Skopostheorie Explained

Christiane Nord, UFS Bloemfontein, South Africa

Isfahan University, 18/10/2014

Introduction

Translators of all centuries have reflected on the dilemma between "faithful"

and "free" translation and on possible criteria for a choice between the two
strategies.
Cicero: "ut interpres" vs. "ut orator" (criterion fidelity / rhetorical effect)
St. Jerome: "verbum e verbo" vs. "sensum de sensu" (criterion: text type
Holy Scriptures / profane texts)
Luther: translating vs. germanizing (criterion: "what is relevant"
theological concepts / narrative)
Schleiermacher: translation (proper) vs. (mere) interpreting (criterion:
text type literary texts / pragmatic texts)
Nida: formal equivalence vs. functional/dynamic equivalence (criterion:
purpose philological / missionary)
Lawrence Venuti: foreignizing vs. domesticating (criterion: how to deal
with otherness)
According to their time (= implicit norms) and purposes, each of these authors
preferred one strategy or the other, the pendulum swinging regularly from the
source-text pole to the target-text pole and back.
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Action-oriented approaches

Action-oriented approaches claim that both strategies

may be legitimate, depending on the purpose of the

communicative (inter)action.
Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos Theory (1978, 1984)
Justa Holz-Mnttri : Theory of Translational Action

(1984)
Hans Hnig (), Paul Kussmaul (and others, 1982 ff.):
Application of skopos theory to translator training and
translation teaching, -> "functionalism"
Christiane Nord: Function and Loyalty (1988ff.)

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Skopos Theory
Translation is an interpersonal, intercultural mediating action

where a text is involved. (There could be other translational

actions without a source text, e.g. cross-cultural consulting or
technical writing.)
For an act of behaviour to be called an action the person
performing it must (potentially) be able to explain why s/he acts
as s/he does although s/he could have acted otherwise (Vermeer
1989: Skopos and commission in translational action, in
Chesterman, A. (ed.): Readings in Translation)
For translation to be called an action, the translator must
(potentially) be able to explain why s/he translated the way s/he
did although s/he could have translated otherwise.

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Translation Brief
According to Skopos Theory, the roles of initiator (or commissioner, client),

translator, source-text producer and target-text addressee are crucial for the
choice of translation methods and strategies.
What the skopos states is that one must translate, consciously and
consistently, in accordance with some principle respecting the target text. The
theory does not state what the principle is: this must be decided separately in
each specific case. (Vermeer 1989)
The basis of this decision is the actual translation situation, which can be
identified by the following questions: Who translates for whom when, where,
through which medium (orally, in written form) and for which purpose?
The situation for which a translation is needed is described or defined
(explicitly or implicitly) by the translation brief.
The translation brief does NOT tell the translator how to go about their
translating job. These decisions depend entirely on the translators
competence and responsibility.

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Summary of basic concepts

Skopos = what the translator is aiming at in the

translation process (dynamic concept)

Function = what the text means to a particular reader
in a particular moment of reception
Intention = what the author or sender wants to achieve
A text is an offer of information. A translation is a
target-language-and-culture offer of information
about a source-language-and-culture offer of
information.
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Culture and Culture-specificity

A culture is the entire setting of norms and conventions an

individual as a member of his society must know in order to be

'like everybody' or to be able to be different from everybody.

(VERMEER, Hans J. (1987) What does it mean to translate?, Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics
13(2): 25-33).

A culture-specific behaviour is one that is found to exist in a

particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being

compared. This does not mean that it exists only in that
particular culture. It does not mean either that all members of
the culture use this form of behaviour at any moment where it
may be appropriate. Culture-specific behavioremes are
"prototypical" behaviour patterns.
(cf. Nord 1993, 20ff., transl. C.N.)

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Cutureme: Having breakfast

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Rich points between cultures (M. Agar)

CULTURE BARRIER
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Function plus loyalty (Nord)

In skopos theory, a source text may allow ANY translation

purpose, depending on the brief. The end justifies the

means (Reiss/Vermeer 1984)

In the application of skopos theory to translator training

and practice, the acceptability of translation purposes is

limited by the translator's responsibility with regard to
her/his partners in the cooperative activity of translation
(principle of loyalty). (Nord 1989)
Loyalty is an interpersonal category, whereas faithfulness

or fidelity refer to a relationship between two texts.

