archives of civil and mechanical engineering 12 (2012) 113118

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/acme

Press hardening An innovative and

challenging technology
R. Neugebauera, F. Schieckb, S. Polsterb, A. Mosela, A. Rautenstraucha,
J. Schonherrb,n, N. Pierschela
a

Chemnitz University of Technology, Institute for Machine Tools and Production Processes IWP, Reichenhainer Strae 70, 09126 Chemnitz,
Germany
b
Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology IWU, Reichenhainer Strae 88, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany

art i cle i nfo

ab st rac t

Article history:

In view of the growing demand for high-strength, press-hardened sheet metal components

Received 27 April 2012

and the increasing need for energy and resource efficient process-chains, the optimization

Accepted 29 April 2012

of the press hardening process chain is a complex, multi-layered and challenging task. The

Available online 4 May 2012

aim of the present paper is to show the potential for optimization in the press-hardening

Keywords:

process chain and to demonstrate initial implementation variants.

Press hardening

& 2012 Politechnika Wrocawska. Published by Elsevier Urban & Partner Sp. z.o.o. All rights
reserved.

Hot sheet metal forming

Simulation
Tribology
Forming tool

1.

Motivation

Press-hardened, crash-relevant components such as side-impact

and bumper cross members have been used since the mid1980s. The trend towards the use of high-strength materials in
innovative bodywork concepts that began with this continued
ever since (Fig. 1). The number of press-hardened components
produced increased from about 3 million units in 1987 to around
124 million in 2010. On this basis the forecast is that the
production of high-strength body panels will increase to approximately 350 million components per year by 2015 [2].
In order to meet the requirements of this rapid technological
development, reliable and practical production strategies must
be developed. A successful example is the forming process of
press hardening, which combines the forming and heat treatment of the sheet metal component in a single process step.
Fig. 2 shows a scheme of the direct process chain for the
production of press-hardened structural components. The

trimmed sheet metal blank made from heat-treatable

manganeseboron steel (22MnB5) is austenitized at 950 1C in a
roller hearth furnace. The heating process is followed by the hot
forming of the sheet metal on a cooled tool; the so-called press

Fig. 1 Future demand for press-hardened components [2].

Corresponding author. Tel.: 49 371 5397 1808; fax: 49 371 5397 61808.
E-mail address: Julia.Schoenherr@iwu.fraunhofer.de (J. Schonherr).

1644-9665/$ - see front matter & 2012 Politechnika Wrocawska. Published by Elsevier Urban & Partner Sp. z.o.o. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2012.04.013

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archives of civil and mechanical engineering 12 (2012) 113118

4. Reduction of losses, e.g. by increasing the degree of

material utilization and the waste heat recovery.
5. Optimization of the cycle time, e.g. through the reduction
of downtime and idle time and the use of multiple
impression dies.

The possibility of producing high-strength as well as lightweight components offers enormous potential, particularly for
the reduction of vehicle mass in series production within the
automotive industry. For example, up to 20 kg of material can be
saved for a mid-sized vehicle through the use of press-hardened
body parts [8]. On one hand, this reduces the amount of steel
required by about 68 kg per body shell in the manufacture of the
vehicle; on the other hand, it reduces fuel consumption by about
0.1 l per 100 km when the vehicle is in use [3]. However, the use
of press-hardened components not only reduces the weight of
vehicles; the higher component strength significantly increases
the energy absorption capacity and therefore the crash performance of structural components. Furthermore, the press-hardening process allows different material properties to be set in a
controlled manner by tailored tempering, for example thereby
enabling the further improvement of crash-relevant components. Other advantages of press hardening, from the perspective of manufacturing technology, are lower forming forces and
high dimensional accuracy. These are critical factors in the
dimensioning and selection of a suitable press. Furthermore,
the combination of forming, hardening and heat treatment
processes in a single tool, together with good formability, reduces
both the number of forming steps in the production of a
component and the tooling costs for the overall process.

2.

Challenges in press hardening

In order to make use of the described potentials of press

hardening, a variety of technical production challenges has to
be overcome. Hence, in addition to technological process
optimization, research challenges include the design of
forming dies and thermo-mechanical FE simulation, as well
as present questions regarding tool tribology and the energy
and resource efficiency of the processes.
Characteristic starting points for process optimization are:
1. Realization of zero-defect production, e.g. high process
safety, for example and the determination of suitable
process windows.
2. Minimization of the used resources, e.g. through optimized component geometry and the reduction of energy
consumption.
3. Energy-efficient tools, machinery and equipment, e.g. intelligent tool systems and suitably adapted tool coatings.

