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Contents
1.0 Kinematics...........................................................................................10
Formulas.............................................................................................10
2.0 Force....................................................................................................10
Tension...................................................................................................10
The Normal Force and Friction................................................................11
Drag Force..............................................................................................11
Formulas.............................................................................................12
4.0 Statics.................................................................................................12
4.2 Equilibrium.......................................................................................12
4.3 Torque..............................................................................................12
4.4 Principle of Moments........................................................................12
4.4 Centre of Gravity/Centre of Mass.....................................................12
4.6 Stability............................................................................................13
Formulas.............................................................................................13
5.0 Energy.................................................................................................13
5.3 Work.................................................................................................13
5.4 Kinetic Energy..................................................................................14
5.5 Potential Energy...............................................................................14
Gravitational Potential Energy............................................................14
5.6 Conservative Forces.........................................................................14
5.7 Conservation of Total Energy............................................................14
5.8 Power...............................................................................................14
Mechanical Efficiency..........................................................................14
Formulas.............................................................................................15
7.0 Simple Harmonic Motion.......................................................................0
7.2 Hookes Law.......................................................................................0
Energy in Hookes Law Deformation.....................................................0
7.3 Simple Harmonic Motion....................................................................0
Relationship Between Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion....1
2

Maximum Velocity in SHM.....................................................................1


Period and Frequency of SHM................................................................1
7.4 The Simple Pendulum.........................................................................1
8.0 Waves....................................................................................................2
8.2 SHM and Waves..................................................................................2
8.3 Frequency, Wavelength and Speed....................................................2
8.5 Types of Waves...................................................................................2
8.10 Waves and Energy............................................................................2
Energy...................................................................................................2
Power and Intensity...............................................................................2
8.11 Complex Waveforms........................................................................2
Musical and Vocal Tone.........................................................................2
9.0 Sound and Hearing................................................................................3
9.2 Sound Waves in Media.......................................................................3
Pressure Waves in Gases.......................................................................3
Waves in Solids and Liquids..................................................................3
Wave Speed..........................................................................................3
9.3 Pitch and Loudness............................................................................3
Frequency and Pitch..............................................................................3
Amplitude and Intensity........................................................................4
Intensity, Loudness and the decibel scale.............................................4
9.4 Resonance and Sound Generation.....................................................4
The Human Vocal Cords........................................................................4
9.5 The Ear...............................................................................................4
Anatomy................................................................................................4
The Ear and the problem of impedance................................................5
9.6 The Doppler Effect.............................................................................5
10.0 Elasticity: Stress and Strain.................................................................6
10.2 Tension and Compression.................................................................6
Tensile Stress and Strain.......................................................................6
Compressive Stress and Strain.............................................................7
3

10.5 Elasticity...........................................................................................8
Stress-Strain Curves..............................................................................8
11.0 Pressure...............................................................................................9
11.3 Pressure...........................................................................................9
Solids....................................................................................................9
Gases....................................................................................................9
Liquids...................................................................................................9
11.3 Density.............................................................................................9
11.4 Pascals Principle.............................................................................10
12.0 Buoyancy...........................................................................................11
12.2 The Buoyant Force.........................................................................11
Archimedes Principle..........................................................................11
14.0 Fluid Dynamics of Non-Viscous Fluids...............................................12
14.2 Definition of Key Terms...................................................................12
14.3 The equation of Continuity.............................................................12
Volume Flow Rate................................................................................12
Continuity of Flow...............................................................................12
14.4 Bernoullis Equation.......................................................................12
Bernoullis Principle and Incompressible Fluid Flow............................12
Energy Density....................................................................................13
Pressure and Velocity..........................................................................13
Applications of Bernoullis Equation....................................................13
15.0 Fluid Dynamics of Viscous Fluids.......................................................15
15.2 Viscosity.........................................................................................15
Poiseuilles Law....................................................................................15
Key Concepts..........................................................................................15
17.0 Temperature and the Zeroth Law......................................................17
17.2 Thermal Equilibrium.......................................................................17
19.0 Phase and Temperature Change........................................................18
19.2 Phase Change................................................................................18
Phase Diagrams..................................................................................18
4

Phase Changes and Latent Heat.........................................................18


19.3 Temperature Changes....................................................................19
Heat and Temperature........................................................................19
Specific Heat.......................................................................................19
19.4 Energy Conservation......................................................................20
The Simple Case - No Phase Change..................................................20
Thermal Equilibrium with Phase Change.............................................20
21.0 Heat Transfer.....................................................................................21
Heat Transfer by Conduction...............................................................21
Coefficient of Heat Transfer.................................................................21
Conduction Through Multiple Layers...................................................21
21.3 Convection.....................................................................................21
21.4 Radiation........................................................................................21
The Stefan-Boltzmann Law.................................................................22
Colour and Temperature......................................................................22
21.5 Combined Transfer Process............................................................22
22.0 Thermodynamics and the Body.........................................................24
22.2 The First Law..................................................................................24
22.4 Energy and the Body......................................................................24
Metabolism, Hypothermia and Hyperthermia.....................................24
Efficiency.............................................................................................24
23.0 Static Electricity................................................................................26
23.2 Charge............................................................................................26
23.3 Conductors and Insulators.............................................................26
Key Concepts..........................................................................................26
24. 0 Electric Force Field and Electric Field................................................28
24.1 Introduction....................................................................................28
24.2 Coulombs Law...............................................................................28
24.3 Superposition of Electric Forces.....................................................28
24.4 Inverse Square Law........................................................................28
24.5 The Electric Field............................................................................28
5

24.6 Electric Field Diagrams...................................................................29


24.7 Superposition of Electric Fields......................................................31
Key Concepts..........................................................................................31
25.0 Electrical Potential and Energy..........................................................32
25.2 Electrical Potential Energy..............................................................32
25.3 Electrical Potential..........................................................................32
23.4 Electrical Potential and Work..........................................................32
24.7 The Heart and ECH.........................................................................33
Key Concepts..........................................................................................34
26.0 Capacitance.......................................................................................35
26.1 Introduction....................................................................................35
26.2 The Capacitor.................................................................................35
26.3 Energy Stored in a Capacitor..........................................................36
Key Concepts..........................................................................................36
27.0 Direct Currents and DC Circuits.........................................................37
27.1 Introduction....................................................................................37
27.2 Electric Current..............................................................................37
27.3 Current Flow and Drift Velocity.......................................................37
27.4 Direct versus Alternating Current...................................................38
27.5 Circuits and Circuit Diagrams.........................................................38
27.6

Power Sources.............................................................................38

27.7 Resistance and Ohms Law............................................................39


27.8 Resistors and Resistivity.................................................................39
27.9 Wires..............................................................................................39
27.10 Kirchoffs Law...............................................................................40
Kirchoffs Law of Voltages:..................................................................40
Kirchoffs Law of Currents...................................................................40
27.11 Resistors in Series and Parallel.....................................................40
Resistors in Series...............................................................................40
Resistors Parallel.................................................................................40
27.12 Power Dissipation.........................................................................42
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27.13 Alternative Energy Units..............................................................42


27.14 Electric Shock Hazards.................................................................42
27.15 Electricity in Cells.........................................................................43
Cell Membrane....................................................................................43
Circuit Models of the Cell and the Cell Membrane..............................43
Key Concepts..........................................................................................44
28.0 Time behaviour of RC Circuits...........................................................46
28.2 The RC Circuit.................................................................................46
28.3 Discharging RC Circuit....................................................................46
28.4 Charing RC Circuit..........................................................................47
Key Concepts..........................................................................................47
29.0 The Nature of Light............................................................................48
29.2 Electromagnetic Waves..................................................................48
The constant speed of light.................................................................48
Wavelength and frequency.................................................................48
29.3 Reflection.......................................................................................49
29.4 Refraction.......................................................................................49
Snells Law..........................................................................................51
Total Internal Reflection.......................................................................51
31.0 The Eye and Vision............................................................................52
31.2 The Parts of the Eye.......................................................................52
31.8 Alternative Structure and Placement.............................................53
Focusing Ability...................................................................................53
Eye Placement and Field of Vision.......................................................53
31.9 Colour Vision..................................................................................53
Detector Types....................................................................................53
Colour Science....................................................................................53
33.0 Atoms and Atomic Physics................................................................54
33.2 Parts of the Atom...........................................................................54
33.3 Orbitals and Energy Levels.............................................................54
Electrons.............................................................................................54
7

Orbitals and Energy Levels.................................................................54


Emission and Absorption Spectra........................................................54
34.0 The Nucleus and Nuclear Physics......................................................56
34.2 Nuclei and Isotopes........................................................................56
Protons and Neutrons..........................................................................56
Atomic Number...................................................................................56
Symbols and Terminology...................................................................56
34.3 Energy and Mass Units...................................................................56
Equivalence of Mass and Energy.........................................................56
The Electron Volt.................................................................................56
The Atomic Mass Unit..........................................................................57
34.3 Nuclear Forces................................................................................57
The Strong Force and the Nucleus......................................................57
The Weak Nuclear Force......................................................................57
35.0 Production of Ionising Radiation........................................................58
35.1 introduction....................................................................................58
35.2 Nuclear Decay Process...................................................................58
Alpha Decay........................................................................................58
Beta Decay..........................................................................................58
Gamma Decay....................................................................................59
35.3 Activity and Half-Life......................................................................60
Activity................................................................................................60
Half Life...............................................................................................60
Most Likely Decay Mode and Examples of Decay Series.....................61
35.4 X-ray Production.............................................................................61
Bremsstrahlung...................................................................................62
X-ray Tubes..........................................................................................63
35.5 Other Sources of Radiation............................................................63
Pair Annihilation..................................................................................63
Key Concepts..........................................................................................64
26.0 Interaction of Ionising Radiation........................................................66
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36.2 Attenuation of X-rays and Cross Section........................................66


36.3 X-rays and Gamma Radiation.........................................................66
The Photoelectric Effect......................................................................66
Pair Production....................................................................................67
Compton Effect...................................................................................67
36.4 Particles..........................................................................................68
Neutrons.............................................................................................68
Ions.....................................................................................................68
Electrons/Positrons..............................................................................69
36.5 Detection of Ionising Radiation......................................................69
The Geiger-Mller Tube.......................................................................69
Photomultiplier....................................................................................69
Photographic Emulsion........................................................................70
Key Concepts..........................................................................................70
37.0 Biological Effects of Ionising Radiation..............................................72
37.2 Mechanisms of Cell Damage..........................................................72
37.3 Dose and Dose Equivalent.............................................................72
Absorbed Dose....................................................................................72
Dose Equivalent..................................................................................73
37.4 Types of Effects..............................................................................73
37.5 Medical Risks and Effects...............................................................74
37.6 Ultraviolet Radiation.......................................................................74
38.0 Medical Imaging................................................................................75
38.2 X-ray Imaging.................................................................................75
38.3 CT Scan..........................................................................................75
38.4 PET Scan........................................................................................75
38.7 Ultrasound Sonography..................................................................76
39.0 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance............................................................77
39.3 A brief outline of MRI......................................................................77

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1.0 Kinematics

Velocity - change in position divided by time it took to occur


- vector, has a magnitude and direction
- speed is the magnitude of velocity
Acceleration - rate of change of velocity (in time)
- vector
Projectile motion is symmetrical about the point of
maximum height
2D Motion - acceleration due to gravity acts only in the vertical
direction
- horizontal and vertical components of velocity vector are
independent

Formulas
v=

x
t

v av =

a=

v
t

v f v i =2 ax

v f =v i+a t

d
t
2

1
d=v i t + a t 2
2

2.0 Force

Newtons First Law - any object continues at rest or at a constant


velocity unless an external force acts on it
Newtons Second Law - am external force gives an object an
acceleration. The acceleration produced is proportional to the force
applied, and the constant of proportionality is the mass
1N is the force which would accelerate 1kg mass at 1m/s
the weight of an object is a force not a mass
force is a vector
Newtons Third Law - for every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction
Action-reaction pair/third-law force pair - each force in an
action-reaction pair acts on a different object (always the case)
Identify: contact forces, identify action-reaction pairs, weight forces
and then reaction to weight forces

11

Tension

exist in the body of a flexible cable or line


any forces not directed along the cable, result in bending of the
cable

12

The Normal Force and Friction

Friction force (f) - the force which prevents the block from sliding
down the slope
Normal Force (N) - perpendicular to the surface of contact
Critical Angle (c) - angle at which the box will slide
max maximum coefficient of friction
coefficients calculated form from f = N are known as the coefficient
of kinetic and static friction
the coefficient of kinetic friction is always smaller than the
coefficient of static friction
normal reaction force of the surface is not necessarily equal to the
weight force of the block
normal and friction forces are reaction forces they are the result of
action-reaction pairs between atoms on the surface and atoms on
the block. These forces are electrostatic in character.