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Example 1: Interlinear version

Brief: Translate Memm wo abenkm (from Sesotho,

a South African language) into English in such a way

that the source-language structures become visible.
Adequate form: interlinear version
Me- m-

m
1SG NEG give

wo
2SG

abenkm
left hand

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Example 2: Literal translation

Brief: Translate Memm wo abenkm (from Sesotho,

a South African language) into English in such a way

that I understand what it says.
Adequate form: interlinear version
Memm wo abenkm.
I dont give you my left hand

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Example 3: Philological translation

Brief: In his statement in court, the accused X claimed to

have made the following utterance talking to a colleague at

work, which gave rise to a violent row. The court interpreter
is asked to first give a literal translation and then explain to
the judge what it means in the accuseds culture.
Adequate Form: Philological translation with paratext
Memm wo abenkm
I do not give you my left hand.*
*Interpreters comment: After an accident, Xs left hand
was put in plaster. He apologizes for using his right hand,
which is regarded as very impolite in his culture.
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Example 4: Exoticizing translation

Translation brief: The translation should reproduce those aspects of the source
text which will seem exotic to the target audience

Spezialitten

Specialities

Liebe geht durch den

Magen. Dieser Spruch
findet in Mnchen seine
besondere Besttigung.
Denn es gilt als ein Teil der
vielzitierten Mnchner
Gemtlichkeit, dass man
hier auch zu essen und zu
trinken versteht.

Love passes through the

stomach, it is said. This
proverb is confirmed
particularly in Munich. To
enjoy good eating and
drinking is regarded as an
intrinsic part of what
constitutes Munichs often
quoted Gemtlichkeit,
its specific atmosphere.

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Example 5: Equifunctional translation

Translation brief: The English translation should achieve the same

function that the source text is intended to achieve for the source
culture audience.
Adequate form: equifunctional translation

Liebe geht durch den

Magen. Dieser Spruch
findet in Mnchen seine
besondere Besttigung.
Denn es gilt als ein Teil
der vielzitierten
Mnchner
Gemtlichkeit, dass man
hier auch zu essen und
zu trinken versteht.
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The way to peoples

hearts is through their
stomachs, it is said, and
this proverb is perhaps
particularly true in
Munich, a city where
some attention is
devoted to good eating
and drinking.

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Example 6: Heterofunctional translation

Brief: Translate the tourist information text into French
Form chosen by the translator: heterofunctional translation

Liebe geht durch den

Magen. Dieser Spruch
findet in Mnchen seine
besondere Besttigung

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Lamour passe par

lestomac, affirme un
proverbe allemand, qui
se trouve Munich
amplement confirm
[literally: "Love passes
through the stomach,"
says a German proverb,
which is well confirmed
in Munich]

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Homologous translation

Brief: Translate this poem for a monolingual anthology of modern Farsi poetry

Anthem of Beauty

Your wide shoulders,

like long-standing, proud rocks,

and the coiling tides of my locks
sliding down their incline
like a waterfall of shine!
Your wide shoulders,
like the curtain walls of a massif
fortress
invite with open arms the dance of my
fugitive tress,
like the ballet of the willow leaves with
the wind's caress!

Forough Farrokhzad (1935 1967)

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Functional translation typology (Nord)

INTERCULTURAL TEXT TRANSFER
Function
of translation
process

The TT is intended to be a targetlanguage documentation of a

communicative interaction
realized in the source culture

The TT is intended to be an
instrument for communication in
the target culture produced by
processing the information offer
of the source text

Function
of translatum

metatextual

phatic / referential /
expressive / appellative

translation type

DOCUMENTARY
TRANSLATION

INSTRUMENTAL
TRANSLATION

Translation form

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interlineal

literal

philo- exotilogical cizing

equifunctional

C. Nord: Skopos Theory and Functionalism

heterofunctional

homologous

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Conclusions
Functionalism does not deal with language structures but

with the conditions of communicative action.

Functionalism is consistent and not limited to certain text

types or culture pairs.

Functionalism is a general approach including different

translation types and translation forms.

Functionalism corresponds to the requirements of

professional translation practice, where responsible

translators are needed, thus laying the foundations for a
higher social prestige of mediating professions.
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Thank you
for your attention!
Any questions?
cn@christiane-nord.de

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