MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

V.G.UMASEKAR A.P(O.G)
SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGG.,
SRM UNIVERSITY

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
This course will enable the students to know
more about
Different materials with their properties
Various production techniques and applications
Fracture analysis for different metals
Strengthening mechanisms and
Applications of metallic and non metallic materials

Unit Title Details

Unit 1 - ELASTIC AND PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR

Unit 2 - FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
Unit 3 - PHASE DIAGRAMS
Unit 4 - MODERN METALLIC MATERIALS
Unit 5 - NON METALLIC MATERIALS

Unit 1 - ELASTIC AND PLASTIC

BEHAVIOUR

Materials classification
Solid materials have been conveniently
grouped into three basic classifications
metals,
ceramics, and
polymers.

Metals
Metallic materials are combinations of
metallic elements.
They have large numbers of nonlocalized
electrons
Metals are extremely good conductors of
electricity and heat.
They are not transparent to visible light.
Metals are quite strong.A polished metal
surface has a lustrous appearance.

Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic
and nonmetallic elements
They are insulative to the passage of electricity
and heat.
They are more resistant to high temperatures
and harsh environments than metals and
polymers.
ceramics are hard but very brittle.
Example : oxides, nitrides, and carbides.

Polymer
Polymers are organic compounds that are
chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and
other nonmetallic elements
It includes the familiar plastic and rubber
materials.
They have very large molecular structures.
They have low densities and may be
extremely flexible

Crystalline material
A crystalline material is one in which the atoms
are situated in a repeating or periodic array over
large atomic distances.
All metals, many ceramic materials, and certain
polymers form crystalline structures under
normal solidification conditions.
Some of the properties of crystalline solids
depend on the crystal structure of the material
Example: Al, Cu, Cd, gold, Cr

Non-Crystalline material
Non-crystalline solids lack a systematic and
regular arrangement of atoms over relatively
large atomic distances.
Sometimes such materials are also called
amorphous or supercooled liquids
Example : Fused silica,

Crystalline Vs Non-crystalline Structure

Single crystal material

For a crystalline solid, when the periodic and
repeated arrangement of atoms is perfect the
result is a single crystal.
All unit cells interlock in the same way and have
the same orientation.
Single crystals exist in nature, but they may also
be produced artificially.
single crystals of silicon and other
semiconductors are used in electronic micro
circuit.

Poly Crystalline material

Most crystalline solids are composed of a
collection of many small crystals or grains
Such materials are termed polycrystalline.
the crystallographic orientation varies from
grain to grain.
The region where two grains meet is called a
grain boundary.
some atomic mismatch exists in the grain
boundary.

Polycrystalline material

Crystalline defects
A lattice irregularity having one or more of its
dimensions on the order of an atomic
diameter is called crystalline defect.
Point defect
One dimensional defect or linear defect
Two dimensional defect
Bulk or volume defect

Point Defect
1.Vacancy
2. Self interstitial

Two dimensional representation of vacancy and self

interstitial

Linear or one-dimensional defect

Linear defect Dislocation

A dislocation is a one dimensional defect
around which atoms are misaligned.
Types of dislocation
Edge dislocation
Screw dislocation

Edge Dislocation
An extra portion of a plane of atoms, or halfplane, the edge of which terminates within the
crystal. This is termed an edge dislocation
In an edge dislocation, localized lattice
distortion exists along the end of an extra halfplane of atoms.
This extra half plane of atom defines the
dislocation line.

Elasticity in metals
Elastic deformation: Deformation in which the
stress and strain is proportional is called
elastic deformation.
As per Hooks law within the elastic limit the
stress is proportional to the strain.
= E ------------ eqn 1
The constant of proportionality is called as
Modulus of Elasticity or young's modulus (E).

Elasticity in metals

Stress strain curve that show the linear elastic

deformation

Elasticity in metals
The plot of stress and strain with in the elastic
limit yield a linear relationship.
The slope of this linear segment corresponds to
the modulus of elasticity E.
Modulus of elasticity is also referred as stiffness
Stiffness is a materials resistance to elastic
deformation.
The greater the modulus, the material is stiffer.

