Cheatgrass--A Challenge to Range Research

A. C. Hull, Jr. andJosephF. Pechanec

To determinethe ecologicand economicimportanceof cheatgrass

is a challengeto the men in
range research.This poorly understoodspeciesproducesa large volume of herbageover extensive acreagesand is undoubtedlythe most importantforageplant on southernIdaho ranges. Its
probableeffect upon grazing,watershed,wildlife, recreation,and timber productionfurther adds
to its importance. Many additional facts are neededbefore we can fully determinethe importance

and the desirabilityof this newcomer.If cheatgrass

is foundto be desirablea programfor its
proper managementshouldbe developed. Shouldit be found undesirable,methodsof replacement

mustbe found. The first and mostimportantimmediateproblemnow facing researchis finding

out how cheatgrassranges might be managed to hold the soil in place and to maintain soil
productivity.

The purposeof this paperis to examinethe

Naggressive
new
immigrant,
cheatgrass
lightof presentinformation,
mainlyastheyrelate
brome2 (Bromus tectorum), has invaded many aspectsof the cheatgrass
problemin the

and occupied disturbed range lands

throughouttheWest. It nowfurnishes
morethan to livestock
grazingand soilprotection
in southhalf the forageon springrangesin southern ern Idaho. Much of the discussion.
may, howIdaho, Figure 1. It has displacedthe other ever, apply equally well to other cheatgrass
grasses
therebyaffecting,directlyor indirectly, ranges. The material presentedis basedon a
grazing, watersheds,wildlife, recreation,and review of availablepublishedwork, on discuseventimber production.
sionswith men acquaintedwith cheatgrass,
and
The reactionof peopleto the comingof cheat- on widespreadobservationsby staff members
grassin Idaho was either.one of praise or of of the Intermountain
Forestand RangeExpericondemnation.Cheatgrasswas praised for its mentStationthroughoutsouthernIdahoin 1943,
ability to hold the soil and to producea large 1944, 1945, and 1946. This article does not,
volumeof herbageon rangesthat had been becauseof the presentlack of knowledge,place
producingbut little. On the otherhand, cheat- cheatgrass
in its final ecologicand economic
grass was condemned because it fluctuated niche. It merely tries to explorethe problem,
greatlyin forageproduction
andmoreespeciallypoint out what is known,and indicatewhat new
because
it encouraged
moreandlargerfires.Con- factsare critically needed.
sequently,the comingof cheatgrass,
which at
firsttendedto protectthe soilandprovideforage OCCURRENCEOF CHEATGRASSIN SOUTHERN IDAHO
for livestock,later broughtrecurrentfire which
Cheatgrass,
an aggressiveannual native to
workedhandin handwith overgrazing
to destroy Europe,enteredIdaho about 1900. Following
perennialgrasses
and to exposethe soil to ero- in the footsteps
of cultivationand abandonment,
sion.
recurrentfire, and overgrazing,it spreadrapidly
This dual role of cheatgrass,
togetherwith to severalmillion acresof range land. Cheatthe varied conditionsunder which it occurs,the grass in small amountsmight have invaded
useit receives,and the lack of knowledgecon- properly grazedranges,but it is not likelythat
cerningit lendsto the confusionregardingits invasionwould have taken place in any great
desirability. Althoughgreaterknowledgewill quantityunlesspreceded
by disturbance
of the
not bring unanimityof conclusion,
it will permit previousplant cover (2, 10, 11, 13, 19, 21, 22,
a more reliablejudgmentof the desirabilityof 26, 28, 30, 31).
cheatgrass
in a particularlocationandthe course
Cheatgrass
growsunder a greatervariety of
of actionto be taken--eitherto encourageits conditions. It occursat elevationsof from 2,000
growth or to replaceit.
to 7,000 feet, under annualprecipitationof from
7 to 22 inches,and on soilsrangingfrom gravel
aForestecologists,IntermountainForest and Range to clay. It extendsfrom the salt desertshrub
ExperimentStation, U.S. Forest Service,Ogden, Utah.
zone, where it is
aCheatgrassbrome is commonlyknown locally as type throughthe sagebrush
cheatgrassand junegrass.Throughoutthis paper "cheat.
grass" will be used. In other localities it is known as
broncograss,military grass, junegrass, Mormon oats,
downy brome, and downy chess.
555

mostabundant,
up intothe pon.
derosapineand
Douglas-firzones.
On extensivetracts of the sagebrush-grass

556

JOl RNAL OF FORESTR'

Photo by U. $. Forest

Service

Fn;. 1. Cheatgrassis highl impurtaut to the range livestock industryof solthern[daho. It

annuallyfnrnihe a large amounl of forage for cattle aud aheep. Here sheet)are utilizing
dry cheatgrass for winter forage.

Photo by U.S.

Forest Service

Fig. 2.- Heavy grazingwill damagecheatgrassranges. This view showsa cheatgrassrange grazed

heavilyby cattle during the spring,summer,and fall. Erosiouhas becomemarkedon tile southwest-facingslopes.Ahhoughnot noticeablein this picture,tile densityand heightof the cheatgrassstandis reducedmarkedly,even on tile nearly level portionsof the range.