3.
Research strategies and solution
approaches
This chapter describes the challenges of press hardening
in terms of process control, tool design, thermo-mechanical
coupled simulations, tribology and also energy and resource
efficiency. It also presents the research strategies as well as
the developed solution approaches.

3.1.
Determination of thermo-mechanical parameters for
technological process design
The process chain of hot sheet metal forming is designed by
determining the thermo-mechanical parameters. The aim,
besides the reduction of process temperature, is to shorten
the process time and to determine the limits of the process
for improved process reliability. The basic thermo-mechanical studies are performed by varying different parameters
such as forming temperature, extent of deformation, heating
rate, cooling rate, austenitizing temperature and process
time. This reveals the influence of various factors on the
process and specifies the process window as a function of the
required component properties.
Dilatometric studies form the basis of the thermo-mechanical
analysis. In addition to determining a process-reliable heating
temperature for the austenitization of the material used, the
tests allow conclusions to be drawn regarding the production
of components with graded properties. The austenitizing temperature is determined using a quenching and deformation
dilatometer at various heating rates from 1 K/s to 300 K/s, where
the recorded changes in the length of the samples provide

[K/s]
300 100

1050

30 10

3 1

1050

22MnB5

1000

1000

950

950

900

900

850

Ac3

850
800

800
Ac1

750
700
0.1

10
100
Time [s]

1000

750
700
10000

Fig. 3 TTA diagram for material 22MnB5.

Temperature [C]

hardening or form-hardening step. The necessary high cooling

rate of at least 27 K/s results in a hardening by means of
transformation to a martensitic structure. Depending on the
material used, this gives the components a tensile strength of
10001900 N/mm2. The final geometry of the press-hardened
component is realized by the process steps mechanical trimming
(cutting of hardened material) or laser cutting.

These optimization approaches can be put into practice

using various technological measures or innovative research
strategies.

Temperatur [C]

Fig. 2 Process chain direct press hardening.

archives of civil and mechanical engineering 12 (2012) 113118

information regarding the beginning of the austenite transformation, Ac1, and the end of the austenite transformation Ac3.
The results are summarized in a timetemperature austenitization (TTA) diagram (Fig. 3).
Component-specific properties can be adjusted in hot sheet
metal forming by varying the cooling rate. The time
temperaturetransformation (TTT) diagram is helpful in this
regard (Fig. 4). As with the TTA diagram, this is determined
using the dilatometric studies in which the samples were first
austenitized and then, after a predetermined holding time,
cooled at different cooling rates ranging between 0.260 K/s.
The mechanical properties of the heat-treated samples are
subsequently examined. This allows conclusions to be drawn
regarding their component-specific properties [4].

1000
Cooling rate curves
Experimental points
Transformation start
and finish lines

22MnB5
A

Temperature [C]

800

10

12
15

A+F

20

600

A+P

25
30

MSTART

400

200

M END

0
0.1

5
8

60

10

100

0.2

1000

10000

Time [sec]
Fig. 4 TTT diagram for material 22MnB5.

3.2.

115

Thermo-mechanical FE simulation for tool design

Thermo-mechanical coupled simulation is an important tool

for process planners and designers for reproducing and
evaluating the complex factors affecting the press hardening
process, such as temperature, strain rate, heat transfer and
material behavior. The special-purpose AutoForm FE simulation program with its integrated hot-forming module makes
it possible, for example, to make early statements regarding
the manufacturability of components for the hot-forming
process. The shell-modeling approach chosen for this permits the evaluation of the calculation results with respect to
the sheet thickness distribution/thinning, wrinkling and
formability, among other things, (Fig. 5) and is used for
process and tool design.
When considering and designing cooling channels, it is also
necessary to mesh the tools and integrated cooling channel
structures as solid elements in the FE Analysis. In this case
the commercial FE Software LSDyna was used in this project.
Calculations were performed with different thermal boundary conditions, such as tool temperature Tt and the heat
transfer coefficient h, for an equivalent number of cycles, to
describe the temperature management in the B-pillar base
demonstrator tool. For the analysis of the cooling systems in
the forming tool (Fig. 6), the cooling channels on the left side
were cooled with water (20 1C), while the cooling channels on
the right side were switched off or heated with warm oil
(300 1C). This way the material characteristics can be locally
adapted in the component [5].
Thermo-mechanical coupled FE simulations show that the
component properties can be influenced by the tool temperature distribution and heat transfer coefficient, in this way,
parts with tailored properties can be achieved. For example, it
is possible to produce softer component zones (i.e., high

Fig. 5 Feasibility analysis (left: tool design, right: AutoForm FE Simulationformability).

