-
lesteric liquid crystals
James Fergason of Westinghouse
Corp., Pittsburgh, and also George
Heilmeier at the Radio Corpora-
tion of America, were working
with their teams also on possible
applications of nematic liquid
crystals. In 1968, Heilmeier pre-
sented to the professional world
a liquid crystal display. That was
a genuine breakthrough, although
this display did need an operating
temperature of about 80° C.
The scientific community was
greatly impressed. Therefore, in
1968, Merck dispatched a chemist
to the “Second International Liq-
uid Crystal Conference” at Kent
State University, Kent, United
States. When he returned, he re-
ported that the liquid crystals
domain did not look like a losing
proposition from either a scientific
or a technical perspective.
Temperature distri-
bution in a column,
made visible by chol-
esteric liquid crystals
At this conference the dream of
the flat television, which one can
hang like a picture on the wall,
was born.
In parallel to research on choles-
teric liquid crystals, Merck also
investigated the area of nematic
liquid crystals. New nematics
were synthesized and examined
for technical applicability in dis-
plays.
By the end of the 1960s, already
six scientists at Merck were en-
gaged with liquid crystals. In
the 1969 Merck annual report,
liquid crystals were referred to
for the first time under their brand
name: Licristal®.
| 1970s |
Breakthrough
In the early 1970s, the main con-
cern of the liquid crystal chemists
was lowering the operating tem-
perature of liquid crystal displays.
The experts were searching for
new chemical substances with
liquid crystalline properties at
room temperature.
In 1969, Hans Kelker at Hoechst
in Frankfurt, Germany, synthe-
sized MBBA (p-methyloxybenzy-
lidene-p’-butyloxyaniline), which
was replaced in 1970 by symme-
trically substituted phenylbenzo-
ates (from the University of Halle,
Germany) and in 1971 also by
asymmetrically substituted phe-
nylbenzoates (the “Merck esters”).
In addition, Merck manufactured
azoxy compounds, which also
had more favorable properties
than MBBA did. The first com-
pound of this type, p-methoxy-
p’-n-butylazoxybenzene (“nema-
tic phase IV”), was presented
by Merck initially at ACHEMA
in 1970.
A real breakthrough came in
1971, when James Fergason, at
that time at Kent State University
in the United States, as well as
Martin Schadt and Werner Helf-
rich in Switzerland, almost simul-
taneously had developed a new
type of cell, the twisted nematic
cell (TN cell).
In 1973, George W. Gray, profes-
sor at the University of Hull, Great
Britain, published his works on
substituted cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls – substances, which
have a nematic phase stable at
room temperature and are parti-
cularly well suited for use in TN
cells. Professor Gray’s biphenyls
were marketed successfully by
BDH Chemicals Ltd. (British Drug
House) in Poole, Great Britain –
an enterprise that Merck had
bought slightly earlier (in 1972).
The breakthrough for Merck: In
1976, Dr. Rudolf Eidenschink suc-
ceeded in the synthesis of phe-
nylcyclohexanes (PCHs) and, in
1978, Eidenschink et al. filed a
Digital clock with “liquid
figures” constructed by
Merck in 1972
patent for the cyclohexylcyclo-
hexanes (CCHs). Both classes of
substances impressed by their
improved switching times, greater
stability, and better optical display
characteristics.
By the end of the 1970s, Merck
was well established in the do-
main of liquid crystals. The hard
won competence that Merck had
gained in chemical, physical and
applications technologies was
crucial here. Also with the licenses
for the cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls of the subsidiary BDH
Ltd. as well as with the patents
for PCHs and CCHs Merck had
the key compounds in its hand.
| 1980s |
Localization
In the 1980s, the electronic in-
dustry developed their displays
and technology ever faster, so
they always required new and
more effective liquid crystal mix-
tures. Due to their advantages –
low energy consumption, light
weight and freedom from radia-
tion – LCDs now displaced other
flat screen technologies such as
light emitting diodes (LED) or
vacuum fluorescence displays
(VFDs), and gradually also the
conventional cathode ray tube
displays.
Dr. Scheuble, head of
central analytical labo-
ratory of physics with
Dr. Fries, head of central
analytical laboratory,
Dr. Allan, EM Industries
and Mr. Kawamoto,
Merck Japan
More and more demands were
placed on Merck by its customers.
Consequently, Merck intensified
its own efforts and expanded its
research team, while also entering
into numerous co-operations –
some of which still exist today –
with universities and research
institutes. Merck also licensed or
acquired patents of other liquid
crystal manufacturers, such as,
for example, in 1985 the complete
patent portfolio on liquid crystals
from Brown Boveri & Cie. (BBC),
Baden, Switzerland.
A concentration process was also
now underway, with a clear sep-
aration between major liquid
crystal manufacturers and major
display producers. Several thou-
sand inconvenient kilometers lay
between them since the ones were
in Europe and the others in Asia.
That was not a good basis for a
close cooperation.
Therefore, already in 1980, Merck
established an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystal mixtures
in Atsugi, Japan.
In the 1980s, within the Merck
Group, E. Merck in Darmstadt,
Germany, and BDH Ltd., Great
Britain, were involved with re-
search, development and produc-
tion of liquid crystals, while tech-
nical applications laboratories
were located in Atsugi, Japan, as
well as briefly also in Hawthorne,
United States. As the Korean dis-
play industry became ever larger
and more important, Merck also
reacted there immediately and
early: Already in 1989, Merck
opened an applications laboratory
for liquid crystal mixtures locally:
in Seoul, Korea.
In 1984, the liquid crystal activ-
ities at Merck were all combined
within one unit. Already in 1988,
the Industrial Chemicals division
generated sales of 218 million
Swiss francs – more than 20%
coming from liquid crystals.
First LCD
“television“,
in black and
white and in
color
| 1990s |
Success
Plant for coating of
display glass for TN-
and STN-Displays
The 1990s still had some record
sales figures to offer yet: In 1994,
Merck’s liquid crystals passed the
then deemed unattainable sales
milestone of 100 million deutsch-
marks. In 1997, the boom in note-
books and mobile telephones
brought an increase in sales of
around 65%. In 1999, Merck re-
corded a sales increase of 60%
due to the global boom in the
communication industry as well
as the boom in mobile telephones
furnished with STN displays.
Merck changed in the 1990s from In 1996, Merck opened a new
the pure liquid crystal supplier applications laboratory for liquid
to the supplier of components for crystal mixtures in Taiwan.
the display industry also (vertical
integration). In 1997, Merck and Fujitsu Ltd.
jointly developed an LCD video
In 1993, Merck and Balzers Hold- monitor based on Vertical Align-
ing Zürich, Switzerland, agreed ment (VA) technology, which is
upon a 50/50 joint venture, for used to produce particularly large
cooperation in the production displays as, for example, monitors
and sale of transparent conductive for Computer Aided Design (CAD)
layers (ITO glass). In 1997, Merck or television screens. The 1999
took over Balzers’ share, so that annual report stated: “Merck, with
ITO glass production now became a share of approximately 60%,
a 100% Merck subsidiary. “Merck is market leader in the area of
Display Technologies, Ltd., MDT” liquid crystals”.
concentrated its business in Tai-
wan, where a second production
line went into operation already
in 1998.