Elasticity in metals
Elastic deformation is temporary or
nonpermanent.
when the load is removed the material returns
to its original shape.
In the atomic level, the elastic deformation
occurred because of small change in the inter
atomic spacing and the stretching of inter
atomic bonds.

Elasticity in metals
The magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is
a measure of the resistance to separation of
adjacent atoms.
This elasticity is proportional to the slope of
the inter-atomic force-separation curve.

Elasticity in metals

Elasticity in metals
When the temperature increases, the
modulus of elasticity of the metal reduces.
Refer the graph for 3 metals.

Elasticity in metals

Plastic Deformation
When the material is deformed beyond the
elastic point, the stress is no longer proportional
to strain and plastic deformation occurs.
Upon removal of the stress they do not return
to their original position.
This permanent deformation for metals is
accomplished by means of a process called slip.

Plastic Deformation

Plastic Deformation
Slip involves the motion of dislocations
During this process, inter-atomic bonds must
be ruptured and then reformed
On a microscopic scale, plastic deformation
corresponds to the net movement of large
numbers of atoms in response to an applied
stress.

Mechanism of Plastic deformation

Two mechanisms that cause the plastic
deformation are
1. Slip
2. Twinning

PlasticDeformation by Slip

Plastic deformation - Motion of large

numbers of dislocations in a crystal

Plastic Deformation by Slip

Slip is a plastic deformation mechanism in which
one part of the crystal moves or glides over
another part along slip planes.
The movement of large number of dislocations
within the crystal are responsible for slip.
An edge dislocation moves in response to a
shear stress applied in a direction perpendicular
to its line (dislocation line).

Mechanics of Dislocation Motion

Mechanics of Dislocation Motion

Formation of a step on the surface of a crystal by

the motion of an edge dislocation

Slip System
There is a preferred plane, and in that plane
there are specific directions along which
dislocation motion occurs.
The crystallographic plane along which the
dislocation line traverses is the slip plane.
In that slip plane the dislocation travel in a
particular direction. It is called slip direction.
This combination of the slip plane and the slip
direction is termed the slip system

Slip System
Metals with FCC or BCC crystal structures have
a relatively large number of slip systems (at
least 12)
These metals are quite ductile because
extensive plastic deformation is normally
possible along the various systems.
Conversely, HCP metals, having few active slip
systems, are normally quite brittle.

Slip System
The slip system depends on the crystal
structure of the metal.
For a particular crystal structure, the slip plane
is that plane having the most dense atomic
packing, that is, has the greatest planar density.
The slip direction corresponds to the direction,
in this plane, that is most closely packed with
atoms, that is, has the highest linear density

Plastic Deformation by Slip

In slip the crystal lattice move by multiple of
unit spacing between the atoms.
Slip results in visible step on the surface of the
crystal.

Slip System for FCC unit cell

Dislocation
The number of dislocations, or dislocation
density in a material, is expressed as the total
dislocation length per unit volume.
The units of dislocation density are millimeters
of dislocation per cubic millimeter or just per
square millimeter.
10-3 mm2 are typically found in carefully
solidified metal crystals

Dislocation
All metals and alloys contain some
dislocations that were introduced during
Solidification
Plastic deformation and
as a consequence of thermal stresses that result
from rapid cooling

Twin Boundary
A twin boundary is a special type of grain
boundary across which there is a specific
mirror lattice symmetry.
Atoms on one side of the boundary are
located in mirror image positions of the atoms
on the other side

Twin Boundary

Plastic Deformation by Twinning

Twinning is a plastic deformation mechanism.
In twinning, each plane of atoms moves in the
same direction, a definite distance, such that
the extent of the movement of each plane is
proportional to its distance from the
twinning plane.

Plastic Deformation by Twinning

The movement of the planes alters the
direction of the lattice and thus a twinned
region forms.
After twinning it appears as if two parts of a
crystal having same orientation are joined by a
twin band of the crystal having a markedly
different orientation.

Plastic Deformation by Twinning

Plastic Deformation by Twinning

Twinning occurs on a definite crystallographic
plane and in a specific direction, both of which
depend on the crystal structure.
Zinc, tin and iron deform by twinning.
Twinning may be caused by
impact
thermal treatment
plastic deformation.