CHEATGRASS

557

type,usuallywhererecurrentfire hasbeencom- summeror early-fallrainscauserapid germinamon, cheatgrassis the dominantspecies.Sel- tionandseedlings

maybe2 to 4 inchestall before
dom, however,does it occur as a pure stand winter setsin. Good fall growth of cheatgrass
excepton abandoned
farm lands. Sandbergblue- seemsto requireapproximately
two inchesof
grass(Poa secunda)is usuallypresent,oftenin well-concentrated
early-fallrain. From observaresponses
togetherwith weather
considerable
abundance.Otherperennialgrasses tion of cheatgrass
frequentlypresentare bottlebrushsquirrekail records,it appears
that fair to goodfall growth
(SitanJouhystrix), beardedbluebunch
3 (Agro- of cheatgrasscan be expectedonee in every
pyronspicatum
) , streambank( A. riparium) and 3 yearsin southeastern
Idaho and oncein every
Idaho.
thickspikewheatgrass(A. dasystachyum),
and 8 yearsin southwestern
giant wildrye (Elymuscondensatus).Such anOccasionallylight early-fall rains may bring
nual weedsas Russian-thistle(Salsolakali-tenui- on germinationbut the seedlings
may not surrolla), tumble-mustard(Sisymbrium altissi- vive subsequentwarm fall weather (20). In
mum), sunflower(Helianthusspp.), and wild otheryearsfall rainsmaybe too lateto produce
lettuce (Lactucaspp.) are often preseht,espe- fall germinationor growth.
cially in yearsof abundant,late springrains.
Youngcheatgrass
plantsremaindormantdurCheatgrassgrowsbeneaththe sagebrushon ing the winter. They. renew growth early
depletedrangeseitheras the only species
in the the following spring and grow rapidly until
understory,or, more often, in associationwith soil moisturebecomes
low. Height growththen
grassesand weeds.It also appearsto have be- ceasesand leavesbegin to curl and dry. The
comea smallbut consistent
part of the vegeta- plantsturn purplish-red
and finallystraw-yellow.
tion on well-managed
rangesof southernIdaho. Plants head early and seedsbegin to fall to
On these ranges, cheatgrassusually occurs the ground shortly after the reddish stage is
as smallscatteredplantsin averageyears. But reached.
in wet years,it temporarilyproducesmore volThe growthcycleis completedand the plants
umeand makesa goodshowing.'Cheatgrass
is are usuallydry by June5 in southwestern
Idaho
reportedto persistin tbe northerndesertshrub and by June 15 in easternIdaho. Abnormally
association,
evenunder goodmanagement(22). dry or moistweathermay shortenor lengthen
It is alsoregardedas part of the climaxvegeta- the growingseasonby 3 or 4 weeks.Heavy late
tion of the prairiesof Washington(4).
spring rains often causecheatgrass
to renew
growth, either after it is in the red stageor
Is CHEATGRASSA DESIRABLE RANGE FORAGE
after it has been nearly killed by late spring
PLANT ?

Desirabilityof cheatgrass
can only be determinedby consideringits growthhabits; protection furnishedto the soil; abilky to withstand
heavygrazing; seasonof usability; amount,reliability, and quality of forage production;its
effect on the fire hazard; and the effect of awns

and smut upon its use. Evaluationof these

featuresis especiallyimportantbecauseover
vastareascheatgrass
makesup 80 to 95 percent
of the cover. Hence, its shortcomings
are also
the shortcomings
of the vegetalcover.
GROWTH

HABITS

Cheatgrass,
growingprimarilyas a winterannual, is well adaptedto climaticconditionson
southernIdahoranges.In someyearsheavylateThroughout this article whenever bluebunch wheatgrass (A. spicatum) is mentioned,it will include beardless bluebunch wheatgrass (A. inerme).

frost.

Cheatgrassmay occur either as a single-

stemmed
plantin thickstands,or a well-stooled,
vigorousplantnearanthills,dungpiles,or where
fire or someotheragenthasthinnedthe plantsto
50 or lessper squarefoot. The single-stemmed
plantsoftenexceed1,000 per squarefoot, and
the averageof all standsof plantscountedin
southernIdaho during 1943, 1944, 1945, and
1946 was603 per squarefoot. Piemeisel(20)
found174 plantsper squarefootduringthe dry
periodfrom 1933-1935.
Through its growth habits, cheatgrasscompetesactivelywith seedlings
of perennials.It
alsoproduces
a largeamountof seed.Unburned
rangesat Duboisand near Raft River yielded
688 and 310 poundsof seedper acre in 1944.
Fwo unburnedrangesnear Boiseproduced432
and481 poundsof seedper acrein 1945. With
an averageof over 150,000 seedsper pound,
naturalseedingis at the rate of 478 poundsper