Fig. 6 Design of the cooling system [5].

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archives of civil and mechanical engineering 12 (2012) 113118

bainite phase fraction) by using tool tempering with hot oil at

300 1C (Fig. 7).

3.3.

Modern tool design

In current industrial practice the two following cooling

concepts are used in press-hardening tools: shell structure
and cast-in cooling channels (Fig. 8).
These both variants were also selected for implementation in
the demonstrator tool B-pillar base. For the punch of the tool
the shell variant, consisting of a punch base substructure (Fig. 9)
and a punch shell, was selected; while for the die, the variant
with cast-in cooling pipes was chosen. Both tool designs were
made of spheroidal iron (EN-JS1070-GGG70). The template was
also made by using EN-JS1070 in the casting process. The castin cooling pipes were made of 1.4571 stainless steel (Fig. 9).

Fig. 7 Bainite phase distribution in the demonstration

component according to the FE simulation (left side of the
tool: water-cooled; right side of the tool: oil tempering) [5].

At approximately 1500 1C, the melting temperature of the

stainless steel is greater than the melting temperature of the
casting material. Only under this condition it can be ensured
that the tubes will not collapse during the casting process.
The cooling systems in the punch and the die consist of
several individual cooling channels, each of which can be
separately controlled. This allows a more precise control of
the cooling and at the same time a more homogeneous
cooling using the counterflow principle.

3.4.
Tool tribology as a control variable for process
stability
Tool tribology is a process control variable that has a great
influence on process stability. Firstly, the friction coefficient
between tool and sheet has a significant effect on the forming
result, i.e., whether an acceptable part is produced or a workpiece failure occurs. A further objective of the tribology
studies is to achieve a service life extension of the tools so
as to increase service intervals and avoid frequent stoppages.
In this respect, a common problem in series production is the
adhesion of the AlSi (aluminum silicon) sheet coating to the
tool surface.
The critical wear mechanisms during press hardening are
symptoms of fatigue due to cyclical thermal stress, which can
manifest themselves through spalling and cracking. Adhesion phenomena can be seen to increase with rising process
temperatures. Abrasion such as that caused by particles
of worn-off work-piece coating can either increase when
compared to cold forming, or can decrease due to smaller
forming forces. Furthermore, the high temperatures cause

Fig. 8 Schematic diagrams of the cooling concepts [6].

Fig. 9 Production of the B-pillar base demonstrator tool.

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archives of civil and mechanical engineering 12 (2012) 113118

Friction values of the combinations tool coating-sheet metal (610-620C)

0.60

Averaged Friction Value

microstructural transformations and diffusion processes in

the tool material and coating. Erosion sites, which are a sign
of a reduction in wear resistance, are symptomatic of such a
local influence on materials [7].
Three mechanically resistant coatings and one uncoated
tool steel were tested for suitability for press hardening tools
using a tempered strip drawing test with 901 deflection of
the sheet material, developed at the Fraunhofer IWU. Fig. 10
shows the drawing edge geometry with a die radius of 8 mm,
which represents the tool in this model experiment. The
experiments, using five strips each of the sheet materials
22MnB5, 22MnB5AlSi, 22MnB5x-tecs with a sheet thickness of 1.5 mm, were performed with the following PVD
coatings for the drawing edge: CrVN, TiNbAlN and TiZrCrN.
The NbTiAlN and TiZrCrN coating systems were both applied
as monolayer coatings on the substrate (Boehler W360 Isobloc, hardness: 56.5 HRC). The CrVN coating was applied after
the deposition of a Cr adhesion-promoting layer.
Adhesion of uncoated 22MnB5 resulting from the experiments led to a drawing-edge roughness (Rz) of 16.5 mm, as
shown in Fig. 11, when using the uncoated drawing edge. In
contrast to this, very small Rz values of 1.11.7 mm were
measured for the PVD-coated drawing edges. The measured
values for 22MnB5 with x-tecs show very low roughness for the
CrVN coating, whereas the uncoated drawing edge achieved
better results than the (TiZrCr)N and (NbTiAl)N coatings. The
results of the tribology studies make it clear that the adhesions
of uncoated 22MnB5 onto the tool can be avoided by using PVD

0.50

0.55
0.49

0.46

0.48

0.40
0.24

0.23

0.30

0.23

0.20

0.20
0.10
0.00
22MnB5
Tool Coatings

Uncoated

22MnB5 + x-tec
CrVN

NbTiAlN

TiZrCrN

Fig. 12 Average friction values for the tool coating/sheet

pairings (average values for the final 20 mm of the drawing
path at approx. 610620 1C).

coatings. In this case the tool surface is protected using

mechanically resistant coatings and, as other studies have
shown, an improvement in component quality is also achieved.
The coefficients of friction are almost completely unaffected by the tool coating on both sheet variants (uncoated
and x-tecs-coated; Fig. 12). However, a change of the initial
sheet material can have a significant influence on the
process. The use of an x-tecs coated sheet in place of an
uncoated sheet reduces friction by about a half, whereby the
formation of cracks due to excessive thinning during hot
forming can be prevented.