Comparison of slip & twinning in single

crystal

Comparison of slip & twinning in single

crystal
S.NO

SLIP

TWINNING

All atoms in one block move the

same distance

Atoms in each successive plane within a

block move different distance

Slip appears as thin lines

Twinning appears as broad lines or bands

There is very little change in lattice

orientation, of slipped region

There is a markedly different lattice

orientation in the twinned region.

Requires less shear stress

Requires higher shear stress

Strengthening Mechanisms
All strengthening techniques rely on this
simple principle

Restricting or hindering dislocation

motion makes a material harder and
stronger.

Strengthening Mechanisms
Different types of strengthening Mechanisms
are
v
v
v
v
v
v

Grain boundary strengthening

Solid-solution strengthening
Work hardening
Dispersion strengthening
Particle strengthening
Fiber strengthening

Grain boundary

Grain Boundary Strengthening

The size of the grains, in a polycrystalline metal
influences the mechanical properties.
Adjacent grains have different crystallographic
orientations and, a common grain boundary.
During plastic deformation, dislocation motion must
take place across this common boundary, say, from
grain A to grain B.

Grain Boundary Strengthening

The grain boundary acts as a barrier to
dislocation motion for two reasons:
1. Since the two grains are of different

orientations, a dislocation passing into grain B

will have to change its direction of motion; this
becomes more difficult as the crystallographic
misorientation increases.
2. The atomic disorder within a grain boundary
region will result in a discontinuity of slip planes
from one grain into the other.

Grain Boundary Strengthening

A fine-grained material is harder and stronger
than one that is coarse grained.
The reason is the fine grain material has a
greater total grain boundary area to impede
dislocation motion.

Grain Boundary Strengthening

Grain Boundary Strengthening

Grain size may be regulated by
the rate of solidification from the liquid phase,
and also
by plastic deformation followed by an appropriate
heat treatment.

grain size reduction improves not only

strength, but also the toughness of many
alloys.

Hall-Petch Equation
For many materials, the yield strength y varies
with grain size according to

Above equation is called as Hall-petch equation

d is the average grain diameter
0 and ky are constants for a particular material

Grain Boundary Strengthening

Problem based on Hall-Petch Equation

The lower yield point for an iron that has an
average grain diameter of 5 x10-2 mm is 135
MPa. At a grain diameter of 8 x 10-3 mm, the
yield point increases to 260MPa. At what grain
diameter will the lower yield point be 205
Mpa? (d = 1.48x10-2 mm)

Solid-Solution Strengthening
In Solid-solution strengthening, impurity atoms
added to the pure metal.
These atoms substitute the base metal atoms or go
and occupy the interstitial space between them.
Pure metals generally soft and weak in nature than
alloys.
When impurity atoms is added with pure metal,
they go inside the solid solution and induce lattice
strains on the surrounding host atoms.

Solid Solution
A solid solution forms when, as the solute
atoms are added to the host material, the
crystal structure is maintained, and no new
structures are formed.
the impurity atoms are randomly and
uniformly dispersed within the solid.

Solid Solution - Types

Substitutional solid solution
In substitutional solid solution, solute atoms
substitute for the solvent atoms.
Example Brass. It is an alloy of copper and zinc.
Pure copper is a soft &ductile metal. When zinc is
added to copper, its strength increases.
Here zinc is the solute atoms and copper is the
solvent atoms.

Substitutional solid solution

Solvent atoms

Solute atom

Substitutional solid solution

Solvent atoms

Solute atom

Solid Solution - Types

The increase in strength of an alloy depends
upon the following factors.
Amount of solute atoms (solute concentration)
Atomic size difference ( difference in size between
the solute and solvent)

Solid Solution - Types

Interstitial solid solution
In interstitial solid solution, solute atoms fill the
interstices among the solvent atoms
Carbon forms an interstitial solid solution when
added to iron.