558

JOURNAL OF FORESTRY

acreor 1,646.seedsper squarefoot. Cheatgrass quality, palstability,and reliability of its forage

seed is highly viable. Germinationwas 99.75 production. Upon these featuresdependsto a
percentwhentestedshortlyafter seedmaturity largeextentthe averagenumberof livestockthat
(30). Germinationbeganwithin 1 day and was can be grazed,the animal gains,and the danger
practicallycomplete
within2 to 5 days (29, 30). of runningshortof foragein poor years.
This is muchmore rapid than with mostperenMeager data from southernIdaho indicate
nials. Cheatgrassis not only more rapid in that cheatgrassproducesa relatively large
germination,
but bothtopsand rootsof its seed- amountof forage(Table 1). An averageof
lingsgrowmorerapidlythan thoseof perennial nearly eight-tenths
of a ton of air-dry herbage
wheatgrasses
(30). Piemeisel(20) concluded per acre was producedeach year during the
from observations
during 1928 to 1935 that periodfrom 1940 to 1946. Basedon this shortdrought and crowdingwould not causecheat- time record,the yieldsfor cheatgrass
are about
grassto fail as a dominanton areasthat it now the sameas for crestedwheatgrass
(Table 1).
occupies.
Data from otherstatesalso showhigh yields
SOIL

forchetgrass.
ForNevada,
yields
of 799and

PROTECTION

An oft-ignoredrequirementof a good range

forage plant is its ability to protectthe range
againstsoil erosion,and to keep the soil highly
absorptive
and fertile. A plantcoverwhichpermitssoillosscannotprovidea permanent
forage
basefor the range livestockindustry.
There are but few factson whichto judgethe
adequacyof cheatgrass
in this respect.Cheatgrass,ungrazedand unburned,helpsto control
erosion(10, 13, 28) by providingcoveron impoverished
soilsand on areaswhereperennials
are not present.This annualgrass,with a fibrous
root systemoccupyingthe upper 12 inchesof
soil (20, 24), was found to be next to the wheat-

grass type and superior to perennial lupineneedlegrass

and annualweedtypesin promoting
water absorptionand preventingerosionon the
.graniticslopesof southwestern
Idaho (1).
FORAGE

PRODUCTION

The criteria mostoften usedfor judgingthe

value of a range plant are the amount,seasonal

1,441 poundsper acre were recordedin 1940

and 1941 (5). In Montana a yield in 1937 of
639 pou.nds
per acre,determined
by clipping,was
confirmedby pasturerecords of the amount
horsesate during1937 and 1938 (10).
Forageproduction
of cheatgrass
from yearto
year fluctuatesgreatly,however,and variations
in productioncausedby weatherare greater
than thoseof perennialgrasses.For example,
at Arrowrock, the yield of cheatgrassin 1943
was only one-tenththat of 1944, whereasthat
of crestedwheatgrass
was one-half(Table 1).
Furthermore,the variationsin cheatgrass
yield
that occurredduring a 5-year period at Raft
River and Arrowrockare twice as great as any
that occurredduringa 17-yearperiodon perennial vegetationat the U.S. SheepExperiment
Station (18). This 17-yearperiod includesthe
1934 drought.
Recordsfrom otherlocationsalsoshowgreat
variationson cheatgrass
yield. A Gem County
studyshowedcheatgrass
to have11 timesasmuch

TABLE 1.--HERBAGE YIELDS Or CHEATGRASSAND CRESTEDWHEATGRASSAT SEVERAL LOCATIONS ON

THE SNAKE RIVER PLAINS DtmING THE 7-YEAR PERIOB 1940-1946

Pounds per acre (air-dry)

Location

1940

1941

1942

1943

1944

1945

1946

Average

CHEATGRASS

Regina ....................................
Raft River ..............

305

970

925

794

749

2,500

300

1,250

1,711

422

1,237

........

361

3,461
1,568

1,510
1,950

441
556

1,705
1,358

1,785

........

1,537
2,126

1,090
722

1,803
1,574

Arrowrock ...... 1,897

2,560
Dubois Airport ................................

CRESTEDWHEATGRASS

Raft River ......................................................

ArroWrock

1,603
2,207
Dubois Airport ................................
26 miles southeast of Baise.

2,427

1,285

2,472
1,873

CHEATGRASS

559

densityin 1938asin 1937 (25). Oregonranch- earlytnowingis necessary.Early mowingmay,

ersreportconsiderable
fluctuation
in cheatgrasshowever,seriouslyreduceherbageproduction
yields(11). Annualweedsandgrasses
in Cali- the followingyear. Many Idahorangesmowed
fornia, similarin many respects
to cheatgrass,in 1942 before the seedwas ripe were almost
and werecoveredwith heavy
were 15 times taller and 13 times greater in free of cheatgrass
densityin 1935 than in 1934 (27). Nevada standsof Russian-thistlethe following season.