Drag Force

forces that occur when solid objects move through gases and liquids
liquid that an object moves through exerts a force apposite to the
direction of the object = drag
moving through air = air resistance
magnitude of drag force moving through air can be modelled as
being proportional to the square of the speed
k = constant proportionality determined by the shape of the object
and density of air (see formula)
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14

Formulas
F=m a

f =N tan

W =mg

f max= max N

f =mg sin

max =tan c

N=mg cos

f (drag)=k v 2

4.0 Statics
4.2 Equilibrium

when net force and net torque is zero


static equilibrium when in equilibrium and stationary
dynamic equilibrium equilibrium and in motion (constant
velocity or constant rotational motion)
stable equilibrium if it will return to equilibrium after a small
displacement
unstable equilibrium will not return to equilibrium after a small
displacement

4.3 Torque

physical quantity which causes an object to begin to rotate or move


in a circle or (more generally) to change its rate of rotation
a torque is not a force, it is a moment
scalar
useful way to measure the effect of a force applied to a rod
units are Nm (Newton meters)

4.4 Principle of Moments

static equilibrium all torques are balanced, there is no net


torque
system already rotating will not increase its rate of rotation if the
torques are balanced
The principle of moments:
At equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments will equal the
sum of the counter-clockwise moments.
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Moment the product of a quantity and its perpendicular distance


from a given point

4.4 Centre of Gravity/Centre of Mass

The centre of gravity is the point in an object at which the force of


gravity may be taken to act

4.6 Stability

Object is stable if it will either remain in stable equilibrium


indefinitely or will tend to move back to stable equilibrium when
displaced
In general, static stability occurs when the vertical live through the
objects centre of gravity passes through its base of support

Formulas
T =F d

F cw d cw= F ccw d ccw


5.0 Energy

An object that has a certain mass and velocity, is described as


having a particular kinetic energy
An object that has a certain mass and is located at a certain point in
a conservative force field is described as having a particular
potential energy
Energy is conserved
The total energy in a closed system is constant over time

5.3 Work

Process by which energy is transferred from one form to another


How much energy has changed
What sort of process
Eg. Falling object gains kinetic energy and loses potential energy,
because ethe gravitational field of the earth does work on the object
to accelerate it
In the absence of other forces, amount of work done by the
gravitational force field is the numerical increase in the kinetic
energy of the object
When a F with magnitude F acts on a body, and it moves a distance
d in the direction of the force, the work done is W = Fd
16

Work is in joules (J)


When the force and displacement are not in the same direction, the
work is calculated using the component of force in the direction of
displacement
d

Fsin

Fcos

17

F and d are the magnitude of the applied F and the displacement D

5.4 Kinetic Energy

A measure of the work that an object can do because it is moving


The amount of kinetic energy gained by an object which is initially
at rest will be equal to the amount of work done on that object by an
external force

5.5 Potential Energy

Potential energy is the energy an object has because of its position

Gravitational Potential Energy


A force must be applied to the object to balance the downward force
of gravity so that the object is able to travel at constant velocity
This force is equal in magnitude to the gravitational force but is
directed upwards

5.6 Conservative Forces

Important to include the final and initial kinetic and potential energy
Potential energy can be converted into kinetic energy and vice-versa
Friction does not remove energy but it does convert it into forms
which depend on the microscopic behaviour of the system = usually
treated as a dissipative force
Dissipative force removes mechanical energy form the system
under consideration
Conservative forces do not change the amount of mechanical
energy in the system
Mechanical energy kinetic + potential energy

5.7 Conservation of Total Energy

The principle of conservation of energy:


The total amount of energy in a closed system does not increase or
decrease. A closed system is one which does not exchange energy
with its surroundings

5.8 Power

The rate at which work is done is an important quantity


Rate at which work is done is the power
Measured in watts

Mechanical Efficiency
Efficiency = work out/work in = work output/energy used
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19

Formulas
W =Fd

P=

W
t

W =Fdcos

P=Fv
KE f =KE f +W

work output
energy used
work out
nefficiency =

work =
1
2
KE= m v
2
PE gravitational =mgh

KE + PE=0

KE+ PE=constant

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7.0 Simple Harmonic Motion

Any motion that repeats after a given period of time is oscillatory


motion

7.2 Hookes Law

Spring the further you stretch it, the harder it pulls back, and vice
versa
Natural Position the position the spring will sit in if no force is
applied (also called equilibrium positon)
For springs the magnitude of the restoring force is proportional
to the displacement of the spring from equilibrium position

F=kx

k spring constant
x displacement from equilibrium position
negative sign indicates the restoring force is always towards
equilibrium position

Energy in Hookes Law Deformation


in order to stretch or compress a spring, an external force must be
applied to overcome the restoring force
force increases linearly with distance
work done:
1 2
W= k x
2

work done on a spring is then stored at potential energy, so


therefore:

1
PE= k x 2
2

7.3 Simple Harmonic Motion

at equilibrium position, acceleration of a mass on a spring is zero


velocity of a mass on a spring is greatest at equilibrium position
simple harmonic motion (SHM) oscillation
SHM is periodic
22

f=

Each oscillation is called a cycle


Time for one full cycle is a period (T)
Frequency (f) number of cycles per time period
Frequency is in Hertz (Hz) (no. cycles per second)
1
T

Relationship Between Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic


Motion
Horizontal and vertical components of the motion of an object in
circular motion at constant speed are examples of SHM
Maximum Velocity in SHM
Total energy of a system undergoing SHM is conserved
Therefore, total energy at any given point in the cycle of the
oscillator is just the potential energy stored in the spring plus the
kinetic energy due to the velocity and mass of the object attached
to the spring
1
1
E= k x 2 + m v 2
2
2

x = amplitude of oscillation ( A)

instant at end points, KE is zero and PE is at maximum


instant at equilibrium position PE is zero and KE is at maximum
(velocity is maximum
therefore, total energy in the system:

1
2 1
2
Etotal= k A = m v max
2
2

maximum velocity of an oscillator:

v max =

k
A
m

Period and Frequency of SHM


period of oscillation:

23

T =2 pi

m
k

7.4 The Simple Pendulum

a period of a pendulums swing is independent of the mass of the


object hanging and varies only by the length of the pendulum and
the gravitational acceleration
L = length of pendulum
Amplitude maximum displacement from equilibrium position

24

8.0 Waves

Normally waves travel as a disturbance in some medium

8.2 SHM and Waves

When a wave propagates, each spatial point on the wave moves in


SHM
Wavelength ( Lamba) horizontal distance between oscillations

8.3 Frequency, Wavelength and Speed

x = =f
t T
v wave=

8.5 Types of Waves

Transverse wave one in which the medium the wave is


oscillating through is moving perpendicular to the direction the
wave is propagating
Longitudinal wave spatial point in the medium the wave is
moving through is oscillating in the direction the wave is
propagating

8.10 Waves and Energy


Energy
Wave is a series of SH oscillations, each of these oscillations have
the same amplitude and frequency
1
2
PE= k A
2

This is the case in general


Energy transmitted by a wave is proportional to the square root of
the amplitude of that wave

Power and Intensity


Power is a measure of how much energy is transmitted per unit
W
time ( P= t )

25

I=

Intensity how much power per unit area and is measured in watts
per square meter (W m-2)
P
A
A = area which it is spread

8.11 Complex Waveforms


Musical and Vocal Tone
Harmonics are all signals with frequencies that are multiples of
the frequency of the original sound
Harmonics are due to distortion

9.0 Sound and Hearing


9.2 Sound Waves in Media

Sound wave generally used to refer to compression or strain


waves transmitted through a medium that have sufficient intensity
and are a frequency that can be detected as sound
Ultrasonic frequency too high for hearing (<20Hz)
Infrasonic frequency too low for hearing (> 20KHz)
Sonic range that human ear can hear (20Hz 20kHz)

Pressure Waves in Gases


Soundwave a moving disturbance of molecules of the air
Compressions areas where the molecules are closer together
Rarefactions molecules are more sparse
Soundwave is longitudinal
Waves in Solids and Liquids
Soundwaves can be transmitted through solid or liquids by
oscillation of the molecules of the medium
In solids, waves can either be:
- Longitudinal (compressive and tensile strain waves)
- Transverse (shear strain waves)
Wave Speed
Speed of sound is not fixed and it depends on the medium through
which is travels
When temperature is higher, so is the speed of sound
26

c sound =

c = speed of sound
B = bulk modulus
= density of medium
increases with stiffness of medium
decreases with increasing density

9.3 Pitch and Loudness


Frequency and Pitch
pitch how high or low, determined by wave frequency
higher the frequency, higher the pitch
pitch SI unit Hz
consonance two notes that sound pleasant together
dissonance unpleasant combination of notes
Amplitude and Intensity
loudness largely but not entirely determined by the amplitude of
the pressure fluctuations
amplitude related to intensity
intensity a measure of how much energy is transported through a
unit area every second (watts/m2)
Intensity, Loudness and the decibel scale
human ears can detect sound waves that vary by 12 orders of
magnitude
decibel used to compare sound intensity
sound intensity level ()
=10 log

I
Io

Io 10-12Wm-2

9.4 Resonance and Sound Generation

To generate sound something moves sufficiently to create an air


pressure wave of enough intensity

The Human Vocal Cords


Vocal tract cavities of the mouth, nasal cavity and pharynx
27

Changes in vocal tract will alter resonant characteristics and alter


sound
To create sound energy source is needed
Air from lungs used as energy source
Larynx vocal cords, two bonds of muscular tissue

9.5 The Ear


Anatomy
Outer Ear

Pinna sits outside the skull


Auditory canal and tympanic membrane (ear drum)
Sound waves channelled and slightly altered by the pinna and canal
These waves cause ear drum to vibrate

Middle Ear

Ossicles ligaments that suspend a series of small bones


Eustachian tube connects ossciles to oral cavity
Malleus (hammer) attached to tympanic membrane
Incus (anvil) malleus connects to
Staples (stirrup) connected to incus and then connects to the
oval window
Oval window through which movement of the ossicles causes
movement in the fluid inside the cochlea

Inner Ear

Cochlea cavity encased with bone and filled with fluid


Round window in addition to oval window, connects to cochlea
and moves in and out in response to pressure fluctuations in the
cochlea
Cochlea is internally divided into two halves by a membrane
Basilar membrane sound waves are turned into signals
Speed of pressure waves in the fluid-filled cochlea are much greater
than that of air
Pressure is basically the same all over at any time

The Ear and the problem of impedance


Getting pressure waves in the air to the bodys liquid interior:

Resonance in the ear canal and focusing by the pinna helps


28

Ossicles act like a set of levers to slightly amplify the vibrations


Difference in the size of the ear drum and oval window have a
dramatic effect
Force applied to the ossicles is a product of the area of the ear and
pressure exerted on it
Force is amplified by the bones and then applied to a much smaller
oval window, producing a larger force per unit area, hence larger
pressure
Ear reduces the transmission of sound into the cochlea to reduce
the risk of damage

9.6 The Doppler Effect

Doppler effect apparent pitch of a sound is changed by the relative


motion between the sound source and the observer
Effect applies for electromagnetic waves as well as sound

29

10.0 Elasticity: Stress and Strain


10.2 Tension and Compression

Stress is a measure of the force per unit area applied to an


object, and the size of the internal forces acting on the object as a
reaction to the externally applied forces
Strain measures the change in shape of an object subject to
stress

Tensile Stress and Strain


Tensile stress when an object is being subjected to stretching
forces so that its length will increase
Achieved by applying forces to opposite ends of an object, directed
away from one another
Stretches intermolecular bonds, if sufficiently high will break these
bonds
Tensile stress stretching force per unit area
Tensile Stress==

F
A

F = force applied to each end


A = cross-sectional area of the object at right angles to the direction
of the stretching force
Increases length
Amount by which object increases depends on:
- The tensile stress applied
- The material it is made of
- The length of the object
Tensile strain amount of stretch per unit length:
L
L0
L = amount by which an object is stretched
L0 = original length of the object
In direction of stretch
Hookes Law amount of stretch is proportional to the force
applied
Stress is proportional to strain
30

Double the stress, double the strain


Youngs Modulus () proportionality constant, how much stress
is required to generate a given strain in a material
Strain is dimensionless, units of force per unit area (Nm-2 or Pa)

F
tensile stress
A
=
=
tensile strain L
L0

Stress = youngs modulus x strain


Youngs Modulus measure of a materials resistance to
stretching, does not depend on size or shape of object but only on
material
Isotropic same Youngs Modulus in all directions
Anisotropic different Youngs Modulus in all directions