Solid Solution

Solid-Solution Strengthening
During plastic deformation, dislocation travel
inside the solid solution.
Lattice strain field of moving dislocation
interact with the strain field induced by the
impurity atoms.
These interaction restrict the free movement
of the dislocation and in turn raises the
strength needed to deform the metal.

Solid-Solution Strengthening
An impurity atom that is smaller than a host
atom for which it substitutes exerts tensile
strains on the surrounding crystal lattice.
Conversely, a larger substitutional atom
imposes compressive strains in its vicinity.

Solid-Solution Strengthening

Solid-Solution Strengthening

Solid-Solution Strengthening

Strain Hardening or Work Hardening

Strain hardening is the phenomenon whereby
a ductile metal becomes harder and stronger
as it is plastically deformed.
Strain hardening can be explain with the help
of stress strain curve.

Strain Hardening or Work Hardening

Initially, the metal with yield strength y0 is
plastically deformed to point D.
The stress is released, then reapplied with a
resultant new yield strength, yi .
The metal has thus become stronger during
the process because yi is greater than y0 .

Strain Hardening or Work Hardening

Strain Hardening Based on

dislocation concept
The dislocation density in a metal increases with
deformation , due to dislocation multiplication
or the formation of new dislocations.
Consequently, the average distance of
separation between dislocations decreases. The
dislocations are positioned closer together.
On the average, dislocationdislocation strain
interactions are repulsive.

Strain Hardening Based on

dislocation concept
The net result is that the motion of a
dislocation is hindered by the presence of
other dislocations.
As the dislocation density increases, this
resistance to dislocation motion by other
dislocations becomes more pronounced.
Thus, the imposed stress necessary to deform
a metal increases with increasing cold work.

Strain Hardening Based on

dislocation concept
Strain hardening is utilized to enhance the
mechanical properties of metals during
fabrication procedures.
The effects of strain hardening may be
removed by an annealing heat treatment.

Dispersion Strengthening
The strength of metal can be increased by
finely dispersing small, hard and inert
particles in the matrix metal.
These particles act as an obstacle for moving
dislocations.

Dispersion Strengthening
In this method, finely divided hard insoluble
particles (10-7 cm diameter) are added into the
soft metal matrix.
The dispersed hard insoluble particles are
called as despersoid.
The hard particles are carbides, oxides &
nitrides or intermetallic compounds.

Dispersion Strengthening
These hard particles provide obstruction to
the moving dislocation.
Also the interaction of the stress field of
dislocation and stress field around particles
offer resistance.
These resistance to dislocation raises the
stress needed for the dislocation movement.

Dispersion Strengthening
These particles neither dissolve at high
temperature nor grow in size.
Hence dispersion strengthened materials
maintain their strength even at high
temperatures.
Dispersion strengthened alloys are produced
by powder metallurgy technique(mechanical
alloying).

Dispersion Strengthening Dislocation

movement against the Particles

Dispersion Strengthening
In this method, the increase in strength of the
material depends on
1.
2.
3.
4.

The amount of particles

The size of the particles
The shape of the particles
The distribution of the particles in the metal matrix

Dispersion Strengthening
To obtain most effective dispersion
strengthening, the particles need to be
Hard
Small
Round and
numerous

Dispersion Strengthening by Hard

Insoluble Particles - Example
Sintered Aluminium Powder (SAP) is
strengthened by Al2O3 particles by 6-14%.
Its strength is 5 times greater than the
Aluminium and withstand temperature of
upto 400C without loss of strength.
Thoria dispersed nickel is strengthened by
ThO2 2% in nickel and can withstand 1000C

Fiber Strengthening
Materials are strengthened by adding fine
fibers into a ductile matrix material.
Fiber strengthened materials are called as
composite materials.
Example: Glass-fiber reinforced polymer.

Fiber Strengthening - Fiber

Fibers are fine filaments, wires or whiskers
which have diameters ranging from 1m to
250 m.
Properties of fiber
High strength
High elastic modulus

Function of fiber
Carry all of the tensile load

Fiber Strengthening Fiber Materials

Metallic fiber
Tungsten
Stainless steel

Non metallic fiber

Boron
Boron nitride
Graphite
Glass
Silicon carbide
Kevlar

Fiber Strengthening Matrix Material

Matrix material is a material that binds the
fibers together and also transfer the stress to
them.
Different matrix materials are
Metals
Polymer
Ceramics

Fiber Strengthening Matrix Material

Functions of the matrix material
Transmit the load to the fibers
Protect the fibers from surface damage
Separate the individual fibers
Blunt the crack which arises from fiber damage.