rangesin Montana,
mowedwhile
studiesfound the variationsin productionper Cheatgrass

squarefoot of densityto be aboutthe samefor green,werealsofoundto be reducedin yield

cheatgrass
as for perennials(5). But sincean- the next year.
nualsvarywidelyin density
persquarefoot (25, SEASON DURING WH'ICH CHEATGRASS IS GRAZED
27), the Nevadastudiesdo not showcheatgrass
to be a very reliableforageproducer.
Duringthe spring,all classes
of stockreadily
Thesefluctuations
in cheatgrass
productionare grazethe greenforagefurnishedby cheatgrass.
importantto the range stockmanbecauseit is Its palatabilitymay be somewhat
lower than
difficultto adjustnumbersof livestockto meet that of the perennialgrassesand weedsthat
variationsin seasonalproduction.
occur in much lesser abundance; nevertheless,
Althoughcheatgrass
varieswidelyin produc- use is good. Judgingfrom appearance
of the
tion, it forms a cover rapidly after drought. animalsand data on chemicalcomposition,
the
Unlike perennialbunchgrasses,
whichmay take springgrowthof cheatgrass
has a satisfactory
from 2 to 4 yearsto recoverfrom suchsevere nutritive value. Limited data from Nevada (5)
droughtas occurredin 1934 (16), cheatgrass and Montana (30) showthat chemicalcomposiresponds
to the first season
of favorablemoisture tion of cheatgrassduring the limited period in
and temperature.
whichit remained
greencompared
favorablywith
Althoughthereseemsto be a commonbelief native perennialgrasses.
that cheatgrass
producesmore forage early in
Dry cheatgrass
is little usedby sheep.On the
the springthan perennials,observations
during otherhand,cattleandhorsesgrazethe dry grass
1943, 1944, 1945, and 1946 on southernIdaho quitereadily,providedthereis amplewaterfor
rangesshowthat this may not be true. On all the animals. The dry forage,however,apparmeasurements
duringthese4 yearssuchperen- entlymay not havesufficient
proteinand phosnial grasses
ascrested,
bluebunch,
andthickspike phorusto meetthe requirements
of grazinganiwheatgrass,
Sandberg
bluegrass
andbulbousblue- mals (5). This deficiencyalso occursin dry
grass(Poa bulbosa)were 2 to 4 timesas tall at annualvegetation
of Californiawherethisforage
the start of the spring.grazingseasonas cheat- varied from a protein-richfeed during early
grass.This seemsgenerallyto be the casewhen growthto a poor roughage,low in mineralsand
cheatgrass
fails to germinateor makesa poor proteinlater in the summer(7). There are no
growththe precedingfall.
detailedrecordsof gains made by cattle and
horsesgrazingon cheatgrass
duringthe summer,
PRODUCTION
OF HAY
but it is probablethat gainsdeclinerather rapIn many sectionsof southernIdaho three- idly, ceasingalmostcompletelybeforethe end
fourthsto ll/ tons of cheatgrasshay per acre of the summer. In Nevada it was recommended
rangebe marketed6 to
have beenharvestedduring good years. But in that cattleon cheatgrass
8 weeks earlier in the fall than is the common
poor yearsthere is not enoughgrassto cut.
Theonlydataavailableonthequalityof cheat- practiceto avoidlossin fleshing(5). In Monrangemaintained
grasshay are from Montanawherecheatgrasstana,idle horseson cheatgrass
cut for hay in the floweringstagewasfoundto their weight until September,and then lost
be highlydigestible
to rams.With theexception rapidly (10).
In the fall sheepmakebut little use of cheatof lessdigestible
crudeproteinandlowerpalatability it was equalto crestedwheatgrass
hay grassexceptin the rather infrequentyearsin
(14).
which there is an abundanceof new green
Stacksof cheatgrass
hay put up duringyears growth. This is in contrastto the use of perengrassranges
of surplusforagewouldbe valuableduringhard nial grasseson sagebrush-perennial
winters. It appearsthat in orderto securegood- wheresheepoftengrazeas long in the fall as
qualityhayandto avoidthestiff,injuriousawns, they do in the spring. Both cattleand horses

560

JOURNAL OF FORESTRY

grazecheatgrass
rangesin the fall. Quality of
the forageremainspoor exceptin yearswhen
fall growthis abundant.Thereis no information
on the extentto which it is improvedby new,
greengrowth.A smallamountof greengrowth,
however, is often detrimental becauseanimals

cheatgrass
pasturesshowcapacities
to be 2 or
3 acresper animal unit month. This is as high
asnativesagebrush-grass
pastures
in goodcondition in the samelocality. No signsof deterioration are yet evidentfrom suchuse.
It appearsthat one meansof achievingcontinual high productionis to leave enoughcurrent growth ungrazedto adequatelyprotectthe
soil and maintain soil fertility. This has been
foundto be the casewith Californiaannual-type
ranges(8) and it may well applyto cheatgrass

travelexcessively
tryingto get a fill on the green
growthrather than take the dry.
Duringthewinter,in relativelysnow-free
areas
suchas on parts of the centraland lower Snake
River and lower Boiseand PayetteRiver drainages,both cattleand sheepgraze all winter on ranges.
the dry cheatgrass
forage. There is often a conEFFECT
ON FIRE HAZARDS
siderableloss in weight,especiallywith sheep,
unlessthereis either amplegreengrassfrom the
Cheatgrass
increasesfire hazard more than
precedingfall, or proteinsupplements
are fed. do perennials(11). It getsdry enoughto burn
Some operatorswho feed protein supplements4 to 6 weeksearlierin the summerthando perenclaim that there is no lossof weightduring the nials and remains inflammable later in the fall.
winter.

