Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties II

Measurement of Porosity
The porosity of a reservoir rock may be determined by:

Core Analysis
Well Logging Technique
Well Testing
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Core Analysis
1.
Calculation from the measurements of the dimensions of a

uniformly shaped sample
2.
Observation of the volume of fluid displaced by the sample

Volumetrically
Gravimetrically
Fluid penetration into the sample should be prevented

by coating the sample with paraffin or a similar substance
by saturating the core with the fluid into which it is to be
immersed
by using mercury
Bulk Volume Measurement

Fluid penetration into the sample should be prevented
by coating the sample with paraffin or a similar
substance
by saturating the core with the fluid into which it
is to be immersed
by using mercury ( Hazardous Not being used
anymore)
Pore Volume Measurement

Gas Expansion (Helium Porosimeter)
Mercury Injection
Saturation
All these methods yield effective porosity by
extraction of a fluid from the rock
introduction of a fluid into the pore spaces of the rock
Porosity Measurement Tools
Helium Porosimeter
Boyles law:
Under isothermal conditions;
At Time 1 -At Time 2 --
P1V 1
PV
P V P V
2
(1)
(2)
Helium Porosimeter
In case of a porous plug:
V 1 V b V p
P
P P V V
1
(3)
PT1 PT 2
b V p
(4)
PV
2
(5)
2
Helium Porosimeter
Then the pore volume;
V
P
2
2
V p V b V 1
P1 P2
V
P
2
2
V 1
P
1 P2
(6)
(7)
Saturation (Imbibition)
1. Weigh dry core sample
Wd
2. Measure bulk volume
Vb
Water in
3. Saturate the sample

4. Weigh saturated core sample
5. Calculate pore volume
Ww
W
Vp w
Vacuum
W d
water
6. Calculate porosity ( Assuming density of water = 1)
W W
water
W W
w
3.2 Subsurface Measurement

Surface measurements made on recovered core.
Down hole measurements very sophisticated.
Downhole porosity related to acoustic and
radioactive properties of the rock.
Density Log
There exists differences in the density of oil,
gas and water. This differences or changes in
density vs depth, allows determination of the
type of fluids that is/are present in a well.
Needs good description of the mineralogy.
L M 1 F
L M
F M
L - Quartz = 2.65 g/cm3
M Limestone = 2.71 g/cm3
Sonic Log
Measures response to acoustic energy through sonic

transducers
Time of travel related to acoustic properties of the
formation.
If mineralogy is not changing then travel time is related to
density and hence porosity.
Formation fluids will effect response.
TL TM 1 TF
TL TM
TF TM
TM - Quartz = 55ms ft-1

TL Limestone = 47 ms ft-1
TF Water =190 ms ft-1
Neutron Log
Another radioactive logging technique
Measures response of the hydrogen atoms in the
formation
Neutrons of specific energy fired into formation.
The radiated energy is detected by the tool.
This is related to the hydrogen in the
hydrocarbon and water phase.
The porosity determined by calibration
Logging Tools
Density Log
3.3 Average Porosity
Porosity normally distributed

An arithmetic mean can be used for averaging.
i 1
a is the mean porosity

i is the porosity of the
i th core measurement
n the number of measurements
Thickness weighted Average Porosity

n
h
i 1
i i

Areal Weighted Average Porosity
A
i 1

Volumetric Weighted Average Porosity

n
h A
h A
i 1
i i

Exercise 3
A piece of sandstone with a bulk volume of 1.3 cm3 is
contained in a 5 cm3 cell filled with helium at 760 mm Hg.
Temperature is maintained constant and the cell is opened
to another evacuated cell of the same volume. The final
pressure of the two vessels is 334.7 mm Hg. What is the
porosity of the sandstone?
Fluid Saturations
Defined as the fraction of pore volume occupied by a given fluid
S w, o , g
Vw,o, g
V pore space
S w water saturation
S o oil saturation
S g gas saturation
S h So S g
Sum of the saturations is 100%.

Originally rock is saturated with water before invasion of HC.
A pressure differential is required for the non-wetting phase to
displace the wetting phase.
This differential is termed the minimum threshold capillary
pressure, Pct
Fluid Saturations
Fluid Saturations
Fluid Saturations
Average Fluid Saturations
Fluid Saturations
Fluid Saturations
Fluid Saturations
Fluid Saturation is the ratio of the volume of a particular
fluid occupying some portion of a core sample to the pore
volume of that sample
Oil Saturation
Vo
So
V
V
S
V
V
S
V
Water Saturation
Gas Saturation
Saturations
1.
2.
3.
Mass of water collected from the sample is calculated as
Mass of oil removed from the core is computed as the mass of