Fiber Strengthening

Superplasticity
Super plasticity is a property of some alloys in
which very great plastic elongations of upto
2000% or more can be obtained under the
action of quite low tensile stress.
Such a state is usually achieved at high
homologous temperature, typically half the
absolute melting point (0.5Tm)

Superplasticity
Important elements in super plastic properties
High strain rate sensitivity (>0.5)
Small grain
Nature of secondary phase
Resistance to tensile separation at grain
boundaries
Grain shape

Ductility
Ductility is a mechanical property.
Ductility is a measure of the degree of plastic
deformation that has been sustained at
fracture

Percentage Elongation
Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as
either percent elongation.
The percent elongation %EL is the percentage
of plastic strain at fracture.

lf is the length of the specimen at fracture.

Lo is the original gauge length of the specimen.

Strain Rate
Strain rate is the rate of change in strain of a
material with respect to time.
In physics the strain rate is generally defined
as the derivative of the strain with respect to
time.
Strain rate is measured in reciprocal of
seconds (s1).
It is denoted by the symbol

Strain Rate

L(t) length of the specimen at time t.

L0 is the original length of the specimen.
v is the velocity with which the two ends of the specimen moves

Strain Rate Sensitivity Index

A power relationship can be used to express
the true stress at a given strain , in terms
of the strain rate

= A ()m
A is a constant and m is the index of strain rate
sensitivity.
If m=0, the stress is independent of the strain
rate and the stress-strain curve would be the
same for all strain rates.

Stress Strain curve

Strain Rate Sensitivity Index

m = 0.2 for common metals.
If m=0.4 0.9 the material may exhibit super
plastic behaviour, that is deform by several
hundred percent of strain without necking.

Superplasticity
Superplasticity can be defined as an ability of a
polycrystalline material to exhibit
extraordinarily large elongation at elevated
temperatures and at relatively low stresses.
It is a property commonly found in many
metals, alloys, intermetallics and ceramics
when the grain size is very small.
Less than several micrometers for metals and
less than one micrometer for ceramics.

Superplasticity
The superplasticity behavior makes
superplastic forming an attractive option for
the manufacture of complex shaped
components in the metal industry.
Ceramics are hard, strong and stiff materials.
They are brittle and lack the ductility of metal
at ambient temperature.
The application of superplasticity makes it
possible to fabricate ceramic components just
like superplastic metals.

Superplasticity

Part made from super plastic forming

Superplasticity

Reference from
Bonding Theory for Metals and Alloys
By Frederick E. Wang

Superplasticity
The requirements for a material to become
superplastic include
Fine grain size typically below 10 m.
Fine dispersion of thermally stable particles that
act to pin the grain boundaries and maintain the
fine grain structure at the high temperature.
High strain rate sensitivity (>0.5) which prevents
localized deformation at a reduced cross section
(necking)

Effect of Temperature on Plastic

Behaviour
When the temperature of the material
increases, its modulus of elasticity, yield
strength and tensile strength decreases.
The ductility of the material increases when
the temperature rises.
The graph shows how the stress-strain
behaviour of iron varies with temperature.

Effect of Temperature on Plastic

Behaviour

Deformation of Non Crystalline

Materials (Ceramics)
Plastic deformation does not occur by
dislocation motion for noncrystalline ceramics
These materials do not have regular atomic
structure.
Noncrystalline materials deform by viscous
flow, the same manner in which liquids
deform.
The rate of deformation is proportional to the
applied stress.

Deformation of Non Crystalline

Materials (Ceramics)

Deformation of Non Crystalline

Materials
In response to an applied shear stress, atoms
or ions slide past one another by the breaking
and reforming of interatomic bonds.
However, there is no prescribed direction in
which this occurs, as with dislocations.