Roughness Measurement

4.
Evaluation of the energy and resource
efficiency of process chains

4
4
1
22
33

Reference Roughness
(without load)
Fig. 10 Measuring points on the drawing edges for the
roughness measurements.

Rz and Ra of the drawing edges after the tests with 22MnB5 and
22MnB5+x-tec
16.5
2.7

18.0

3.0

16.0

2.7

Rz [m]

9.8
1.7

12.0
10.0
6.7
1.0

8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0

7.1
1.3

1.4
0.2

2.0
1.7
1.3

Ra [m]

2.3

14.0

1.0

3.8
1.6 0.5 2.8
0.3
0.3

1.1 1.7 1.5

0.1 0.2 0.2

2.4
0.3

0.0

0.7
0.3
0.0

Measuring Point 4
(Reference)

Measuring Point 3 (22MnB5)

Measuring Point 3
(22MnB5+x-tec)

Rz_uncoated

Rz_CrVN

Rz_(NbTiAl)N

Rz_(TiZrCr)N

Ra_uncoated

Ra_CrVN

Ra_(NbTiAl)N

Ra_(TiZrCr)N

Fig. 11 Roughness of drawing edges before and after the

tests with uncoated 22MnB5 and 22MnB5x-tecs.

One milestone on the path to an energy and resource efficient

production process chains is the use of holistic balancing
methods, evaluation tools and planning software. In the
future, such tools will enable engineers, for instance in car
body manufacturing, to balance and evaluate process chains
in terms of energy and resource efficiency, to choose energysensitive influencing factors and to detect technological
improvement approaches. Therefore, a method was developed
whereby energy-sensitive, technological factors and the
energy and material flows of a process are incorporated within
a process energy balance for accounting and evaluation. This
procedure for energy and material balancing, shortened to
PEMB, consists of four steps: analysis, modeling, balancing and
evaluation. PEMB is based on the SADT model (Structured
Analysis and Design Technique), which is connected with a
techno-economic classification of production process elements
and generates a comprehensive process model. This process
model enables, on the one hand the visualization of energy and
material flows (step 1), and on the other hand the systematic
modeling of all the process elements involved (step 2), such as
raw materials, auxiliary materials, machinery and equipment or
electrical energy (Fig. 13).
Based on the individual process models, process-specific
process energy balances are created, which are then summarized as a process chain energy balance (step 3). These
process and process-chain balances can, for example, be

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archives of civil and mechanical engineering 12 (2012) 113118

as well as the development of appropriate tooling concepts

have provided the first steps towards overcoming the technical
challenges of manufacturing. This also provides the basis for
addressing current complex issues such as the mechanical
trimming of press-hardened components or of graded presshardened components.

Acknowledgements

Fig. 13 Energy and material flow during press hardening

(example).

The Cluster of Excellence Energy-Efficient Product and Process Innovations in Production Engineering (eniPROD) is
funded by the European Union (European Regional Development Fund) and the Free State of Saxony.

r e f e r e n c e s
used to calculate energy and material consumption, determine the process efficiency of the processes or analyze the
influence of process parameters such as process temperature,
sheet thickness, tool geometry and tensile strength on energy
and resource efficiency. The last step of the method (step 4)
analyses and evaluates the process and process chain balances created, whereby improvement approaches can be
identified and quantified. This basis can provide guidance
for improvement activities as well as setting energy- and
resource-sensitive process parameters. This provides engineers such as planners for bodywork manufacturing with
a method that allows the energy and material flows of
process chains to be identified and evaluated. In addition,
energy-sensitive influencing factors can be selected, and
thus energy and resource efficient process chains can be
designed [1].

5.

Summary and outlook

In order to meet the large future demand for hot-formed

components and to cope with the increasing demands in terms
of energy and resource efficiency, a wide variety of technological
challenges must be overcome. The basis for this is formed
primarily through the use of thermo-mechanically coupled,
finite element simulation, the implementation of defined tribological application conditions and the quantitative determination
of the energy and material consumptions of processes. Fundamental studies with regard to material and process parameters

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