Compressive Stress and Strain


Compressive stress tries to compress an object, that is, to
reduce its length
Forces applied on opposite ends directed towards one another
Deformation of an object proportional to the amount by which the
intermolecular bonds are shortened
Force per unit area or compressive stress
Compressive force causes compressive strain
Youngs Modulus also defined for a material under compression
F
compressive stress
A
=
=
compressive strain L
L0

For most materials, Youngs Modulus for tension and compression


are the same
Bone exception
Under compression, force is taken to be negative in value, so L will
be negative, so the stress and strain have negative values

31

10.5 Elasticity
Stress-Strain Curves
Ratio of stress to strain for materials is constant over a certain
range and depends on type of material
Elastic region stress/strain relationship linear, this range the
material will return to its original shape, any shape changes are
reversible

32

33

11.0 Pressure
11.3 Pressure

P=

Pressure is a measure of the force exerted per unit area


F
A

P = pressure
F = force applied normal to the area
A = area
Pressure is a scalar quantity
Unit pascal (PA) = Nm2

Solids
Exerts pressure on whatever it rests on
Pressure depends on weight and surface area is acts on
Solid stationary on surface, downwards pressure = weight divided
by surface area of contact
Gases
Gases exert pressure when the collide with surfaces
Pressure depends on the average magnitude of these collision
forces and on the number of collisions per second
Average force per collision will depend on how fast the molecules
are moving on average (determined by temp) and the density and
speed will determine how often collisions occur
Pressure exerted by a gas is the same in all directions
Liquids
Higher density of a liquid means additional pressure at the bottom
of a liquid sample due to the weight of liquid above that point is
significant
Liquid exerts a downwards force as well as a sidewards force on the
container

11.3 Density

Fluid density:
m
V
34

m = mass
V = volume
Depends on the solid or liquid composition but not on how much
there is
Solids/liquids distinct density, depends on average length of
intermolecular bonds
Gases density depends on size of container

11.4 Pascals Principle

Pascals Principle pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is


transmitted undiminished to every point of the fluid as well as the
walls of the container
As a consequence, in a static liquid the pressure at depth h,
depends on the pressure applied to the surface and how much liquid
there is above that point exerting additional pressure
Ph=P surface + gh
P= g h

pressure is greater at a lower point


basis of hydraulic systems if a pressure is applied to the surface of
a static liquid, the pressure increases by the same amount at all
other points (pascals principle)
work done = force x distance
the pressure at a point in a liquid is the same in all directions (same
force per unit area)
force is always exerted perpendicular to the area
in order for a liquid to be in equilibrium, the pressure must be the
same in all directions

35

12.0 Buoyancy
12.2 The Buoyant Force
Archimedes Principle
buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid that the object
displaces
buoyancy is the upward force exerted on an object that is fully or
partially, submerged in a fluid resulting from the increase in
pressure with depth.
Fbuoyant =mf g= f V f g
Fnet =mgf V f g=obj V obj g f V f g

if object is fully submerged, the weight force is equal to the buoyant


force plus the normal force
if the object is stationary in the water the net force is zero

36

14.0 Fluid Dynamics of Non-Viscous Fluids


14.2 Definition of Key Terms

incompressible fluid the fluid has a constant density throughout


viscosity the resistance of a fluid to flow
laminar flow a situation in which layers of fluid slide smoothly
past each other. Characteristic of lower fluid velocity
turbulent flow non laminar flow, irregular and complex with
mixing and eddies. Occurs at higher velocities or where there are
objects in the flow producing large changes in velocity
Streamlines family of curved lines that are tangential to the
velocity vector of the flow (always in the same direction of flow).
Provide a snapshot of flow throughout the fluid ay an instant of time

14.3 The equation of Continuity


Volume Flow Rate
Volume flow rate (f) how much fluid is moving across some
surface (m3/s)
For an incompressible fluid:
f=

V A x
=
= Av
t
t

Continuity of Flow
When no fluid is gained or lost, volume flow rate is constant along
pipe or channel
Conservation of mass amount of material entering one end of
the pipe must be the same as the amount coming out the other end
Also same amount per unit time
Fixed mass = fixed volume, therefore constant volume flow rate
Continuity equation:
A 1 v 1= A2 v 2

Multiple pipes flowing, sum equals sum of pipes flowing out


When liquid enters more compressed zone, velocity increases

37

14.4 Bernoullis Equation


Bernoullis Principle and Incompressible Fluid Flow
When viscosity is neglected, increase in fluid velocity is
accompanied by a decrease in pressure and/or decrease in
gravitational potential energy
Valid for most liquid or gases when no expansion of compression is
happening
If fluid flow is laminar and we can ignore the effects of friction
Bernoullis equation:
1
P+ v 2+ gh=constant
2

h height of the point above selected reference height


constant = sum is constant along a streamline

Energy Density
pressure = force per unit area
1 Pa = 1 Jm-3
Pressure can be thought of as energy per unit volume
1 2
v
Kinetic energy per unit volume = 2

Gravitational potential energy per unit volume =

gh

Pressure and Velocity


Two points on a streamline:
1 2
1 2
P1+ v 1+ gh 1=P2+ v 2+ g h2
2
2

No change in height, PE remains the same:

1 2 1 2
v v =P1 P 2
2 2 2 1

Change in pressure gives change in kinetic energy per unit volume


(if velocity at 2 higher, pressure at 2 is lower)
Pressure lower at more constricted region where velocity is higher

38

Applications of Bernoullis Equation


Fluid Flow out of Tank
Torricellis Theorem the speed of efflux (outflow) through an outlet
pipe is proportional to the square root of the head height

v = 2 gh

s ho
h
2g
v o =
Plaque Deposits and Aneurysms
Plaque deposits = narrowed blood vessels
Aneurysm = widened blood vessels
Stenosis case of narrowing
- Blood velocity must be increased
- Therefore decrease in pressure
- May result in further narrowing
- When artery is narrowed, flow will become more turbulent
(possibly damaging artery wall)
Aneurysm localised, balloon-like bulge in an artery
- Radius increases, velocity decreases
- Pressure increases

39

15.0 Fluid Dynamics of Viscous Fluids


15.2 Viscosity

When a shear stress is applied to a fluid, it cause it to flow, that is,


to deform continuously
F
Shear stress = A
Viscosity the resistance of a fluid to flow
Defined by finding the shear stress required to generate a shearstrain rate of one per second
Strain is dimensionless, it is a ratio of distances
Rate of change of strain:

x /L v
=
t
L

L = fluid depth
v = constant speed
some fluids shear strain is proportional to the shear strain rate,
and the proportionality constant is the fluid viscosity

F
v
=
A
L

viscosity property of a fluid


units of viscosity: Nsm-2 = Pa s

Poiseuilles Law
flow of viscous fluid along a pipe, requires a pressure difference to
overcome the viscosity
the narrower the pipe, the larger the required pressure difference
the longer the pipe, the larger the required pressure difference
higher viscosity = higher pressure difference
Poiseuilles Law volume flow rate for a fluid of viscosity, , through
a cylindrical pipe of length, l, and radius, r, when the pressure
difference between the ends is P is:
=

P r 4
8 l
40

Key Concepts

Viscous fluid a viscous fluid is one in which we cannot ignore the


effects of friction within the fluid and between the fluid and
neighbouring interfaces
Viscosity () A measure of the internal friction of a fluid. It is a
property of a particular fluid and is a measure of the fluids
resistance to flow. The viscosity has units N s m-2, which are the
same as Pa s.

41

17.0 Temperature and the Zeroth Law


17.2 Thermal Equilibrium

Temperature measure of how hot or cold something is


Thermal equilibrium when systems are in thermal contact, they
exchange energy until an equilibrium state is reached and no more
net energy transfer occurs
Zeroth Laws of Thermodynamics if two systems, A and B, are
in thermal equilibrium, and a third system, C, is in thermal
equilibrium with A, the it is also in thermal equilibrium with B.
Thermal energy kinetic energy associated with the random
motion of atoms within molecules eg. Rotational and vibrational
Thermal energy depends on the number of molecules in an object
and moleculay composition, as well as temperature
When two objects of different temperature are placed in contact, the
collisions occur between the molecules in the two objects
Thermal energy is transferred form the hotter object to the colder
object through these collisions
Thermal energy that is transferred is known as heat
The movement of thermal energy due to a temperature difference is
known as heat transfer
Thermal equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium as collisions between
molecules continue to transfer thermal energy
At thermal equilibrium, equal amounts of energy are being
transferred in each direction

42

19.0 Phase and Temperature Change


19.2 Phase Change

Solid definite shape and volume, not free to move only vibrate
Liquid fixed volume (at particular pressure and temp) but shape
dependent on container, molecules are further apart than solid state
Gas molecules are far apart on average, shape and volume fixed
by container
Vaporisation liquid to gas
Condensation gas to liquid
Melting solid to liquid
Freezing liquid to solid
Sublimation solid to gas
Deposition gas to solid

Phase Diagrams
Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid
and vapour phases are in equilibrium, depends on pressure
- If the vapour pressure of the gas phase is lower than the
saturation vapour pressure, then molecules can continue to
break away from the liquid and join the gas phase
Vapour pressure the vapour pressure of a substance is the gas
pressure created by the solid or liquid phase, and is a consequence
of the faster molecules breaking away from the liquid or solid
Thermodynamic equilibrium rate at which the molecules leave
the liquid and the rate at which they re-join it are the same
Saturation vapour pressure - depends only on temperature
critical temperature - vapour density and liquid density are equal
at this temperature (high temp)
above critical temp is called a super critical fluid as the liquid
phase does not exist and there is no distinction or phase boundary
between liquid and gas
triple point - solid, liquid and gas phases are all in thermodynamic
equilibrium
triple point occurs at a unique temp not affected by volume of
number of molecules
below triple point, solid, liquid and gas cannot co-exist in
equilibrium, instead vapour co-exists with the solid phase, provided
volume is large enough
43

compressing a gas favours condensation as the rate of collisions


between molecules are increases
boyle's law (PV) breaks down at low temperatures when attraction
between molecules becomes significant and the gas begins to
condensate into a liquid

Phase Changes and Latent Heat


to change the phase of a substance requires thermal energy
solid to liquid - bonds between molecules broken with addition of
energy
liquid to gas - energy required
gas to liquid or liquid to solid - thermal energy must be removed
amount of energy required to change the phase of a substance
depends on the substance and the amount of the substance:
Q = mL

Q = amount of heat require for phase change


m = mass of substance
L = latent heat of phase change
latent means hidden
when a substance exists in both phases simultaneously, the
temperature does not change
L differs for each type of phase change and has some dependence
on temperature
Lf = heat of fusion, energy required to change 1kg of the substance
from solid to liquid
Lv = heat of vapourisation, energy required to change 1kg of the
substance from liquid to vapour
Ls = heat of sublimation, heat required for substances that go
straight from solid to vapour phase
Q = positive, energy added, system gains thermal energy
Q = negative, energy taken out, system looses thermal energy
latent heat of phase change is dependent on temp

19.3 Temperature Changes


Heat and Temperature
when a substance has thermal energy transferred to it, it can
produce a phase change
other possible result is a change in temp
44

amount of temp change depends on substance being heated


heat is energy transferred due to a temperature difference
heat = joules
an objects internal energy, hence temp, can be increased by doing
work on it

Specific Heat
temperature is the measure of the average kinetic (thermal) energy
of the molecules in a substance
Q =mc T

T = temp increase caused by Q


c = specific heat capacity, the amount of heat required to increase
the temperature of 1kg of a particular substance by 1K
specific heat capacity - depends on substance, temperature and
phase of substance
1 calorie (c) = 4.186J
kcal = Cal (C)

19.4 Energy Conservation

objects in thermal contact exchange heat until thermal equilibrium


is reached
at this point net exchange of energy ceases and objects have the
same temp

The Simple Case - No Phase Change


when the amount of energy transferred does not cause a change of
phase
two objects in thermal contact isolated from their surroundings
Qobj 1 =Qobj 2

sum of heat outputs equals zero

Thermal Equilibrium with Phase Change


previous equation still valid, however, now need to include the heat
transfer that occurs during the changes in phase
eg. water and ice:
m water c water ( Tf - Ti, water )+ m ice c water ( T f - Ti, ice )+ m ice Lf, water
45

46

21.0 Heat Transfer


Heat Transfer by Conduction
heat conduction - the transfer of thermal energy from an object at
higher temperature to an object at lower temperature
these two objects can be connected by a medium and thermal
energy is transferred via vibration motion from one molecule to
another or via conduction electrons wondering from atom to atom
rate of heat transfer through material will depend on its microscopic
structure
thermal conductivity (k) - property of a material which tells us
how readily heat is transferred through it
thickness and cross-sectional area of an object will effect rate of
energy transfer
more cross-sectional area, more molecules in contact
more thickness, more molecules to pass energy through
a bigger temperature difference, a higher transfer rate
Q kAT
=
=hconduction A T
t
d