liquid less weight of water
MLMw
Oil volume is computed as
V
4.
Mo
Oil Saturation can then be determined with the formula
S V V
o
S S S
o
Exercise 4
Estimate the fluid saturations in the core plug whose properties
are given below:
Diameter of the core plug = 2.54 cm
Length of the core plug = 6 cm
Porosity of the formation = 26 %
Original weight of the core plug before extraction = 20.0 gm
Water volume collected in the graduated tube = 3 cc
Density of water = 1 gm/cc
Dry weight of cleaned and dried core plug = 14.0 gm
Density of oil produced from the same formation = 0.75 gm/cc
Solution 2
1. Weight of water
2. Weight of liquid
W W
L
or
1 x 3 3.0 gm
W d 20.0 14.0 6.0 gm
3. Weight of oil
4. Volume of oil
W W W
o
6.0 3.0 3.0 gm
3.0
4.0cc
V o W o o
0.75
Solution 2, continued
5.
Bulk volume of the

core plug
5.
Pore volume of the

core plug
6.
7.
8.
Water Saturation
Vb r L
2
30
.
40
0
.
26
7
.
9
cm
V p Vb
Vw
Sw
Oil Saturation
Gas Saturation
Vo
So
V
2.54 2 6 30.40cm
2
3.0
0.38
7.9
4.0
0.51
7.9
S S 1 0.38 0.51 0.11

o
Wettability
Measure of the attraction between rock surface and the fluids

in the reservoir
The wetting fluid the one most attracted to the rock surface
Water Wet
(most fields)
Oil Wet
(clay&carbonates)
Different types exhibit different production performance

Oil wet systems tend to exhibit early water breakthrough and
lower initial water saturation.
Wettability
The definition is based on contact angle of water
surrounded by oil
Oil
Water
Water
Water-wet
Oil-wet
< 90o = water-wet

> 90o = oil-wet
90o = intermediate wettability
A variation of up to 20o is usually
considered in defining intermediate
wettability.
WATER-WET
OIL-WET
Air
OIL
WATER
< 90
SOLID (ROCK)
FREE WATER
OIL
Oil
WATER
WATER
WATER
> 90
SOLID (ROCK)
OIL
GRAIN
GRAIN
OIL
RIM
BOUND WATER
FREE WATER
Ayers, 2001
Effective & Relative Permeability

Curves

Curves
Rock Compressibility
LESSON OUTCOME
Permeability Concepts
Types of Permeability
Permeability
Is a measure of flow capacity (conductivity)

Depends on continuity of pore space
No unique relationship with porosity
Correlation for similar lithology is possible
Units : Darcy or miliDarcy
Permeability
The permeability of a rock is the
description of the ease with which fluid
can pass through the pore structure
Can be so low to be considered
impermeable.
Such rocks may constitute a cap rock above
permeable reservoir.
Also include some clays,shales, chalk,
anhydrite and some highly cemented
sandstones.
Permeability
Darcys Law
The rate of flow of fluid through a given rock
varies directly with the pressure applied, the
area open to flow and varies inversely with the
viscosity of the fluid flowing and the length of
the porous rock.
The constant of proportionality is termed
Permeability
Mathematical Expression of
Permeability
First introduced by Darcy in 1856
while investigating the flow of water
through sand filters for water
purification.
h
h
Q KA
1
Constant of proportionality and for

viscous fluids;
permeability
m
viscosity
Permeability
Darcys Law
kAP
Q
mL
Q flowrate in cm3 /sec
A cross sectional area of flow in cm 2
P pressure difference across ther sample, atmos.
m viscosity in centipoise
L length of sample in cm.
k permeability in Darcy
Permeability
1 Darcy = Permeability which will permit flow of one

centipoise fluid to flow at linear velocity of one cm per
second under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere per
centimetre.
Permeability
Taking viscosity as a variable
Qk
A h1 h 2
mL
Poiseuille equation for laminar pipe flow
r P
Q
8mL
4
r = radius of pipe of length L
Carmen Kozeny equation

for flow in packed beds
d 23 1 dP
u '
2
k 1 m dL
k = shape factor
d = particle size
There is a very strong relationship between porosity
and permeability
Permeability
Comparing equations.
Q
P
k
A
mL
Darcy
Carmen Kozeny
d 23 1 dP
Q
u '
2
k 1 m dL
A
It is not surprising therefore that there is a strong

relationship between permeability and porosity
d 2 3
k 1
'
Porosity vs Permeability
Porosity is independent
of grain size. Porosity
is generally unaffected
by grain size but
permeability increases
with increasing grain
size.
Porosity vs Permeability
The better sorted the sand,
the higher are both the
porosity and permeability.
Permeability
Practical unit-millidarcy, mD, 10-3 Darcy
Formations vary from a fraction of a millidarcy
to more than 10,000 millidarcy.
Clays and shales have permeabilities of 10-2 to 106 mD.
These very low permeabilities make them act as
seals between layers.
Factors Affecting Permeability