In 1995, Merck cooperated with
Hitachi Ltd. in the development
of a new kind of display technol-
ogy that substantially improves
the readability of liquid crystal
displays. A patent for this so-
called In Plane Switching (IPS)
had already been filed in 1990
by the Fraunhofer Institute for
Applied Solid-State Physics in
Freiburg, Germany. Merck ac- Liquid crystal
quired this patent in 1994. production
In 1995, Merck sold its patents
on ferroelectric liquid crystals
to Hoechst, Frankfurt, Germany.
In 1996, Merck took over the
nematics business from Hoff-
mann-La Roche, Switzerland.

Liquid Crystals
Unpolarized
White Light
TFT
Orientation Film
Orientation Film
ITO Layer
Color Filter
Structure of a TFT-
addressed TN cell, visit
www.liquidcrystals.merck.de
The topic of liquid crystals is one
of Merck’s greatest success sto-
ries. The development of liquid
crystals by Merck shows persua-
sively how a large economic suc-
cess can evolve from a pure re-
search topic: Today, liquid crystal
information displays enhance the
quality of people’s life worldwide.
Polarizer
Glass Substrate
ITO Layer
Liquid Crystal
Glass Substrate
Polarizer
The secret of mobile telephones,
flat PC monitors or super-flat TV
screens is based on liquid crystal
technology – that is, on the spe-
cial properties of specifically syn-
thesized molecules.
Only organic molecules which
typically are elongated and which
have a separation of electric
charges (dipole) within the mo-
lecule can be liquid crystalline.
These give rise to a physical char-
acteristic that is the basis for their
name: With such compounds, a
further state of aggregation exists
between the liquid and solid
states, namely the liquid crystal-
line state.
Thus, at first sight, liquid crystals
(in the nematic phase) behave
like a liquid that, however, has
physical properties resembling
some solids (anisotropy). Exactly
this combination of characteristics
is the formula for success of elec-
tro-optical display systems: liquid
crystal displays (LCDs).
LCDs are used in mobile tele-
phones, personal digital assistants
(PDAs), clocks, and electronic
games. In addition, liquid crystal
displays are to be found in note-
books, PC screens, and many in-
dustrial manufacturing control
units. Increasingly, they are re-
placing bulky cathode ray tubes
because of their characteristics
(lightweight, energy efficient and
radiation free). This is so not only
in the area of PC monitors but
also television sets.
The starting point for liquid crys-
tals was 116 years ago – and
Merck participated almost from
the outset – now for exactly
100 years.
|1888 –1935 |
Beginnings
During his investigations of plant
constituents the Austrian botanist
Friedrich Reinitzer encountered
a strange phenomenon: Choles-
teryl benzoate did not change at
145.5° C into a clear liquid, but
first into a cloudy fluid. And only
with further heating up to 178.5°C
did final transition to the clear
liquid occur. The substance had
two melting points!
Reinitzer could not let this prob-
lem rest. In March 1888, he
turned to the German physicist
Otto Lehmann. Only a year later,
in 1889, Otto Lehmann gathered
from this fact the revolutionary
concept that these “phenomena”
disclosed a new, not previously
described, state of matter. He
introduced the name “liquid
crystals”.
This was a sensation leading to
violent protests in the scientific
world, for this new state of matter
did not match prevailing scientific
knowledge. Up to this time it was
held that there are three physical
states of aggregation: solid, liquid
and gas – with clearly defined
transitions.
Chemical preparations
of Merck with liquid
crystalline properties
First of all, Gustav Tammann
railed against Lehmann, but also
other renowned scientists such
as Walter Nernst and Georg
Quincke.
To clarify the question regarding
the new state of “liquid crystals”,
Lehmannn turned to guidance
from the company E. Merck in
Darmstadt.
He asked Merck for support, be-
cause: “My work in the area of
liquid crystals […] also among
the experts in this field [remains]
misunderstood and unknown.
Nobody is able to procure the
necessary materials and instru-
ments”. Lehmann saw from the
1904 price list that Merck already
offered substances with liquid
crystalline properties in high pu-
rity: methylammonium, dimethyl-
ammonium and trimethylammo-
nium oleate or Acidum oleinicum
purissimum.
Merck immediately declared itself
willing to help Lehmann with the
comment: “The endeavor of my
company is always to support
scientific research in every pos-
sible way”.
Starting around the 1920s,
Lehmann’s liquid crystals were –
thanks to the highly pure
substances supplied by Merck –
accepted universally in the scien-
tific community.
Starting in the mid-1930s the
interest in liquid crystals slowly
lapsed. No possible technical ap-
plications were seen for liquid
crystals – and it was also scien-
tifically believed that all substan-
tial problems in this area had
been investigated. And so began
a rather long Sleeping Beauty
slumber for liquid crystals.
| 1960s |
Renaissance
At the end of 1966, Merck’s at-
tention was drawn back to the
topic of liquid crystals by a sci-
entific paper in which the Amer-
ican scientist James Fergason
discussed his ideas concerning
possible technical uses of liquid
crystals. Merck decided immedi-
ately to concern itself with this
again. Thus, at the end of 1966,
the renaissance of work on liquid
crystals at Merck began. The Sleep-
ing Beauty slumber had ended.
The impulses for the resumption
of the work in this area thus came
from the United States at the end
of the 1960s. Here various possi-
ble applications for cholesteric
liquid crystals were developed,
for analytical measuring technol-
ogy, for non-destructive materials
testing, and as a diagnostics tool.
Temperature profile of a
surface, visualized by cho-
lesteric liquid crystals
James Fergason of Westinghouse
Corp., Pittsburgh, and also George
Heilmeier at the Radio Corpora-
tion of America, were working
with their teams also on possible
applications of nematic liquid
crystals. In 1968, Heilmeier pre-
sented to the professional world
a liquid crystal display. That was
a genuine breakthrough, although
this display did need an operating
temperature of about 80° C.
The scientific community was
greatly impressed. Therefore, in
1968, Merck dispatched a chemist
to the “Second International Liq-
uid Crystal Conference” at Kent
State University, Kent, United
States. When he returned, he re-
ported that the liquid crystals
domain did not look like a losing
proposition from either a scientific
or a technical perspective.
Temperature distri-
bution in a column,
made visible by chol-
esteric liquid crystals
At this conference the dream of
the flat television, which one can
hang like a picture on the wall,
was born.
In parallel to research on choles-
teric liquid crystals, Merck also
investigated the area of nematic
liquid crystals. New nematics
were synthesized and examined
for technical applicability in dis-
plays.