Theungrazed
residue
is a firehazard
earlythe

In some southern Idaho areas, cattle graze followingspringand intensifies

the summerfire

yearlongon cheatgrass
rangeswith whatappears protectionproblem. Cheatgrass
has undeniably
to be fairly satisfactory
results.
increasedthe numberof fires, producedlarger
and fasterspreadingfires,and extended
the fire
seasonby 1 to 2 months.
ABILITY
TO WITHSTAND
HEAVY
GRAZING
Muchof the rangeburnedeachyear in southIt is oftenstatedthat cheatgrass
will withstand ern Idaho has beenpreviouslyburned,usually
almostunlimitedgrazinguse. Recentstudiesin within recentyears. In many casescheatgrass
southern Idaho show, however, that continued supports
firesof sufficient
sizeto travelthrough
overgrazingreducesthe numberand'heightof and damagethe adjacentlessinflammabletypes
cheatgrass
plants. Numbersof plantson over- of cover. This usuallypermitsthe spreadof
grazedrangeswereonlyone-tenth
to one-fiftieth cheatgrass.
The recurrent fires common to cheatgrass
thoseon adjacent,lightly usedranges. Spring
ranges
are costly,not only from the standpoint
growthwasslowerandthe plantsaveragedonly
three-fifths as tall. Piemeisel (20) in southern of suppression
but from the damagethey do.
Idaho andDaubenmire(3) in Washington
noted They destroyforage; exposethe soil to wind
that excessivespring grazing may destroy a and watererosion;weakenthe perennialgrasses
and weeds;destroyfences,buildings,and other
cheatgrass
coveror preventits dominance.
Overgrazingreducesyield no doubt by pre- property;burn gameanimals,birds, and liveventingseedproduction,or by permittingero- stock; and carry fire to timberedareas and
sionandcompaction
of the soil. Althoughfewer watersheds.
Many southernIdaho cattlemen,relying on
and shorterplantsare produced
on the lessferrangein the summer,fall, or winter,
tile soils,loweredyieldsare not easilyobserved cheatgrass
seriouslyshort when acunlessa comparisonwith less heavily grazed have found themselves
the forageon their
rangesis availableor unlesssoil lossbecomescidentalfireshavedestroyed
advanced.

range.

is notsoseriously
affected
Distinct signs of overgrazingon cheatgrass Therangesheepman
he reliesmuchless
rangesof southernIdaho are muchmore com- by the lossfromfire because
for forage. He is, however,
mon with cattle rangesthan with sheepranges. on dry cheatgrass
(Figure2.) This difference
is probablydueto a greatlyaffectedby the sharpreductionin early
longergrazingseason
for cattleandconsequentlyspringforagethe followingyearwhichis caused
by early cheatgrass
fires. Studiesin southern
more completeutilizationof the forage.
Grazingcapacityof cheatgrass
rangesappears Idahoduring1943,1944,1945,and1946showed
to be high. Severalrecordsof stockingon good that burningin earlysummerreducedthe num-

CHEATGRASS

561

OTHER
CHARACTERISTICS
bersof plantsby an averageof 92 percent,
and
early springheightgrowthby at least50 perCheatgrasshas three other characteristics
cent. Forageavailableat the time sheepwent which are worthy of note--its susceptibilityto
on the rangewasoftenlessthan one-tenth
of smut,the injuriouseffectof its awns,and its
that present
on adjacent
unburned
ranges(15). ability to replaceplant hostsof the beet leaf-

Such a reduction is serious, becauseof the al-

readysmallamountof early foragenormally

hopper.