Permeability is anisotropic
Horizontal permeabilities in a reservoir are generally
higher than vertical permeabilities.
Due to reservoir stresses
Particle shape as influenced by depositional process.
Darcys Law
For one-dimensional, linear, horizontal flow
through a porous medium, Darcys Law states
L
that:
dx
kA dp
q
m dx
Flow rate (1 cm3/s)

Cross sectional area (1 cm2)
Viscosity of flowing fluid (1 cp)
Permeability ( 1 Darcy)
Pressure gradient (1 atm/cm)
Types of Permeability
Absolute Permeability
Effective Permeability
Relative Permeability
P
Flowing fluid is
100% saturating
the medium
q
A
kA P
q
m L
L
Absolute
permeability
Effective Permeability
P
More than one
fluid is saturating
the medium. Only
one of them is
mobile (flowing)
k i A P
qi
mi L
qg
qo
qw
L
Effective
permeability
P
More than one
fluid is saturating
the medium. At
least two of them
are mobile
(flowing)
k ri A P
qi
mi L
qg
qo
qw
L
Relative
permeability
k ri
k
k
Two phase relative permeability behavior
kro
krw
Sw
Permeability
From the Darcys Law equation, permeability is
defined
qm
k
A(dP / dx)
Basic linear and radial flow can be derived

General classification of permeability
Classification
Permeability Range
Very Low
1 mD
Low
1 10 mD
Medium
10 50 mD
Average
50 200 mD
Good
200 500 mD
Excellent
500 mD
Averaging Permeability
Parallel Flow
Series Flow
Arithmetic Average
Random Flow
Harmonic Average
h1
h3
k2
k1
k2
k3
L2
L3
k3
kA
kh
i i
i
kG k1 k2 k3 .......
h2
k1
Geometric Average
L1
kH
L /k
i
h1
h2
h3
1
hi
Data Sources of Porosity & Permeability
Core analysis
Discrete measurement on small scale
Routine Core Analysis (RCA) and Special Core Analysis (SCAL)
Electrical and radioactive logs
Provide average response
Neutron, sonic, density log
Well Tests (for permeability)
It is important that all measurements from all sources

are always reconciled and not to be used in isolation.
Solution 1:
P
Darcys equation for
horizontal flow:
kA P1 P2
q
mL
Solving for permeability,
qmL
k
A P1 P2
q
A
L
UNITS:
k= Darcy
A= cm2
q= cm3/sec
m= cp
P= psi
L= cm
Solution 1:
P= 3 atm
qmL
k
A P1 P2
q= 100 cm3/hr
A=22
L= 20 cm
cc 1hr
100 hr 3600 sec 2cp 20cm
k
0.0295darcy
2
2
2 cm 3atm
k 29.5md
Darcys law is considered to apply when the porous
medium is fully saturated with a homogenous, single
phase fluid.
In petroleum reservoirs, however, the rocks are usually
saturated with two or more fluids, such as interstitial
water, oil and gas. It is necessary to modify Darcys law
by introducing the concept of to Effective Permeability to
describe the simultaneous flow of more than one fluid.
In the definition of Effective Permeability each fluid
phase is considered immiscible and completely
independent, so that Darcys law can be applied to each
phase individually.
ko A P
qo
mo L
k w A P
qw
mw L
qg
k g A P
mg L
Effective Permeability is a function of the