By the end of the 1960s, already
six scientists at Merck were en-
gaged with liquid crystals. In
the 1969 Merck annual report,
liquid crystals were referred to
for the first time under their brand
name: Licristal®.
| 1970s |
Breakthrough
In the early 1970s, the main con-
cern of the liquid crystal chemists
was lowering the operating tem-
perature of liquid crystal displays.
The experts were searching for
new chemical substances with
liquid crystalline properties at
room temperature.
In 1969, Hans Kelker at Hoechst
in Frankfurt, Germany, synthe-
sized MBBA (p-methyloxybenzy-
lidene-p’-butyloxyaniline), which
was replaced in 1970 by symme-
trically substituted phenylbenzo-
ates (from the University of Halle,
Germany) and in 1971 also by
asymmetrically substituted phe-
nylbenzoates (the “Merck esters”).
In addition, Merck manufactured
azoxy compounds, which also
had more favorable properties
than MBBA did. The first com-
pound of this type, p-methoxy-
p’-n-butylazoxybenzene (“nema-
tic phase IV”), was presented
by Merck initially at ACHEMA
in 1970.
A real breakthrough came in
1971, when James Fergason, at
that time at Kent State University
in the United States, as well as
Martin Schadt and Werner Helf-
rich in Switzerland, almost simul-
taneously had developed a new
type of cell, the twisted nematic
cell (TN cell).
In 1973, George W. Gray, profes-
sor at the University of Hull, Great
Britain, published his works on
substituted cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls – substances, which
have a nematic phase stable at
room temperature and are parti-
cularly well suited for use in TN
cells. Professor Gray’s biphenyls
were marketed successfully by
BDH Chemicals Ltd. (British Drug
House) in Poole, Great Britain –
an enterprise that Merck had
bought slightly earlier (in 1972).
The breakthrough for Merck: In
1976, Dr. Rudolf Eidenschink suc-
ceeded in the synthesis of phe-
nylcyclohexanes (PCHs) and, in
1978, Eidenschink et al. filed a
Digital clock with “liquid
figures” constructed by
Merck in 1972
patent for the cyclohexylcyclo-
hexanes (CCHs). Both classes of
substances impressed by their
improved switching times, greater
stability, and better optical display
characteristics.
By the end of the 1970s, Merck
was well established in the do-
main of liquid crystals. The hard
won competence that Merck had
gained in chemical, physical and
applications technologies was
crucial here. Also with the licenses
for the cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls of the subsidiary BDH
Ltd. as well as with the patents
for PCHs and CCHs Merck had
the key compounds in its hand.
| 1980s |
Localization
In the 1980s, the electronic in-
dustry developed their displays
and technology ever faster, so
they always required new and
more effective liquid crystal mix-
tures. Due to their advantages –
low energy consumption, light
weight and freedom from radia-
tion – LCDs now displaced other
flat screen technologies such as
light emitting diodes (LED) or
vacuum fluorescence displays
(VFDs), and gradually also the
conventional cathode ray tube
displays.
Dr. Scheuble, head of
central analytical labo-
ratory of physics with
Dr. Fries, head of central
analytical laboratory,
Dr. Allan, EM Industries
and Mr. Kawamoto,
Merck Japan
More and more demands were
placed on Merck by its customers.
Consequently, Merck intensified
its own efforts and expanded its
research team, while also entering
into numerous co-operations –
some of which still exist today –
with universities and research
institutes. Merck also licensed or
acquired patents of other liquid
crystal manufacturers, such as,
for example, in 1985 the complete
patent portfolio on liquid crystals
from Brown Boveri & Cie. (BBC),
Baden, Switzerland.
A concentration process was also
now underway, with a clear sep-
aration between major liquid
crystal manufacturers and major
display producers. Several thou-
sand inconvenient kilometers lay
between them since the ones were
in Europe and the others in Asia.
That was not a good basis for a
close cooperation.
Therefore, already in 1980, Merck
established an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystal mixtures
in Atsugi, Japan.
In the 1980s, within the Merck
Group, E. Merck in Darmstadt,
Germany, and BDH Ltd., Great
Britain, were involved with re-
search, development and produc-
tion of liquid crystals, while tech-
nical applications laboratories
were located in Atsugi, Japan, as
well as briefly also in Hawthorne,
United States. As the Korean dis-
play industry became ever larger
and more important, Merck also
reacted there immediately and
early: Already in 1989, Merck
opened an applications laboratory
for liquid crystal mixtures locally:
in Seoul, Korea.
In 1984, the liquid crystal activ-
ities at Merck were all combined
within one unit. Already in 1988,
the Industrial Chemicals division
generated sales of 218 million
Swiss francs – more than 20%
coming from liquid crystals.
First LCD
“television“,
in black and
white and in
color
| 1990s |
Success
Plant for coating of
display glass for TN-
and STN-Displays
The 1990s still had some record
sales figures to offer yet: In 1994,
Merck’s liquid crystals passed the
then deemed unattainable sales
milestone of 100 million deutsch-
marks. In 1997, the boom in note-
books and mobile telephones
brought an increase in sales of
around 65%. In 1999, Merck re-
corded a sales increase of 60%
due to the global boom in the
communication industry as well
as the boom in mobile telephones
furnished with STN displays.
Merck changed in the 1990s from In 1996, Merck opened a new
the pure liquid crystal supplier applications laboratory for liquid
to the supplier of components for crystal mixtures in Taiwan.
the display industry also (vertical
integration). In 1997, Merck and Fujitsu Ltd.
jointly developed an LCD video
In 1993, Merck and Balzers Hold- monitor based on Vertical Align-
ing Zürich, Switzerland, agreed ment (VA) technology, which is
upon a 50/50 joint venture, for used to produce particularly large
cooperation in the production displays as, for example, monitors
and sale of transparent conductive for Computer Aided Design (CAD)
layers (ITO glass). In 1997, Merck or television screens. The 1999
took over Balzers’ share, so that annual report stated: “Merck, with
ITO glass production now became a share of approximately 60%,
a 100% Merck subsidiary. “Merck is market leader in the area of
Display Technologies, Ltd., MDT” liquid crystals”.
concentrated its business in Tai-
wan, where a second production
line went into operation already
in 1998.
In 1995, Merck cooperated with
Hitachi Ltd. in the development
of a new kind of display technol-
ogy that substantially improves
the readability of liquid crystal
displays. A patent for this so-
called In Plane Switching (IPS)
had already been filed in 1990
by the Fraunhofer Institute for
Applied Solid-State Physics in
Freiburg, Germany. Merck ac- Liquid crystal
quired this patent in 1994. production
In 1995, Merck sold its patents
on ferroelectric liquid crystals
to Hoechst, Frankfurt, Germany.
In 1996, Merck took over the
nematics business from Hoff-
mann-La Roche, Switzerland.
The Future
Merck’s researchers developed a
new generation of superfluorinat-
ed liquid crystals for the VA
technology, which enable ex-
tremely short switching times
of 16 milliseconds – and in the
latest devices of only 12 milli-
seconds.