Susceptibility
to smut.--Smut(Ustilagobromi.
vora), with whichcheatgrass
is periodicallyafin foragepersisted
throughout
the'earlyspring
flicted,appearsto haveonly slightor temporary
grazing season.However,later-startingplants
adverse effects on either the productivity or
on the burnedrangesstooledout very markedly
palatabilityof cheatgrass(2, 5, 11, 30). In one
andspeeded
up in heightgrowthsothat by the
exception,near Boise,a smutepidemictogether
end of the growingseason,
total forageproducwith poor cheatgrass
years in 1936 and 1938
tion on mostburned rangeswas found to equal
reduced
the
production
of cheatgrass
to almost
or exceedthat on unburned ranges (Fig. 3).
nothing
(25).
Some few rangesdid not recoverin one year
and at the end of the growingseasonproduced Injurious effect o.j awns.--The barbed and
ownedseedsof cheatgrasson the range and in
muchlessthan unburnedranges.
hay
have been reportedto causemouth and eye
The reductionin numberof cheatgrass
plants
injury
to livestock(2, 5, 11, 14, 28). Recent
was found to be relatedto the datesof burning
observations in southern Idaho indicate that this
the previousyear. The earlier fires causeda
more seriousthinning (15). This was borne out is not as seriousas formerly believed.
Ability to replaceplanthostso.j beet'leajhopby a plannedburningstudyconducted
nearBoise
in 1943, 1944, and 1945, where early summer per.--Plant hoststudiesin Idaho showthat cheatburns reducedplant numbersto from one-third grass under proper grazing managementwill
to one-fiftieththat of fall burns (Table 2). The replace Russian-thistle,mustards,and annual
samegeneraltrend wasfound in 1946 on plots weeds(20, 21). Theseplantsare hoststo the
of cheatgrassnear Riggins burnedthe first of beet leafhopper(Eutettix tenellua), carrier of
the curlytopdisease.Althoughthis featureis of
eachmonth during the summerof 1945.
minorimportance
to the rangelivestockoperator,
it
is
of
tremendous
importanceto sugar beet,
13oo
bean, and tomato growers. Studiesin this field
are underway by the Bureauof Plant Industry,
W,
lloo__ ,[-r;j
UNBURNED
IN1944.
Soils, and AgriculturalEngineering.
available for ewes and lambs. This reduction

12oo

!--

1ooo
BURNED
lN1944 /
900
____

6oo

CAN CHEATGRASS BE REPLACED BY PERENNIALS.9

This is the questionthat must be answered

wherevercheatgrassis found'to be less than

__
TABLE 2.--AVERAGE

4oo

NUMBER

OF CHEATGRASS PLANTS

PRODUCED
IN 1944-46 ON DIFFERENTPLOTS NEAR BOISE,
[DAI-IO,WHICH HAD BEEN BURNEDAT DIFFERENTDATES
DURING THE PREVIOUS YEAR

Average number of plants per

Date of burning in square foot one year after burning
MAR.31 APR.14 APR28 MAY 14
DATES OF MEASURiNg3 IN 1945.

MAY 26

JUN10

JUN.26

1943, 1944, and 1945

June 15 ........................

!94

195

14

26

July 15 .......................... 11
21
Fic. 3.--Forage yields of cheatgrassin the early spring August 15 .................... 41
36
are drasticallyreducedif the area is burned over early September15 ..............

59
in the previousyear. Here data, on an area near Boise October 15 ..................
46

bin'ned in 1944, show that herbage production when November 15 .............. 124
1,325
spring grazing started was less than one-twentiethof Unburned .................. 299
1,090
that on adjacent unburned rage. By midseasonthere
was still less than one.third as much.
No burning treatment on this date.

1946
65

42
40
51
'

112
423

562

JOURNAL

OF FORESTRY

perennialsin desirability. There are now rather

definite indicationsthat cheatgrass
can be replaced by perennialsin some places either
throughbetter grazingmanagement
or through
reseeding.
REPLACEMENT

THROUGH

BETTER

GRAZING

MANAGEMENT

springrye. The rye is cut for hay and crested

wheatgrass
is drilled in the stubblethat fall (6).
Recenttrials with deep-furrowdrills are encouraging.When usedafter fall germinationof
cheatgrass,
bothdisk and listertype drills eliminate considerable
cheatgrass
and placethe seed
in a deep furrow where the perennial grass
seedlingsare more protectedand better able to

compete
witlthecheatgrass
(9, 11, 29).

Severalrangesin southernIdaho are showing

that perennialgrasseswill replace cheatgrass
WHAT
IS THE
FUTURE
PROGRAM
FOR
under proper grazing management
where suffiCHEATGRASSLAND?
cient perennialgrassesremain to supplyseed.
Severalreports also statethat proper grazing,
A definite programfor the managementof
together with preventionof fire, will permit cheatgrass
and cheatgrass
lands must await an
restorationof the perennialgrasses(13, 19, 21, evaluationof the desirabilityof cheatgrass
from
23, 28, 30).
the standpointof its major uses. Only after
Replacementof cheatgrassby perennialsis researchhas gatheredsufficientinformationwill
likely to be difficultbecauseperennialgrasses it be possibleto set up a programfor proper
are usuallymorepalatablethancheatgrass,
even managementof cheatgrassranges which will
whendry. Replacement
canundoubtedly
behast- includereplacement
of cheatgrass
by perennials
ened by correct intensitiesof stocking,proper where needed.Until a comprehensive
program
seasonsof use,'and good systemsof grazing is initiated,however,all cheatgrass
rangesmust
for each class of stock.
be so managedthat no soil lossoccurs.
REPLACEMENT