revealing fluid saturation,
the rock wetting characteristics, and
the geometry of the pores of the rock
The effective permeabilities are generally normalized by
the absolute permeability of the rock sample and called
as Relative Permeability.
P
More than one
fluid is saturating
the medium. At
least two of them
are mobile
(flowing)
k ri kA P
qi
mi L
qg
qo
qw
L
Relative
permeability
k ri
k
k
Two phase relative permeability behavior with
respect to wetting phase saturation
1.0
1.0
krnw
Swmin
krw
Sw
Swmax
Oil-Water relative permeability behavior with respect
to Water saturation
1.0
1.0
kro
krw
Swc
Sw
1-Sor
Example 3:
A cylindrical core sample with a length of 20 cm, a diameter of 4
cm and with porosity of 30 % is subjected to a linear flow test
with water of 1 cp viscosity and its absolute permeability is
estimated as 80 md. Later the experiment is continued
1.With the injection of oil with 3 cp viscosity until no more water
production is observed at production end. At that point the water
saturation left in the core is calculated as 25 % and the
permeability is estimated as 55 md. And then,
2.With the injection of water again at 0.09 cc/sec, below data is
collected until no more oil production is observed at production
end.
Estimate the oil-water relative permeability characteristics of this
core sample.
Solution 3:
k i A P
qi
mi L
qo ( 3 )( 20 )
ko
1.59qo
2
( 3 )( 2 )
P,
atm
t,
sec
Vo,
cc
VW,
cc
10
0.30
0.60
10
0.20
0.70
10
0.05
0.85
10
0.01
0.89
10
0.9
qo,
cc/s
qw ( 1 )( 20 )
kw
0.53qw
2
( 3 )( 2 )
qw,
cc/s
ko, md
kw, md
kro
krw
Solution 3:
k i A P
qi
mi L
qo ( 3 )( 20 )
ko
1.59qo
2
( 3 )( 2 )
qw ( 1 )( 20 )
kw
0.53qw
2
( 3 )( 2 )
P,
atm
t,
sec
Vo,
cc
VW,
cc
qo,
cc/s
qw,
cc/s
ko, md
kw, md
kro
krw
10
0.30
0.60
0.03
0.06
0.0477
0.0318
0.0005963 0.0003975
10
0.20
0.70
0.02
0.07
0.0318
0.0371
0.0003975 0.0004638
10
0.05
0.85
0.005
0.085
0.00795
0.04505 0.0000994 0.0005631
10
0.01
0.89
0.001
0.089
0.00159
0.04717
10
0.9
0.09
0.0477
0.0000199 0.0005896
0
0.0005963
MULTIPHASE FLOW
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Introduction
Absolute & Effective Permeability
Hysterisis
Mobility
Fractional Flow
Buckley-Leverett & Welge methods
2.0 Introduction
Info on relative permeability is very important
because it:
Affects fractional flow of fluids during
displacement
Affects performance of a reservoir
Determine relative flow rates of each fluid
Predict production from a reservoir
2.1 Absolute & Effective

Permeability
Rock permeability irrespective of

the 100% saturated fluid type, k.
100% water saturated
100% oil saturated
If 2 fluids are present and flowing simultaneously.

Effective
Permeability Defined for each fluid.
Depend on each fluid saturation.
Effective Permeability to Water =

Effective Permeability to Oil =
ko
kw
Effective Permeability Curve

absolute
permeability
k
ko
Water Curve:
kw = 0 at Swc
kw = 1 at 100% water
saturation
kw
Oil Curve:
ko = 0 at Sw=1-Sor
ko = k at 100% oil
saturation
Swc
0
1
1- Sor
1
Sw
So
2.2 Relative Permeability
It is a normalised measure of conductance of one phase in a

multiphase system
Measure of the mutual interference between phases competing
for the same pore space (values 0 1)
Water Relative
Permeability
kw
k rw
k
Oil Relative
Permeability
ko
k ro
k
Depends on each fluid saturation in the pore space.

Part of SCAL conducted on a carefully preserved core samples
If lab data is not available, may use correlations (e.g. Corey
coefficients)

Curves
End point (indicator of
wettability)
absolute
permeabilit
y
1
kro
ko
kw
Swc
1
Sw
So
krw
1- Sor
Swc
0
1
krw
kro
0
1
1- Sor
1
Sw
So
Wettability effect on the curves

Water Wet
Oil Wet
1
kro
krw
Swc
0
1
kro
krw
Swc
1- Sor
1
Sw
So
0
1
1- Sor
1
Sw
So

Curves

Curves
Questions
Questions?

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Measurement of Porosity

The porosity of a reservoir rock may be determined by:

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Calculation from the measurements of the dimensions of a

Observation of the volume of fluid displaced by the sample

Fluid penetration into the sample should be prevented

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Bulk Volume Measurement

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Pore Volume Measurement

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Porosity Measurement Tools

At Time 1 -At Time 2 --

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

2. Measure bulk volume

3. Saturate the sample

5. Calculate pore volume

6. Calculate porosity ( Assuming density of water = 1)

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

3.2 Subsurface Measurement

Measures response to acoustic energy through sonic

TM - Quartz = 55ms ft-1

3.3 Average Porosity

Porosity normally distributed

a is the mean porosity

Thickness weighted Average Porosity

a is the mean porosity

Areal Weighted Average Porosity

a is the mean porosity

Volumetric Weighted Average Porosity

a is the mean porosity

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Sum of the saturations is 100%.

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Average Fluid Saturations

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Mass of water collected from the sample is calculated as

Mass of oil removed from the core is computed as the mass of

Oil volume is computed as

Oil Saturation can then be determined with the formula

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

W d 20.0 14.0 6.0 gm

6.0 3.0 3.0 gm

Bulk volume of the

Pore volume of the

S S 1 0.38 0.51 0.11

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Measure of the attraction between rock surface and the fluids

Different types exhibit different production performance

< 90o = water-wet

Effective & Relative Permeability

Effective & Relative Permeability

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008