Q
T = rate of heat transfer by conduction

k = thermal conductivity
d = thickness
A = cross sectional area of medium/material in contact
T = temperature difference between surfaces seperated by
thickness d
k
coefficient of conduction heat transfer = d

hconduction = W m-2 k-1


k = W m-1 k-1

Coefficient of Heat Transfer


tells us how rapidly heat is being transferred per square meter of
surface area, when there is a 1K temperature difference

47

Conduction Through Multiple Layers


to get h-values for multiple layers we add the reciprocal h-values
together

21.3 Convection

heat transfer by fluid convection occurs as a result of the bulk


motion of a fluid

Q
=h convection A T
t

21.4 Radiation

all objects radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation


rate and frequency range determined by temperature

The Stefan-Boltzmann Law


gives the rate at which an object radiates electromagnetic waves
Q
4
emitted =A T
t

= surface emissivity
= Stefan Boltzmann Constant 5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4
A = surface area
T = absolute temperature
is between zero and one

Q
Q
Q
net =
surface

t
t
t environment
Q
=h radiation A T
t net

hradiation- 4T3 = radiative surface heat transfer coefficient


how well a surface emits radiation is determined by how well it
absorbs it
dull black surfaces have highest emissivities (0.9-1)
blackbody - theoretical perfect emitter/absorber has emissivity of 1
48

at temperature of human body, objects emitt no visible light, only


infrared

Colour and Temperature


wavelength, hence colour of light emitted by a hot object is temp
dependent
Wien Displacement Law - wavelength at which most emission
occurs (max) is related to temp
max

b
T

T = absolute temperature
b = is a constant, 2.9 x 10-3mK

21.5 Combined Transfer Process

conduction, convection and radiation all contribute to the heat


transfer from an object
hsurface = hconvection + hradiation
consider equilibrium state - temp of surfaces and layers constant,
heat leaves any layer at the same rate it enters layer
heat transfer via conduction through persons tissue:
- equal to rate of heat transfer via conduction through their clothing
Q
- which is equal to t via conduction + radiation from clothing
surface to surroundings

Q
t =htissue A(Tcore - TSkin)
= hclothing A(Tskin - Touter surface of clothing)
= hsurface A(Touter surface of clothing - Tsurroundings)
= htotal A(Tcore - Tsurroundings)

49

22.0 Thermodynamics and the Body


22.2 The First Law

energy is conserved: energy can be transferred from one form to


another, but it can be neither destroyed nor created
total energy of a system (U) - measure of the amount of energy
in the system is the kinetic energy of the molecules and the various
forms of potential energy

U=Q-W

U = change in total internal energy of a system


Q = net heat transferred to the system
W = net work done by the system

22.4 Energy and the Body

metabolism - energy obtained from food through the biochemical


reactions which the potential energy of food molecules is converted
to other forms
three ways the body can gain or lose energy (U):
1. Heat transfer with surroundings (Q)
2. Body doing work on surroundings (W)
3. Gain of material by the system (E)
U = Q-W+E

E = energy gained as the result of metabolism of food

Metabolism, Hypothermia and Hyperthermia


hypothermia - metabolic rate lower than our own rate of heat loss
to environment, we will lose heat energy and core temp will
decrease. Stay in this situation too long results in hypothermia
below 37 deg C
hyperthermia - metabolic rate exceeds rate of heat loss, core temp
will increase (heat stroke)
net rate of energy lost = rate of heat loss - rate of metabolism
total energy lost = net rate of energy loss x time
Efficiency
n = defined as ratio of mechanical work done by the body to the
energy used for mechanical work
W = work done by the body
50

n=

E - U = decrease in internal stored energy


equivalent to work output from the body plus the heat lost (W-Q)

W
W
=
E-U W-Q

body uses resources to do work U < 0


body more intake then required for work, stored fat, U > 0
body neither uses stored energy reserves or adds to stored reserves
U = 0
U >0, system gains internal energy
Q >0, system gains heat
W>0 , work done by the system
E is always >0
Second Law Thermodynamics - heat flows spontaneously from a
substance at higher temperature to a substance at lower
temperature, not the other way round
Third Law Thermodynamics - it is not possible to lower the
temperature of any system to absolute zero in finite number of
steps

51

23.0 Static Electricity


23.2 Charge

Electric charge attractive force between electrons and protons


due to intrinsic property called electric charge
Electrostatic force or electric field force due to electric charge
Electric charge comes in two different types: negative and positive
They carry the same magnitude of charge
Neutral particle that does not have an electric charge
Ion has a net charge
Like charges are repulsive
Force between unlike charges attractive
- Force decreases in strength as separation of charges increase
SI Unit of Charge Coulomb (C)
Coulomb quantity of charge passed in one second through crosssection of an electrical conductor carrying one ampere of current
Current how much charge is moving through a fixed area per
second
Charge conservation net charge of an isolated system never
changes, as particles are created or destroyed, other particles are
created or destroyed to keep the overall charge of the system
constant.
Quantisation of charge net charge of any system is an integer
multiple of the smallest amount of charge that can be measured on
any free particle
Smallest amount of charge is the magnitude of the charge on an
electron or proton, e, elementary charge
Charge on an electron = -1.602x10-19C

23.3 Conductors and Insulators

Conductor material which charge flows through easily


Insulator charge does not flow through freely
Metals generally good conductors
Common insulators glass, rubber, plastic

Key Concepts

Charge (q or Q) Electric charge is a fundamental property of


matter, and comes in two types, known as positive or negative,
which are referred to as the sign of the charge. The SI unit of charge
is the coulomb (symbol C)
52

Elementary charge (e) The smallest (non-zero) charge


magnitude that can be carried by any observable elementary
particle. Electrons have a charge of e and protons have a charge of
+e. It has the value of 1.602x10-19 C.
Electron A fundamental subatomic particle that carries a negative
charge of e=-1.602x10-19 C, and has a mass 9.109x10-31 kg.
Atom usually defined as the smallest entity that retains the
chemical properties of an element. An atom consists of a nucleus
and electrons, with the number of electrons equalling the number of
protons in the nucleus.
Ion an atom that has gained or lost electrons and consequently
carries a net positive or negative charge
Conductor a material that will readily permit the flow of electric
charges
Insulator a material that does not readily permit the flow if
electric charges
Polarisation in electrostatics, the partial or complete separation
of positive and negative electric charge in a system

53

24. 0 Electric Force Field and Electric Field


24.1 Introduction

Charges influence each other at a distance


Charges create a field, creates a force on other charges placed in
the field

24.2 Coulombs Law

Force exists between charged particles


Magnitude of the force depends on the magnitude of each charge
and how far apart they are
Coulombs Law:

|F 1 on 2|=|F2 on 1|=k

|q1 q2|
r

q = magnitude of charges
r = distance separating charges
k = experimentally determined constant of proportionality
1
9
2 2
k=
=9 x 10 N m C
4 o
o

= permittivity if free space

Direction of the force is along the line joining two charges


Force attraction if charges are opposite signs and repulsive if they
are the same

24.3 Superposition of Electric Forces

Principle of Superposition the net force on an object that is


interacting with more than one other object is the vector sum of the
forces from all the interactions

Fon 1,net =F 2 on1 + F 3 on1 + F 4 on 1

24.4 Inverse Square Law


Physical quantities that obey the inverse square law:

Electric field strength from a point source falls with distance squared
54

Intensity of electromagnetic radiation from


a point source falls with distance squared
Gravitational attraction to a mass falls with
distance squared

24.5 The Electric Field

The electric field is a way of describing


how a configuration of charges affects the
surrounding space
Defined in terms of magnitude and direction
of the electric force per unit of charge that a
charged object would be subjected to at a
given point in space
SI unit: N C-1
How much force a +1C would experience
Force on a charge is a vector quantity
Electric field is also a vector quantity, with its direction being that in
which a positive charge would experience a force:

E=

B
q

Test charge is a nominal (and possibly imaginary) charge placed


at some point in space that is small enough not to cause any
significant change in the system of charges which are being
investigated, but which allows us to investigate the electric field at a
point in space
Electric field due to a point charge:
- Q = point charge creating the field
- q = test charge placed at a distance r from the first charge
- The magnitude of the force on the test charge:

F=k

E=

Qq
2
r
Magnitude of electric field:

F
q
And for a point charge Q we therefore have:
55

E=k

Q
2
r
The direction of the field is the same as the direction that the force
would be on a positive charge radially outward from the source
charge if positive, towards the source charge if it is negative

24.6 Electric Field


Diagrams

Vector field:

56

Field Lines:

Represents the direction of the Coulomb force


Not vectors, have no length
Strength of the field is indicated by how close together the lines are;
the closer together the field lines are, the stronger the field is
Drawn starting at positive charges
and ending at negative charges
Electric field line drawn starting and
ending in free space only if the
source charges are outside the
region being depicted
Electric field lines cannot cross
Uniform electric field:
Parallel plates carrying a uniform
charge distribution, with positive
charge on one plate and negative on
the other
Nearly the same magnitude and
direction everywhere between the
plates (provided distance between
the plates is small in comparison
with the plate area)
Electric dipole field:

57

Equal magnitude positive and negative


charges separated by some distance
Field lines point from positive to
negative

58

24.7 Superposition of Electric Fields

The net electric field at any point in space can be found by the
vector sum of the fields at that point due to all the charges present
At each point in space, the resultant electric field vector is the sum
of the electric field vector that would be created by the lone positive
charge and that we would get from just the negative charge

Key Concepts

Coulombs Law the law that describes the force between two
charges. The force is proportional to the product of the magnitudes
of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them
Field a numerical quantity associated with each point in space. A
field can be scalar (as in the case of a temperature field) or vector
(like velocity or electricity field)
Electric Field (E) The vector field produced by electric charge.
The electric field vector is defined as the Coulomb force per unit
charge that a test charge would experience if placed at that point
in space, and its magnitude is the same as the magnitude of the
Coulomb force that would be exerted on a +1 C test charge. The
direction of the electric field vector is in the same direction as the
Coulomb force on a positive test charge. The electric field is
measured in units of NC-1 (or equivalently in volts-per-meter, Vm-1).

59

25.0 Electrical Potential and Energy


25.2 Electrical Potential Energy

Represented by the symbol U


Restricted to simple case where
force is not changing (in this book)

25.3 Electrical Potential

V=

The electrical potential at a point in


space does not depend on the
charge of any object placed at that
point, but is a measure of the
electrical potential energy that a
charge would have if it were placed
at that point
Similar to electric field concept
force on a charge if it were placed at
a particular point in space
The electrical potential has a value
at each point in space whether or
not it is occupied
The potential is a property associated with a point in space caused
by the presence of an electric field
The electrical potential is a scalar field it has a value at each place
but it is directionless
Electrical potential:
U
Q
U is the electrical potential energy of charge Q
SI unit of electrical potential: Volts (V); 1V=1JC-1
Electrical potential is independent of the charge (test charge not
the source charges creating the field)
Two different charges placed in the same position would have
different potential energies, but they would have identical potentials

60

23.4 Electrical Potential and Work

When a charge moves due to the influence of an electric field, work


is done on the charge by the electric field.
The work done on the charge is equal to the reduction in electrical
potential energy

Q=W elec

Eg. If a charge moves to


a position where its
electrical potential
energy is lower, the
change in electrical
potential is negative,
and the charge has
positive work done on it
by the field
The above does not
consider the forces
involved, only work done
by electric field

W elect =F x

x = distance the charge is moved in the direction of the force


F = force electric field exerts on the charge ( F=qE

W elect =qE x

We can now derive an equation for the change in electrical potential


energy of a charge as it moves from one position to another:

U =qE x

Potential difference between two points is (V=U/q)

V =E x

Units NC-1 or Vm-1


61

24.7 The Heart and ECH

Electrocardiogram (ECG)
When a heart is beating normally an electrical signal is generated
and travels through the heart muscle
Electrical signal causes contraction of the heart muscles and is
ultimately responsible for the synchronised beating of the heart
A typical heart muscle cell has a potential difference of around
90mV and this exists between the inside and outside of the cell
membrane, with the outside of the cell being positive. This is called
the resting potential and a cell with this potential difference is
called polarised.
When the transport of ions from one side of the membrane to their
other changes the sign of this potential difference, the cell becomes
depolarised and contracts
Before the wave of electrical activity that
causes contraction passes through, the cells
are all polarised. A nerve cell sends a signal
to these cells to cause them to become
permeable to the charges that are sitting on
the surface.
The net result is that the charge distribution
looks like a line of separated positive and
negative charges that sweep down the heart
This travelling electrical signal can be modelled as an electric dipole
(a separation of positive and negative charge) that changes strength
and size with time. This dipole creates an electrical potential
throughout the body cavity.
Electrodes placed on the skin can measure this electrical potential
(ECG)

Key Concepts

Electrical Potential (V) the potential energy per unit charge at


each point in space. The electrical potential is a scalar field. The SI
unit of electrical potential is the Volt, symbol V. One Volt is
equivalent to one Joule per Coulomb
Electrical Potential Difference (V) The difference in electrical
potential between two points. Potential difference is measured in
Volts (V). The electrical potential is often just referred to as the
voltage.