New production plant
for liquid crystals
in Darmstadt –
inauguration in 2004
Thus display manufacturers are
now able, for the first time, to
mass-produce flat, energy-saving,
large LCD television screens. This
was so great a technological ad-
vance that, in November 2003,
Merck’s researchers received the
German Future Prize from the
President of the Federal Republic
of Germany.
The LCD television manufacturers
count on strong growth in the
coming years – a boom, which
will be comparable only to the
mobile telephone boom. In order
to guarantee delivery for liquid
crystals, Merck has invested 250
million euros in new production
facilities at the sites in Germany.
While the liquid crystals are pro-
duced predominantly in Germany,
the liquid crystal mixtures are
manufactured directly in the
proximity of the actual customers.
Thus Merck established a new
liquid crystal center in 2002 at
Poseung near Seoul, Korea, and
founded Merck Ltd. in Hong Kong,
which is responsible for the liquid
crystal business in Hong Kong
and China.
In 2004, now 100 years later,
Merck’s situation with its Liquid
Crystals division is ideal. In the
meantime, Merck has secured its
business with more than 2,500
patents for liquid crystals, their
mixtures, and display applica-
tions. With a market share of over
60%, Merck is the global leader
in the liquid crystal market; in
the area of TV applications, Merck
is currently even the dominant
supplier.
The way has been long and some-
times stony, but Merck has man-
aged to get there. This has been
due to its perseverance, compe-
tence, constant technological
leadership, courageous business
decisions, and thanks to many
people with their visions and
imperturbable faith in success, as
well as the close and trusting
cooperation with its customers
for many years.
Would you like to know more? You
will find detailed information
about the success story of liquid
crystals in the book “The history of
the future – 100 years of liquid
crystals at Merck”.
The Company
Pyramid at the main
entrance in Darmstadt
The roots of Merck KGaA reach
back into the 17th century. In
1668, the pharmacist Friedrich
Jacob Merck purchased the Engel-
Apotheke (“Angel Pharmacy”) in
Darmstadt; in 1816, Emanuel
Merck took it over; his scientific
work on highly effective alkaloids
laid the foundation for “large-
scale production” from 1827 on.
Arial view at Merck Darmstadt
From the beginnings in the phar-
macy laboratory evolved a phar-
maceutical-chemical factory.
Right from the outset, the guiding
principle was always the especial-
ly high purity of the preparations.
By intensive research work in the
area of pharmaceuticals and che-
micals, as well as by expansion
and increasing internationaliza-
tion, the economic success of
Merck grew rapidly.
Today Merck KGaA is a globally
operating group, which concen-
trates on pharmaceuticals, special-
ty chemicals, and laboratory pro-
ducts.
The guarantors of success for
Merck are in the year 2003 more
than 34,200 entrepreneurially
minded employees, who are
engaged in application-oriented
research and development, and
who are consistently responsive
to the desires and needs of their
customers.
The company headquarters is in
Darmstadt, Germany. A total of
204 companies operate for Merck
in 53 countries, and production
takes place at 62 locations in
28 countries. Merck KGaA gener-
ates sales of 7.2 billion euros
worldwide, to which the Liquid
Crystals division contributes far
more than 400 million euros.
Merck is the leading manufacturer
of LCD materials worldwide. By
the continuous further develop-
ment of customized liquid crystal
mixtures, Merck – together with
the display manufacturers –
makes tomorrow’s communica-
tion technologies possible.
The current development at Merck
is documented in the Annual Re-
ports and at www.merck.de.
Milestones
1888 The Austrian botanist Friedrich Reinitzer
discovered the liquid crystalline properties
of cholesteryl benzoate
1889 The German physicist Otto Lehmann
described their physical properties and
defines them as a new state of aggrega-
tion in his publication “On flowing
crystals”
1904 At the incentive of Otto Lehmann, Merck
offered the first liquid crystals for research
purposes in its price list “Substances
with liquid crystalline properties”
1966 Cholesteric liquid crystals were employed
as temperature indicators, in thermogra-
phy and medicine, later also in fashion
items and cosmetics
1968 Dynamic scattering (George Heilmeier
et. al., RCA, United States)
1968 Merck began research on nematic liquid
crystals
1971 The twisted nematic cell (TN cell) was
invented by Schadt and Helfrich (Swit-
zerland) and Fergason (United States)
1972 George Gray (University of Hull,
England) developed cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls: BDH Chemicals Ltd. (today
Merck) and Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.
marketed them
1976 Merck patented phenylcyclohexanes
(PCHs), biphenylcyclohexanes (BCHs)
and cyclohexylbiphenylcyclohexanes
(CBCs)
1979 Cyclohexylcyclohexanes (CCHs) intro-
duced by Merck
1980 Merck developed the “Viewing Independ-
ent Panel” (VIP display), the basis of all
active matrix flat panel LCDs
1980 Merck constructed an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystals in Atsugi, Japan
1985 The extensive liquid crystal patent port-
folios of Brown Boveri & Cie. (BBC) was
purchased by Merck
1989 Merck constructed an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystals in Seoul, Korea
1993 Joint venture between Merck and Balzers
for the production of ITO glass; construc-
tion of a fully automated coating plant
in Taiwan (since 1997, a wholly owned
Merck subsidiary: “Merck Display Tech-
nologies Ltd.”)
1995 Merck and Hitachi Ltd. cooperated in
the development of In Plane Switching
(IPS), a new technology for LCD monitors
based on a patent filed in 1990 by the
Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Solid-
State Physics in Freiburg, Germany. This
patent was acquired by Merck in 1994
1995 Merck sold its patents on ferroelectric
liquid crystals to Hoechst
1996 An applications laboratory for liquid
crystals constructed by Merck in Taiwan
1996 Merck took over the nematics business
of Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.
1997 Together with Fujitsu Ltd., Merck devel-
oped an LCD video monitor based on
Vertical Alignment (VA) technology
1998 The production capacity for ITO glass
was expanded in Taiwan
100 years of liquid crystals at Merck
2002 Merck Ltd. was established in Hong Kong,
responsible for the liquid crystal business
in Hong Kong and China
2002 A third ITO coating line was installed
for color STN displays and OLEDs
2003 The German Future Prize was awarded
by the President of the Federal Republic
of Germany to Merck for the liquid
crystal technology that makes flat tele-
visions possible
2004 Inauguration of the new production plant
for liquid crystals in Darmstadt.
The history
The investment totals approximately
250 million euros at the Darmstadt and
Gernsheim locations
of the future
März 2004
Merck KGaA
Corporate Communications
E-Mail: history@merck.de
W 840.414
D-64271 Darmstadt
www.merck.de
The Future
Merck’s researchers developed a
new generation of superfluorinat-
ed liquid crystals for the VA
technology, which enable ex-
tremely short switching times
of 16 milliseconds – and in the
latest devices of only 12 milli-
seconds.