THROUGH

RESEEDING

RESEARCH

NEEDED
OF

TO DETERMINE
CHEATGRASS

THE

VALUE

When desirable perennial grassesare too

sparseto revegetate
the area, or where rapid
It is'evidentfromthe preceding
sections
that
replacementof cheatgrassby perennialsis de- there are many gapsin the informationregardsired,then reseedingis necessary.Experimental ing the advantagesand shortcomings
of cheatwork indicatesthat careful attentionto species, grass. Present data have been drawn from
methods,and seasonof planting will in most widelydifferentsitesand conditions.A comprecasesassurea successful
standof perennials. hensiveresearchprogramis needed--onewhich
Since competitionbetweenreseededspecies will answermany of the importantunanswered
and cheatgrassis severe,reductionof dense questions.Someof thesequestionsare:
standsof cheatgrass
appearsessential
to the early
What are the factors,includinggrowthhabits,
establishment
of reseededspecies(9, 11, 12, 22, whichaffectthe ability of cheatgrass
to compete
23, 30). It is, however,worthyof notethat in with native and reseededspecieson its present
some cases,reseedingof perennialshas been range? Under what conditionswill it spread
successful
withoutprior reductionof cheatgrass to other areas? How great is the annualforage
(11, 12, 22, 29).
cropof cheatgrass
andperennialsandhowmuch
Reductionof cheatgrasshas commonlybeen doesit fluctuate? What stageof cuttingis best
accomplished
by mold-boardplowingat nearly for good-qualitycheatgrass
hay?
any seasonof the year (9, 11, 29), wheatland What speciesand methodsare adaptedfor
plowingin late spring as cheatgrass
startsto replacingcheatgrassby reseedingto perennial
heador afterfall germinationof cheatgrass
(9), grass?
How much early spring grazing is furnished
contourplow furrowingin the fall (12, 23),
fall disking(23), and springor fall cultivation by cheatgrass?Will perennialsallow earlier
(30). Four years'observations
showthat burn- grazingandmoretotal grazingandstill maintain
ing early in the summermay be a successfulsoil fertility and hold the soil, especiallyon
low-costmethod of thinning cheatgrass(29). steepwatersheds?
What is the effectof different
(See Table 2.) In westernMontana,cheatgrass intensities
a.ndseasons
of grazingon forageprocoveredlands are springplowedand plantedto ductionand soil erosion? What grazingmeth-

CHEATGRASS

563

that cheatgrass
rangescannotbe
ods and seasonof usewill allowreplacement
of impression
and partly as the resultof recurcheatgrass
by perennialgrass?What criteria'can overgrazed
be used for determiningrate of improvement rent fire. True, the decline in productivity
of cheatgrass
ranges,degreeof utilization,and may be slow but if permitted.to continue,resindicatorsof conditionand trend? What gains storingthe rangeto full productionon a deare made by livestockgrazing on cheatgrass pletedsoila few yearshencewil! be moredifliranges? What is the nutritive value of cheat- cult than it is now, andmay evenbe impossible.
or to
grass forage? Are feed supplementsneeded Whetherwe plan to maintain cheatgrass
curto balancenutritionaldeficiencies
duringperiods replaceit by artificialor naturalreseeding,
mustmaintainsoilproductivity.
when forage is low in quality? What is the rentmanagement
amountand nature of injury inflictedby cheatManagementof cheatgrass
rangesto reduce
soil losses to a minimum will be needed on all
grassawnson cattleand sheep?
What is the effectof cheatgrass
on usesother rangesfor a longtime,regardless
of the decision
than grazing,such as wildlife, water yield of of the desirabilityof cheatgrass.
Suchmanagewatersheds,siltation of reservoirs and streams, mentwill be permanently
neededbothon ranges
commercialtimber production,and recreational whichare to remainin cheatgrass
andon ranges
values ?
wherecheatgrass
is to be replacedby perennials
Howmuchcurrentforageis lostthroughcheat- throughpropermanagement.Goodmanagement
grassfiresand whatdamageis doneto the soil? will also be neededas a temporarymeasureto
How much do fires retard the growth of cheat- holdthe soil on cheatgrass
areasthat are awaitgrassthe followingspring? How cancheatgrassing reseeding.
firesbe prevented
andcontrolled?Will replace- There are gapsin our knowledge,however,
ment by perennialsreducefire costsand dam- regardingtheessentials
of management
necessary
ages?
for preservingsoil productivityof cheatgrass
How frequentlydoessmutoccurand what is ranges. Observations
on the cheatgrass
ranges
its effectupon yield and palatabilityof cheat- of the IntermountainRegionand researchwork
grass?
on the annualrangesin California (8) indicate
that moderategrazing,togetherwith protection
IS REPLACEMENT
OF
CHEATGRASS
BY
from fire will probablyleave enoughlitter to
PERENNIALS
JUSTIFIED
protectthe soil and to maintainit in a productive condition.