62

Electrical Potential Energy (U) The potential energy stored in a


system of charges. The electrical potential energy may be thought
of as the energy required to bring the charges to positions they
occupy. The electrical potential energy is also the maximum amount
of work that a system of charges may do if unconstrained. It is
usually given the symbol U and is measured in Joules.

63

26.0 Capacitance
26.1 Introduction

Picture charged plates carrying the same magnitude charge but with
opposite signs separated by some distance
Energy stored in this configuration & and electric field exits as well
as a potential difference between the plates
Capacitance is a measure of the capacity of the circuit element to
store charge
Circuit elements may be designed specifically to store charge capacitors

26.2 The Capacitor

E=

Capacitor a device which stores electric potential energy in some


form of a separation of some charge
The region between the plates has an electric field present and a
potential difference
I Q
o A

E = electric field strength


A = area of each plate
Q = magnitude of the charge of each plate
o
= constant, permittivity of free space (8.854x10-12Fm-1)

Field between the two charged parallel plates is uniform


Potential difference between two plates:

V =Ed

d = distance between plates


V = V

Q
A
= o
V
d

For a particular arrangement of plates, A and d do not change


64

Capacitance:

|Q|
|V|

C=

SI unit = Farad (F)


Parallel plate capacitor:

C=

A
A
= r o
d
d
o

r=

= vacuum

Relative permittivity:

o
Regardless of the capacitor shape, C always = Q/V

26.3 Energy Stored in a Capacitor

To change the capacitor, work needs to be done to separate the


charges
Work done moving a charge Q over a potential difference V is:

|w|=| U |=|VQ|

U=

Energy stored in a capacitor is the same as the work done in


charging it
U energy stored in a capacitor:
1 Q2 1
1
= QV = QV 2
2 C 2
2

Key Concepts

Capacitor a device which stores energy by separating charge.


One kind is the parallel plate capacitor which stores charge +Q and
Q on two metal parallel plates separated by air or a dielectric
material

65

Capacitance (C) A measure of the amount of charge on each


plate of a capacitor for a given electrical potential across that
device. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, symbol F.
Dielectric an insulating material used in a capacitor, usually one
which does not break down at high voltages. The dielectric material
becomes polarised, causing the capacitor to have a large charge
accumulation for a given potential difference
Permittivity a quantity that describes how a material changes an
electric field. The higher the permittivity of the material, the more
the electric field within it is reduced. The permittivity if usually given
the symbol . The relative permittivity, r, gives the permittivity as a
fraction of the permittivity of free space, o 8.854x10-12Fm-1.
Dielectric constant another term for the relative permittivity

66

27.0 Direct Currents and DC Circuits


27.1 Introduction

Electrical forces may be used to transfer energy and information


between two points

27.2 Electric Current

I=

Electric current flow of charges (I)


Electric current is a measure of the rate at which charge moves
across a given cross-sectional area
Q
t

Q = net charge crossing the area in time t


SI unit of current ampere = A, one Coulomb of charge per second
1 ampere steady current that, when flowing in straight parallel
wires of infinite length and negligible cross-section, separated by
distance of 1m in free space, produces a force between the wires of
2x10-7N per m length
Direction of current is direction that positive charges would flow
Direction of so called conventional current is opposite to the way
the electrons are moving

27.3 Current Flow and Drift Velocity

Density number of electrons per unit volume


V = volume of segment with length, l, and cross-sectional area, A.
(V=Al)
Total amount of mobile charge in segment:

Q=q nV

t=

n = density of conduction electrons (there are nV electrons)


q = charge of each carrier
time for all the charge in the volume to cross the area at the end of
the segment;
l
v
67

I=

l = distance to travel
v = velocity
current is therefore:
Q |q|nV
=
=|q|n v
t
v
v = velocity
n = density of conduction electrons (N/V; N = number particles)
V = volume
q = charge of carrier
current is related to the number density of charge carriers and how
fast they travel on average
drift velocity speed of the charge carrier movement
power supply gives the electrons energy to move

27.4 Direct versus Alternating Current

AC alternating current
DC direct current

27.5 Circuits and Circuit Diagrams

Electric current closed path through which charge may flow


Electric current path composed of a combination of conductors and
components such as resistors, capacitors or batteries
Circuits represented by circuit diagrams

27.6 Power Sources

Capacitors: Two parallel plates, charge of +Q and Q


- In the region between the plates there is an electric field
- Potential difference exists between the plates
- If plates were connected by a conducting wire, the charge would
move from one plate to the other
- This is a circuit of sorts
- Charges would eventually stop moving as electric field got
smaller and smaller
In most electric circuits. Device exists to maintain potential
difference between the two plates, so flow can be continuous
This is the role of a battery in a circuit
Battery maintains a specific potential difference between two
points
Charged particles can move under the influence of an electric field
68

Field does work on the charges, some external energy source


needed to maintain this field
Electromotive force (emf) ( ) work done per unit charge by
non-electrical forces. Measured in Volts and is not actually a force.
For a given device, the net emf is the energy gained per unit charge
(U/Q) when a charge U passes through that device and gains energy
U. Sources of energy may include:
- Electrochemical reactions (batteries)
- Radiant energy (solar cell)
- Thermal energy (thermocouple)
Purpose of a power source is to provide energy to move charges
Power source produces a potential difference between two
points in a circuit, cause charges to move

27.7 Resistance and Ohms Law

Ohms Law - For many materials there is a linear relationship


between the potential difference across a material and the current
flow through the object made of the same material
Electrical resistance (R):

R=

V
I
V = potential difference between the ends of the object
I = current flowing through object
R opposition to flow of electrical current through an object, causes
electrical energy to be converted to heat
Resistor object that does the above. Measured in ohms
Non-ohmic I is not proportional to V

27.8 Resistors and Resistivity

Resistor circuit device that has resistance V =IR

Resistance inversely proportional to cross-sectional area


R=

l
A

l = length of the resistor


A = cross-sectional area
= resistivity of a material (m)
good conductor, low resistivity
69

putting resistors in series will increase resistance


putting resistors in parallel will decrease overall resistance
(increasing area through which current can flow)
Kirchoffs Law basic principle of DC circuits (examines effect of a
combination of resistors)

27.9 Wires

In circuits, elements coneccted by wires


Purpose to connect two points in a circuit with as little resistance to
current flow as possible
All parts of the circuit connected by only wire are at the same
potential. Because adding or removing some wire from a circuit
diagram doesnt have significant effect, as long as the correct
arrangement of series and parallel elements is maintained.
Wires do have small amount of resistance, some potential drop
along them and some energy lost in the form of heat

27.10 Kirchoffs Law


Kirchoffs Law of Voltages:
law of energy conservation applied to a circuit
the sum of the directed potential differences around any
closed circuit loop is zero
Directed potential difference direction around closed loop must
be chosen and all potential differences must be evaluated with
respect to direction
Resistance rule moving through s resistor in the direction of
current, change in potential is IR and in opposite direction +IR
EMF Rule moving through a source of emf, the change in
potential is + if going ve teminal to +ve terminal or - if
going +ve to ve.

70

Kirchoffs Law of Currents


Law of charge conservation
applied to a circuit
In any electrical circuit
where no build up of
charge is occurring, sum
of electric currents
flowing into a point
equals sum of the
electric currents flowing
away

27.11 Resistors in Series and


Parallel
Resistors in Series
Rs resistors in series
Rs =R 1+ R 2+R 3
Resistors Parallel
Rp resistors parallel
1
1 1 1
= + +
R p R1 R2 R 2

71

27.12 Power Dissipation

P=

In an electrical circuit, energy is transferred from some source and is


used by other devices such as resistors (the load)
Load devices change electrical energy into other forms like heat,
light and movement
Rate at which energy us moved about is of more interest than total
amount
Power rate at which energy is produced or consumed in circuits
(P) (Watts)
E
t
E = work done one charges = energy dissipated by load
t = time
Current flowing between two points in a circuit is a measure of how
much charge passes given point each second
I=

Q
t

Difference in electrical potential energy between these two points is:

U =QV

P=

Q = charge moved from one point to the next


V = potential difference between the points
If power is the change of energy per unit time:
QV
=VI
t
Power dissipated by a resistor is:
2

P=VI =

V
=I 2 R
R

27.13 Alternative Energy Units


1 kWh = 1000Js-1 x 3600s = 3,600,000 J
72

kWh amount of energy used by 1kW load in one hour

27.14 Electric Shock Hazards

when electric current passes through any material with resistance to


flow of current, energy dissipates in the form of heat
tetanus involuntary muscle contraction
ventricular fibralation effect of electric current on heart, effects
cells

73

27.15 Electricity in Cells


Cell

Membrane
signals sent along nerve cells are electrical
signals between cells are chemical
membrane of cell formed from two layers of phospholipid molecules
phospholipid biolayers good insulators, conductance per unit area is:
1x10-13 -1 m-2
cell membrane can maintain a separation of positive and negative
charges has a capacitance (1x10-2Fm-2)
resting membrane potential when nerve cell is inactive, an
electrical potential gradient emits across membrane, 70-90mV
action potential nerve cell becomes active, polarity of the charge
across membrane changes
outside of the cell is positive with respect
to interior

Circuit Models of the Cell and the Cell


Membrane
cell membrane can be modelled as a
combination of driving potentials, resistors
and a capacitor
current - combination of the movement
of Na+ ions, K+ ions & Cl- ions and,
membrane potential (Vm) is the potential
difference this creates between the interior and exterior of the cell
conductance (G) is the reciprocal of resistance:
I =GV

force on an ion will depend on the equilibrium potential for the ion
(Eion) and the membrane potential:
I ion =Gion ( V m Eion )

74


which
can
along

velocity at
a signal
move
such a cell
depends

on the

relationship between the resistance across the membrane and the


axial resistance along the nerve cell as well as the capacitance
higher resistance + lower capacitance = higher speed
to allow fast signal conductance, either a reduced resistance along
the axon or an increased membrane resistance is desirable
lower axial resistance can be achieved by with larger diameter
axons

Key Concepts
Electromotive force (emf)( ) The work done per unit charge by nonelectrical forces. It is given the symbol and is measured in volts. The
source of the energy can be electrochemical reactions, magnetic, thermal
or radiant energy.
Earth/ground In electrical circuits, voltages are typically measured
relative to a point that is considered to have zero potential, known as the
ground or earth. This is often a direct physical connection to the earth.
Circuit Generally, a closed path through which current can flow, is
composed of some combination of conductors and other components such
as capacitors, resistors or batteries.
Circuit element a single component of an electrical circuit, such as a
resistor or capacitor.
Direct current (DC) Electric current that flows in one direction only.
Alternating Current (AC) Electric current that reverses direction
periodically, usually many times a second.
Charge Carrier A particle carrying an electric charge which is free to
move in response to an electric field, such as an electron or ion.
Electrical Resistance (R) The opposition to flow of an electric current
through a material. Electrical resistance causes electrical energy to be
75

converted to other forms such as thermal energy. Resistance is measured


in units of ohms ().
Ohms Law The relationship between direct current, electrical
resistance and applied voltage across a circuit element. The flow of direct
current through a circuit element is proportional to the applied voltage.
The constant of proportionality is called the resistance.
Resistivity () A tendency of a material to oppose the flow of electrical
current. The resistivity has the symbol and is measured in m.
Kirchoffs Law of currents In any electrical circuit where no build up
of charge is occurring, the sum of the electric currents flowing into a point
equals the sum of electric currents flowing away. This is consequence of
charge conservation.
Kirchoffs Law of voltages The sum of the directed potential
difference around any closed loop is zero. This is a consequence of the
conservation of energy.
Electrical power (P) The rate at which energy is transferred, dissipated
or absorbed by a circuit element.
Resistors in series Two or more resistors are in series if electrical
current goes through them sequentially.
Resistors in parallel Two resistors are in parallel if the circuit branches
splitting the current such that each resistor has the same potential
difference across it and the circuit subsequently rejoins so the current
recombines also.