New production plant
for liquid crystals
in Darmstadt –
inauguration in 2004
Thus display manufacturers are
now able, for the first time, to
mass-produce flat, energy-saving,
large LCD television screens. This
was so great a technological ad-
vance that, in November 2003,
Merck’s researchers received the
German Future Prize from the
President of the Federal Republic
of Germany.
The LCD television manufacturers
count on strong growth in the
coming years – a boom, which
will be comparable only to the
mobile telephone boom. In order
to guarantee delivery for liquid
crystals, Merck has invested 250
million euros in new production
facilities at the sites in Germany
(with a capacity of 100 tons per
year, capable of being increased
to 150 tons per year).
While the liquid crystals are pro-
duced predominantly in Germany,
the liquid crystal mixtures are
manufactured directly in the
proximity of the actual customers.
Thus Merck established a new
liquid crystal center in 2002 at
Poseung near Seoul, Korea, and
founded Merck Ltd. in Hong Kong,
which is responsible for the liquid
crystal business in Hong Kong
and China.
In 2004, now 100 years later,
Merck’s situation with its Liquid
Crystals division is ideal. In the
meantime, Merck has secured its
business with more than 2,500
patents for liquid crystals, their
mixtures, and display applica-
tions. With a market share of over
60%, Merck is the global leader
in the liquid crystal market; in
the area of TV applications, Merck
is currently even the dominant
supplier.
The way has been long and some-
times stony, but Merck has man-
aged to get there. This has been
due to its perseverance, compe-
tence, constant technological
leadership, courageous business
decisions, and thanks to many
people with their visions and
imperturbable faith in success, as
well as the close and trusting
cooperation with its customers
for many years.
Would you like to know more? You
will find detailed information
about the success story of liquid
crystals in the book “The history of
the future – 100 years of liquid
crystals at Merck”.
The Company
Pyramid at the main
entrance in Darmstadt
The roots of Merck KGaA reach
back into the 17th century. In
1668, the pharmacist Friedrich
Jacob Merck purchased the Engel-
Apotheke (“Angel Pharmacy”) in
Darmstadt; in 1816, Emanuel
Merck took it over; his scientific
work on highly effective alkaloids
laid the foundation for “large-
scale production” from 1827 on.
Arial view at Merck Darmstadt
From the beginnings in the phar-
macy laboratory evolved a phar-
maceutical-chemical factory.
Right from the outset, the guiding
principle was always the especial-
ly high purity of the preparations.
By intensive research work in the
area of pharmaceuticals and che-
micals, as well as by expansion
and increasing internationaliza-
tion, the economic success of
Merck grew rapidly.
Today Merck KGaA is a globally
operating group, which concen-
trates on pharmaceuticals, special-
ty chemicals, and laboratory pro-
ducts.
The guarantors of success for
Merck are in the year 2003 more
than 34,200 entrepreneurially
minded employees, who are
engaged in application-oriented
research and development, and
who are consistently responsive
to the desires and needs of their
customers.
The company headquarters is in
Darmstadt, Germany. A total of
204 companies operate for Merck
in 53 countries, and production
takes place at 62 locations in
28 countries. Merck KGaA gener-
ates sales of 7.2 billion euros
worldwide, to which the Liquid
Crystals division contributes far
more than 400 million euros.
Merck is the leading manufacturer
of LCD materials worldwide. By
the continuous further develop-
ment of customized liquid crystal
mixtures, Merck – together with
the display manufacturers –
makes tomorrow’s communica-
tion technologies possible.
The current development at Merck
is documented in the Annual Re-
ports and at www.merck.de.
Milestones
1888 The Austrian botanist Friedrich Reinitzer
discovered the liquid crystalline properties
of cholesteryl benzoate
1889 The German physicist Otto Lehmann
described their physical properties and
defines them as a new state of aggrega-
tion in his publication “On flowing
crystals”
1904 At the incentive of Otto Lehmann, Merck
offered the first liquid crystals for research
purposes in its price list “Substances
with liquid crystalline properties”
1966 Cholesteric liquid crystals were employed
as temperature indicators, in thermogra-
phy and medicine, later also in fashion
items and cosmetics
1968 Dynamic scattering (George Heilmeier
et. al., RCA, United States)
1968 Merck began research on nematic liquid
crystals
1971 The twisted nematic cell (TN cell) was
invented by Schadt and Helfrich (Swit-
zerland) and Fergason (United States)
1972 George Gray (University of Hull,
England) developed cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls: BDH Chemicals Ltd. (today
Merck) and Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.
marketed them
1976 Merck patented phenylcyclohexanes
(PCHs), biphenylcyclohexanes (BCHs)
and cyclohexylbiphenylcyclohexanes
(CBCs)
1979 Cyclohexylcyclohexanes (CCHs) intro-
duced by Merck
1980 Merck developed the “Viewing Independ-
ent Panel” (VIP display), the basis of all
active matrix flat panel LCDs
1980 Merck constructed an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystals in Atsugi, Japan
1985 The extensive liquid crystal patent port-
folios of Brown Boveri & Cie. (BBC) was
purchased by Merck
1989 Merck constructed an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystals in Seoul, Korea
1993 Joint venture between Merck and Balzers
for the production of ITO glass; construc-
tion of a fully automated coating plant
in Taiwan (since 1997, a wholly owned
Merck subsidiary: “Merck Display Tech-
nologies Ltd.”)
1995 Merck and Hitachi Ltd. cooperated in
the development of In Plane Switching
(IPS), a new technology for LCD monitors
based on a patent filed in 1990 by the
Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Solid-
State Physics in Freiburg, Germany. This
patent was acquired by Merck in 1994
1995 Merck sold its patents on ferroelectric
liquid crystals to Hoechst
1996 An applications laboratory for liquid
crystals constructed by Merck in Taiwan
1996 Merck took over the nematics business
of Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.
1997 Together with Fujitsu Ltd., Merck devel-
oped an LCD video monitor based on
Vertical Alignment (VA) technology
1998 The production capacity for ITO glass
was expanded in Taiwan
100 years of liquid crystals at Merck
2002 Merck Ltd. was established in Hong Kong,
responsible for the liquid crystal business
in Hong Kong and China
2002 A third ITO coating line was installed
for color STN displays and OLEDs
2003 The German Future Prize was awarded
by the President of the Federal Republic
of Germany to Merck for the liquid
crystal technology that makes flat tele-
visions possible
2004 Inauguration of the new production plant
for liquid crystals in Darmstadt, with an
The history
initial annual capacity of 100 tons. The
investment totals approximately 250
million euros at the Darmstadt and Gerns-
of the future
heim locations
März 2004
Merck KGaA
Corporate Communications
E-Mail: history@merck.de
W 840.414
D-64271 Darmstadt
www.merck.de
The Future
Merck’s researchers developed a
new generation of superfluorinat-
ed liquid crystals for the VA
technology, which enable ex-
tremely short switching times
of 16 milliseconds – and in the
latest devices of only 12 milli-
seconds.