If researchdeterminesthat cheatgrassis undesirableand that replacement

can be effected, To determinethe essentialsof grazing manfor the maintenance
of soil
the questionthen arisesas to whetherthe added agementnecessary
productivity
is
the
most
important
and
pressing
advantages
offeredby the perennialcoverwill
justify the costof replacement.To answerthis task that researchfaces on cheatgrassranges.
questionresearchmust assemble
the important It callsfor determinationof the proper rate of
facts on the relative valuesof cheatgrassand stockingand seasonof use, proper degreeof
utilization, and usable indicators of trend and
perennialsfor livestockproduction,foragepro- condition.
duction, fire damage,soil erosion,watershed
protection,water yields, wildlife, timber proLITERATURE CITED
duction, and recreational values. These values
togetherwith costsand methodsof replacement,
Craddock, George W. and C. Kenneth Pearse.
1938. Snrface run-off and erosion on granitic monnwill form a basisfor determining
for eachzone,
tain soils of Idaho as influenced by range cover,
each classof stock,or each specificsituation,
soil disturbance, slope, and precipitation intensity.
U.S. Dept. Agric. Cir. 482, 24 pp.
the justificationfor replacementof cheatgrass.
MANAGING

CHEATGRASS
SOIL

RANGES

TO

Costello, David F. 1944. Know your range grasses

and plants: Cheatgrass (Bromus rectorurn). The
Westerner 7, No. 11.

MAINTAIN

PRODUCTIVITY

Cheatgrass
rangesare losingfertiletopsoilby
wind and water erosionand forage production
is decreasing,partly becauseof the mistaken

3o

Daubenmire, Rexford F. 1940. Plant succession

due to overgrazing in the ,4gropyron bunchgrass
prairie of southeasternWashington. Ecology 21:
55-64.

564

JOURNAL

OF FORESTRY

4.

. 1942. An ecological study of the

vegetation of southeasternWashington and adjacent
Idaho. Ecol. Monog. 12:53-79.
5. Fleming, C. E., M. A. Shipley, and M. R.
Miller. 1942. Broncograss(Bromus tectorum) on
Nevada ranges. Nev. Agric. Expt. Sta. Bul. 159,
21
6. Friedrich, C. Allan.
,1945. Seeding crested
wheatgrass in cheatgrass land. Northern Rocky
Mountain Forest & Range Expt. Sta. Research
Note 38. Mimeo. 4 pp.
7. Hart, G. H., H. R. Guilbert, and H. Goss.
1932. Seasonal changes in the chemical composition of range forage and their relation to nutrition

of animals. Calif. Agric. Expt. Sta. Bul. 543,

62

8. Hormay, August L. 1944. Moderate grazing pays

on California annual-type ranges. U. S. Dept.
Agric. Leaflet, No. 239, 8
9. Hull,

10.

11.
12.

13.
14.

15.
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A. C., Jr. and C. Kenneth

Pearse.

1943.

How to reseed southern Idaho range lands. Intermountain Forest & Range Expt. Station Research
Paper 2. Mimeo. 22
Hurtt, Leon C. 1939. Downy brome (cheatgrass)
range for horses. Northern Rocky Mountain Forest
& Range Expt. Sta., Applied Forest Note 89.
Mimeo. 4 pp.
Jackman, E. R. 1945. Oregon ranchers evaluate
cheatgrass. The Grazier, No. 12, Nov. 1, 1945
mimeo, 8 pp. Oregon State Agric. Col. Ext. Service.
Jaclanan, E. R., D. E. Stephens, and D. E.
Richards. 1936. Crested wheatgrass in eastern
Oregon. Oreg. State Col. Ext. Bul. 494, 39
Leopold, Aldo. 1941. Cheattakesover. The Land

17.

and George Stewart.

brush burning--good and bad. U.S.
Farmers' Bul. 1948, 32 pp.

1944. SageDept. Agric,

18.ranges.
Unpbl.
Grazing
Idaho
spring-fall
sheep
mss.

19. Pickford, G. D. 1932. The influenceof continued

heavy grazing and the promiscuous burning on
spring-fall ranges in Utah. Ecology 13(2):159-71.
20. Piemeisel, R. L. 1938. Changes in weedy plant
cover on cleared sagebrushland and their probable
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21.

and J. C. Chainberlin.
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control of the beet leafhopper and durlytop. U.S.
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22. Robertson, Joseph H. and C. Kenneth Pearse.

1945. Artificial reseeding and the closed community. Northwest Science, 19(3) :58-66.
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yield of Montana range lands. U.S. Dept. Agric.
Farmers' Bul. 1924, 24 pp.
24. Spence, Liter E. 1937. Root studiesof important
range plants of the Boise River Watershed. Jour.
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hazard of basing permanent grazing capacity on

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26. Stoddart, L. A. 1941. Tbe Palouse grassland

association in northern Utah. Ecology 22(2):
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27. TaJbct, M. W,, D. H. Biswq, and A. L. Hormay. 1939. Fluctuations in the annual vegetation
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book, p. G-38. March.
1943. The apparent digestibility and nutritive
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. 1945. Unpublished data by the InMontana Agric. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. 418, 30 pp.
termountainForest and Range Expt. Station, Forest
Service,Ogden, Utah.
Petrance, J. F. and A. C. Hull, Jr. 1945.
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, G. D. Pickford, and George Stewart. 1937. Effects of the 1934 drought on native 31. Young, V. A. 1943. Changes in vegetation and
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