76

28.0 Time behaviour of RC Circuits


28.2 The RC Circuit

RC Circuit contain combination of resistors and capacitors


Capacitor device which stores electrical potential energy in the
form of a separation of some charge
Emf = maximum potential difference in a charged capacitor
Charging of a capacitor takes greater or lesser time depending on
both the capacitance of the capacitor and the resistance of the
resistor
When capacitor is fully charged and connected in series with just a
resistor, the charge flows off the capacitor over time period which
depends on the size of R & C

28.3 Discharging RC Circuit

Potential difference across resistor depends on the electric field due


to charge built up on the capacitor plates
This will change as the capacitor discharges = current will change
over time
Greatest current will flow when the capacitor is fully charged (and
potential difference is highest)
Current decreases as capacitor discharges

V capacitor + V resistor =0

V = potential drops
Potential difference across the capacitor is related to C & q

q=C V capacitor
q
IR=0
C

I=

Current at any given time is related to change in charge leaving


capacitor
q
t

77

q
q
=
t RC
t

I ( t )=I o e

= characteristic time
In this circuit, voltage across capacitor is the same as the voltage
across the resistor (Kirchoffs Law)
The discharging capacitor, the voltage, current and charge are all
exponentially decaying with time
Voltage across the resistor series w. capacitor is also decaying

28.4 Charing RC Circuit

Sum of potential difference now becomes:

V battery + V capacitor + V resistor =0


q
IR =0
C

Change in charge on the capacitor plates is determined by the


current flowing onto the capacitor plates

q ( t )=q f 1e

=RC

Final amount of charge is

q f =C

With time, the charge on the plates gets closer and closer to a final
value
Current flowing around the circuit must drop off to zero again when
the capacitor is fully charged, and voltage across resistor gets less
and less

78

I ( t )=I o e

Key Concepts
RC Circuit A circuit containing a combination of capacitors (C) and
resistors (R).
RC time constant () The characteristic time of an RC circuit. In a time
equal to one time constant, an initially uncharged capacitor will charge to
63% of its maximum charge and voltage and current flowing through the
capacitor will drop to 37% of initial value.

79

29.0 The Nature of Light


29.2 Electromagnetic Waves

Two ways energy can be transmitted from place to place


- Object physically moves (transmission by particle)
- Energy is sent as a disturbance through some medium
(transmission by wave)
Photon model of light light is regarded as a stream of particlelike units which have wave properties
Wave model light is an electromagnetic wave, that is, light is a
self-propagating combination of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields
Changing an electric field causes a changing magnetic field and
vice-versa
waving electric fields cause a similarly waving magnetic field at
right angles to it and these (sinusoidal) oscillating fields travel
through space at a fixed speed (c=speed of light)

The constant speed of light


Light is a self-propagating wave due to being an electromagnetic
wave
Oscillations of the electric field causes the oscillations of the
magnetic field
It is the relationship between the magnetic and electric fields which
connect the spatially separate parts of the wave
Is not a disturbance of medium
Self-supporting process only possible when the electromagnetic and
electric waves propagate at certain speeds
C = 2.99792458x108ms-1 (or 3x10-8ms-1)
Wavelength and frequency
The rate of the oscillations is the frequency of a wave (f)
Frequency is related to wavelength (v=f) (v=c)
and f are the vacuum wavelength and frequency, respectively

80

29.3 Reflection

incidence is equal to the


Angles are
the normal to the
Then normal, the
reflected ray are
Specular
hits a very flat
light coming from
in a single
Ray line that
travels off in one
Diffuse
surface is
in a wide range
reflections are
orientated

Reflection when light hits a surface


some bounces back off
Highly polished metallic surfaces a
lot of light bounces back off
Black surface nearly all light is
absorbed
Reflected light leaves the surface at the
same angle that the incident light falls on
it
Laws of incidence the angle of
angle of reflection
always measured from
surface
incident ray and
all coplanar
reflection when light
reflective surface, all
a single direction leaves
direction (reflected)
starts at one point and
direction to infinity
reflection when
rougher, light is reflected
of directions, so the
fairly randomly
81

29.4 Refraction

Refraction change in direction of a light ray at the interface


between two media which occurs when there is a change in wave
speed
Frequency stays the same but distance between successive peaks
changes
Wavelength decreases if speed decreases, increases when the
speed increases
If ray meets the surface along the normal, there is no change in
direction
Total internal reflection at any other angle the ray is either bent
or does not travel into the next medium at all
Isotropic media materials that are uniform and have the same
wave propagative speed everywhere
Refractive index (n) ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the
speed of light in the material

n=

c
v
v = speed of light wave in the material

82

Snells Law
Snells Law relates angle of
incidence and angle of
refraction for wave propagation
at the boundary between
isotropic media
Ratio of the sines of the angle
= ratio of the wave speed in
the media = inversely related
to the refractive indices
sin 1 v1 n2
= =
sin 2 v2 n1

When light passes from a region of lower n to a region of higher n,


the light is bent towards the normal, when light passes from a
region of higher n to a region of lower n, the light is bent away from
the normal

Total Internal Reflection


Total internal reflection the complete reflection of an incident
light ray at a boundary, with no transmission
Occurs only for waves incident on a boundary with a medium where
the refraction index is reduced
Critical angle:
sin c =

n2
n1

If angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, none of the


wave will be transmitted through the boundary and only reflection
occurs
Total internal reflection utilised in many optical devices
Optical fibres use total internal reflection to confine light to a narrow
glass rod, allowing the light to be transmitted very long distances
- The main source of loss is absorption in the glass, rather than
loss through light leaving the fibre
Total internal reflection can hamper efforts to see into parts of the
eye
83

84

31.0 The Eye and Vision


31.2 The Parts of the Eye

Lens and cornea act together to focus incoming light onto the
retina (image formation)
Retina made mainly of collagen
Sclera rest of the outer surface of the eye (fibrous white part)
Anterior chamber immediately behind the cornea n filled with a
watery salt solution (aqueous humour)
Aqueous humour constantly replaced and important for
supplying nourishment to the cornea and lens, neither of which are
connected to blood supply
Lens collection of transparent cells suspended in place by
suspensory ligaments connected to the ciliary muscle
Ciliary muscle allows focusing of the eye
Iris slightly infront of lens, connects
to the sclera and ciliary body, made
up of pigmented, fibrous part known
as the stroma
Pupil gap in iris through which light
passes
Pupil appears larger than it is due to
magnification by the cornea
Expansion and contraction of pupil is
involuntary and occurs in response to
light
Vitreous humour fills bulk of the
eye, gelatinous, transparent material
(refractive index close to water)
Retina covers back surface of the
eye, tissue thin membrane. Contains
the light sensitive cells that allow us to see, there are two types:

85

- Rods: responds slowly to most of


the visible wavelengths
- Cones: responds faster but
selectively to regions of the visible
spectrum
Macula spot on the retina, small
pit with the highest concentration
of cone cells. This area is
responsible for central vision.
Majority of refractive power of the
eye is provided by the cornea

31.8 Alternative Structure and Placement


Focusing Ability
Methods for focussing images of objects at varying distances
include:
- Changing the power of the focusing part of the eye
- Changing the distance to the light sensing part
Humans can change their focal length by changing the shape of the
lens
Eye Placement and Field of Vision
Stereoscopic vision two eyes see slightly different views of the
world and allows distances to be judged quite well, eyes both placed
forward-looking and at front of the head. Covers only about 180 in
front of us.

31.9 Colour Vision


Detector Types
Human eye has two different types of light-sensing photoreceptors
in the retina rods and cones
Rods intensity sensing, far more numerous
Cones colour sensing, located mainly in centre of retina
Rods are responsible for night vision and peripheral vision, but take
longer to adapt to changing light conditions due to their sensitivity

86

Colour Science

87

33.0 Atoms and Atomic Physics


33.2 Parts of the Atom

Most of an atom is space


Atom has no net charge
Made of protons, neutrons and electrons
Atom smallest unit of matter which retains the chemical
properties of an element
Chemical element specific unique number of protons in the
nucleus

33.3 Orbitals and Energy Levels


Electrons
Fundamental or elementary particles
Does not have any underlying substructure
Belongs to group called leptons
Is a point-like object with no spatial extent
Charge: 1.602x10-19C
Positron antiparticle equivalent, same mass and charge but
positively charged
Often bound to positively charged nuclei to form atoms and
molecules, but also exits as free particles
Orbitals and Energy Levels
Orbital path of an object under the influence of a central particle
Electron motion determined by electrostatic force which always
points towards the nucleus of the atom
Electron in orbit is in a bound state to nucleus
Electron has less energy when it is bound to an atom than when it is
free
Consider particles in bound states as having negative energies
Energy quantisation kinetic and potential energy of an electron
can only sum to specific values
Dictates which orbitals are possible
Electrons inside atoms may exist only in certain states
Energy levels of atom depend on state of electrons
Ground state lowest energy state
Excited state all other states
88

Zero energy level past which the electron is no longer bound but
becomes free

Emission and Absorption Spectra


When an electron is in an atom in an excited state, there is a lower
energy state which is allowed and vacant, electron can
spontaneously make transition to this state by emitting extra energy
as bundle of electromagnetic radiation photon (spontaneous
emission)
Energy of photon emitted is the difference in energy between two
levels
Photon emitted with energy E will have a particular frequency
E=hf

Radiation absorbed and emitted in bits


Energy and frequency proportional to one another
h = Plancks Constant proportionality constant, 6.626x10-34Js
emission spectrum range of possible transitions that electrons in
a particular type of atom may make corresponds to specific
frequencies of electromagnetic radiation
absorption spectrum obtained by measuring frequencies at
which collection of atoms absorb radiation
spectrum emitted or absorbed depends on the number and
arrangement of electrons around the atomic nucleus

89

34.0 The Nucleus and Nuclear Physics


34.2 Nuclei and Isotopes
Protons and Neutrons
protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles, but made up of
fundamental particles called quarks
hadrons particles made of quarks
baryons particles made of three quarks
nucleons collectively refers to protons and neutrons
Atomic Number
electron configuration electron arrangement into energy levels
chemical properties determined by electron configuration, thus,
chemical properties depend entirely on number of protons in
nucleus
atomic number number of protons in nucleus
atomic mass number of protons and neutrons
Symbols and Terminology
A
ZX

Z = atomic number (no. protons)


A = atomic mass (protons + neutrons)
A
m ( Z X ) = indicates nucleus is excited, not in lowest energy
m

states, metastable state


nucleon nuclear constituent, either proton or neutron
nuclide nucleus or atom with specific nuclear make-up
isotopes atom same number of protons different number of
neutrons
isotones same number of neutrons, different number of protons
isobars same number of nucleons, diff. no of protons (A doesnt
change but Z does)
isomers different nuclear energy states, same number of protons
and same number of neutrons

90

34.3 Energy and Mass Units


Equivalence of Mass and Energy
energy and mass related by:
E=mc 2

c = 3x108ms-1

The

Electron Volt
gravity not normally an important factor in atomic physics
use electrostatic potential energy instead of gravity
electron volt (eV) an electron volt is the electrostatic potential
energy of an electron when it is moved through a potential
difference of 1V
modified Plancks Constant: =6.58x10-16eVs

1 eV = e x (1V) = (1.602x10-19C) x (1V) = 1.602x10-19J


The

Atomic Mass Unit


mass of an atom 10-27kg
atomic mass unit (amu): 1 amu = 1.661x10-27kg
Na= Avogadros number, number of atoms in 0.12kg of carbon =
6.022x1023per mole
Atomic Mass (A) = mass of an atom
Relative Atomic Mass = average atomic mass, weighted by
isotope abundance (dimensionless quantity)
Molar mass/gram atomic mass mass of 1 mole of a substance

34.3 Nuclear Forces

Four known fundamental forces:


- Gravity
- electromagnetic forces
- weak nuclear forces
- Strong nuclear forces

The Strong Force and the Nucleus


Strong nuclear force acts between proton-proton, neutron-neutron,
and proton-neutron
No difference in strength
Acts on the surface of nucleons, holds them together

91

SNF strong enough to overcome repelling electrostatic force


between protons, creates stable nuclei
Radioactive nuclides repulsive electrostatic forces large enough
to make nucleus unstable, break apart or change the number of p
and n to a more stable configuration

The Weak Nuclear Force


Responsible for nuclear decay ()
Not investigated in this book

92

35.0 Production of Ionising Radiation


35.1 introduction

Produced either by:


- Acceleration of charged particle
- Radioactive decay
Nuclear of radioactive decay process spontaneous change as
a result of an initially unstable nucleus
Alpha (), beta () and gamma () decay

35.2 Nuclear Decay Process

Unstable nucleus transforms into a more stable nucleus, termed


nuclear decay, energetic particles or electromagnetic radiation are
emitted

Alpha Decay
Unstable nuclei become more stable by ejecting two neutrons and
two protons in an asymmetric spontaneous fission process
Emitted particle bound together as a highly stable particle
4
+2
Denoted or 2 He , as identical to the nucleus of a helium atom

Commonly seen in large nuclei


Emitting an alpha particle is one way to increase stability by
reducing the amount of positive charge

General decay process:

A
Z

4
X A4
Z2Y + 2

Daughter nucleus produced in alpha decay often either in an excited


state or still unstable
Excited nuclear state de-excite by gamma radiation
Still unstable decay further by alpha or beta emission

Beta Decay
Three separate processes:
- - decay
- + decay
- electron capture
daughter nucleus often still unstable and decay followed rapidly
by gamma emission or another decay process
93

decay does not change the number of nucleons in the nucleus,


product & parents are isobars (same number of nucleons, diff. no of
protons)

94

- Decay
beta minus
neutron decays, proton created, accompanied by emission of a
- particle and an antineutrino ( v )
e

antiparticle of a neutrino, antimatter particle

- just an electron
process mediated by a weak nuclear force
+ v

+ +e

n p

process occurs inside the nucleus


atomic mass stays the same but atomic number increases by one
A
Z

X Z+1AY + 10 + v

can happen outside the nucleus, lone neutron

+ Decay
beta plus
conversion of proton to neutron
energy is required for process
only happens inside nucleus
a proton in nucleus decays, creating a neutron, a + particle and a
neutrino
+ - antiparticle of an electron, also positron, e+
++v e
0

+ n + e
energy+ p
A
Z

X Z1Y + +1 + v e

Electron Capture
reverse of - Decay
nuclear proton captures an orbiting electron and transforms into a
neutron
95

alternative to + Decay, also results in a proton neutron


conversion, but different route

Z1A Y + v e
A

Z X +e
Gamma Decay
nucleus in an excited state can transition to a lower-energy state by
emitting a photon
photons emitted in this process are much more energy than their
counter parts in atomic transitions due to much greater energies
involved in holding nucleus together
gamma radiation high energy photons ()
A
Z

X Z X + (+ + )

* - nucleus in an excited state (or

Am
Z

= long lived or metastable

excited state)
Any number of photons may be emitted due to a chain of deexcitations occurring as a single excited nucleus decays to its
lowest-energy transfiguration

35.3 Activity and Half-Life


Activity
Nuclear decay is random
However, we can predict the
probability that a nucleus will
decay within a given time period
The theory of radioactive decay
depends on one fact: The
number of atoms which
decay in a given period of
time is proportional to the
number of atoms present at
the beginning
N
=N
t
96

N = number of nuclei of a particular type in original sample


N = change in the number of nuclei present after a given time,
Negative because number decreases with time
N
= time rate of change of the number of nuclei, number of
t

nuclei which decay in each time period


= decay constant
activity (A) number of nuclei which decay in a given time period

| |

A= N

small decay constant sample with high activity may have a


large number of moderately unstable nuclei
large decay constant sample with high activity may have a
small number of highly unstable nuclei
SI unit of activity Becquerel (Bq)
Bq equivalent to one disintegration per second
As well as Bq, curie = Ci
1 Ci = 3.7x1010Bq

Half Life
N ( t )=N 0 e t

N0 number of radioactive nuclei decay present at time t = 0


decay constant
N(t) = number of nuclei remaining as a function of time
Multiplying both sides of equation by , obtain expression for A:

A ( t ) =A 0 et

N(t) tells us the number of radioactive nuclei remaining at time t, so


if we started with N0, the number of nuclei which have decayed after
time, t, is:

N decayed (t)=N 0N (t )=N 0 ( 1e t )

The probability that a nucleus will decay in a time t is the number


which decay divided the number which we started off with, this tells
us that probability of nucleus decaying in time t, is

( 1et )
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Half-life (T1/2) the length of time it takes for half the number of a
sample of identical unstable nuclei to decay

T 1=
2

ln 2

Mean life (another time scale used in exponentially-decaying


systems):
1

Most Likely Decay Mode and Examples of Decay Series


Can be predicted from an unstable nucleis composition
Three main regions:
- Nuclei below stable region: have too many neutrons so - is most
likely decay process
- Nuclei above stable region: have too few neutrons so + is most
likely decay process or electron capture
- Nuclei with masses >208 amu are too big and will most likely
decay via alpha particle emission
In nature three main chains of decay decay series
Decay series nucleus that is far from stable region can undergo a
sequence of decays that eventually result in a stable nucleus

35.4 X-ray Production

X-rays are electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths below about


11nm
Production is an atomic process not nuclear
2 key processes to generate x-rays:
- Electron transition into inner shells
- Deceleration of fast moving free electrons
Electron transition can only produce certain discrete x-ray
energies, x-rays created this way are known as characteristic rays
or characteristic radiation. Energies produced in these transitions
are characteristic of a particular atom

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Bremsstrahlung process, fastmoving charged particles are


decelerated and lose kinetic
energy, this lost energy can be
emitted in the form of
electromagnetic radiation

Bremsstrahlung
Fast moving electron travels
through a material, interaction
with the electric fields produced
by local nuclei in the material can
deflect the electron from its straight
line path
Amounts in an acceleration of the
electron = force has been exerted on
the electron, work done on it = kinetic
energy will change
Generally their deflection will slow the
electron down and thus it will continue
to lose kinetic energy as it travels through the material
This electron emits the energy it loses as a photon (eg. Emits
electromagnetic radiation)
This type of radiation is known as Bremsstrahlung
There is a maximum amount of energy an electron can lose,
determined by initial kinetic energy of the electron
Electrons are accelerated by a large potential difference
Max KE is a function of the electric field, fixed only by applied
voltage
KE=qV

If all this energy is given up at once, then the photon will have this
much energy:

h f max=qV

Maximum frequency produced by Bremsstrahlung for an


accelerating particle is:

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f max=

min =

qV
h

h = Plancks constant
minimum wavelength is:
hc
qV
characteristic x-rays produced by an x-ray tube depend on the type
of metal in the target which the accelerated electrons strike
accelerating voltage will determine which characteristic x-rays may
be generated

X-ray Tubes
Crookes Tube
evacuated glass tube and electronic setup
contains gas at low pressure and has two built in electrodes
anode- positive
cathode negative
when voltage applied is high enough, sp,e of the gas ionises
positive ions accelerate towards cathode and when they strike,
liberate electrons
electrons created accelerate towards anode
if anode is not blocking the path of e-, then these e- will overshoot
and collide with glass end of tube (target)
with sufficiently high enough voltage between electrodes, these
electrons will produce x-rays
Thermionic Tube
heated filament use d to
produced electrons
filament is heated to a point
where e- gain enough energy to
leave the metal and form a cloud
or space charge around filament
electric field is used to
accelerate these e- towards a
target material (commonly
tungsten) which also acts as an anode
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accelerated electrons collide with anode and produce x-rays either


by bremsstrahlung or by causing emission of characteristic x-rays

35.5 Other Sources of Radiation


Pair Annihilation
when a particle and its antiparticle meet, they annihilate each other,
the energy equivalent of their masses is released as energy in the
form of photons
all conservation laws are obeyed
energy and momentum also conserved
gamma photon produced has energy equivalent to the total mass of
the particle-antiparticle pair
to conserve total momentum, two photons of equal energy ,
travelling in roughly opposite directions, must be created
0.511MeV for electron-positron annihilation

Key Concepts
Ionising radiation particles or electromagnetic waves which have
sufficient energy to ionise atoms and molecules
X-rays a type of ionising electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths
from about 0.01nm to around 10nm. The low energy end of the x-ray
spectrum overlaps with the extreme ultraviolet
Bremsstrahlung the continuum x-ray radiation produced by the
breaking of fast-moving electrons when they interact with matter
Characteristic rays the x-ray photons produced by electronic
transitions to tightly bound inner shell orbitals. Transition occurs after the
removal of an inner shell electron, usually by the collision of an externally
produced fast electron. Photon energies produced are characteristic of the
target atom
Annihilation process in which a particle meets its antiparticle and both
particles cease to exist, their mass energy being converted to gamma
radiation. Reverse process is pair production
Electron Neutrino (ve) an elementary particle produced in some
nuclear processes that travels at close speed of light and has zero charge.
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The mass is not known, but the upper limit of the possible mass range is
very small
Antimatter most fundamental particles have an antiparticle equivalent
with the same mass and opposite charge. When a particle and its
antiparticle meet, annihilation occurs.
Alpha Decay the emission of a helium-4 particle from a larger, unstable
nucleus, leaving a daughter nucleus that has two fewer protons and two
fewer electrons
Beta Decay one of three different processes that result in a change in
nuclear composition but not nucleon number. A neutron is converted into
a proton and vice versa, with the accompanying created of a positron, or
the creational/loss of an electron and the production of a neutrino or
antineutrino
Gamma Decay a nucleus in an excited state can emit energy as a
photon of electromagnetic radiation, known as a gamma photon
Half-life (T1/2) The time taken for half the unstable particles in a pure
sample to decay. Also the time taken for the activity of a sample to halve
Activity the measure of rate of decay of a radioactive sample. SI unit for
activity is Becquerel (Bq), with 1 Bq equivalent to one decay per second
Decay Constant () for an exponential decay process, the rate at
which the quantity decreases, is proportional to the quantity, with the
constant of proportionality being the decay constant
Exponential A quantity is said to change exponentially when the rate of
change of that quantity if proportional to the original value of that
quantity

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26.0 Interaction of Ionising Radiation


36.2 Attenuation of X-rays and Cross Section

Attenuated when a beam of radiation of any type enters matter it


is normally attenuated, amount of energy in the beam decreases
with distance in the material
The intensity of a beam of particles or photons, all having the same
energy, decreases exponentially with distance on an isotropic media

36.3 X-rays and Gamma Radiation

Most attenuation of high-energy electromagnetic radiation (gamma


and x-rays) in matter is due to interaction between incoming
photons and the orbiting electrons in the target atom
Several interaction mechanisms:
- Complete absorption of the energy of the photon
- Compton effect partial absorption of the energy of a photon,
results in a new lower energy photon travelling in a different
direction
- Photoelectric effect ionisation of atom, resulting in a freeing
of an orbital electron
- Creation of new particles
Number of collisions depends on electron density of the material,
high atomic number materials tend to be more attenuating
Higher energy photons are more penetrating

The Photoelectric Effect


Process in which a photon is completely absorbed by a bound
electron, giving the electron enough energy to escape whatever
binding potential is holding it, generating a free electron called a
photoelectron
Depends on binding energy of electron
Binding energy amount of energy electron needs to completely
escape from the binding potential
Energy of photon:
E=hf

Higher frequency = higher energy


Increasing the energy of the radiation without changing frequency
has the effect of increasing the number of photon striking the
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materials but does not increase the energy that each of these
photons has
Hence, if the frequency of the light is above the cut-off frequency,
then increasing intensity of the incident light will increase the
number of photoelectrons emitted
Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends solely on the
frequency of the incident light and not at all on the intensity of this
light
Cut-off frequency below none of the photons absorbed will be
able to provide bound electrons with enough energy to escape the
binding potential
Case of high energy radiation:
- Have sufficient energy to liberate electrons from inner atomic
orbitals
- When photoelectrons are emitted from inner atomic orbitals,
resulting vacancy quickly filled by an out shell electron
- This results in the emission of the energy difference between
these two shells as another (x-ray) photon
- This resulting photon can be emitted in any direction and has less
energy than the original incident radiation (attenuation occurs
thus energy of incident beam has now been reduced)

Pair Production
Sufficiently high-energy gamma-ray photons may spontaneously
convert into an electron-positron pair
Energy of photon converted into matter and antimatter
Minimum photon energy necessary for the pair production
Only photons with frequency >2.5x1020 Hz will be able to produce
electron-positron pairs
All conservation laws must be satisfied
Reverse of this process in particle-antiparticle annihilation
Energy of an incoming beam of gamma radiation will be attenuated
if pair production occurs
Positron produced in this process will ultimately undergo annihilation
with an electron within the medium and this will produce two
photons (these will have less energy than original gamma photon)
Process of pair production act to reduce the energy of a beam of
electromagnetic radiation

104

Compton Effect
Interaction between
electromagnetic radiation and
matter in which photons display
their particle like nature
High energy photon is scattered
rather than absorbed by a particle
When an incoming photon is
incident on a nearly free electron
which is more or less at rest,
energy is transferred from the
photon to the electron
Electron gains kinetic energy and
moves off in the same direction
A lower-energy, longer-wavelength photon results
Change in wavelength is related to the angle at which the photon is
scattered
When Compton scattering occurs, incoming photon loses energy to
the scattering electrons = attenuation

36.4 Particles
Neutrons
Uncharged, interact predominantly with nuclei in attenuating
materials in the following ways:
- Elastic collisions: kinetic energy conserving collision with
another particle
- Non-elastic collision: neutron interacts with a nucleus and is
re-emitted with a different (normally reduced) kinetic energy
105