New production plant
for liquid crystals
in Darmstadt –
inauguration in 2004
Thus display manufacturers are
now able, for the first time, to
mass-produce flat, energy-saving,
large LCD television screens. This
was so great a technological ad-
vance that, in November 2003,
Merck’s researchers received the
German Future Prize from the
President of the Federal Republic
of Germany.
The LCD television manufacturers
count on strong growth in the
coming years – a boom, which
will be comparable only to the
mobile telephone boom. In order
to guarantee delivery for liquid
crystals, Merck has invested 250
million euros in new production
facilities at the sites in Germany
(with a capacity of 100 tons per
year, capable of being increased
to 150 tons per year).
While the liquid crystals are pro-
duced predominantly in Germany,
the liquid crystal mixtures are
manufactured directly in the
proximity of the actual customers.
Thus Merck established a new
liquid crystal center in 2002 at
Poseung near Seoul, Korea, and
founded Merck Ltd. in Hong Kong,
which is responsible for the liquid
crystal business in Hong Kong
and China.
In 2004, now 100 years later,
Merck’s situation with its Liquid
Crystals division is ideal. In the
meantime, Merck has secured its
business with more than 2,500
patents for liquid crystals, their
mixtures, and display applica-
tions. With a market share of over
60%, Merck is the global leader
in the liquid crystal market; in
the area of TV applications, Merck
is currently even the dominant
supplier.
The way has been long and some-
times stony, but Merck has man-
aged to get there. This has been
due to its perseverance, compe-
tence, constant technological
leadership, courageous business
decisions, and thanks to many
people with their visions and
imperturbable faith in success, as
well as the close and trusting
cooperation with its customers
for many years.
Would you like to know more? You
will find detailed information
about the success story of liquid
crystals in the book “The history of
the future – 100 years of liquid
crystals at Merck”.
The Company
Pyramid at the main
entrance in Darmstadt
The roots of Merck KGaA reach
back into the 17th century. In
1668, the pharmacist Friedrich
Jacob Merck purchased the Engel-
Apotheke (“Angel Pharmacy”) in
Darmstadt; in 1816, Emanuel
Merck took it over; his scientific
work on highly effective alkaloids
laid the foundation for “large-
scale production” from 1827 on.
Arial view at Merck Darmstadt
From the beginnings in the phar-
macy laboratory evolved a phar-
maceutical-chemical factory.
Right from the outset, the guiding
principle was always the especial-
ly high purity of the preparations.
By intensive research work in the
area of pharmaceuticals and che-
micals, as well as by expansion
and increasing internationaliza-
tion, the economic success of
Merck grew rapidly.
Today Merck KGaA is a globally
operating group, which concen-
trates on pharmaceuticals, special-
ty chemicals, and laboratory pro-
ducts.
The guarantors of success for
Merck are in the year 2003 more
than 34,200 entrepreneurially
minded employees, who are
engaged in application-oriented
research and development, and
who are consistently responsive
to the desires and needs of their
customers.
The company headquarters is in
Darmstadt, Germany. A total of
204 companies operate for Merck
in 53 countries, and production
takes place at 62 locations in
28 countries. Merck KGaA gener-
ates sales of 7.2 billion euros
worldwide, to which the Liquid
Crystals division contributes far
more than 400 million euros.
Merck is the leading manufacturer
of LCD materials worldwide. By
the continuous further develop-
ment of customized liquid crystal
mixtures, Merck – together with
the display manufacturers –
makes tomorrow’s communica-
tion technologies possible.
The current development at Merck
is documented in the Annual Re-
ports and at www.merck.de.
Milestones
1888 The Austrian botanist Friedrich Reinitzer
discovered the liquid crystalline properties
of cholesteryl benzoate
1889 The German physicist Otto Lehmann
described their physical properties and
defines them as a new state of aggrega-
tion in his publication “On flowing
crystals”
1904 At the incentive of Otto Lehmann, Merck
offered the first liquid crystals for research
purposes in its price list “Substances
with liquid crystalline properties”
1966 Cholesteric liquid crystals were employed
as temperature indicators, in thermogra-
phy and medicine, later also in fashion
items and cosmetics
1968 Dynamic scattering (George Heilmeier
et. al., RCA, United States)
1968 Merck began research on nematic liquid
crystals
1971 The twisted nematic cell (TN cell) was
invented by Schadt and Helfrich (Swit-
zerland) and Fergason (United States)
1972 George Gray (University of Hull,
England) developed cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls: BDH Chemicals Ltd. (today
Merck) and Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.
marketed them
1976 Merck patented phenylcyclohexanes
(PCHs), biphenylcyclohexanes (BCHs)
and cyclohexylbiphenylcyclohexanes
(CBCs)
1979 Cyclohexylcyclohexanes (CCHs) intro-
duced by Merck
1980 Merck developed the “Viewing Independ-
ent Panel” (VIP display), the basis of all
active matrix flat panel LCDs
1980 Merck constructed an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystals in Atsugi, Japan
1985 The extensive liquid crystal patent port-
folios of Brown Boveri & Cie. (BBC) was
purchased by Merck
1989 Merck constructed an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystals in Seoul, Korea
1993 Joint venture between Merck and Balzers
for the production of ITO glass; construc-
tion of a fully automated coating plant
in Taiwan (since 1997, a wholly owned
Merck subsidiary: “Merck Display Tech-
nologies Ltd.”)
1995 Merck and Hitachi Ltd. cooperated in
the development of In Plane Switching
(IPS), a new technology for LCD monitors
based on a patent filed in 1990 by the
Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Solid-
State Physics in Freiburg, Germany. This
patent was acquired by Merck in 1994
1995 Merck sold its patents on ferroelectric
liquid crystals to Hoechst
1996 An applications laboratory for liquid
crystals constructed by Merck in Taiwan
1996 Merck took over the nematics business
of Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.
1997 Together with Fujitsu Ltd., Merck devel-
oped an LCD video monitor based on
Vertical Alignment (VA) technology
1998 The production capacity for ITO glass
was expanded in Taiwan
100 years of liquid crystals at Merck
2002 Merck Ltd. was established in Hong Kong,
responsible for the liquid crystal business
in Hong Kong and China
2002 A third ITO coating line was installed
for color STN displays and OLEDs
2003 The German Future Prize was awarded
by the President of the Federal Republic
of Germany to Merck for the liquid
crystal technology that makes flat tele-
visions possible
2004 Inauguration of the new production plant
for liquid crystals in Darmstadt, with an
The history
initial annual capacity of 100 tons. The
investment totals approximately 250
million euros at the Darmstadt and Gerns-
of the future
heim locations
März 2004
Merck KGaA
Corporate Communications
E-Mail: history@merck.de
W 840.414
D-64271 Darmstadt
www.merck.de
The Future
Merck’s researchers developed a
new generation of superfluorinat-
ed liquid crystals for the VA
technology, which enable ex-
tremely short switching times
of 16 milliseconds – and in the
latest devices of only 12 milli-
seconds.
New production plant
for liquid crystals
in Darmstadt –
inauguration in 2004
Thus display manufacturers are
now able, for the first time, to
mass-produce flat, energy-saving,
large LCD television screens. This
was so great a technological ad-
vance that, in November 2003,
Merck’s researchers received the
German Future Prize from the
President of the Federal Republic
of Germany.
The LCD television manufacturers
count on strong growth in the
coming years – a boom, which
will be comparable only to the
mobile telephone boom. In order
to guarantee delivery for liquid
crystals, Merck has invested 250
million euros in new production
facilities at the sites in Germany.
While the liquid crystals are pro-
duced predominantly in Germany,
the liquid crystal mixtures are
manufactured directly in the
proximity of the actual customers.
Thus Merck established a new
liquid crystal center in 2002 at
Poseung near Seoul, Korea, and
founded Merck Ltd. in Hong Kong,
which is responsible for the liquid
crystal business in Hong Kong
and China.
In 2004, now 100 years later,
Merck’s situation with its Liquid
Crystals division is ideal. In the
meantime, Merck has secured its
business with more than 2,500
patents for liquid crystals, their
mixtures, and display applica-
tions. With a market share of over
60%, Merck is the global leader
in the liquid crystal market; in
the area of TV applications, Merck
is currently even the dominant
supplier.
The way has been long and some-
times stony, but Merck has man-
aged to get there. This has been
due to its perseverance, compe-
tence, constant technological
leadership, courageous business
decisions, and thanks to many
people with their visions and
imperturbable faith in success, as
well as the close and trusting
cooperation with its customers
for many years.
Would you like to know more? You
will find detailed information
about the success story of liquid
crystals in the book “The history of
the future – 100 years of liquid
crystals at Merck”.
The Company
Pyramid at the main
entrance in Darmstadt
The roots of Merck KGaA reach
back into the 17th century. In
1668, the pharmacist Friedrich
Jacob Merck purchased the Engel-
Apotheke (“Angel Pharmacy”) in
Darmstadt; in 1816, Emanuel
Merck took it over; his scientific
work on highly effective alkaloids
laid the foundation for “large-
scale production” from 1827 on.
Arial view at Merck Darmstadt
From the beginnings in the phar-
macy laboratory evolved a phar-
maceutical-chemical factory.
Right from the outset, the guiding
principle was always the especial-
ly high purity of the preparations.
By intensive research work in the
area of pharmaceuticals and che-
micals, as well as by expansion
and increasing internationaliza-
tion, the economic success of
Merck grew rapidly.
Today Merck KGaA is a globally
operating group, which concen-
trates on pharmaceuticals, special-
ty chemicals, and laboratory pro-
ducts.
The guarantors of success for
Merck are in the year 2003 more
than 34,200 entrepreneurially
minded employees, who are
engaged in application-oriented
research and development, and
who are consistently responsive
to the desires and needs of their
customers.
The company headquarters is in
Darmstadt, Germany. A total of
204 companies operate for Merck
in 53 countries, and production
takes place at 62 locations in
28 countries. Merck KGaA gener-
ates sales of 7.2 billion euros
worldwide, to which the Liquid
Crystals division contributes far
more than 400 million euros.
Merck is the leading manufacturer
of LCD materials worldwide. By
the continuous further develop-
ment of customized liquid crystal
mixtures, Merck – together with
the display manufacturers –
makes tomorrow’s communica-
tion technologies possible.
The current development at Merck
is documented in the Annual Re-
ports and at www.merck.de.
Milestones
1888 The Austrian botanist Friedrich Reinitzer
discovered the liquid crystalline properties
of cholesteryl benzoate
1889 The German physicist Otto Lehmann
described their physical properties and
defines them as a new state of aggrega-
tion in his publication “On flowing
crystals”
1904 At the incentive of Otto Lehmann, Merck
offered the first liquid crystals for research
purposes in its price list “Substances
with liquid crystalline properties”
1966 Cholesteric liquid crystals were employed
as temperature indicators, in thermogra-
phy and medicine, later also in fashion
items and cosmetics
1968 Dynamic scattering (George Heilmeier
et. al., RCA, United States)
1968 Merck began research on nematic liquid
crystals
1971 The twisted nematic cell (TN cell) was
invented by Schadt and Helfrich (Swit-
zerland) and Fergason (United States)
1972 George Gray (University of Hull,
England) developed cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls: BDH Chemicals Ltd. (today
Merck) and Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.
marketed them
1976 Merck patented phenylcyclohexanes
(PCHs), biphenylcyclohexanes (BCHs)
and cyclohexylbiphenylcyclohexanes
(CBCs)
1979 Cyclohexylcyclohexanes (CCHs) intro-
duced by Merck
1980 Merck developed the “Viewing Independ-
ent Panel” (VIP display), the basis of all
active matrix flat panel LCDs
1980 Merck constructed an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystals in Atsugi, Japan
1985 The extensive liquid crystal patent port-
folios of Brown Boveri & Cie. (BBC) was
purchased by Merck
1989 Merck constructed an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystals in Seoul, Korea
1993 Joint venture between Merck and Balzers
for the production of ITO glass; construc-
tion of a fully automated coating plant
in Taiwan (since 1997, a wholly owned
Merck subsidiary: “Merck Display Tech-
nologies Ltd.”)
1995 Merck and Hitachi Ltd. cooperated in
the development of In Plane Switching
(IPS), a new technology for LCD monitors
based on a patent filed in 1990 by the
Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Solid-
State Physics in Freiburg, Germany. This
patent was acquired by Merck in 1994
1995 Merck sold its patents on ferroelectric
liquid crystals to Hoechst
1996 An applications laboratory for liquid
crystals constructed by Merck in Taiwan
1996 Merck took over the nematics business
of Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.
1997 Together with Fujitsu Ltd., Merck devel-
oped an LCD video monitor based on
Vertical Alignment (VA) technology
1998 The production capacity for ITO glass
was expanded in Taiwan
100 years of liquid crystals at Merck
2002 Merck Ltd. was established in Hong Kong,
responsible for the liquid crystal business
in Hong Kong and China
2002 A third ITO coating line was installed
for color STN displays and OLEDs
2003 The German Future Prize was awarded
by the President of the Federal Republic
of Germany to Merck for the liquid
crystal technology that makes flat tele-
visions possible
2004 Inauguration of the new production plant
for liquid crystals in Darmstadt.
The history
The investment totals approximately
250 million euros at the Darmstadt and
Gernsheim locations
of the future
März 2004
Merck KGaA
Corporate Communications
E-Mail: history@merck.de
W 840.414
D-64271 Darmstadt
www.merck.de
The Future
Merck’s researchers developed a
new generation of superfluorinat-
ed liquid crystals for the VA
technology, which enable ex-
tremely short switching times
of 16 milliseconds – and in the
latest devices of only 12 milli-
seconds.