Capture: the neutron is captured and becomes part of the


nucleus
- Spallation/fission: neutron is captured by increase in energy
causes the nucleus to fragment. Spallation term for the
production of fragments when an object is subjected to an impact
or stress. Fission is the splitting of an object in two paths
Probability of a neutron to interact with a particle nucleus is energy
dependant
Elastic collisions dominate, energies < 100keV
In-elastic collisions more likely above a few MeV
Spallation occurs above 20MeV

Ions
Protons, alpha particles and heavy nuclei
Capture of electrons energetic incoming ion captures one or
more electrons from the absorption material and becomes a neutral
atom. In this process, the ion loses kinetic energy and ionises the
surrounding material. This occurs for low energy radiation
Collision with electrons energetic incoming ion collides with
atoms of absorbing material. Surrounding material is ionised and the
atoms of the absorbing material may be lifted into excited atomic
states. Energy to ionise or excite surrounding material comes from
the incoming ion, therefore the incoming ion loses kinetic energy.
Nuclear collision incoming ion collides directly with the nucleus
of an atom in the absorbing material. Occurs only when incoming
ion is at very high energy. Processes such as fission/spallation may
be induced.
Electrons/Positrons
Annihilation positrons may collide with electrons and be
annihilated
Collisions with atomic electrons energetic and incoming
electrons may collide with and eject electrons from various atomic
shells, in the atoms of absorbing material
Bremsstrahlung the deceleration of energetic electrons and the
subsequent emission of lost kinetic energy as electromagnetic
radiation
Cerenkov radiation electromagnetic radiation emitted when
electrons travel through a material at speeds greater than the speed
of light through that material. This effect may produce ultraviolet
106

radiation. Occurs for electrons with kinetic energy above about


500keV when travelling in water

36.5 Detection of Ionising Radiation


The Geiger-Mller Tube
Gas detector for the detection of alpha and beta radiation
Can be used for gamma detection, however, efficiency is quite low
as gas inside is at quite low pressure
Ionising particle passes through a thin window at the end of the tube
and ionises the gas
Charged particles that are then created by an electric field, and
collide with further gas particles, creating an avalanche of charged
particles
This current is detected and recorded as an audible click or spike in
the output signal
Can only detect the presence of the
radiation and not its energy
Photomultiplier
Photomultipliers amplify the signal
generated by the detection of a photon
when photon hits a photocathode inside a
vacuum tube, it triggers release of a
photoelectron
this electron is accelerated towards nearby
electrode (called dynode) that is at a higher
potential then the cathode, when it strikes
the dynode, more electrons are emitted
process repeated up to several times to
produce up to 106 electrons from a single photon
voltage of several thousand volts are typically required
can be used as part of scintillation counters
scintillating material (one that generates photons when struck by
ionising radiation) is used and then these photons are converted to
electrical pulses with a photomultiplier
have the advantage of producing information about the energy of
the incident particle as the number of photons generated in the
scintillating material is proportional to the energy
Photographic Emulsion
detection film
107

X-rays affect the film in much the same way as visible light does;
silver halide salts are converted to metallic silver by incident
photons
Used for detection of x-rays in medical diagnostics
To improve the sensitivity of the film and reduce exposure needed,
film is often coated on both sides with a fluorescent material that
increases the effect of x-rays on the film
Sometimes a layer of lead is used under the photographic emulsion
to backscatter the x-rays through the film a second time

Key Concepts
Photoelectric Effect The process in which electrons are emitted from a
material when electromagnetic radiation is incident on the surface
Compton Effect a process in which a photon is scattered off an electron
such that it undergoes a change in direction and a corresponding
reduction in frequency
Photon Momentum while photons have zero rest-mass, they do carry
momentum

p=

Pair Production the production of a particle-antiparticle pair, usually


from energetic gamma photons
Geiger-Mller Tube A gas-filled tube for detecting and counting
radiation. It is most efficient for alpha and beta radiation
Photomultiplier- A light-detection device. Incident light produces
electron emission by the photoelectric effect, and these electrons are
amplified by a series of electrodes at increasing potentials to produce a
detectable current.
Scintillating Material a material, such as sodium iodide, that emits a
flash of light when it absorbs ionising radiation. These are often used in
conjunction with photomultiplier for radiation detection.

108

37.0 Biological Effects of Ionising Radiation


37.2 Mechanisms of Cell Damage

Ionising radiation causes damage to molecules, occasionally by


direct hit on a molecule but more often indirectly by the creation of
free radicals
Free radicals uncharged atoms or fragments of molecules
possessing an unpaired electron formed by symmetrical breaking of
a covalent bond
Cause damage to cellular proteins by breaking molecular bonds and
rendering proteins non-functional and even harmful
Direct hit or free-radical production by radiation may damage
cellular DNA:
- DNA damage which the cell can detect and fixe
- DNA damage to the cell that cannot be fixed, causing apoptosis
(form of programmed cell death)
- Non-lethal damage that is passed on as a mutation in subsequent
cell divisions
Somatic DNA damage non-inheritable, serious adverse
mutation, increase the risk that cancer will develop
Genetic DNA damage inheritable and results from mutation in the
reproductive cells, may then be passed on to future generations
By-stander effect neighbouring cells not directly damaged by
radiation may experience damage by communication with the
damaged calls

37.3 Dose and Dose Equivalent


Absorbed Dose
Absorbed dose (D) physical quantity which quantifies the
amount of energy absorbed by some material
SI unit gray Gy = 1 joule of energy being delivered to one kilogram
of matter
1 Gy = 1J/KG = 100 rad
D=

E
m
E energy lost from radiation beam
m mass of material beam is entering
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absorption dose is a general concept


applies to all kinds of radiation and all types of absorbers
effect of radiation on a biological tissue depends directly on the
amount of energy absorbed by that tissue
amount of damage produced by radiation is proportional to the
amount of energy from the radiation that is absorbed
different types of ionising radiation lose energy in matter in different
ways

Dose Equivalent
dose equivalent expression for the dose in terms of its biological
effect
relative biological effectiveness (RBE) quantifies the damage
produced by each kind of radiation in biological tissue, varies from
one kind of radiation to another
distance travelled by a particular kind of radiation is dependent on
the rate at which that type of radiation deposits energy in matter
electrically charged particles interact strongly via the electroc field
and this deposit their energy relatively quickly
larger particles will also lose energy rapidly because they are more
likely to collide with particles of the material through which they are
travelling
alpha particle has twice the charge of the beta particle and is also
much larger
thus, energetic alpha particles will deposit their kinetic energy more
rapidly over smaller distances than beta particles with the same
initial energy
similarly beta particles will deposit their kinetic energy more rapidly
and over a smaller distance than gamma ray photons with the same
initial energy
alpha particle range is less than that of beta, gamma or x-rays
results in radiation depositing its energy in a smaller area
greater concentration of ionisation and cell damage results in
greater (adverse) biological effect, and thus a larger value of RBE

37.4 Types of Effects

Deterministic radiation damage produced by radiation doses


that are high enough to denature proteins or to cause cell death.
These effects are definite, noticeable and fairly immediate

110

Stochastic radiation damage small radiation dose, damage


may not be obvious but risk of disease is increased (consequences
are probalistic). Governed by the cause of probability
Characteristics of deterministic effects:
- Early effects, appear quickly
- Result of lethal damage, cells of tissue killed by radiation
exposure
- Killing of cells extensive enough that reduces or destroys at least
some organ function
- There is a threshold dose below which deterministic effects do
not occur
- Severity increases with dose
Stochastic effects:
- Late effects, do not appear immediately
- Caused by cellular or DNA damage, effects not immediately
lethal
- Can result in cellular mutation or abnormal changes in cell
function
- Only possible to estimate the probability of harm given a
particular dose level
- Severity of the effect is not dependent on the dose
- The probability of harm increases with increased dose

37.5 Medical Risks and Effects

Radiation sickness refers to group of deterministic effects,


observed to appear soon after very large radiation doses
Cells most susceptible to death from radiation are:
- Intestinal lining
- White blood cells
- Cells that make red and white blood cells
Time taken for a person to die from a lethal dose of radiation is 2-4
weeks
Patients that receive a high full-body dose of radiation and are stilla
live after 6 weeks, are likely to recover
Probability of developing cancer from radiation exposure increases
linearly with the accumulated dose and there is no minimum
threshold of exposure below which there is no risk LNT
hypothesis (Linear-nothreshold)

37.6 Ultraviolet Radiation

UV photons are those in wavelength range between x-rays and


visible light, 10nm to 400nm.
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Sun most important


source of UV radiation
(emits wavelengths
200nm up)
UVA: 400nm-320nm
UVB: 320nm 280nm
UVC: 280nm-200nm
Ozone upper atmosphere
good absorber of U, practically no radiation <300nm reaches sea
level in most places
Air largely opaque at wavelengths < 200nm due to absorption by
oxygen
Most UV were exposed to UVA
UVB needed for vitamin D production in body
UV radiation mostly not energetic enough to interact with any but
valence electrons in atoms of matter it passes through, however,
can still disrupt biological molecules
All UV light reaching Earths surface will damage collagen in skin =
premature aging
UVA least harmful
UVB can cause DNA damage by disrupting covalent bonds = skin
cancer, cataracts
Short wavelength UV damage bacteria, inhibit ability to replicate
Sunscreen blocking UV light (reflecting, titanium dioxide) or
absorbing and re-radiating at much longer wavelengths
(avobenzone does)
The greater the frequency, the greater the energy
The greater the wavelength, the smaller the frequency

38.0 Medical Imaging


38.2 X-ray Imaging

X-ray radiograph body of interest in exposed to x-rays while a


photographic film is placed beneath the body
Produces an image where areas of greater exposure correspond to
the areas of the body that are the most transparent to x-rays
Records degree of transmission of x-rays as a shadow graph
Attenuation of x-ray photons depends on:

112

Photon energy (determines which type of interaction occurs


Compton scattering & photoelectric effect are dominant
processes)
- The atomic number of key elements present in the materials
being imaged
Photoelectric effect predominant interaction for low energy
(<35keV) x-ray photons
Probability of photoelectric effect falls rapidly with increasing photon
energy (varies roughly proportional to the inverse of the energy
cubed)
Compton effect higher energy x-rays (>30-40keV)
Probability of Compton effect has little dependence on atomic
number, but does depend on electron
density

38.3 CT Scan

Computed tomography
Produces cross-sectional images
Projection of 3D structure onto a 2D film
Computer used to reconstruct a picture
from the transmission data
Scan involves an effective radiation dose
of about 2-10mSv

38.4 PET Scan

Positron emission photography


Nucleus undergoes beta plus decay,
positron is emitted
Positron antiparticle of electron and
quickly collides with an electron and
both are annihilated
Produces two photons, each with
energy of 511keV
Two photons are emitted in evenly
exactly opposite directions
Can get info on metabolic processes not
just structure info
Works by detecting simultaneously emitted pairs of photons at
about 511keV
Limitation is the need for short lived isotopes that have to be
produced in a cyclotron
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Detecting simultaneous photons allows reconstruction of the


location where the positron was annihilated
Dose from PET scan similar to CT scan

38.7 Ultrasound Sonography

Does not use ionising radiation


Utilises high frequency acoustic vibrations, above the limit of human
hearing (>20kHz)
When a wave is travelling through a medium and it reaches a
boundary with another medium, some of the wave is transmitted
through the boundary and some is reflected
In case of sound waves, the amount of reflection depends on
acoustic impedance of the media greater the impedance mismatch
between two media, the more reflection of the ultrasound there will
be
Acoustic impedance depends on the speed at which sound travels
through a medium, this in turn depends on the density of material
In order to generate an image in a medical setting, device called
piezoelectric transducer is used to produce acoustic waves with
frequency in the low MHz range
Waves produced reflected back from boundaries between tissue
types
Ultrasound signal emitted in pulses
By detecting the time delay for the echo pulses and the signal
strength, picture can be built up of location of boundaries
Because impedance between skin and air is do different, if there is
any air gap between the skin and transducer then most of the
intensity is lost by the waves being reflected before penetrating the
body
Gel can be used between skin and transducer impedance
matching
Ultrasonography is generally considered to be safe
Ultrasound signal consists of mechanical pressure waves, which can
have a heating effect on the tissue

114

39.0 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance


39.3 A brief outline of MRI

Patient placed in a large magnetic field


Oscillating electromagnetic field is turned on
Field is oscillating in the radio-frequency range of the
electromagnetic spectrum and is tuned to transfer energy to the
protons which are the nuclei of hydrogen atoms in patient
Energy or RF field is absorbed by the hydrogen nuclei and this
energy is re-radiated by these nuclei as another RF electromagnetic
field
Second RF electromagnetic field is detected by antennas in the MRI
machine and the signal produced is analysed by powerful computers
to produce detailed images
RF field returned by the patient contains information about the
position and composition in which the protons reside.
In particular, the frequency (and phase) of the emitted signal can
indicate where the signal came from and the decay time gives
information about tissue composition

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