New production plant
for liquid crystals
in Darmstadt –
inauguration in 2004
Thus display manufacturers are
now able, for the first time, to
mass-produce flat, energy-saving,
large LCD television screens. This
was so great a technological ad-
vance that, in November 2003,
Merck’s researchers received the
German Future Prize from the
President of the Federal Republic
of Germany.
The LCD television manufacturers
count on strong growth in the
coming years – a boom, which
will be comparable only to the
mobile telephone boom. In order
to guarantee delivery for liquid
crystals, Merck has invested 250
million euros in new production
facilities at the sites in Germany
(with a capacity of 100 tons per
year, capable of being increased
to 150 tons per year).
While the liquid crystals are pro-
duced predominantly in Germany,
the liquid crystal mixtures are
manufactured directly in the
proximity of the actual customers.
Thus Merck established a new
liquid crystal center in 2002 at
Poseung near Seoul, Korea, and
founded Merck Ltd. in Hong Kong,
which is responsible for the liquid
crystal business in Hong Kong
and China.
In 2004, now 100 years later,
Merck’s situation with its Liquid
Crystals division is ideal. In the
meantime, Merck has secured its
business with more than 2,500
patents for liquid crystals, their
mixtures, and display applica-
tions. With a market share of over
60%, Merck is the global leader
in the liquid crystal market; in
the area of TV applications, Merck
is currently even the dominant
supplier.
The way has been long and some-
times stony, but Merck has man-
aged to get there. This has been
due to its perseverance, compe-
tence, constant technological
leadership, courageous business
decisions, and thanks to many
people with their visions and
imperturbable faith in success, as
well as the close and trusting
cooperation with its customers
for many years.
Would you like to know more? You
will find detailed information
about the success story of liquid
crystals in the book “The history of
the future – 100 years of liquid
crystals at Merck”.
The Company
Pyramid at the main
entrance in Darmstadt
The roots of Merck KGaA reach
back into the 17th century. In
1668, the pharmacist Friedrich
Jacob Merck purchased the Engel-
Apotheke (“Angel Pharmacy”) in
Darmstadt; in 1816, Emanuel
Merck took it over; his scientific
work on highly effective alkaloids
laid the foundation for “large-
scale production” from 1827 on.
Arial view at Merck Darmstadt
From the beginnings in the phar-
macy laboratory evolved a phar-
maceutical-chemical factory.
Right from the outset, the guiding
principle was always the especial-
ly high purity of the preparations.
By intensive research work in the
area of pharmaceuticals and che-
micals, as well as by expansion
and increasing internationaliza-
tion, the economic success of
Merck grew rapidly.
Today Merck KGaA is a globally
operating group, which concen-
trates on pharmaceuticals, special-
ty chemicals, and laboratory pro-
ducts.
The guarantors of success for
Merck are in the year 2003 more
than 34,200 entrepreneurially
minded employees, who are
engaged in application-oriented
research and development, and
who are consistently responsive
to the desires and needs of their
customers.
The company headquarters is in
Darmstadt, Germany. A total of
204 companies operate for Merck
in 53 countries, and production
takes place at 62 locations in
28 countries. Merck KGaA gener-
ates sales of 7.2 billion euros
worldwide, to which the Liquid
Crystals division contributes far
more than 400 million euros.
Merck is the leading manufacturer
of LCD materials worldwide. By
the continuous further develop-
ment of customized liquid crystal
mixtures, Merck – together with
the display manufacturers –
makes tomorrow’s communica-
tion technologies possible.
The current development at Merck
is documented in the Annual Re-
ports and at www.merck.de.
Milestones
1888 The Austrian botanist Friedrich Reinitzer
discovered the liquid crystalline properties
of cholesteryl benzoate
1889 The German physicist Otto Lehmann
described their physical properties and
defines them as a new state of aggrega-
tion in his publication “On flowing
crystals”
1904 At the incentive of Otto Lehmann, Merck
offered the first liquid crystals for research
purposes in its price list “Substances
with liquid crystalline properties”
1966 Cholesteric liquid crystals were employed
as temperature indicators, in thermogra-
phy and medicine, later also in fashion
items and cosmetics
1968 Dynamic scattering (George Heilmeier
et. al., RCA, United States)
1968 Merck began research on nematic liquid
crystals
1971 The twisted nematic cell (TN cell) was
invented by Schadt and Helfrich (Swit-
zerland) and Fergason (United States)
1972 George Gray (University of Hull,
England) developed cyanobiphenyls and
-terphenyls: BDH Chemicals Ltd. (today
Merck) and Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.
marketed them
1976 Merck patented phenylcyclohexanes
(PCHs), biphenylcyclohexanes (BCHs)
and cyclohexylbiphenylcyclohexanes
(CBCs)
1979 Cyclohexylcyclohexanes (CCHs) intro-
duced by Merck
1980 Merck developed the “Viewing Independ-
ent Panel” (VIP display), the basis of all
active matrix flat panel LCDs
1980 Merck constructed an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystals in Atsugi, Japan
1985 The extensive liquid crystal patent port-
folios of Brown Boveri & Cie. (BBC) was
purchased by Merck
1989 Merck constructed an applications labo-
ratory for liquid crystals in Seoul, Korea
1993 Joint venture between Merck and Balzers
for the production of ITO glass; construc-
tion of a fully automated coating plant
in Taiwan (since 1997, a wholly owned
Merck subsidiary: “Merck Display Tech-
nologies Ltd.”)
1995 Merck and Hitachi Ltd. cooperated in
the development of In Plane Switching
(IPS), a new technology for LCD monitors
based on a patent filed in 1990 by the
Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Solid-
State Physics in Freiburg, Germany. This
patent was acquired by Merck in 1994
1995 Merck sold its patents on ferroelectric
liquid crystals to Hoechst
1996 An applications laboratory for liquid
crystals constructed by Merck in Taiwan
1996 Merck took over the nematics business
of Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.
1997 Together with Fujitsu Ltd., Merck devel-
oped an LCD video monitor based on
Vertical Alignment (VA) technology
1998 The production capacity for ITO glass
was expanded in Taiwan
100 years of liquid crystals at Merck
2002 Merck Ltd. was established in Hong Kong,
responsible for the liquid crystal business
in Hong Kong and China
2002 A third ITO coating line was installed
for color STN displays and OLEDs
2003 The German Future Prize was awarded
by the President of the Federal Republic
of Germany to Merck for the liquid
crystal technology that makes flat tele-
visions possible
2004 Inauguration of the new production plant
for liquid crystals in Darmstadt, with an
The history
initial annual capacity of 100 tons. The
investment totals approximately 250
million euros at the Darmstadt and Gerns-
of the future
heim locations
März 2004
Merck KGaA
Corporate Communications
E-Mail: history@merck.de
W 840.414
D-64271 Darmstadt
www.merck.de